The - Properties - and - Effects - of - Gemstones Sara Speyer

! Sara Speyer, lbc129, HIDK03031E, Tekstbaseret Emne, !
The Properties and Effects of Gemstones

! according to the Arthaśāstra and the Bṛhat Saṃhitā! !

according to the Arthaśāstra and the Bṛhat Saṃhitā
Introduction
The motivation for writing a paper on the topic of gemstones emerged while reading some of the
chapters of the Nāgarasarvasva (NS), a kāmaśāstra text from the 10th century, including the
chapter on the use of gemstones. In the NS, it is indicated that if a king wears gemstones of a
certain nature, then this will increase his chances of producing male offspring.
NS 3,1:
"I shall speak about the class of qualities and defects of the best of the gemstones and about the
auspiciousness and the inauspiciousness of those who wear them by means of the variety of colours
on the occasion of the sections /decorations of the gemstones for the benefit of the living
beings/embryos."1
The examination of gemstones - ratnaparīkṣā - appears on several of the lists of the 64 kalās2,
which signifies that knowledge of gemstones and lapidary skills were perceived as something quite
important, comparable to skills in poetry, dancing and singing3. The arts were practiced in the
milieu of urban life of the upper class and royalty, and mastery of the kalās was a sign of refinement
and good manners4. The verse below suggests that there may be a direct link between mastering
these kalās and attracting a hard-to-get, attractive woman of high rank.
NS 2,1:
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1
NS 3,1: ratnottamānāṃ guṇadoṣajātaṃ
tad dhārakāṇāṃ ca śubhāśubhāni |
varṇaprabhedair maṇimaṇḍalānāṃ
prastāvataḥ sattvahitāya vacmi || The word sattva presumably means "embryo" or "offspring" in this context, as it is
consistently paraphrased with prāṇin, here prāṇihitāya in the commentary.
2
The lists of 64 arts seem to be the oldest, e.g. in the kāmasūtra which was composed in the 3rd or 4rth century CE. See
Desmond. 2011, p. 17, footnote 6.
3
Venkatasubbiah. 1911, pp. 26-32
4
Desmond. 2011, pp. 17-18
! 1!
"The man wishes happy sex (joy from having intercourse) with the most excellent women who are
very hard to obtain, he should possess knowledge, the arts, youthfulness, a good rank/lineage,
wealth, beauty, knowledge, desire and pride."5
Given that knowledge about gemstones is one of the 64 kalās, it may be assumed that such
knowledge is deeply rooted in the royal realm within ancient and medieval Indian culture. Since
time immemorial, gemstones have been worn as jewellery. However, what if wearing jewellery had
another purpose besides simply looking good? Verse 3,1 in the NS expresses that wearing certain
gemstones has an effect on one's life beyond the superficial. This was very fascinating to me. For
this reason, I decided to study the source texts in order to perform a close examination of what these
texts actually say about the properties of gemstones and the effects of wearing them.
The research methodology of this paper is text-based and therefore relies
predominantly on inductive reasoning, to use a term from scientific theory. However, there is also a
deductive element, as the point of departure - or point of curiosity, if you will - is found in the
mindset entrenched in our modern time, namely the very un-magical lack of innate power assigned
to a stone or, for that matter, any other physical thing on Earth. In our time, concrete things are
perceived as completely inanimate, our environment is not believed to exert any influence on us
whatsoever and we cannot control our happiness, life-span or fertility regardless of how many shiny
pearls we are wearing.
The aim of this paper is to present the material on gemstones as it is in the Arthaśāstra
and the Bṛhat Saṃhitā, focusing on defining which properties are described as being positive.
Furthermore, I will examine the means by which a gemstone can influence its owner. Since the
research field of Indian Gemmology is rather undeveloped, this paper is written from an
investigative angle. As a very tentative thesis statement, I will suggest that the quality of a
gemstone which is perceived as being superior, or which lends to it a certain impression of
mystique, is the light which seems to exist inside the gemstone and shine outwards. This inner light
is the gemstone's supernatural power, prabhāva, and this power then influences its owner.
Furthermore, the inner light of the gemstone is perceived as having a purifying effect and I will
cautiously argue that it is through this purifying process that a gemstone can influence its owner.
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5
NS 2,1: prajñākalāyauvanajātisampat
saundaryavidyāmadagarvitābhiḥ |
sudurlabhābhir varasundarībhiḥ
saṃbhogasaṃjātasukhaṃ yad icchet || In the commentary kalā is explained as being catuṣaṣṭikalāḥ the 64 arts.
! 2!
I will now move on to describe the theoretical framework which revolves around
purification and auspiciousness, as these two denotations frequently occur in the passages
describing the good qualities of a gemstone. I would like to explore whether purity and
auspiciousness should be understood as synonyms, or if there is a deeper and more concise level of
meaning to be elicited in the distinction between the two.
Theoretical Framework – Purity and Auspiciousness

Mentioning the word “purification” touches upon an enormously important theme; one might say
that the theme of ritual purity is one of the most prevalent in Indian culture from the age of the
Ṛgveda. The theme of purity also pertained to the pre-Gupta age, the Gupta age itself and the
medieval times, which are the historical periods in which the texts used for this paper are found.
According to T.N. Madan in his article "Concerning the Categories śubha and śuddha in Hindu
Culture: an Exploratory Essay", purity, for which he uses the word śuddha as a generic term,
pertains to objects which are pure in themselves; that is, they have the essential quality of purity.
Moreover, there are objects in the śuddha category which are not only pure but also purifying. As
an example of this, he mentions the ring of darbha-grass, which a brahmin wears on his finger
during ritual performances. This grass-ring is called pavitra – meaning ”purifying” – and is
perceived as being both pure and purifying. Gold is another example of an object which is both pure
and purifying6.
Although not in strict opposition to śuddha, the term śubha pertains to a different set
of objects. The objects which are in the śubha category have the essential quality of being
dependent on the situation, that is, they are alternately auspicious and inauspicious according to the
surrounding circumstances in time and space, as they are closely linked to omens. As examples for
this category, Madan illustrates how the celestial bodies are alternately seen as auspicious and
inauspicious according to their position and aspects within the science of jyotiṣ7.
Examples of śuddha terminology would be words such as viśuddha, pavitra, pāvana
and sauca. In contrast, for śubha terminology, Madan only specifies that it should include the word
śubha itself, and that it should appear in a context of words relating to time and space, by which he
means that it relates to omens and Astrology. Furthermore, Madan says, śuddha refers to the realm
of the brahmin, of purity as an ideal state and of ritual terminology, whereas śubha refers to
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6
Madan. 1985, p. 17
7
ibid, p. 14
! 3!
everyday events, and the expert within this realm is not the brahmin but the astrologer or diviner8.
At the court the king employed both a purohita and a sāṃvatsara; that is, a brahmin and an
astrologer9. These two experts belong to very different traditions as the roots of jyotiṣ are found in
the non-brahmanical, folkloric traditions. At some point, however, the science of jyotiṣ was
absorbed into the brahmanical tradition, and the texts were translated from prākṛt to Sanskrit,
whereby they were preserved. This information is relevant in the context of this paper, as there
might be traces of this development in the texts involving śuddha and śubha terminology, in the text
excerpts themselves or in the differences between them. These texts will now be presented.
Textual sources
The first text is the Arthaśāstra (AŚ), which is chosen for this paper because it appears to be one of
the earliest accounts on gemstones. According to Patrick Olivelle, the AŚ was composed between
50 and 125 CE10. Astronomical information found in the AŚ situates the work somewhere in a
stripe of land from modern day Gujarat via Madhya Pradesh to Jharkand11. The AŚ is a detailed
manual on how to be a king and manage a kingdom, including such topics as mining, management
of the treasury and the selection of gemstones. There are two chapters on gemstones - one
describing which gemstones exist and how to spot the auspicious gemstones, and the other
describing the mining industry. These two chapters are found in book two, which contains
information on a wealth of specialized skills such as metallurgy, fort-building and animal
husbandry, and, concurring on this point with Patrick Olivelle, book two reflects well-established
traditions within various crafts, and could very well have existed as a separate work before the
AŚ12. The language of book two is characterized by containing many terms which are not found in
other texts, including several names of gemstones not mentioned in the BS. Thus, there is evidence
to suggest that the AŚ, like the BS, is a compilation and that its alleged author, Kauṭilya, combined
many different works into one coherent whole13.
The second source is the monumental Bṛhat Saṃhitā (BS). Composed predominantly
in āryā metre, the BS is a didactic encyclopedia on Jyotiḥśāstra, and it contains four chapters on
gemstones. The author is Varahāmihira (505-587 CE), who was probably an astrologer in Ujjain at
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8
ibid, p. 16-17
9
Inden. 1985, p. 31
10
Olivelle. 2013, p. 29
11
ibid, p. 37
12
ibid, p. 7
13
ibid, p. 13
! 4!
the court of a king from the Gupta lineage. The BS is a compilation with frequent quotations from
other works, and Varahāmihira seems to have been a skilled astrologer since he composed several
other treatises on the subject of Astrology, e.g. the Pañcasiddhāntika14. The quality of the BS is
very high in itself and is further increased by the commentary from the 10th century by the
astrologer Bhaṭṭotpala, as it is a relatively easy commentary which often gives clarifying
explanations15. Now three sections will follow, each examining passages from one of the textual
sources; the first section is on the main text of the paper, namely the BS.
Gemstones in the Bṛhat Saṃhitā - Radiance & Victory

In the BS, four chapters are about gemstones. Chapter 80 is a general description of the gemstones
that exist and their properties. Although some 21 gemstones are mentioned, only 4 are described in
detail in these chapters. Apart from the general description of gemstones, chapter 80 also covers
diamonds, chapter 81 is about pearls, chapter 82 describes rubies and 83, which only consists of one
verse, is about emeralds. There is a list of 21 gemstones which does not seem to arranged in any
particular order, but as seen in the commentary, diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds are
considered to be the four most significant categories of gemstones.
80,4-5:
"The names (of the gemstones) are: The diamond (vajra), the sapphire (indranīla), the emerald
(marakata), the excellent one (karketara), the ruby (padmarāga), the blood-red one (rudhira), the
beryl (vaidūrya), the flawed one/the one with a black interior (pulaka), the flawless one/the white-
red/green one (vimalakā), the "royal gemstone" (rajamaṇi), the crystal/quartz (sphaṭika), the moon-
stone (śaśikāntā), sulphur/a kind of ruby (saugandhika), a gemstone from Himālaya/one with the
colour of cow-fat (gomedaka), the conch (śaṅkha), (another) sapphire (mahānīla), the topaz
(puṣparāgā), the "priestly gemstone" (brahmamaṇi), the "essence of light"/the white-red one
(jyotīrasa), the "grained" one/the blue one (sasyaka), the pearl (muktā), the coral (pravāla)."16
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14
Pingree. 1981, p. 11
15
Zysk. 2015, p. 65
16
80,4-5: vajrendranīlamarakatakarketarapadmarāgarudhirākhyāḥ |
vaidūryapulakavimalakārajamaṇisphaṭikaśaśikāntāḥ ||
saugandhikagomedakaśaṅkhamahānīlapuṣparāgākhyāḥ |
brahmamaṇijyotīrasasasyakamuktāpravālāni ||
! 5!
The commentary says: "These are the divisions/kinds of gemstones. Since the four (kinds) called
diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds are the most excellent ones, The teacher gives the
characteristics only of these (gemstones), that is the construction."17
Each of the sections on the particular gemstones (diamonds, pearls, rubies and
emeralds) states the origin of the gemstone, its appearance, its properties and its effect. The greatest
variety occurs in the descriptions of the gemstones’ appearance, while the structure and principles
are the same; a gemstone is auspicious if it is endowed with good qualities and vice versa. First, we
shall look at the inauspicious qualities.
80,15:
18
“The ones (diamond) which are joined with gravel such as the marks of crow feet19, marks of
bees/flies20, lines looking like hair21, (and) joined with aluminium22, the ones which are
perforated, joined with double angles, burned, of a pale colour, the ones of which the brightness is
gone, (and the ones which are) torn in pieces, these are not auspicious.”23
In the commentary, it says etāni na śubhāni, aśobhanāni; "if they are ugly, they are inauspicious".
Thus, beauty equals goodness and luck, and ugliness the opposite24. Likewise, evenness is more
auspicious than irregularity, bright colours are more auspicious than pale colours and light and
bright is better than dark and gloomy. Although there is no mention of time and space, the word
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17
The last three lines of the commentary to 80,4-5:etāni ratnabhedāni | ity ata utkṛṣṭāni catvāri
vajramuktāpadmarāgamarakatākhyāni, teṣām eva lakṣaṇam ācāryaḥ karotīti saṃbandhaḥ || iti saṃbandhaḥ is an
expression from the commentarial literature often used to explain the connection between two or more statements. Here
Bhaṭṭotpala states that the connection between the BS containing explanations on diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds
are that these are the most excellent ones of all the gemstones.
18
Without the commentary, this verse would be almost impossible to understand, therefore I have incorporated
Bhaṭṭotpala’s explanatory terms into the translation.
19
In the commentary it says kākapadaiḥ kākapadākṛtibhiś cihnaiḥ, thus (joined with) marks, that is stamps/symbols of
crow feet.
20
In the commentary it says makśikābhis tadākṛtibhiḥ which is a great help, as one otherwise might be tempted to make
this division: kākapadam akṣikākeśadhātuyuktāni, as makśikā is not a very very frequently seen word.
21
In the commentary it says keśair bālasadṛśarekhābhiḥ - “by “hair” is meant (joined with) lines looking like bāla”,
which I think should be vāla, as this means “hair”.
22
The commentary gives dhātubhir mṛttikābhiḥ, thus revealing that by dhātu is meant mṛttika which means aluminium.
23
80,15: kākapadamakṣikākeśadhātuyuktāni śarkarair viddham |
dviguṇāśri dagdakaluṣatrastaviśīrṇāni na śubhāni || Please note that this is the correct transliteration, however it should
be either dviguṇāśridagdakaluṣatrastaviśīrṇāni with a deleted space or dviguṇāśriyuktāni.
24
Commentary to 80,15: yāni vajrāṇi kākapadaiḥ kākapadākṛtibhiś cihnaiḥ | makśikābhiatadākṛtibhiḥ |
keśair bālasadṛśarekhābhiḥ | dhātubhir mṛttakābhiḥ | etair yuktāni | tathā yacchar karair yuktaṃ
yac ca viddhaṃ vedhasaṃyuktam | yac ca dviguṇāśri lakṣaṇābhir aśribhir dviguṇābhir yuktam |
dagdham agninā | kaluṣaṃ vivarṇam | trastaṃ vigatakānti | viśīrṇaṃ jarjaritam | etāni na śubhāni,
aśobhanāni ||
! 6!
śubha appears, which could indicate that the verse gives information relating to an omen. Now
follows a verse which contrasts verse 80,15, as it lists the qualities which a gemstone must possess
if it is to be assessed as being auspicious.
82,3:
"Smooth, smeared in radiance, clear, bright, heavy, of a good shape, having inner an radiance, deep
red, such are the good qualities of the precious stones - of all of them25."26
Commentary to 82,3:
"snigdhaḥ is joined with oiliness/smoothness. prabhānulepī means that the "behaviour" (śīlaḥ)
smears it with "shimmer" (prabhayā) which means radiance. svaccho means "free from dirt".
arciṣmān means "shining". guruḥ means "joined with density". susaṃsthānaḥ means "beautiful
shape". antaḥprabho means that there is radiance within (the ruby) in the center, atirāgo means
joined with redness to an extreme degree. These are the maṇiratnaguṇāḥ i.e. "the good qualities of
the chief gemstone" of all of them beginning with rubies."27
From this verse and its commentary, it is obvious that a gemstone should be clear and
free from dust or dirt. The surface should be smooth; small cuts and holes are not accepted. Of all
the qualities, radiance, brightness and sheen seem to be the most important. This seems to refer not
only the glossiness of the surface, but also a light or shine that looks like it comes from the inside of
the gemstone.
The choice of words to describe these qualities is noteworthy since it resembles the
vocabulary used within the science of physiognomic omens. For instance, prabhā denotes a natural
bodily glow, and in the verse above, it is stressed that this glow radiates from the inside of the
gemstone; thus, the use of this word invites a comparison between the glow from a gemstone to the
glow that radiates from inside a person28. On the other hand, snigdha is more like a gloss, an
oiliness or smoothness on the surface. The smoother the better; firstly, because when a gemstone is
completely smooth, there are no holes or cracks in the surface, which enhances its value and
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25
samastānām I translate as "of all of them" as samasta does not seem to modify guṇāḥ. This translation makes sense in
that the positive qualities listed in this verse do indeed pertain to all the gemstones.
26
82,3: snigdhaḥ prabhānulepī svaccho 'rciṣmān guruḥ susaṃsthānaḥ |
antaḥprabho 'tirāgo maṇiratnaguṇāḥ samastānām ||
27
Commentary to 82,3: snigdhaḥ snehasaṃyuktaḥ | prabhānulepī prabhayā kāntyā anulimpati tac chīlaḥ | svaccho
nirmalaḥ | arciṣmān dīptayuktaḥ | guruḥ gauravayuktaḥ | susaṃsthānaḥ śobhanākṛtiḥ | antaḥprabho 'ntar madhye
prabhā kāntir yasya atirāgo 'tiva rāgeṇa lauhityena yuktaḥ | ete samastānāṃ sarveṣāṃ padmarāgādīnāṃ
maṇiratnaguṇāḥ pradhānaratnaguṇāḥ ||
28
Zysk. 2015. p. 14
! 7!
auspiciousness. Secondly, the smoothness enhances its beauty through the kinestetic feeling of the
sense of touch. In the verse above, as in the rest of the verses in this excerpt, snigdha is given as a
separate attribute rather than a sheen used to enhance the inner glow. To elaborate further on the
glow of gemstones, the word tejas does not appear as frequently as prabhā, and when it does occur,
it seems to simply means "shine" or "luminosity", like in this verse here.
81,6:
"Those (pearls) from the North are irregular, black, white, light, and with great size and luminosity.
The small-shelled (pearls) from pāṇḍya29 will be like the neem fruit, trigonal, like a coriander seed
and very delicate."30
In the commentary, tejas is paraphrased with kāntir - "radiance", "splendour" or "light" - and it
says: tejaś ca kāntir vidyate yasmin - "and tejaś meaning "radiance" (kāntir) is found in that
(pearl)."31
Thus, tejas does denote a light that radiates from within, but here it does not seem to have the same
connotations as it has in the Gargajyotiṣa of being the genus under which prabhā is a species;
rather, in this text, it seems to be equated with prabhā32. In the following verse, the radiance of a
gemstone is connected with its effects:
81,21(cd)-22:
"These pearls are plentiful, large, of the right measurements, of many shapes and radiant. Of these
no value can be made (estimated/assessed) and being radiant they should not be perforated. If
possessed by kings, they will be greatly purifying and will create sons, triumph and freedom from
disease."33
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29
According to Monier-Williams’ dictionary pāṇḍya is a name of a people and a country in the Deccan. vaṭa can mean
“small shell”..
30
81,6: viṣamaṃ kṛṣṇaśvetaṃ laghuṃ kauberaṃ pramāṇatejovat |
nimbaphalatripuṭadhānyakacūrṇāḥ syuḥ pāṇḍyavāṭabhavāḥ ||
31
Commentary to 81,6: viṣamam iti | viṣamam asamam | kṛṣṇaśvetaṃ kṛṣṇavarṇaṃ śvetavarṇaṃ ca | laghu
gauravavarjitam | pramāṇatejovat | pramāṇaṃ mahat tvaṃ tejaś ca kāntir vidyate yasmiṃs tat | nimbaphalasadṛśam |
tripuṭaṃ tribhiḥ puṭair upalakṣitam | dhānyakaṃ dhānyakāphalasadṛśam | cūrṇaṃ cātisūkṣmam | etāḥ sarvā eva
muktāḥ pāṇḍyavābhavāḥ pāṇḍyavaṭe jātāḥ syur bhaveyuḥ ||
32
Zysk. 2015. p. 16
33
81,21(cd)-22: bahavo bṛhat pramāṇā bahusaṃsthānāḥ prabhāyuktāḥ ||
naiṣāmarghaḥ kāryo na ca vedho 'tīva te prabhāyuktāḥ |
sutavijayārogyakarā mahāpavitrā dhṛtā rājñām ||
! 8!
In the commentary, mahāpavitrā is paraphrased as atisādhanā - "extremely efficient" as sādhana is

seen as an adjective, or "(the pearls of which) the effect is excessive".34 Thus, the word pavitra -
"purifying, straining, filtering" - must mean to filter away the bad things in the king's life. In verse
81,23, the word pavitra is mentioned again:
81,23:
"The one (the pearl) coming from a boar, (produced) in the root of the tusk, possesses many good
qualities and has the lustre of the moon. The one born from a fish resembles the eye of a fish, it is
big, purifying and possess many good qualities."35
This time pavitra is paraphrased as pāvanam, which also means "purifying", "filtering" and
"sanctifying"36. Both these words are derived from √pū which means "to purify, strain, filter,
cleanse", which has ritual, sacrificial connotations, e.g. filtering the soma-juice. The use of pavitra
places the passage 81,21-23 in the śuddha category. This passage indicates that gemstones can have
a purifying effect and this seems to mean that the life of the king is cleansed from adversity, as said
in verse 81,22 - "they will be greatly purifying and will create sons, triumph and freedom from
disease", thus when a king is purified, he becomes successful. To look further into the effects of
gemstones, verse 81,27 contains further information about such effects.
81,27:
"A snake-born pearl worn by kings removes poison and misfortune, destroys enemies and causes
(his) reputation to increase, it's value cannot be estimated and it is a bestower of victory."37
In this verse, the gemstone is the subject for the actions, being both the agent of the two negative
actions apaharati - "removes", and kṣapayati - "causes to make an end of, destroy" and the two
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34
Commentary to 81,21(cd)-22: bahavaḥ prabhūtā bṛhat pramāṇāḥ sthūlāḥ | bahusaṃsthānā anekākārāḥ |
prabhāyuktās tejasvinyaḥ ||
naiṣāmarghaḥ kārya iti | teṣāṃ muktāphalānām arghe mūlyaṃ na kārya na ca vedhas teṣāṃ kāryaḥ | yatas tāḥ sarvā
atīvāty artha prabhāyuktās tejasvinyo mahāpavitrā atisādhanā rājñāṃ nṛpāṇāṃ dhṛtā dehasthitāḥ sutavijayā
''rogyakarā bhavanti | sutāḥ putrāḥ | vijayaḥ śatrunigrahaḥ | ārogyaṃ nīrogatvaṃ ca kurvanti ||
35
81,23: daṃṣṭrāmūle śaśikāntisaprabhaṃ bahuguṇaṃ ca vārāham |
timijaṃ matsyākṣinibhaṃ bṛhat pavitraṃ bahuguṇaṃ ca ||
36
Commentary to 81,23: varāhāṇāṃ sūkarāṇām | daṃṣṭrāmūlaṃ yato daṃṣṭrotpadyate tatra śaśikāntisaprabhaṃ
candraprabhābaṃ bahuguṇam anekaguṇaṃ vārāhaṃ varāhasambhūtaṃ tan muktāphalaṃ bhavati | matsyākṣinibhaṃ
mīnanetrasadṛśaṃ timajaṃ matsyajaṃ bhavati | bṛhat sthūlam | pavitraṃ pāvanam | bahuguṇaṃ ca taj jñeyam iti ||
37
81,27: apaharati viṣamalakṣmīṃ kṣapayati śatrūn yaśo vikāśayati |
bhaujaṅgaṃ nṛpatīnāṃ dhṛtam akṛtārgha vijayadaṃ ca |
! 9!
positive actions vikāśayati - "causes to increase or expand", and daṃ, which in the commentary is
explained by dadāti - "gives"38. The two verbs in the causative could indicate that the gemstone
causes the king to defeat his enemies and to increase his fame. One might wonder what power a
gemstone possesses that can cause a king to do these things. Perhaps this next verse can provide the
answer.
82,6:
"The king who wears this (gemstone) will never have suffering in the form of poison or disease.
The god (Indra) will always rain on his kingdom and the king will annihilate his enemies because of
the supernatural power of the gemstone."39
Unfortunately, the word for "supernatural power" (prabhāva) is not paraphrased in the commentary;
it only says "because of that gemstone's supernatural power the king destroys the enemies"40. This
verse seems to determine that the effects of gemstones arise because of the innate power within the
gemstone itself and that this power is visible if one knows how to recognise it.
From the verses in this section, it should be clear that owning the right gemstones was
considered to have an immense impact on the king, his power as king, his health and his chance to
get offspring. An auspicious gemstone purifies, which means that it cleanses out adversity from the
king's life; it causes the king to become victorious and successful. In regard to the śuddha and
śubha, there are indications of both categories. However, as there is no allusion to time and space,
the verses of this section cannot conclusively be categorized as belonging to the śubha category of
omens. As we saw in verse 82,6, a gemstone seems to possess an innate power and if this is the
same as its inner radiance, e.g. as mentioned in verse 82,3, then a gemstone is perceived more along
the lines of a ring of kuśa-grass, as it is pure and purifying. Before giving any further conclusions,
we now turn to the descriptions of gemstones in the AŚ.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
38
Commentary to 81,27: bhaujaṅgaṃ sārpaṃ sarpamuktāphalam | akṛtārgham akṛtamūlyaṃ rājñāṃ nṛpatīnāṃ dhṛtaṃ
viṣamalakṣmīṃ cāpaharati | śatrūn ripūn kṣapayati | yaśaḥ kīrtiṃ vikāśayati | vijayadaṃ ca vijayaṃ dadāti ||
39
asya prabhāvamāha -
82,6: yas taṃ vibharti manujādhipatir na tasya
doṣā bhavanti viṣarogakṛtāḥ kadācit |
rāṣṭre ca nityam abhivarṣati tasya devaḥ
śatrūṃś ca nāśayati tasya maneḥ prabhāvāt ||
40
Commentary 82,6: yo manujādhipatī rājā taṃ sarpamaṇiṃ vibharti dhārayati tasya viṣakṛtā rogakṛtā doṣā na
kadācidbhavanti | tasya ca rājño rāṣṭre devaḥ śakro nityaṃ sarvakālaṃ varṣati | tasya ca maṇeḥ prabhāvācchūtran
ripūn sa rājā nāśayati ||
! 10!
Gemstones in the Arthaśāstra - Treasury & Mining

The AŚ is a manual for kings on how to administer a kingdom, illustrating every aspect of this,
from the content of the treasury to how to avoid being poisoned by one's enemies. Mining seems to
have been a very elaborate industry, including the manufacturing of metals and gemstones41. The
mines were state property and the king's treasury should ideally be filled with all kinds of valuable
items, including various gemstones. The gemstones were used for jewellery business, as seen in this
passage:
2.12.27:
"The mine-inspector should cause the melting and administration to be done of pearls and diamonds
into jewels and beads, and (he should cause) trade and business (to be made)."42
It seems that the kings in the AŚ had access to more kinds of gemstones than the
astrologers/divinators of the court had at the time of the BS. Since the variation of gemstones
present in the ground does not shift that easily, one may think that the same degree of variation is
available in the BS. In the commentary to verses 80,4-5 in the BS, the word for "kinds" of
gemstones is bheda, which also can mean "division". This may indicate that some of the gemstones
in the BS are genus or main categories, implying the existence of a number of subcategories. The
passage below lists many gemstones which also appear in the BS, along with several others which
do not appear in the BS.
2.11.29-32:
"The ruby can be is red like a lotus, a faultless red, like the colour of the flower of coral jasmine
(or) like the colour of the lapis.
The lapis lazuli can have the colour of a blue lotus, the colour of a flower from the flea tree, the
colour of water, the colour of bamboo43, the colour of a parrot's wing, be a topaz44, the colour of
cow's urine (or) have the colour like cow's fat.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
41
Kangle. 1972, p. 182
42
2.12.27: khanyadhyakṣaḥ śaṅkhavajramaṇimuktāpravālakṣārakarmāntān kārayet, paṇanavyavahāraṃ |
43
vaṃśarāgaḥ could denote an emerald, since an emerald is a kind of beryl and it is green like bamboo. Especially
because the emerald is not otherwise mentioned in the AŚ.
44
puṣparāgo is a variant reading, whereas Kangle chose to use puṣyarāgo in the text. The variant reading is from the
ms which Kangle abbreviates as "D". It is the only ms. in the Devanāgarī script and it is also the only ms. discovered in
North India (Gujarat). I choose this reading as the word puṣya which most often refer to a nakṣatra is hard to relate to
the appearance of a gemstone. Kangle's main reason for not using this D ms. more is that it only exists in fragments.
! 11!
The sapphire can have blue lines45, the colour like the kalāya-flower, can be the one that is deep
blue, can be the one that has the lustre of rose apple, can be the one which has the radiance of a
cloud, the one that is like delight (or) the one which has streams in the middle.
The quartz can have the colour of the mūlāṭa-flower46, be the one related to cool rain, and be the
sun-crystal. These are the gemstones.”47
There is another list that is not defined as a list of gemstones but of antarajātayaḥ, that is, "inferior
species", very few of which are mentioned in the BS. According to Kangle, 2.11.35 lists a series of
minor gemstones. However, it is hard to see if it really is that, as none of the names appear in any
dictionary. Moreover, the frequent use of the ka-suffix, which usually signifies either a diminutive
or a likeness of some sort, could indicate that the names refer to subcategories or simply to
properties of gemstones already mentioned. According to the commentary called Srīmūla by T.
Gaṇapati Śastrī, the 18 stones mentioned in this passage belong to a different origin. Śastrī gives an
explanation as to why these stones are mentioned, citing a verse, but without stating its origin. Since
this commentary is written quite recently, the cited verse could thus be of a much later date than the
mūla-text: "He mentions the inauspicious ones - that is the rest (which should be added to the mūla-
text). Of the already mentioned ones, the rest are other ones, these are gemstones of glass which are
inferior gemstones. Here we recite a śloka from the collection/compendium: "Of the 25 kinds 11 are
called of good quality, but 7 of the gemstones are flawed and these 18 are the ones belonging to a
different origin”48. Thus, the edition of the AŚ edited by Śastrī reveals that the list consists of
“glass-gemstones”, which would perhaps be rock crystal quartz as this is a clear, glass-like kind of
quartz.
2.11.35:
1. vimalaka: "Spotless, white-green, the colour of pure collyrium."
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
However, one argument against using puṣparāgo is that this word means "topaz" which is not a kind of beryl and thus
to call it a topaz would break the pattern of having the genus name in the beginning followed by its different species.
45
nīlāvalīyaḥ I understand as nīla+āvalīyaḥ, that is, from āvali (m) + either the comparative suffix īyas - "having many
blue lines" or the suffix iya meaning "consisting of".
46
The word mūlāṭa I can not seem to find anywhere so in this case I take this translation from Kangle. 1972, p. 99
47
2.11.29-32: saugandhikaḥ padmarāgo 'navadyarāgaḥ pārijātapuṣpako bālasūryakaḥ | vaidūrya utpalavarṇaḥ
śirīṣapuṣpaka udakavarṇo vaṃśarāgaḥ śukapatravarṇaḥ puṣyarāgo gomūtrako gomedakaḥ | indranīlo nīlāvalīyaḥ
kalāyapuṣpako mahānīlo jambvābho jīmūtaprabho nandakaḥ sravanmadhyaḥ | śuddhasphaṭiko mūlāṭavarṇaḥ śītavṛṣṭiḥ
sūtyakāntaśca | iti maṇayaḥ ||
48
apraśastān āha - śeṣā iti | śeṣāḥ uktebhyo 'nye, kācamaṇayaḥ adhamamaṇayaḥ atra saṅgrahaślokaṃ paṭhanti -
pañcaviṃśatibhedānāṃ guṇāstvekādaśa smṛtāḥ |
sapta doṣā maṇīnāṃ tu daśāṣṭau ca vijātayaḥ || iti |Śastrī. 1991. p. 176
! 12!
2. sasyaka: "Like grain, indigo, the colour of cocoa-nut49."

3. añjanamūlaka: "Like a crocus, dark blue, mountain-blue/crocus-blue."
4. pittaka: "Like bile, the colour of ox-bile, the colour of bile."
5. sulabhaka: "Like Jasminum sambac, white, pure crystal."
6. lohitākṣa: "With red axles, red sides and black in the centre, of red colour."
7. mṛgāśmaka: "Like the hoof of a deer, white and black, (or the immortality stone50) the colour of
thick ointment."
8. jyotīrasaka: "Like star-essence, white-red, existing in the place of koṇḍāvatyā."
9. māleyaka: "Like a garland (or having a sandy layer inside51), having the shade of vermillion, it
exists in the Malaya-mountains."
10. ahitracchaka: "ahitracchaka, of pale hue, it exist in one place - koṇḍāvatyā."
11. kūrpa: "Like sand52, like gravel, having the colour of salt."
12. pratikūrpa: "pratikūrpa, having the colour of indigo, having the colour of that (sand perhaps)."
13. sugandhakūrpa: "Sweet-smelling sand, the colour of green gram, of fenugreek and the colour of
sweet-smelling stone."
14. kṣīravaka: "Like curd, the colour of milk, the colour of curd."
15. śukticūrṇaka: "Shell-dust, multi-coloured, (or green dust/elephant dust) the appearance of
elephant skin."
16. śilāpravālaka: "Having the character of coral, the colour of coral, red colour."
17. pulaka: "Having a black interior, black in its kernel, the colour of the black sampangi flower."
18. śuklapulaka: "The white pulaka, with a white kernel, white (and) different from the inferior-
ness of the earlier mentioned (ones) and different from the excellence of gemstones, as these are of
glass."
ity antarajātayaḥ: "These are the ones of inferior species, by means of this manner/species these 18
inferior gemstones should be known thus these are auspicious, the meaning is that they have good
qualities in the middle/centre ||53
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
49
The mentioning of cocoa-nut reveals that the commentary is quite recent, as the cocoa-nut is not native to India.
50
Shamashastry’s edition has amṛtāṃśuka instead of mṛgāśmako, “with white rays”.
51
In Shamashastry’s edition the variant maileyako instead of māleyako, is explained in the commentary as containing a
sandy layer inside.
52
This translation is found in Boehtlingk-Roth's dictionary.
53
vimalaka Śr. svetaharitaḥ, Cṇ. vimalāṇjanavarṇa. sasyaka Śr. nīlaḥ, Cṇ. nālikerasavarṇa. añjanamūlaka Śr.
nīlaśyāmaḥ, Cṇ. añjanaparvata/añjananīlaka. pittaka Śr. gopittavarṇaḥ, Cṇ pittavarṇa. sulabhaka Śr. śuklaḥ, Cṇ.
śuddhasphaṭika. lohitākṣa Śr. paryantaraktaḥ kṛṣṇamadhya, Cṇ. sulabha iti raktavarṇa. mṛgāśmaka Śr. sitāsitaḥ, Cṇ.
(variant: amṛtāśmaka) ghanapralepavarṇa. jyotīrasaka Śr. śuklalohitaḥ, Cṇ. koṇḍāvatyāpradeśabhava. māleyaka Śr.
(variant: maileyaka) hiṅgulakacchāya, Cṇ. malayaparvatabhava. ahitracchaka Śr. mandarāga, Cṇ. koṇḍāvatyā
! 13!
It seems plausible that the items in the passage above would be crystals, as they are described in
terms of their colour and pattern. Furthermore, the one called śilāpravālaka apparently has the
colour of coral, but it is not a coral. In the next passage, the desirable qualities are listed:
2.11.33:
"These are the good qualities of gemstones; hexagonal, square, or round, having an intense/fiery
colour, having a good shape, being clear, smooth, heavy, possessing rays, having internal radiance
and anointed with radiance."54
The word “radiance” is explained by three of commentators in Śastrī’s adition of the AŚ:
Śr.: “Even in the spot in the centre there is a glittering light. There is drawing close to this peculiar
light.”55
Cṇ.: ”It is perceived as a reflected, internal image of it.”56
Pr.: “Even in the centre there is a light which is beyond brilliant.”57
Both from the mūla-text and the commentaries it seems that great importance is ascribed to the
inner light of a gemstone. The expression “drawing close”, saṃkṛṣṭaṃ, can also mean ”in the
vicinity of”, however, if it should be translated as “drawing close”, it could indicate that a gemstone
possessing inner light has the ability to attract certain things – e.g. bring success to its owner.
The verses in this section suggest that the main reason for owning gemstones is to sustain the
lapidary industry as it is seen from 2.12.27. The passage 2.11.35 contains a wealth of crystals, each
characterized according to their colour(s) and pattern. Of all of these 18 crystals, only the pulaka,
the sasyaka, the jyotīrasa, and the vimalakā appear in the BS 80,4-5. The other list of gemstones, in
2.11.29-32, also contains more variants than the corresponding list in the BS. Thus, it appears that
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
ekadeśabhava. kūrpa Śr. śarkarila, Cṇ. saindhavavarṇa. pratikūrpa Śr. sikthakaruci, Cṇ. tadvarṇa iva.
sugandhakūrpa Śr. mudgavarṇa, Cṇ. sukumārastu sugandhipāṣāṇākṛtavarṇa. kṣīravaka Śr. dugdhavarṇa, Cṇ.
kṣīravarṇa. śukticūrṇaka Śr. nekavarṇa, Cṇ. (variant: hasticūrṇaka) hastichavyākāra. śilāpravālaka Śr. pravālavarṇa,
Cṇ. raktavarṇa. pulaka Śr. kṛṣṇagarbha, Cṇ. añjanakṣaudravarṇa. śuklapulaka Śr. śuklagarbha, Cṇ. śuklaḥ ete
pūrvebhyo nyūnatvāt kācamaṇibhyaś cotkṛṣṭatvād. ity antarajātayaḥ Śr. anena prakāreṇāṣṭa-daśāvāntarajātimaṇayo
boddhavyāḥ | ta ete praśastāḥ, Cṇ. madhyaguṇā ity arthaḥ || Śr. is an abbreviation for the commentary called Śrīmūla,
Cṇ. is an abbreviation for the commentary called Cāṇakyaṭīka and likewise Pr. is the commentary called
Pratipadapañcikā. This passage is only commented on by these two of the four commentators. Śastrī. 1991. p. 176
54
2.11.33: ṣaḍaśraś caturaśro vṛtto vā tīvrarāgaḥ saṃsthānavān acchaḥ snigdho gurur arciṣmān antargataprabhaḥ
prabhānulepī ceti maṇiguṇāḥ |
55
Śr. madhyabhāge ‘pi prabhātaralaḥ, prabhayā svīyayā sannikṛṣṭam.
56
Cṇ. yasyāntargataṃ prativ(b)imbam iva dṛśyate.
57
Pr. madhye ‘py atibhāsvaraprabhaḥ.
! 14!
this passage adopts a more elaborate system of categorization, listing the main category of a
gemstone and then its subcategories, which is not found in the BS.
The positive qualities in 2.11.33 seem to be very similar to the qualties listed in the
corresponding verse of the BS; essentially, what is considered to be beautiful, regular, clear and
clean is deemed as positive. In fact, the phrasing of 2.11.33 and BS 82,3 are very close to each
other, using several of the same words, e.g. accha, snigdha, guru and arciṣmat58.
Regarding the question of śuddha and śubha, the AŚ does not mention anything
relating to śubha, not the word itself nor any details of time and space. Although there are some
words which could have the meaning of “pure”, e.g. accha and vimalaka, these are not words which
denote purification. However, there do seem to be rather a lot of words with a meaning of “light”,
e.g. arciṣmat, jyotīrasaka, jīmūtaprabhā and even antargataprabhaḥ, which denotes the inner light
of a gemstone.
Concluding this section, the AŚ does not yield a definitive answer to whether or not
the properties of gemstones were perceived as influencing the king's life in other ways than by
being a financial asset. However, there is clear evidence that the inner, radiating light of a
gemstone, such as described in the expression in 2.11.33 antargataprabhaḥ, is designated as being
of particular importance in the context of the AŚ as well as the BS. Thus, having gone through the
sections on the BS and the AŚ, some of the main points will be addressed in the discussion.
Discussion
If book two of the AŚ indeed was a separate work on specialized topics of various crafts, it would
perhaps explain why no effects of gemstones are mentioned as the task of interpreting such effects
did probably not belong to the area of expertice of the lapidary craftmen but rather to the astrologer.
However, the close similarity between BS 82,3 and AŚ 2.11.33 indicates not only a certain degree
of knowledge of such effects, but that these two passages belong to the same continued tradition.
This is supported by the fact that the text in the AŚ is in prose and, although not in prākṛt, the
wealth of unknown gemstone names could be because much of the knowledge of gemstones came
from a folkloric tradition. At some point, the text was absorbed into the brahmanic tradition and
transferred to verse, and thus it appears in the BS.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
58
Please compare 2.11.33 with BS 82,3: snigdhaḥ prabhānulepī svaccho 'rciṣmān guruḥ susaṃsthānaḥ |
antaḥprabho 'tirāgo maṇiratnaguṇāḥ samastānām ||
! 15!
The brahmanic process of absorption of the text of book two of the AŚ could explain
why it does not contain much information about the effects of gemstones. Knowledge about their
effects could still have existed, as absence of evidence does not equal evidence of absence. An
indication of the existence of such knowledge is the appearance in AŚ 2.11.33 of the compound
antargataprabhaḥ, which denotes the inner light of a gemstone and is listed as one of the good
qualities. Hence, even though the text excerpt does not give much information as to whether it
belongs to the śuddha or śubha category, the fact that the inner light is mentioned could indicate
that it leans more towards the śuddha category.
Compared to the AŚ, the verse from the BS indicates a clearer allegiance towards the
śuddha category; firstly, because of the mention of words such as pavitra in BS 81,23 and
mahāpavitra in 81,22; secondly, because the effect of a gemstone does not seem to be modified by
anything relating to space and time. In none of the verses of the BS section is it stated that the effect
of a gemstone only occurs under certain circumstances. In fact, the presence in BS 82,6 of
prabhāva, the inner, supernatural power of a gemstone, could be the key to understanding how a
gemstone can have any effect on its bearer; if a gemstone possesses this inner light, the
antargataprabhaḥ, this is perceived as a supernatural power within the gemstone which shines
outwards and purifies the life of its bearer. This ability to purify, perhaps to cleanse away all
adversity, is perceived as being supernaturally strong, thereby overruling any degree of
inauspiciousness there might be. A factor which, in my opinion, supports this, is that the gemstone
itself is the subject of the causative verbs appearing in BS 81,27, kṣapayati - "causes to make an end
of, destroy", and vikāśayati - "causes to increase or expand". If the gemstone had caused the king to
destroy his enemies and to increase his reputation, the effect of the gemstone could be understood
as more indirect, but in this case, it is the gemstone itself which causes these positive events. Now,
if indeed the gemstones belong predominantly to the śuddha category, they might not be omens as
such, as they are not warnings of events to come, but rather akin to amulets possessing very
powerful magic that overrules surrounding circumstances. If there is any element of truth to this
assumption, however small a base of evidence this paper may be, it is easy to understand why
mastery of ratnaparīkṣā - the ability to select the best, most powerful gemstones - was one of the 64
kalās of the royal class and nobility.
Conclusion
! 16!
As mentioned in the Discussion section, this paper is a very small base of evidence, and should only
be viewed as such. From a point of wonder as to how wearing jewellery can affect the life of the
owner, together with an investigate approach and a theoretical framework of the two categories
pertaining to śuddha and śubha, I read through the excerpts I had chosen from the BS and the AŚ.
Although I have managed to show, based on the material in both the BS and AŚ, that the inner light
of a gemstone is perceived as having great importance and, at least according to the BS, a great
effect on its owner, the conclusion that I reach opens up to even more wonder. Moreover, this
wonder gives rise to a cornucopia of questions; for instance, how can a gemstone contain a
supernatural ability to purify, which might actually mean to overrule inauspiciousness and eradicate
any kind of adversity? I wonder if it would be possible to find further evidence for this mechanism
and, in that case, in which textual sources this evidence might be found. This concept of prabhāva,
the supernatural power encapsuled in a gemstone, seems endlessly fascinating at this point and it
deserves to be investigated much more thoroughly, perhaps in more types of literature such as
within Buddhist and Jain texts or within the medical science of Āyurveda, as the concept in the
medical context seems to relate to the efficacy of medicine59.
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
59
This is indicated e.g. like this study: http://interscience.org.uk/v2-i3/20%20ijahm.pdf
! 17!
! according to the Arthaśāstra and the Bṛhat Saṃhitā!! !
List of Abbreviations:
AŚ: The Arthaśāstra

BS: The Bṛhat Saṃhitā
Cṇ.: Cāṇakyaṭīka – a name of one of the commentaries to the edition of the AŚ edited by Śastrī.
ms.: manuscript
NS: The Nāgarasarvasva
Pr.: Pratipadapañcikā - a name of one of the commentaries to the edition of the AŚ edited by Śastrī.
Śr.: Śrīmūla - a name of one of the commentaries to the edition of the AŚ edited by Śastrī.
Institut for Tværkulturelle og Regionale studier
Københavns Universitet
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Sanskrit text material:
Dvivedī, Dr. Kṛṣṇacandra. 1997. ed. Bṛhatsaṃhitā (Part II) by śrī Varāhamirācārya, with the
commenatry of Bhaṭṭotpala. Varanasi: Tara Printing Works. Pp. 872-889. 18 normal pages
Kangle, R.P. 1969. ed. The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra. Part I. Bombay: University of Bombay. Pp. 51-
58, 268-270. 10 normalpages.
Pandey, Pt. Shri Ramtej. ed. 2014 (published on Archive). Garuḍapurāṇa of Kṛṣṇadvaipāyana
Vyāsa. Varanasi: The Chowkhamba Vidyabhawan. Pp. 99-113. 14 normalpages.
Secondary literature:
Babb, Lawrence A. 2013. Emerald City: The Birth and Evolution of an Indian Gemstone Industry.
Albany: SUNY Press. Pp. 1-18, 19-48. 38 normalpages.
Finot, Louis. 1896. Les Lapidaires Indiens. Paris: Librairie Emile Bouillon, Editeur. 250
normalpages.
Kangle, R.P. 1972. ed. & trans. The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, part II. Bombay: University of Bombay.
Pp. 97-121, 494-511. 41 normalpages.
Kangle, R.P. 1965. The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra. Part III, A Study. Bombay: University of Bombay.
300 normalpages.
Krishnamurty, Radha. 1992. "Gemmology in Ancient India". Indian Journal of History of Science.
27,3: 251-260. 9 normalpages.
Pingree, David. 1981. Jyotiḥśāstra, Astral and Mathematical Literature. Wiesbaden: Otto
Harrassowitz. Pp. 67-81. 14 normalpages.
Pingree, David. 1990. "The Purāṇas and Jyotiḥśāstra: Astronomy." Journal of the American
Oriental Society. 2,110: 274-280. 6 pages
Sastri, P.V.S. 1946. trans. Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita with an English Translation and Notes.
Bangalore City: V.B. Soobbiah & Sons. Pp. 22-146, 628-641. 137 normalpages.
Tagore, Sourindro Mohun. 1879-1881. Maṇi-Mālā: A treatise on gems, Vol I and II. Calcutta: I. C.
Bose & Co. 250 normalpages.
Tank, Raj Roop.1971. Indian Gemology. Jaipur: Dulichand Kirtichand Tank. 130 normalpages.
Venkatasubbiah, A. 1911. The Kalās. Inaugural Dissertation presented to the Philosophical

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The - Properties - and - Effects - of - Gemstones Sara Speyer

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! Sara Speyer, lbc129, HIDK03031E, Tekstbaseret Emne, !

The Properties and Effects of Gemstones

The Properties and Effects of Gemstones

Theoretical Framework – Purity and Auspiciousness

Gemstones in the Bṛhat Saṃhitā - Radiance & Victory

In the commentary, mahāpavitrā is paraphrased as atisādhanā - "extremely efficient" as sādhana is

Gemstones in the Arthaśāstra - Treasury & Mining

2. sasyaka: "Like grain, indigo, the colour of cocoa-nut49."

AŚ: The Arthaśāstra

Forside til pensum

Navn: Sara Speyer

Eksaminator/vejleder: Kenneth G. Zysk

Venkatasubbiah, A. 1911. The Kalās. Inaugural Dissertation presented to the Philosophical

1.347 normalpages in total.

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