Chapter 11 Logics of Class Analysis Brak Oun Wrecert cx concusinsocilogy ae moreconerte han the concep of as: ferent peoplemean quite diferent hngs when they use he Word Theresuls etn many discussions peopie alk pst euch other ey ‘scuhesame word, but hey are realy talingabout quite diferent concepts. “Twolssvesunderiemchof thisconfson is therearemany ifr ent sons of questions people ack for which lt sought o provide at Inset part ofthe arawerDiflerent concepts af clas are olen rated in ferent questions or clsters of questions. Second even when people are ‘nldresing the same bond quetion snd hus tying to expla the same ‘corso things the word “cls” may be used o deny diferent ies of ‘Sus mechan sorties it used to ety atte of persons, ‘Semetins the ature of the positon they occupy, ar oer times the tue ofthe relations among posidons. Tats chapter, ry to locate the various contributions ofthis volume suihin the diversity of ways of approaching the analy af ls do us ‘yf examining an novo stn posed within cas salsa then ehboratings pag fot rains dened by dflotent wa Aon of lee ray My conrl conclusion that near ll ofthe cor tribution to ts book mBoaya gute nao version of das analysis $ doublesence: ft they manly revolve around single question in ass alysis (he anal of fe canes) and second, nares hat ques: on they fas last entirely on anetypect causal mecarism (he etects ‘findvidul abuts and conditions). The narowing of quessons and ‘mechanisms, Largue a te conlusion, reduces the crite content of ls ‘lyse and ulately bln moral and pita lence{0 Sil Che How Dost Wok? ‘The Questions of Class Analysis “There are ix paciculty important ganerl questions for which he cn. epochs often igure cenrlly inthe anaes 1. Distillation How ate people objectively loeated in distba- one of enteral inequaly? 2. Subjetiely slot groups Hove do people, individually and collec tively, subjectively oat themselves and oes within structure of inequality? 23. ie chmce: What exp inequalities in life chances and materi sMandards of ving? 4 Antagnins ond conics Whatclenvagesinscey systematically gon- frat overt antagonism and confi? 5. Historic! ait: Howe shoud we characterize and explain the va tions cross history in he scl organization of inequaies? {6 Emacpeton: What sorts of transformations are needed o imine ‘Spprestion snd expan within expat soieses? “Thee ae ofcourse, other questions tat could beaded, For example, class somesmes offered ea aneret tothe question what explains the polled tudes nd votngbshaviorof vidal? Tis question how= "vei ery cloely eo sveral ofthese questonsin the is since he rguments for why lasek to tities and voting usualy work ‘Brough te way cles hapes subjective ents (queston 2) lechanees {question 3) and confit question 0) Ln any case hs inventory of sb ‘Gestion covers the main agenda of elas ana Let ws look cach of To jpestiong ito Distributional Location ‘Classis often central tote descriptive question: ow are people sbi tered tbo of tel inequity? nthe, cls defied ‘erm of material standard oflivng sly indexed income or, os Sly. wealh Clas inthis agen, gradu concep: the standard eis rungs ona der, ne thsoeaonshaveramessch ak uppet las upper middleclass, ide las, oer micas, lower dis, “andeciaca. Ths eth eoneept of as hat gure most prominent Popular discourse at ast counties He he United States tat ack a rong working cass pli radian, When American policians call fr “ald ls xc” wha they characteroscally mean sx cuts fr ogee Arps 31 people in the mide of the income distribution. Clas hs conte | {ozasted with other ways in whic people are objectively locate within cil stracturer-for example, by ther sizes tts hee power, | Ther subjection oinaitonalizd forme of seipivedlaciminton. ‘Subjctively Salient Groups Clas one ofthe posible answers othe question: how do people, nd ‘idly and olive, jes te thomsen and others wih ‘fracture of inequality? ints case the concep! would be delined some thing Like ts classes reso categories hat ganeratesbjectivel sent ‘experiences that shape the denies ed by people to loete Uwe cle (goer within sytem of economic raention, With he defion of ‘asthe actel content ofthese evaluative atbutes varies considerably ‘across ime ane place In some contents, cas ap subjective casfation revolves around lifestyle others around detailed cecupation, and in ilo around income levee, Sometines the economic conten ofthe subjective casstcation system is quiere asin income levels eu patonal categorie in other contents, tis more nrc ash expressions [Shchas" upper cas" The ner foes lo vais contextually depend ingonbow the acorn socal station temecives experience snd define the leven distinctions and he sale groupe Clase in hs sone of the ‘word would be contrasted tothe orn of aubetivelysalet evaloation (elgion ethnic, gender and soon that may Rave einai dimensions butarerot cenaliy defined in economic terms Life Chances Perhaps the mott prominent question in contemporary sociological such for which ass offered as part the answers ts what eps Ineualtes in fe chances and material standards of Uving? This quaton plays olin one way or another, i wry all sproacos to class nals Iisa move complex and demanding question han te ist ques {ion about ditebutiona lesion, for here the see sot simply desi {ely locating people within some kind of sytem of steatiiation, but ‘enlying causal shechanarns fat help detertne alent etre ofthat sytem, When class sod fo explain Inequality, pial the concept ‘ot defined primarily by subjectively sie’ toutes of social oeation ‘atsather by the elontip of ape fo inome erating resources ase fof vrious ote, Claes hue bacon elton rather han simply grade ‘oa concet in this wage, clases contrasted tothe many her determi rontsofa pero ifechancesforexample,geograpca location fons (of discrntnaton anchored in escipive characters, o gene endow ‘ments. Geographical leat, discrimination, and genetic owen182 Saal hs How Dost Wok? ‘may, cous, til igure inthe analysis of clas—they my, for oarle, plsy.an important oe explsning why dllerent sas of poope end up [dren cane othe fect le locaton on fe chances may ary ‘ross such eripivecatgories—but the definition of las Such com {erson how people are linked to those income generating assets "The pena ie chances closly Inked othe normative farue of quality ofopportnty. Avery broly held view in beralsoietes st ‘neque in mater rewards and satus are nt in end of themselves ‘monly objectionable ao longa ndliduals have equal opportunity for [theving these reward, Ths ieee is expecially salient in tern of iter generational mobility to what extent do duldrebom ino flies of ferent economic standing have equal opportunites succeed ie? but {Kalo bears on sues of inta-generatonal opportnities. Equality of ie ‘hance, therefore, sa background normative ea in discussions of lass Sradeterminant of ile hanes. "The base night of cls analyse of fe chances icaptared by this for mula hat youve determines whet yo pet This leaves cpen however, the range of eources esas hat ac included under "what You have” ‘nd he kinds of outcomes hat are ince in "what you get" Of las theorists who fous on fle chances, Pete Bourdieu 198) cesly has he ‘most expansive notion of reeoures and the broadest conception of le ‘hance in Bourdieu ss anal theelevant resources for answering the life chances question include financial sete (apt the oriary ene, sks and knowiedge (or whats fen called ura capital) an, ‘ost citncsely what he calls caltucl epi Bourdu also has quite ‘expansive notion a the scope ie chances relevant 0 cls analysis fe benches not imply mater standard of ivi in he arrow econo ence it ale chante forthe sym evards tha are cuca fret hing neque socal tats For Boule, than fe chances or both ‘ale gods and symbolic slats ae determined bythe elabonship © thes thee forms of apt Mars incontrast dps tenatrowest ve tory ofreourer relevant tothe queston. Atieast nhs relatively sytem salscusions of as theonl asetsthat realy matter or defining eas ‘ncaptlist society are capital and abo ower Weber sass anya betwen these wo, fore ike Bourdieu, explcly ices sls asa dis tineive hind of resource at shapes market npociter snd has ie chances ina market soc. Antagonisms and Conflicts ‘The fourth question of iat analysis add further complet othe under Tyan enplanatoryfancon of the concept of clase what lavage nso tysptematicaly generate overt antagonism and confit? Like the third ‘qestion, this qustion suggests concep of ease closely Linke othe Legs Cae Aaa 503 ‘causes of inequalities in economic opportunites, but hare the concept tempt to identify those aspects of economic inequaliy tha, by geneea- ingot only difeences in interests at antag fiers ter ope tte overt confit For hls question, asses wouldnt be defied sinply bya commonalty ofthe condos that generate economic opportunites, Duly dhe spose clusters of common conditions that ire tend pitpeople aginst each oer in the pursl of those epportniia, Clas here would be contrasted, on the ot hand, with noneconomic sources ‘of soda deavage suc a religion oretniciy—and, onthe her han, ‘with onclase frm of econaniclsvage, suchas ec seo ot ge ‘saphiclregion Ths qustion abou the ba of configures especialy prominenty InuheMarast teditlon although ss alo plajsa role in explaining oo ‘confit in non Marit theoretical tation, Weber ety ses Ces ‘potential bai for confit, but he explicly meets any cai that there Isaniaherenttendany forclaselationsto generate vert conics, Mars, {ncontat sw confit as on intinslconsajuene of lass lations, Tas ‘oes not imply tht Marx sw explosive cas confi ara contan fate of epi soity, but he certainly di beleve, that capita soc ‘ties would be characterized by recurrent eplaodes of intnge struggles ‘generated by antagoistic class interest, and second, that thee would be 2 otemadc tendency fr these episodes tote over ne ‘Wien oneo! the ental questions of cssanalyiisexpaiing conte, concept “oxpotation” is kaly to playa parclarly important role Foran and most neo Marvin, his concepts elaborated in ers the process tvough whch labor ello is appropriated from one class by [nother In Aage Sorenson's (205) approse to class explotaton is lab tated in terms of the proces rough which economic rents are extracted. Inbots case, conics of ners arena rested a contingent properses ‘of caesbut ater aresconaxbull int the very structure of Gast eons Historical Variation ‘Theith question of as analyse comers ona broad macrolevel problem: bwahoul we characterize ane expisin the variation scoas history nthe Socal organization of economic inequalities? Tas question inp the ‘eed fora macrolevel concep er than simply a mlero level concept thatcaptoresthe ol proceres of inaivida ives an requires acon ‘opthat ellows for macrlovel vasitons seo tne and place Tis quer tion plays an especially cent roe in bth the Mast and Webern tritins et te wo tadton test the problem of Mitral variation in qit diffrent way ‘Within the Marist wadion the most igaleant aspect of historical ‘arasonninoguality hoe economic ystems vary inthe man ihexon surpass proues nd epopriae. Capitalism in these ems, ‘contested to feudal on thebestof the speaiemechasts through ‘which exploitation fakes plce. In capitalists occurs through the ways Iwi labor meriets enable propertles workers tobe employed by Bpltaisand epitalste’ con ere the Ir process enables them pproprate lsbor eff. rom workers. I feudal, contrast, the sur Phas sexta fom serfs through the dec execs of corcve power Eyre: Both ofthese ways organizing economie lations consti se strcturesbecnuse bath are ufone appropriation the econo ‘Splasbysmexploting cas but hey ae quately diferent because ‘lhe prea by which this scoped For Weberians in contrast the cenral problem of historical variations thereaie slot diferent orm of aay especialy lass nd tats Inthese ers thecrteat const becween capitalism and feudalism isnot between or types of clase stuctres but beeen a society within which ‘ns the fttdamental base of pwter and inequality and a society ‘ohn which tat is the fundamental ais. Wil lass dd exit [edalism—sinee eda did contin markets nd thus people engaged in marke exchanges with ferent eure and market capcies—the url system ws subordinled to thesia order, ana twos he ats ‘ede that most andamsentaliy determined the edvantages ae disdva tages of lors ana bers. Emancipation “Themost controversial question aks b soi erst for which assis ah portant pr ofthe anew this wot srt of wasfoations ce peated netic conn oppreson ar explain wn apa isos? Tisquestn mpi oot ply anerplnatery agenda ben the mechanisms tat genes economic egulites buts ormaive Judgment abut those nequaliier"tey are Tors of oppression and Colston’ and a nonnative wien ofthe transformation of hose ‘flguluce spurt of pall poet of emercptory socal charg. “the Ste qucton iat | elev mest fndamentaly anchor the Marust appro tos unseen insesech othe thr core gue {one wid parle sth mearnsii the Mapas ton athe {nla of the Maran esancpaoy genda, Be probit histor “araton eludes yirgtoundesand posable forms secl ae {cro wihin which fe expltiaon anc oppression oat cls ree tons have been elinnued. The fstoral yarn flvan to ss Sra ts evolve rund th cones tingly tte eaptam leads an mpsclobcrabe stor forms oda eatons, Buta beneen cpa snd hypothe! comers (aderood Sstnepaaran can sc) Sunday wh apc tthe problem Logs Cae Aries 535 fla conf characterizing the antagoniicinteretsembudded in class ‘stone as “exploitation” and “oppression” suggest but the cons [enwated by thwe elaine iavelve luce of socal usc, not simply ‘orally neuzal material interes, Within te road agenda of Marist Clase analysis, therefore, the concep of cle contributes othe crique of ‘spas socety ater dan just to description and explanation, ‘wnulecass analysts generally adressmorethan onecf thse qustos, Aierent theoreti traditions of cas anal give diferent weight 1 ‘ache! the questions within ths inventory. The Webern aditon of lass ‘Stays stost tightly organized around the problem ff chances and Istoncl variation. Bourdiw' las anal also cantly concerned ‘vith He chance but it gives mach se weight itor variston and ‘ore to the problem ofthe eubjective boundaries of ase. Marit lass Snalyse ir anchoed inthe problem of eanepation, historia vation, Sid dat confit the problem of fe chances enters the analysis many == ‘beer on thee other questons. These diferent configurations of ques tons n tr, place diferent heoreial demands onthe concept of as. ‘Nconcepthats called on o map broad Mistral Variations in socal sue ‘eres wellae variation cross person fe chance italy tbe gute ‘Aiferent fom » concept that fnetione mainly on the tela a subjeeve iaentity and ie eae ecneof the ideologically charge character of many of the debates cover as lteative frameworks of ins analy often opp to bes tle comps, sch tying to serait supporters and defeat opponents Stade ners in lass analysis Uo el hat they have to make ‘choice and adopt one or another of thexe approaches the exclusion of| ‘ters, Bt theca that there various approaches ae orgarizod round diferent mies of anchoring questo, the, depending onthe pect empirical agenda, diferent frameworks of cas analysis may pro ‘ie the best onceptal ment, One enn bes Weberan in the morn fr {heey of claw maby 2 Bourdieusn nthe afternoon for the Std oF {he lass deersigant of fesyles, ancl 1 Marian in the evening fo he eluqueof apts ‘Ailsurvey of esearch on soil ass and how twovks would inte tics anchored in allo hese question. A ental theme could then be thw serch sround one st of questions might ifsence the ideas and ‘agendas of other questions Underntanding the tre Vtationsin dass ‘Stucares and the dynamic of cass conics, for ample might change they one studies healer prosescesthat shape individual ie chance, for these macro questions woul highlight the ways in which the oppert nites avaiable to sdvidunte depend nos jason tho oven attbutes an Sirsumstances but on the characer of the strates within which ey live Equally fllaccount of les confit ana eect an transforclas strctres shouldbe informed by our understanding of the miro jrocencs thet shape individual fe canes, ince the intr and ine [enerational pattern of individual mobility are key tobe important ‘Bernina ofthe by of ystems of inequality ae the prospect for ‘lective setion challenging thaw inequalities fe wanttorealy under ‘Sand “how cass work css needs fo be explored a the macro 3 ell {Simicro levels analysis aubjetively a wells objectively, satay as ‘rele dynam. ‘The contbutions to this volume, however, neal all evolve around only one ofthe sv ae nay qtons how ean we explain variations Iinfechances in contemporary Amescan society? hiss pethaps not sur [using since ths question has bean such a preocupation of American Exclogy Thereof course, nating rong in esearch ocsingonanar- ‘owe ofthe ul iventory of clas anal questions, and the problem tf ineualies in fe chances inked to asi estan a sale se | Dothscelologcal and moral rounds. Nevertheless, with such raced ger the ener scene inthis book presents only a parti under ‘Eng of the overarching theme of how cae werk eu to eau {Resto of hs ition in the conclsion otis chap. ‘Mechanisms “ile the ste in ths book are maialy concerned with aspects ofthe problema cass and lfechances hay dr in the Kind of ile chances with ih ey ae concemed (hath, sca inclsion, economlc oper) Ud the pec cous machen they sce as cena o deter those lie chances Inthe broader sooolgia erate on class and fechances, thee custesof ens meni can be distingushed:-mecharisms an spec tote ways in ch ape! fe coins ed iia ttre {enerte lines inthe ver ondviduasy mechanisms connected sey of ors of srl cre tat give some individuals and groups Aciantagesn sce fo resources and opportuniesby vite af the exch Slomof oes and mechanisms inked othe ways which individals and {groups beni fom hei ay to contol hace thers These hee Fosters of mechan can be referred fo 38 lase-baced naval atti tutes and condigors classed gpportunty hoarding and dassbased ‘omisation and exploitation. Seataton research in Ateican sociology iS most closely asoiaed withthe First ofthese mechanisms, Weber incpred approsches fo clase and inequlty with the econ and Mans flac snl with the thir All te chapters inthis book include some ‘dacunion ofthe ist of thee listers of ext mecanlams afew ofthe Include some analysts of te scan none of them inctdes the id In rat falows examine the logic of each ofthese sus mechani and locate the various contributions in this book with respect fo these spprosches, then indicate how the thes logis canbe combined into a tore comprehensive framework of ca ra, Individual Attributes and Life Conditions Among both socologsts and he ay publ the principal way mast pe ‘Br dtd he eet of caso le hanes nn terms onal Ebates andifecondtons People have ll srs ofiniduaatiibutes, cas ex race rligon,ntlgence income, weal eduation and geo pha loetion. They have same ofthese tbs fom but ther ibaa are scqired but once acguted are very stable and stl oters tre quite dependent upon s penne ape coal con 9 en poblin ting andy sccrdogy change, Tse atirbutes ee conseguen- alo various tinge we ight want expan from health to voting tehvoro cil rearing paces “Clan then ina concept at covers ‘hoof hae ther unter of hem "thin ths yl of class analysts, mort research revolves round 60 nds of menos tarough nach im ithouphta have cnsequeness forpeop's vo: nudes and sve eet of varios Inet thee mectanims cetain ngs appento you by ve of your dase, that shape your fein enduring ways Clan-baed experience Tnude expences ete fasting and eseurties of ooking or 1b the preures win wrk oma ose andthe sign reaper and lerspet one receives from lus markers in various contexts, The ee nd mechanism concerathe diferent opportunities and choices people {Soebyvitucof he resources hey en cepoy mao acon howag te educational choices are affected by wealth constraint aving and itvetingopporonites sn afced by dsctelonary income and are {Fring hace ore acted by work an ine constrains In ape {own for th causal logic ofthese Kinds of ln processes usted infgure 1.1 ‘When te Sud fis ae naqualy isanchore in ese invidual- lkvlprocess the degre of wonomic eget nase seen manly {Safunon ofthe degree of regal ne dterbuon of these nv {stb and conitone Al sts of things determine bow peple [cgi theseccmomlaly retreats acl many of ese re 0 incharacter, sucha he chi ering orn a ferent communis, th er prencin tools al equa ofthe sheng ele Bui et Ue cone ns approchtonequaiy tat there sre sexi eu necon- nections betwee te sures and affuence foo andthe ae and dep Tato of ters I has eer to is pproch a the oa tebe ic cnditons approach not becnsygroes al socal determina, Fitbecaue he relevance f scl determinate vay works Owough the tray ty shape the characters of nv‘gure 114ThelndividulAtsbuternd Life Conions Approach to ler and ingen egcsof Clas Aralysis 5 Figue112__The Opportunity Honing Approach o Cat and negli ecko Ciscoe Leek often ciate | —remset tng ina ‘hiss roughly the dominant stance taken by qeanstative sociological _ecearch on ies in the United Sates, particularly bore the 1970s, Tt even today sil The central ies ofthe Feenrch are that ame tobe own as Sool statisti” isthat we con understand the distribution tf anequal eronomi sates by understanding how individuals come 0 ‘equi ther status, Given tha conome tats and reward re mainly Segue through employment in pa jobs, the central thrust of most ‘estar ims bene doeeinants finial costo ocupations ane ‘mings The elaborate "state staient modes of his esearch ation thas have ocnsed onthe procs which pple eu the etre, mate ‘atonal aed educational resources they rt aque he poston nthe [Sotem of sesieation mainly trough the way Bese esouees afc thr {hry nto pb ough the labor marke Litleas een sid about the eter- trans ofthe eit siti ents that people ceupy ‘Clas analyst in bh its Webern ane Marsan vanans adopts very sere sitegy for understanding systems of equality Rater that Focusing mainiy on the proses by which individual resorted int pos ‘Non ceseamalyss opie byanalying the mature of and etons mong ‘heal pion lt which peoplearesorted Both Weberanand Mars ‘hos analfsis see the reuling pattems of inequality as deeply stuctred ‘year connectons among tse positions Opportunity Hoarding “The Weberantradon emphasizes he proces by which various mech ‘engof exon and sure are ulin occupational postions (athe flea sexed inthe cnt anajss of Pitre Bourdie). The central logic of this appooch wacheraialy presente in gare 112 ‘Supedally,stmightesem hat herelsscat ference between cstain individual ttobutes that give people enfanced opportunities end mech ‘smethat enable people to monopolie opportu. Consider higher ed ‘tio for example shoud this be nderstood asc that simply rowerramtene | [Soaatcuewe) [Ural a an aoe [disadvantaged Confit SEE. [aay |_ lente we cea seis | [i Srereconomie, | [among sal coco | | mare | Ei] (ere Psorrrersy makes person's labor more productive and thas valuable, os higher ‘uatlon amc of lure trough which people aul cre ‘denis ht ectively rei cess wo eran nds obs nthe coe ‘omy? They difference here haf the casa proce derived sly ‘fom invidual atte, then the wel being and opportunites of nd ‘idle are independent ofeach lhe, 50 enhancing, the educstion— ‘dead as human capllaof people with ite man pti 20 ‘way adversely ates people who already have higher level of education slike aving vo mbsistnce farmers on adjcen ential plots ofan, ‘Gov fwhonn knows lotabou farming and the other ie, wt te oul thatone has ch teat and the oer litle. Increasing the knowledge of the poor farmer wil improve tht farmers producti, and ts life ‘Gus, without anyway seducing the wel eingof the more prosper ‘Sus fener Inte stcly indvidual tbe approach elas,» person ‘who ends up poor har defi in the relevant incor generaing indi ‘a atrbutes uch 8 education; person who ends up rch has high lew ‘of thes same atibutes: The socal relation betnveen the ich person an the por pert doesnot enter ims the explanation: the poor ae not poat because of vat the rich do to became ich, but ater becase of het eft inthe vlevant atte that would enable them slot achieve Higher stases The agree of inequality us primary function of te inequsly in shove attribute, and remediation In these dficts would duce poverty without any way undermining the wllaze af he car renllyavantage. Inconrat one mechanism by which higher education gnerteshigh consmc sanding i opportunity hoarding then there its real cael Interdependence between the advantages of ne group and the dssdan- {ages of another, an tae mprovementsin thelr areatheet othe fo ther High education generate igh income in part beer i enhances productivity but also becnice there are rertictons ofthe supply ofhghly| | sunt people Credentising, edison procedures, tution oss sk Sverige loans, and soon allbiock aces thigh eduction. and {hs benef those with higher edveaton Ira masiveeffre was made 0 Improve the human capa of tote with tle aman capt Hs would ‘eal sendor the ua capo hose with high man capil ess val ‘Sl fre value depends toa signicant extent on oscar, ‘Cedentling sr lensing septic important mecarsms for ‘oppor stdin, but any oer intial devies have bern wed {test ccs Io given types of bs color bars, mariage bars gender ‘xcusons, clare ental rei fr acess an soe. Private Property ‘ght the mera of production are ls form of excsion and close {dace central determining access the jb" ofeapiait When wore ‘ratte fo takeovers factory and sun i fhemeeve, they ae lating this procs of cosareby challenging teirexchason from conta over he Ineans of production. The capacity of owes to appropriate prods Alepends onthe dfers ofthis xsi, which weeal"propecty rights.” “The coe cas division within Maris between exptlits and woekars fn theeore be understating a spec form of epportity Ioanding enone bythe egal aes of peopety ght. "These rerio forms of laure, se Ange Sorenson (2005) has empha- sian in his analysis of das, systematically generat a Now of rents 0 Incumbents of auch jobs, and these ren contribute signlcantl to the ‘over feves of inequality ina sce, n these terms, the vantage of People insuch rene appeopeaingjbedependion the nus processes ht Excde others fom aces those jobe. nay lo be he case, as outlined Inindiidoaisic approaches to mequliy, that iddal tributes help xpin rho actualy gine seca such ent appropristing postions, but iseualites in individual atibtes lone do mae adequately explain the resulting inequality. The inequality is cucally shaped by telecine ‘ofthe exclusionary machanoms, and in ths sense the prosperity of te ‘dvantaged cuslly depends on the exclusionary mechan tal con Isbute tothe deprvstions ofthe disadvantged ‘The idea of opportunity Hoarding Isat the center of Max Weber's approach fo te sadly of se and ale informs the work of soclogis, Uke Frank Pakin (971), Anthony Giddens (1979), and Chases Tly (159), whos work draws envy onthe Weberan train, Pere Bourdieu ocu on ela capital an the mechanisms of clas dition sn dlamentaly concerned with socal osure and opportunity hoarding 35 ‘vel Thier ao acetal heme in class analyses hat focus on social et ‘work achannes or the dsennaton of information and other ins of {sources Socal network andtheclorly connected idea focal capil, Confer advantages to people in the network precisely because they ve their momibere privileged aces fo tesoutces and information tn all of these cues, as genera sfc not simply ehough Hh taut of 7 Logs f Clas Ames 341 ‘Tble111 The Relea Sel lations in Ditoret Lagi of Gs Anaya igs of Class Ais Condon ie__EonamieAtiiee Indios onelatns ‘Nena prorat hosding laos Nene Dominion andespotton Resor Relator ove: Aur omg individuals but elo dough the sock elations within which those nd ‘ial ve and interact Dorwination ad Exploitation ‘Marsa las alysis takes the rlational interdependency of Weborian | ‘Gus analyst one tp further by denying expatation a on ain ‘Shusl process hat generates Inequality na relation of exploitation, ‘ot sinply the eee hat one group obtain rents by monopelaig ella ‘meouros or postions. adn, the exploiting group i able to conta the aboring efor of ancer for town advantage. Consider teflon Ingelase contrasting nes In the first ase, large landowner seize core trl of emma grazing lands, exces peasants fom galing ozs to this land, aed sepa enor ens from having exluve contol o is land forils own ue. nthe second cso the same landlord seize control ofthe grazing lds, exces the pest, but then brings some of hase ess bck on te aed gel aborts Inthe econ case [lion to gang rent rom the monopoly of he Ian he landosener dominates an epithe abo ofthe aren workers. Tha sronger form of eatin! nerdependency than a vation a slnpleexchsion, forhere heer an ongoing eatonship between the actor ofthe advan ‘aged and dlsavantaged perso, not just areationshipbetveen theca ‘ons. Exploitation ane domination ae forms of stature nequalt that ‘Smulansualy eu the coil ative cooperation between expos tnd exploited, deminators and dominated, and generates systematic ‘ntagonisms oftheir interes. Ths contrast inde cleo oll relatons| twin the logis cas nals susnmatized in table 111 "The donation an exploitation apposch ols Serepeesnte in Bg ture 11.3. Like the opporsanity onrding approach, power and legal ules ‘hat enforce sonal urea inportant in defining the basi state of ‘cial postion, partially the potent form of socal lure and exch ‘Son we call "private ownership ofthe mean of production" But here the12 Sac ln How Dost Work? gute 113 _ The Domlsaton an Espleitaton Approach FRowerinione | [Sosalcoewe] [tecaionwitin fdicgaeu | [me ficrcaoncct Titeke pple Ffonponiy Foes! | Iconator feteciveconel | Jhewtng” | |ectnescnin | | rdeton verecnamic | | mongsoda | | Esa = pene Fave Aesop, «ral eect of opportunity hoarding is domination and exploitation, ot imply market advartage Inboth Marks and Weberlanngplred ass analysis, power paysan sexporant oe Te Inequalities generated by closure and ent prop ation require the wse of power fo erdorce exclusions, and exploitation eure tuperision, monitoring of aor elo ad sanctions to enforce Inbor discipline, Accordingly, theevel ofnequalty depends in sigficant ‘wayson the effectvenes of pltcl sruggle against te social uct ‘BatSor power and pete. This simpy becase there 2er-sum {ual fo ditibuional struggles, bat beesuse a sartainable reduction ‘Stinequality equres transformations af the underlying mechanisms of ‘iclason, domination, and explain, ln his way, lee analysis so ‘anol snply an ancy te tetra mache tht generate ae tsa nequaly but acrtiqu ofthe soil nstsason that embody those mechani ‘The Contributions ofthis Book and the Logics of Class Analysis Most ofthe ontbutons this bok anchor ther snalysisin some version | Othe individual atibutes ae fe conditions approach to cass and {nequaly with ocssonal discussions of opportunity hosing. ico Hout chaperimainyconcered wit sera between| ‘various aspets ofthe objective economic ondions of individuals Hives {nd ther subjective idencaton with socal sees. There Sno explicit ‘iscusion about the soll stuctural relations hat bind these condions| together. ‘David Grasky and Kim Weeden ground thelr analysis ina comprehen sive ist of le conditions tha akan together, “adequately characterize {he maltidimensona space of noqualty* Whe thar are places where ‘hey alow processes ofsocal cloareto pay erolein te analyls~socia Lopes fine Ants 368 closure, for example, sone posible mechanlem tha could explain the fxatence and reproduction of micro iaeeee opportunity hoarding ig Ute innelther ther conceptuaizationafclas nor dzecty in ther analy- rot clases. John Galdborpe and Michal Jackson's chapters devoted oa critique of ine of earch that i ecole ndvialt in Hs approach ad frgues foram incresingly"mertocrai®system of stratification in hich {Re soliton of eluctonal credentials strict determined by aby tint foe and the sequiston of econami oppure i sity deter ‘mined by education Insuch world, hee would benorolefor power and ‘ication as mechanisms Calthorpe and Jackson are mainly concerned ‘wih empiraly evaluating the predictions of the increasingly popular Iertocrcy theory and show these tobe unsallsactory. One of ter ce tral pani shat these tea varity of "sof skein o Bourdie's ide of etal capitat—that are transmitted trough fares and that Severely undercut the posites ofa talent-based, educationally con- Strued nestocracy. Sts, leat ls bevome emboxie in per {em individual atibutes that shape his her opportniis and fe tances ‘Annet Lareavand Eliot Weininge’schapter onclasand child easing phases he ways in which muddle clas fabs have clr on {aon io cil rearing tht leads them ystematal to help thor chron ravigate the complex proses of appying to calle, whereas working ‘Shs and poor fatale rely on schoo! personnel o gle ther uldeen {vough this process. Given the admits rules and standards of ac omic institutons these clr ortations inked to das gniarly ‘Mle hlden's prospects, There is nothing exphitn the nal how? ‘her tt suggest he fat of chien om one lass seus inked tothesttegies of parents in another cas ‘alton Coney analysis of parental investmentsin siblings alo centers ‘onthe problen of individual cls tributes an tel sequton His pur- ps ito demonstrate that the nivale conaltons of people grow Fgupshould not be assume tbe thesameforalthecilen i amy, ‘dice parents may not teat bing equally. The specs socal content of famille therefore, con resltin iferentaleibutes and resources ofr fread ths thei fe chances. ‘Kary Lacy and Angel Harr’ chapter onthe interactions of ace and clas in patterns of sociztion of black adolescents sees a particularly Salen spect of individual aibuterthe form of radial understanding ‘Se int esong black youth ar voryng seros clas contexts Thishas "glfcntimpileatons for thir ife canens ofr ab affects her ease of finctoningin the broader sce) [Unt McCall explicly identifies her approach to clas with individ Ince ether in ems onic earings fal income) ater‘an with anything about the nature ofthe postions they occupy as such She suggets hat charges in patens of Inequality among women are ‘deeply connected o change inthe opportunites women fae the bor ‘market and that such changes opportunity probably ivolve changes in {fendond patente of exluion and opportunity boarding (rough mech ‘isms of gender discrimination in various forms), but she dows no tet ‘aes inequality act an problem of soil desure “Ae ote chapters adoptin pt orn whe the opportunity boarding approach to clas While Jef Mara and Clem Brook's chapter on cas Sra politics is mainly concerned ith the ells of Individuals’ clas ‘tributes on thelr pola beavir(particpation, voting, party pref ‘nce, pat of thet analyse ale focuses onthe statics used by but snsees nd sly individuals to secure preg through the polite Proce, These of campaign financing tnflvencepoteans sn polit En paris one aspect ofthe Inger problem of opportunity hoarding incaes analyse. [Richard Crpian Bruce Link, and Jo Phelan’s analysis of class and health and Mary Piles analysis of ree, cle, and eighbochoods te firmly located within the opportunity hoarding approach to das. {Cpiano,Linksand Phelan rst te notion that the heath efcte cles ‘abe enely inked othe babs or dispositions of people ving in die ferent class situations Rather, they argue lass postions enable some people to hoard health opportantis and ain acesto the best care ad {Ec bestiformation Thestestegies of people wth thee ler advantages {herefore adversely aft the heath outoomes ofthe disedvantaged Patio demonstrates that he clas advantages of etal kinds of eh boshoods ae the esl of deliberate sreteges of soil closure enacted by whites rather than simply the home-buying choices of indians. (pportnity oardingin this eave of desable aighboshoods—Is an ‘Seentnl pat of the explanation for the negative outcomes fr tore ‘xc. "None ofthe chapter inthis book adopt a domination and explotaton| approsch tons donot think that ths was heres of any idelogal ‘Ecenng or objection fo concepts of domination and exploitation, bet "thera eflecon of the general preoccupation of Anglo-American soil ‘pit staying cass withthe problem of the micro determinants of ida Lie chances rather than the macro determinants of systems of Inequlty, power, and priviege. On the bas of he sais in ths book, ‘one would not understand tha clases systematically itera with och ‘ther in waysin which ener of one des exer contol ver aspecs ‘ofthe liver and cts of members of another le. The unequal Me ‘hance ink to lee ae not part of system of nterdopendeny a Interaction st mon they reshaped by eclsions of various sorts, but nat ‘by forms of nerdependency. Legs Che Araya 3S Elements of a More Comprehensive “Macro-Micro Model of Class Processes ‘To summarize he analysis 0 far, he chasers of ausal mechanisms are involved in the las nal of ie chance: 1. Indo atiutes and if conditions The microlevel mechanlsins Haka othe win which individuals acqlre economically relevant ‘sours adits and the ways in hic these nv utes {nfloence acess to postions and oer economic oatomes 2 Opportunity mrdng: The machaisms by which boundaries and exh ‘Son are inked tothe postions led by individuals, thus generating poteial ets and shaping distbutona conits 2. Exlitioe an domination The mechanisms inked othe power re ton among positon tat allo or the domination and exptaton flaring acti ths shaping conics within production ‘White esac typi focuses on one o another of these thre = ters they areal pertinent to fll understanding af das and inequality. {The parla paterns of nequalty weabeerveempincaly result rm he pie fume of interaction among these mechani The Sorell {asks o think through the diferent ways in which these mechanism ate linked and combined: the empiri tasks to igurout ways to study each ‘mechanism and thelr inferconnections, One pesible need micromacro ‘dels llurtated schemata in igre IL Inthe model the power rations ae legal ules that give people effec: ‘sveconol over ecnomlc sours means production fnanealcpil, {ind human captal) generate srctures of socal closure and oppor hoarding connected fo socal postions. Opportunity honing, then go ats thee sna of causal effects it shapes the micro level processes trough which incividuals acquiteclaserelevant struts it shapes the rte fection within market elon (occupations nde) ene Stroated dsiibuional cones andi shapes the steuctre of relations Within production, especially rations of domiationand explain and Theaseacnted conics within production. Theis ese causal streams, in tum shapes the Sows of people into the das leations within the mare tet and production. Joely the clase atrbutes of invite an hae las otons defined thin the market nd production ae thie ‘te of indivi economic wellbeing This picture, ven asa scheme simplfcation isin oe cal respect fundamentally wet tents power feations ane nattional rls asFigure 124 Combine Clas Anais: Macro and Mio Processes Logis cfs Ais 347 FRguents The DynanieMac Mode ent ta + mete exogenous tractus, whereas in fac these asc power relations ar the= Seives shaped by das process andl claeeconfics. Why dows Wis mater? Ttanaters becase structures of inequality are dynam systems, and he fate of individuals within te syste depends nt jt on the mrrdevel [processes they encounter in the lives baton the jest of the ster [Esa whole wilin which those mir processes occur Treating the under Iping power relaone that support a given structure of cas locations 8 aed parameters deeply misleading aed contributes to the incorrect view that he ate of india implysfancson of tele tebutes andr ‘ial ctcumances What we ned therefor sadyamic macro mode, ‘piste in highly simpli form in figure 5. ‘Phe recusive qual ofthe inkages among power, locations, confi and individual outcomes becomes obvious Ia periods in which dramatic Cllective challenges tothe ues cur, Consider, for example the adsl {fansfocnation ithe cil ighsers of the posts relsons and legal rules that governed acl patterns oppor hoarding in the United Sats ‘The conics generated by thee facallzed forms of oppor Boarding =] sa se _ = 2] SK _ aK ees S< oo a itis transformed the power eations and ea ues tha sustained uch opportunity hoarding The ie chances fan Alen Areccan bor In 980 pended not singly on ther processes within 2 xed suc thee but alone trajectory of transformations structure generated, input by the conflicts produced by that sacar. Rill caborted ens nasa then, combines his Kind of dyramic macro model withthe macrosmizo mulive ode, These models ink the lus analysis questions aout Ie chances with the question about ‘ls confit and strc warn. In such model the key isights of “Srascation approaches, Webrlan approaches snd Marist approsches ‘recombined Conclusions ‘Cas analys, anchored in these three clusters of causal mechanisms and the dynamic model of macro processes oles a wide-ranging agenda for essuchanddhoratcal development Intent yar, alestin he Une States thee seems to have been some wrung a intrest inthe macro Structral question of clase confi and Historical variation inked | problems of power, exeluslon and exploitation and a return tothe more rcelevel concer with individual fe conditions, abuts, and Le ‘hances esc with the atiention wadton of esearch Most fhe ‘plein the vue fellow hs base logic of nas.oa 348 Seal ise How Dos it Wark? This retreat within sociology fom eful-bodi class analy n pst, reflection of broader theoretical tends in social ecence inked to the {scendancy of eolasselexnomies thinking The nocassiel economic “nalyisof inequality typically as two central components Theft the ‘de Bat i expt market economy inv are pid on thesis of thor preduatity; thus i everyone's predutvty goes up everyone ‘ams more and Finoqualtesn produetiviy across people are ee, ‘negulty ta economic condition are reduced. The only important prob. Jem simproving the human capital howe at the bottom oft hel p> duct wil increase, The aesumplon here is tat raising the hua ‘pit of people tthe Bottom automaticly infures the cestlon obs {hat wil productively wie at uma capital There fen recognition of ‘he ways in which he structure of jobs i shape by power reaions and scceas 0 well-paying jobs ir structred by sree of sca lua and ot simply the human capital of invite looking fro. To the extent ‘hat thsi thecase and opperunty hoarding remains potent expesion| ofpowerreatons simpy nceasing education tthe bottors wil Benoa Selene deamatealy reduce veral evels of nequaliy. "The second component ofthe acs excnomies alysis fnequal ltyisthe idea that economic growth the surest vay of improving the ives of people whe for whatever reason are disadvantage itn marke, “The attempt by the late to counteract the inequalies generated by the forces ofthe market creates such neclences the argument cs ht al imately thshurts everyone, and thas redictrbaton a sel-efeating proj ‘ct Poverty cannot be countered by politely challenging expats ‘nd wealthy eis but atherby reducing the Fetes on ther reedom 0 Investand make money Class conflicts ae counterpoductive, workers Should embrace win cooperation with her employers let he ‘marke ote magic These lam gnore the ways in which porery and Inequality serve the interes of powerful elite becuse of the nk between theiradvantages and the process of exploitation and domi tion. So lng as that power Is unchallenged, den the fats f economic {rowth are unlikely tbe distributed in ay tat would deesatally duce inequalities ‘Socologis should sharply counter these arguments While of course, themuero level procesesby which people seqlreclaerelevan atte, especialy human capa matter, the solution fo poverty and inequality ‘Should ot focus simply’ on eemedition of hase cect. Poverty and ‘naqualty re anchored in macro relations of opportunity Bowing dott Inaten, and explain, and thus serous challengs o poverty requlres 2 saris challenge to privlege and power. The narrow fos on ic processes obscures thls nacesniy Its the sesponsilty of seilogical {las analysis tolanty theme ofthese fnemental tacts and con Tribute othe challenge egcsofCha Amys 397 Notes 1. Pato he ston re dwn en Weight 05, 2 The proses of ory taneminin of curl capital explored bh the Glderpe and acon copie rl th arena Wenge captor on ‘kobe eared asa pec em opp na as ren rt itl heatbiengete nones Hower thot ‘pies cance ih he rays inch pers dpe ot {ss these xeon and mare oeaed on he ansequce ofthe slang ‘ator nivale. The orignal paper hat Michel out presente tthe NYU conference victor inbred conned un nen duo of cel Tanstp bare th cessing wath of the top ot Aeron eomome ‘te gnaton ing nt ae ne eng ory ‘ths otiom Hesrged tint nth pero re wa esr et ‘Proce he enn ap aul mst esol beep el Tiga ince in taro scl proc ert bythe ghar ‘produto the lnbr of ose inte mide and boom oe natn [Sacer tap That nays verted an epiaton and domiation Spyro tocrbut we droped a theo 4+ Foceumplnompi uh i ernpseterey oee enw 208, ping Andee (1950 and Prewors (58). References Sours, Pe: 1986. Disintn. Camige, Maas Haran University Pes. ping Andeen Cnt 19 The Tie Were Wire Caption Cambie Poly Pe ident Anny. 1978 The Cas Stereo he Abad Scte, New Yr Harper: Keri Lane 2D galt Cpt New Yor: asl ag Foundation, Sv att ity Oar: Oar Univer Pre kn Fe 1971 Cas pay Pail Orr Se Yr: Page Presor, Adam 1985. Colao Sul Denooney Cambridge Cabri ‘aiverty Pree Serena Age 305. Foundatonof Rent Bad Cs Alyssa Aprons hos tn iby rk igh Cage Canisge Urey ‘ly, Chases. 196, Dura, Cambridge Cambrdge Univer Prec ‘Wag re Oi, 508" Cle athe Aner, What the Gueson™ tn ypc Cla Ait dil by ik On Weight Cade Cami: ent ee