the

The
Earthbuilders’
Encyclopedia
second edition

The Master Alphabetical

Reference for Adobe
& Rammed Earth

by Joseph M. Tibbets
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Copyright © 1988, 2001

Southwest Solaradobe School

Southwest Solaradobe School

P.O. Box 153
Bosque, NM 87006

ISBN
0-9621885-0-7

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I
 The Earthbuilders’ Encyclopedia

Written and Illustrated by

Joseph M. Tibbets

Layout, Graphics, Editor

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II
 Earthbuilders’
Encyclopedia
Contents

Viewing and Printing

Disclaimer & Legal page 1

Alphabetical Entries pages 2 - 275

Access pages 276 - 284

III
Gallery pages 285 - 298
 DISCLAIMER and LEGAL

Construction and building sites are dangerous. Use extreme caution when designing or
building using information provided in the Earthbuilders’ Encyclopedia.
Drawings, photos and written material are for reference only and are not specified for an individual
project. The user must obtain a permit and/or engineering analysis before building. Codes
change over time and jurisdiction. It is up to the user to verify with the building inspector or
applicable authority that any practice described herein is allowed. Users should respect standard
safety precautions, including but not limited to adequate
scaffolding, footwear, head, eye and ear protection. The construction methods described have
been successfully used on sites within the United States and elsewhere. However, the author has
not personally verified every one and cannot guarantee claims or procedures made herein.
Plaster, lime, cements, asphaltic emulsion and other solvents and construction materials can be
highly caustic, causing allergies or reactions in some individuals. It is your responsibility to seek
medical advice before initiating work. Due to variabilities in human skill, building materials and
other factors beyond our control, SWSA and the author disclaim any liability incurred in connection
with the use of any or all of the data and ideas contained in this book. We have no control
over the quality of finish, solidity of structure, durability of product or performance of any system
described herein.

The Earthbuilders’ Encyclopedia is a copyrighted product, which is protected by international law

against unlawful duplication. Unauthorized reproduction, hiring, lending, public performance and
broadcast prohibited. The original purchaser of this CD-ROM is entitled to make a printout for
personal use. We encourage you to conserve resources, and view it on your monitor. Once you’re
actually building, print out a few key pages and nail them up at the jobsite.

1
 ADOBE The popular Spanish word for mud brick. It derives from the Arabic
al-tob, which dates from the time of the Moorish occupation in
Spain. The term adobe implies a puddled mixture, in which total
saturation of a clay-sand mix by water takes place. This means
saturation of the clay particles in the mix.

This is critical to the true definition of the word, because today the
use of the word adobe is applied to everything from artificially col-
ored concrete block to pressed earth blocks, in which total clay par-
ticle saturation may not take place.

Adobe then, means either the blocks that, (1) Contain the balance
of sand/clay necessary for a serviceable product, or (2) The mud
mixture itself, fully saturated by water. Adobe also means a house
or structure of adobe block.
A small adobe under construction by Robert
Barnes, architect, Tuscon, Az. Adobe is a natural, passive solar product, as opposed to both fired
Photo by Suzie MacGregor
brick and concrete block, which typically require great quantities of
ABLOBE™ A proprietary mud plastering technique, developed by natural gas in their kilning or curing. However, stabilized adobe does
architect Robert Barnes of Old Pueblo Adobe Co. in Tucson, Az. use more energy than does unstabilized, due to the processed sta-
A screened blend of soils is fed through a mud pump, water and bilizers that are added to the mix.
asphalt emulsion are added and mixed, and it is blasted onto the
wall surface. Besides adobe and rammed earth, all sorts of wall Adobe’s age is open to new discovery and debate. Ruins in the
types may be plastered. Barnes has developed a system in which a Middle East point to 6000 B.C. or earlier. In the Americas, Peruvian
thinner structural wall of adobe block is laid, onto which is attached ruins dating to 3000 B.C. reveal earth-block construction cast with
plumbing and wiring. Then a poly-net is stapled to the adobe block reed forms. The Mayans not only made adobe block prior to the
wall and the Ablobe is blasted on in structural layers about 2” thick. Spanish arrival, but fired it (see Adobe Quemado). However, the
The ultimate wall builds out to Arizona code thickness. indigenous people of what is now the U.S. Southwest were largely
unfamiliar with cast adobe block prior to the Spanish arrival.
ACTIVE SOLARADOBE An adobe structure that depends on
external power to operate fans or pumps that push air or water “Adobe” is a phonetically catchy word, leading to a peculiar uni-
for heating or cooling purposes, rather than passive solar design versal mystique. Its acceptance is growing as an adjunct to local
(south glazing, positive mass). However, the definition of ‘external’ usage, as in Australia, where it is now heard along with “Mud Brick”,
is changing, as on-site photovoltaic systems are now beginning to the accepted standard. In areas where it is seen as the building
provide the power. Generally, an active system is one that con- material of the poor, it may connote a negative image, especially to
tains moving parts as compared to a passive system, which has no those who have never lived in a code-built, professionally finished
moving parts. (see Solaradobe) adobe home (see Zoquete).
2

A more ornate Roman arch, in which four decreasing
sizes of forms were used to create a focus on the
entry door. Ties may be left between the adobes to
secure each set of arches to the next.
ADOBE ARCH Adobe arches are one of the oldest forms of
adobe wall building (see Adobe Vaults and Domes), dating back to
ancient times. All of today’s red brick arch shapes owe their origins
to the adobe which preceded them. In contemporary architecture,
they are popular for decorative reasons. They are also savers of
wood, as the use of an arch saves buying the wood lintel that must
span square cut openings, and often the wood door as well.
A typical roman arch form, constructed of plywood, with a
tempered masonite top. This one has a 36” base, or 18”
radius. Many window companies manufacture fixed units to
fit this size of opening.
A popular arch shape is the half-circle, or Roman arch. Masons
make the forms out of plywood or chip board. Two semi-circles are
cut, using a simple string radius, swung from the circle center and
scribed with a pencil. A jig saw is used to cut the circle, although on
the site a skill saw will work in a pinch, using many smaller straight
cuts. The two halves are separated with scrap lumber pieces, usu-
ally 2x6 or 2x8. A piece of tempered masonite may be wrapped
around the curve of the arch to provide a more even surface for the
adobes. At the bottom, the 2x6 or 2x8 scrap is blocked in to maintain
the separation and give the form added rigidity.
The form is placed on the adobe wall according to plan, and
shimmed. Typically, shims will raise the form an inch or so above
the adobe wall. This is vital, for if no shims are placed, the form will
be embedded in the wall, and may have to be chopped or sawn
out later. A rather stiff adobe mud is prepared. The mason
now begins the arch, and whatever is done on one side of 3
 out (do not lever them up or down!) and the form will drop. The form
is then gently pulled out from either side, revealing the completed
arch. The important thing to do at this point is to continue laying
adobes around the arch, as this will strengthen it. Adobes may have
to be shaved to fit the curve of the arch, especially for exposed
work. The mason should also tool joints on the underside of the arch
before the adobe mortar dries out.

Whatever is done on one side of the form must be repeated on the other. One
adobe is placed on the left side, and then its counterpart is placed on the right.
And then, from left to right. This Roman arch is being constructed at Death
Valley, California by Russell Bezette and Joe Tibbets. Note the shim visible
under the left side of the form.

the form must be repeated on the other, so that adobe blocks rise
equally from both left and right sides. The adobes are placed so
that the line of sight along the adobe travels straight to the center of
the circle, represented by a mark at the bottom center of the form,
giving the familiar “fan” shape of a Roman arch. Where the adobes
meet the form, the mud joint shrinks to almost nothing, so that the
edges of any two adobes actually “dry butt” together where they rest
This Roman adobe arch adds style to a rammed earth home by Soledad
on the form. Canyon Earthbuilders, of Las Cruces, N.M. The use of such arches saves on
wood and door costs where privacy is not necessary.
The mason may plan the number of adobes, marking their likely
placement on the form. If the adobes do not work out to an even
number to complete the arch, then a little filing along their ends
(where they meet) will do the trick. Another tactic is to shim the form There are many arch forms. The Roman arch described above has
up a little higher, creating a greater circumference around the form, no keystone. Instead, the mud joints between the adobes are the
but this must be done before adobe laying begins. Often the last four keystones. Most “pointed” arch styles do use keystones (see Adobe
or five adobes at the top of the form will be held in place by a helper, Vaults and Domes). However, arches are in compression. Their job
or spaced using sticks, while the mason fills the joints. A trowel is is to transfer the load around them to the wall below. A danger exists
handy here to pack in the mud. The joints are then fully if one tries to build too shallow an arch. Shallow arches are not as
packed and tooled. Finally, the shims are gently wiggled successful in load transfer, and can collapse. Consult with an expe-
4
rienced adobe mason before attempting any design that is out of ADOBE COCIDO “Cooked” adobe. A term used in some parts of
the ordinary (see Roman Arch). Latin America for adobe quemado (see Adobe Quemado).

ADOBE ARCHITECTURAL MODEL Three dimensional struc-
tures made to scale that allow the designer or builder to visualize
how a home will appear when actually built. Such models are often
fabricated of cardboard sheets, balsa model materials or lightweight
foam sheets, which are cut to precise dimensions from a drawn
plan. A common scale is 1/4” to 1’-0”.
ADOBE CRUDO The popular term in Northern Sonora and
Southern Arizona for an adobe block that has not been stabilized.
It evolves from the mentality that adobe in the raw state is “unfin-
ished”, so is therefore a somewhat disparaging term.
ADOBE FIELD In the trade, this is a very flat, sometimes laser-
leveled area, used exclusively for the casting of adobes. The ideal
field is devoid of vegetation or coarse aggregate, and is a sandy,
fine-grained surface without pits or rough spots, so that the adobes
themselves may be uniform in size. The field is low in clay to
reduce the amount of material that will stick to the wet, newly cast
block. Adobe fields are austere environments, especially during

Allen Mayfield with an architectural model of his home in Las Cruces, N.M.

Architectural models are not a new idea, but with the increase in
passive solar design in the Southwest, they have become impor-
tant. The designer is able to accurately check sun angles and solar
overhangs on south exposures. In this way, what is shown on the
preliminary plans may be checked before final drawings are sub- Adobe field at New Mexico Earth adobe yard, Alameda, N.M.
mitted. Since many home buyers have difficulty in visualizing their Block in background has been turned on edge to cure.
design in three dimensions from a two dimensional plan, models
are a great benefit.
5
windstorms, but their maintenance is important to the adobero, If a fair amount of material must be removed, the worker may go in
who like the farmer, must walk his fields and be sensitive to any first with an axe or hatchet, then finish up with the adobe file.
change. Another version of the file is to simply hammer a number of nails
through a board, so that they project out the opposite side in a
ADOBE FILE The most common adobe file is made up on the fairly tight pattern. The board is mounted on a handle of varying
building site, using scrap 2x4s and strips of expanded metal lathe. length (used by Mario Bellestri, Soledad Canyon Earthbuilders, Las
The lathe is wrapped twice around the wood and nailed securely Cruces, N.M.).
with wide-headed roofing nails. The resulting tool is handy for
sculpting corners and rounding shapes. The work will wear down ADOBE FLOOR As the name implies, a slab of adobe mud,
the lathe fairly quickly, so three or three files are made up at a time. poured in an approximately 4” slab over a compacted sub-floor, then
allowed to dry. Screed guides are set up, often of 2x4 stock with
other 2x4s acting as a screed bar. The mud is fairly viscous, but
not quite as thick
as that used in the
casting of adobes.
Once the floor is
set up and all is
leveled, the mud
is brought in by
w h e e l b a r r ow,
dumped and shov-
eled out.
The voids are filled
and screeding
takes place. At
some point, the

Miguel Medina shov-

els in the mud, starting
in the corner opposite
doorway. The screed
guides are in place,
leveled on shims.

6
screed guides are gently removed, and the installer must ‘wade’ into One favorite sealer is a recipe of 1 part paint thinner to 1 part lin-
the floor to fill the voids, trowelling out the lines, as well as the few seed oil. Apply it with a paint roller and 3” brush for corners and
footsteps he has created, as he retreats to an entry. cracks. After two days of good weather, you may be ready for a
second coat. The fumes will be excessive - ventilate well! After
Adobe floors take a long time to cure and are best done in summer, another day or two, apply a third coat that is 3 parts linseed oil to 1
with warm temperatures. They should not be poured much beyond part thinner. Now, allow 2-3 days evaporation, and consider a paste
the 4” depth, as drying time is then greatly increased and moisture wax application applied slowly by hand. It will consume about 1 lb.
can creep into surrounding walls, affecting plaster finishes. Good for every 90 sq. ft. of floor, on an uneven floor.
through-the-room air circulation helps to speed the drying.

Amos Martinez trowels a small adobe floor in a greenhouse. Greenhouse

adobe floors should be stabilized.

Two workers pull the ‘strike’ or screed board slowly down the guides. A third Dick Kamp of Naco, Az. supplied these sealer notes. He figures
helper is also pulling, out of the photo to the left. 10-14 days for the mud to season, three days to fill cracks and dry,
five days for oiling and evaporation and a day for waxing. But these
The floor will crack, after which the installer fills the voids with a slip are estimates only, and local humidity, wind and temperature play a
of the same mud. They will then crack again, and the process is big part.
repeated. The finished adobe floor will resemble a flagstone floor.
Some contractors fill the voids with a colored grout to enhance the Quentin Wilson, an adobe contractor in La Madera, N.M., also uses
flagstone effect. These floors must be sealed to prevent dusting the linseed oil approach. If the paste wax is not used, maintain
and excess wear. the floor with a yearly application of 1/3 quart linseed oil
7
to 1/2 quart paint thinner to 1/4 cup burnt umber concrete colorant
powder, according to Quentin. Other sealer/hardener possibilities
include: Adobe Sealer (Wellborn Paint Co. Albuquerque, NM), Floor
Hardener (Chevron Oil Co.), fish oil emulsion, diluted wheat paste
glue, Plastic Oil Sealer (Flecto Co. – contains linseed oil and ure-
thane), MexSeal, and urethane paint after the linseed oil applica-
tions.
ADOBE FORM A box-like device used to cast adobes using a stiff
mud that keeps its shape when the form is lifted away. An adobe
form implies the standard back-yard approach, in which two to four
adobes are cast at a time, but the meaning extends to the gang-like
forms used in commercial operations.

Questions arise about installing underfloor radiant heating systems

in adobe floors. Installers can proceed as they would with a con-
crete slab floor, with appropriate underfloor vapor barriers, under-
floor insulation (must be underground rated type), the pipe system
itself, and the adobe floor poured around it. The mud floor will not
be as caustic to work with as is concrete.

Adobe floors act as

excellent heat sinks in
passive solar design.
Stamped mud floors
are another possibility.
Many excellent ones
are credited to David
Easton of Rammed
Earth Works, in the
Napa, Ca. area (see
left). A family operation making adobes the traditional way in Honduras, Central
America, using a two-cell wood form. These adobes are approximately 10” x
5” x 14” in size.
These types of floors
may also include Port-
Forms are not molds, as they are open on top and bottom. Adobe
land cement as a sta-
molds do exist, as in Perú, where a mold is packed to a solid
bilizer and hardener.
bottom, then turned over to cast a brick with a diamond or other
For more information
imprint in it, which can then improve bonding in the wall.
on New Mexico style
approaches, contact
Generally, forms are of wood or metal. Galvanized metal forms give
Quentin Wilson &
a clean, slick, lift-off and are preferred. They require little mainte-
Assoc., La Madera,
nance, but can be expensive when ordered at a sheet metal shop.
N.M.
8 The larger commercial operations often deploy multiple, gang-type
wood forms that produce 8 or more adobes at each casting. The
wood is lighter and cheaper than metal where so many forms
are required (see Wet Mud Method). The disadvantage to the
wood is that after
many castings, the
grain will rise, and
the wet adobe may
stick to the sides.
This is alleviated
by dipping the
wood form in a
vat of kerosene
and old car oil.
Over the life of a
form, this dipping
is done repeatedly.
Other operations
paint their forms in
an attempt to seal
off the grain.
The choice of
wood quality is
also important, as
multiple wood
forms undergo con-
siderable stress
when ‘cracked’ off
Making multiple wood adobe forms at Rio Abajo Adobe the wet blocks.
Yard, Belén, N.M. They must be able
to warp, bend, and
return to the original shape time after time. At New Mexico Earth,
a major Albuquerque area adobe facility, owners Richard and Mark
Levine have found that Ponderosa pine is the wood least likely to
produce a raised grain when wetted. They purchase D-select grade
in this wood, which has small, tight knots - or no knots at all - and
assures longevity of the forms.
Novices often con-
sider building the
sides of the form
at a subtle angle
for an easier lift-off,
but in practice, the
nature of the mix
and the smooth-
A stack of wood adobe forms at the Rio Abajo adobe ness of the form
yard in Belén, N.M. Each form makes 8 adobes per
pour. The interiors of the forms must be oiled to pre-
sides are much
vent the water in the adobe mud from raising the grain greater factors.
of the wood, and preventing a clean “lift off” (see Wet
Mud Method). Form sizes are of
course determined
by the desired adobe sizes.
Measured on the interior of
the forms, standard sizes are
10x4x14, 12x4x16, 8x4x16,
and the veneer sizes of 4x4x16
and 6x4x16. The 4” depth is a
nominal consideration, as stan-
dard lumber is used to build
the wood forms, meaning that
the resulting adobes are closer
to 3 1/2” thick, rather than 4”.
When metal forms are used,
the depth is usually right at 4”.
This difference has given rise
to various arguments between
adobe manufacturers, as to
View into the steel forming used in a hydraulically operated adobe laydown
machine. As the hopper moves over the forms (on tracked rollers), the viscous
mud pours into the forms. On the return strock, a screed further pushes the mud
down into the forms, while at the same time, cleaning off the top of the blocks.
Such steel forms a more uniform sized block, as compared to the wood forms.
9
who has the better block. Arguments regarding weight, aesthetics,
and curing time generally favor the thinner adobe, while those
in respect to the number of courses required to reach a given
height favor the 4” adobe. The full 4” adobes require less mixing of
mud mortar to reach a given height. The metal 4” forms are used
in adobe laydown machines and are interchangeable for different
sizes of block.
ADOBE FURNACE Usually a charcoal-fired furnace constructed
of adobe block. They were used for smelting ore. An example
was built by the Spanish near present-day Silver City, N.M. in 1799,
where copper was extracted for the Royal Mint at Chihuahua City.
The technology had been perfected in Europe by 1550.
The adobe furnace was a natural, if not a necessary method for the
early miner. But before he could smelt his ore, it was necessary
to manufacture charcoal, and that too had to be done in a type of
furnace, the adobe charcoal oven.
A beehive adobe charcoal oven could be 20 feet in diameter
and as high. Walls were 2 feet thick at the base, gracefully
tapering to 12” thick at the top. Several small air vents about waist
high were spaced around the oven to control the air necessary for
the burning of the green wood. A cord of wood yields 25 to 45
bushels of charcoal to use in the adobe furnace. Rich oxidized ore
requires about 30 bushels of charcoal per ton of ore to smelt, so one
can see that charcoal woodcutters denuded large areas near such
smelters.
process continued by adding more ore, flux and charcoal at the top.
The molten lead or copper would gather or alloy the gold and silver
present in the ore and would have to be further refined to give up
the precious metals.
The Spanish were thought to have used adobe furnaces in the area
west of Socorro, N.M., perhaps prior to the Pueblo Rebellion of
1680, because the priests at San Miguel Mission at Socorro had
manufactured silver altar rails before that time, according to church
records. Later, in the 1860’s, adobe furnaces were built in the same
area, the bullion being shipped by bull train over the Santa Fé Trail
to St. Louis, Mo. Adobe kilns are a related, but different type of firing
chamber, used for producing fired adobe or adobe quemado (see
Ladrillera).
ADOBE LAYING The act of placing the adobes in the wall. The
mudman must place the mud on the wall so that it is the right thick-
Once sufficient mud is on the course, a square bladed shovel is turned upside
down and worked along the mud bed so as to level it out to an even thickness-
like a ribbon - completely covering the adobes below.

The procedure of smelting the ore was first to charge the adobe fur-
nace with charcoal, ignite it under forced draught and add crushed
ore with fluxing materials (if required), along with additional char-
coal at the top of the furnace. As the ore progressed downward
through the intense heat and reducing gases provided by the char-
coal and forced draught using bellows, the metal content would be
reduced to the metallic state. Both the slag and molten metal would
be drawn from the hearth at the base of the furnace as the
10
ness and consistency. On hot, dry days, it will tend to dry out too
ing it onto the course with a twist of the wrist, and then turning
fast, so the mudman will lay out a thinner mud along the course.
the (square-ended) shovel over to rake out the mud evenly along
Not a lot of time is wasted putting the mud on the course. An effec-
the course. Most adoberos do not use a trowel, as the trowel holds
tive means is a short handled shovel. Workers become adept at
too little and can slow down the progress. Joints between 11
scooping the mud out of the wheelbarrow using the shovel, dump-
adobes will range from 3/4 to 1” thick so as to take up differences This was an exposed wall, requiring tooling of the joints, so the job
in block size. Therefore, the mud must be loaded on the wall a might have gone faster for a non-exposed wall (one covered with
little thicker than that. The adobe is placed, not dropped, onto the plaster). Adobero Jerry Sánchez, of Rio Abajo Adobe in Belén, N.M.
course, and then gently wiggled into place. The edge of the adobe points out that laying an average of one adobe per minute is actu-
forming the outside wall should be very close to the mason’s line, ally a fairly leisurely pace. Thus, the worker might lay 60 adobes
but not touching it. When the block is placed on the wall, mud may per hour, or 240 in the morning and 240 in the afternoon. But the
squeeze out on both sides. This mud should be scooped up and work will slow down when electrical circuits, windows, corner turns
re-deployed - such as into the “head joints” (where the adobes butt or other complicating factors arise. Also, the assumption is made
together). These head joints are often left about one thick finger that other crew members are mixing mud and delivering it to the
apart for this reason (roughly 1”). Code requires full head and “bed” mason. Adobe laying will also slow down when second-story work
joints. The bed joints are the horizontal mud bed that the adobes is done. Adobe layers are likely to charge one price for one story
lay in. construction and a much higher price for adobes laid on the second
story (see Overlap, Dur-o-Wal™, Speed Lead).
Adobes may be cut with a hatchet, a skill saw with a masonry blade
(for small aggregate adobes only), or the adobe rake. One mason ADOBE OVEN (see Horno and Adobe Furnace)
scores the adobe slightly, then breaks it over the sharp edge of a
concrete block. This technique will work for simple cuts, but not ADOBE PINTO Sometimes called pinta brick. This is a type of
complicated ones - as in cutting a block to go around an electrical adobe quemado that has been fired in a long, hot fire to bring out
box. yellows, purples and other swirls of color in the brick. It is popular
for decorative uses around patios and other outlying masonry. Kiln
Not shown is the use of Dur-o-Wal™, the trade name for a type of temperatures must exceed 1200º for a period of 24 hours to pro-
ladder steel that is easily placed every 4 to 6 courses. The steel duce adobe pinto (see Adobe Quemado).
ladder reinforcement is explained under Dur-o-Wal™. It is inexpen-
sive in the U.S., easily used, and serves as an anti-seismic device.
It will prevent cracking in the wall, excepting some major structural ADOBE PRENSADO A Spanish term for pressed earth block.
problem. First the Dur-o-Wal™ goes over the last adobes laid, then
the mud mortar, then the new adobe course of blocks. ADOBE QUEMADO Adobe blocks that have been fired in a kiln
to a ceramic-like state. A well-fired block will give a dull ceramic
Records of speed in adobe laying are difficult to determine, as ring when rapped with the knuckles or a hard object. A poorly fired
weather, size of block, size of crew and convenience of the job (cor- brick will give no ring. Quemados are fired using local woods, such
ners, windows and doors) all play a part. Relatively simple jobs, as mesquite, and in Sonora represent a fair-sized adobe industry,
such as patios or property walls, can sometimes be laid right off where they are trucked to all points from the many local kilns. They
the truck that delivers the adobes. At adobe contractor Michael are made up and fired in all standard sizes, including some handy
Sandrin’s Alameda, N.M. site, this technique was used in May of small sizes. When fired, they turn a pastel orange-red, and the
1985. Four men laid up 6,000 adobes in 8 working days, or 750 variation in color from block to block adds to their charm. In prac-
blocks per day. At one point, 300 adobes were laid in 30 minutes. tice, they are laid up in a Portland cement-based mortar, similar to
The delivery truck slowly drove around the wall perimeter. concrete block or red brick. Because they are very porous, they
12
have a tendency to suck the water out of the mortar mix when laid in good grip and some weight. With the teeth ground to a point, the
the wall. The practice is to soak the stack of quemados with a water tool will cut through most adobe block fairly quickly, making more
spray, every little while, and especially on hot or windy days. If this complicated cuts possible (used by Peter Harris, retired contractor,
is not done, an inferior mortar and mortar bond can result. Placitas, N.M.).

The composition of earth in adobe quemado is higher in clay than

ordinary adobe, but not so high as in red brick. The clay minerals
must be of varieties that do not require high temperatures to make
them lose their water of crystalization when they are fired. The
higher percentage of clay sometimes means that organic matter
(see Pajoso) may be added as a binder during the curing process
when the adobes are first mixed and cast. This means no cracking
in the finished adobes, but as with any adobe, organic matter is kept
to a minimum, if used at all. Details about the firing process are out-
lined under ladrillera (see Adobe Pinto, Capote, Ladrillero, Tanda).

Adobe quemado is popular along the US/Mexico border where it

has a history dating back to the early missions. Its presence is
noted around Tuscon, Az., where many residences using 8” thick
walls were built from the 1940’s through the mid-1970’s, when cool-
ing and heating costs were low. Today, stabilized, regular adobe is Above: Compare a new
more popular, as it is used to produce a thicker, more thermally- rake to a well-worn adobe
effective wall. While adobe quemado makes a solid, servicable and rake.
attractive home, 8” is thermally insufficient in the low desert heat.
Right: adobe rake easily
Builders using this type of adobe would do well to turn it the long scores an adobe block.
way in the wall for a 16” thick mass. In colder climates, adobe que-
mado must be well-fired to be a serviceable building material. That
is because their porosity invites water absorption. If they are notADOBE ROCOCO An extremely ornate style characterized by
hard-fired, and a freeze follows a good rain or snow storm, spall- elaborate design, often delicately executed, adding an encrustation
ing can result. Adobe quemado in the U.S. today is used mostly of ornamentation to the architecture. The name comes from the
for decorative walls and accents around Tucson and Phoenix, Az. equally ornate Rococo style of the late Baroque period of European
Some vault and dome builders use small quemados for masonry architecture. Rococo is noticed in tile design, wrought iron and
roofs, especially in Mexico (see Cuña). roof or beam treatments, where carving may be detailed. Typical
are Corinthian capitals, set on fluted columns along the portales or
around entrances. The facades of many of the old missions were
ADOBE RAKE A cutting tool, manufactured from an old, steel done in a rococo effect, by building up plaster work, often on a base
rake. A piece of 1” diameter pipe is welded to it. This provides a of specially- designed burnt adobe. The style may also be
13
 ADOBE SAW A simple device, usually made up on the job site,
and for the purpose of cutting through earthen walls. It is made of
scrap barbed wire and a couple of 12” to 14” long pieces of 2x4.
The lines to be cut (as in a doorway or window) are first scribed on
the adobe wall. A hole is drilled through the wall at the top of each
line to be cut. The barbed wire is passed through and tied to the
handle on the other side. Two lengths of barbed wire together will
make the saw more effective. When both “sawyers” have secured
their handles comfortably (gloves are a must), the cutting com-
mences. The technique is similar to that of a two-man felling saw.
One man pulls as the other follows, keeping the wire taut. The
follower then becomes the puller, and the other sawyer keeps the
wire taut. Each pull will generate dust. The method is as fast as
power equipment and is definitely safer, but is not a pleasant task.
One does not want to be cutting out large, heavy sections of earth
wall amid terrific noise and clouds of dust (used by Walter Drew of
noticed in the ornate carving of doors (used by Hap Crawford, con-
Adobe Corp., Santa Fé, N.M.).
tractor, Albuquerque, N.M.).

Above: Circa
1790’s Rococo
facade on
San Xavier
MIssion,
Tucson, Az.

Right: Rococo
capitals and
torneados
support adobe
walls at Saint
Phillips in The
Hills church,
Tucson, Az,
designed and ADOBE SOIL To the public, an adobe soil is perceived as any
built by
sticky, clay-like soil. In actuality, a good adobe soil contains a
architect
Joseph Joesler. higher percentage of sharp sands, and a smaller percentage of
clays. Generally, ideal soils for earthbuilding are a gradation of
particles from coarse or “sharp” sands and small gravels, down
14
to very fine clays. In the commercial trade, aggregates of 1/4” size ADOBE SPOON ® As the name implies, an oversized, heavy-duty
are about the largest acceptable for adobe block, but in rammed spoon, manufactured by a company in Elkhart, In. for the adobe
earth, larger pieces of rock, up to the size of a walnut, are accept- industry. It is used to strike the mortar joints in adobe coursing. The
able. In 1941, the National Bureau of Standards put together a Adobe Spoon® is so stamped and is
panel and asked them to define the ideal adobe soil. The panel available through Phoenix Brickyard
consisted of Supervisor Lyman J. Biggs for the National Bureau in both Tucson and Phoenix, Az. or
of Standards, Thomas Hibben, Farm Security Administrator, Ebert from Old Pueblo Adobe in Tucson.
Hubbell, Bureau of Indian Affairs, T.A.H. Miller, Bureau of Agricul-
tural Chemistry and Engineering, and a private engineer, Francis
MacDonald. Their vote for the best suited soil was the following
breakdown: ADOBE STACKING The way of stacking adobes as clarified in the
photo. The central, vertical stack is placed first. Then the adobes
COARSE SAND 19% are placed on edge, leaning against the central stack, balanced on
FINE SAND 42% both sides. This is done because
SILT 22% adobes have much more strength
CLAY 17% on edge than they do flat. Unstabi-
COLLOIDS 3% (very fine clays, suspended in water) lized adobes are then covered with
a tarp or plastic, weighed down with
They deemed this formula ideal for adobe, stabilized adobe, mono-
lithic terracrete, terracrete block, and rammed earth. In 1941, ter- boards or rocks. The tarp
racrete was the name for a type of soil-cement earth block (see should not cut off air cir-
Clay, Stabilization, Asphalt Stabilization and Soil Testing). culation in the stack. Some
adoberos will lay down old
Some adobe makers would say that a better mix would contain a boards, so that adobes are
higher percentage of coarse sand, and much less silt. They would raised 2” or so above any
also want to be sure that the “fine sand” mentioned above was rain water that might drain
sharp in nature, not rounded. Sharp sands add more strength to the into the stack. Some com-
adobe. mercial operations stack dif-
ferently, on pallets, with the
The final determination of a suitable earth-building soil is to make adobes interwoven and flat.
up actual adobes, cure them and then have them tested for modu- The pallet stacks are limited
lus of rupture (50 p.s.i. minimum) and compression (300 p.s.i. mini- in height to reduce break-
mum). Adobes that crack during curing might be too high in clay age. Their advantage is that
or contain a clay that is too expansive. Adobes that crumble easily Adobes are always strongest when stacked they can be loaded and
would typically be too high in silt or sand. The adobero either finds on their edges- unloaded with a forklift.
a soil in nature that is suitable as is, or he must blend soils to make whether on the truck or on the ground.
a good mix (see Clay and Stabilization). Rio Abajo Adobe Co. Belén, N.M.
15
 Adobe Vaults and Domes

You say to brick-

“What do you want, Brick?”

Brick says to you- “I like an arch.”

If you say to brick-

“Arches are expensive,

and I can use a concrete lintel
over an opening.
What do you think of that, Brick?”

Brick says- “I like an arch.”

-Louis Kahn, Architect

16
ADOBE VAULTS AND DOMES Adobe vaults and domes repre-
sent a group of ancient technologies that still flourish in many areas
of North Africa, Egypt and the Middle East. Another collection of
these skills has also developed in Eastern Europe, and portions of
Latin America as a system of roofing called bóvedas. Their use is
built in 1980 at Abiquiu, N.M. under the direction of Egyptian archi-
tect Hassan Fathy and two Nubian masons. This one project prob-
ably influenced more people than any other in the U.S., but other
individuals such as Joe Fait of Scottsdale, Az., Simone Swan of
Presidio, Tx., and architect Nader Khalili of San Bernadino, Ca.

Egypt- Adobe
Dome struc-
tures by
Hassan Fathy,
Architect.

common in residential housing, for the construction of commercial have carried out research and built a number of structures. New
structures, and for schools, theaters, and mosques. In countries Mexico architect P.G. McHenry has published a book, co-authored
where populations are growing faster than developed resources by engineer Dr. Gerald May. The book, titled Adobe and Rammed
can support the people, they may be the only practical solution to Earth Buildings, was first available in 1984 from Wiley Interscience
solve the growing housing shortfall. Villagers can be trained in the Publishers. The book contains engineering notes for domes and
skills, earthen materials are at hand, and no wood is required. Such vaults. May suggests that stress analysis indicates that adobe
structures have better thermal qualities than concrete, create more domes with a span of 100 feet or more are feasible. In the field,
aesthetic living spaces, and as architect Nader Khalili says, “Domes such designs would be difficult and large spans are no doubt unac-
and vaults in general work with the hot and arid climates much more ceptable to code authorities at this time. Spans of 12 to 20 feet are
efficiently than flat roofs do, because they make sun and shade commonplace across the border in México.
zones, catch the breeze, and create an inside air current.”
In 1987, Warren LaForme, one of the original foremen at the Abiquiu
project, traveled to Sabinal, N.M. to conduct a dome and vault work-
In the Southwestern U.S., climatic conditions parallel those of Old
shop with Southwest Solaradobe School. LaForme had studied
World deserts, and adobe domes and vaults are equally appro-
directly under the Nubian masons and insisted on traditional Egyp-
priate technology. Consequently, several successful projects have
tian techniques in the construction of a small
been carried out, not the least of which is the Dar-Al-Islam mosque,
17
 passed through 14 years of summer/winter cycles and three earth-
quakes, the strongest being a 4.7. It has proven to be a very
stable structure. Notes have been taken on waterproofing, runoff
and structural integrity. These notes, along with a documentation of
techniques, are presented later.

In the Southwestern U.S., such structures are built for creative

effects in larger custom adobe homes. At present, their use is
limited to entries, outbuildings, and breezeways, although Fait has
used them extensively for ceilings in the main living areas of resi-
dences.

It is apparent that the marriage between these very old technolo-

gies and new experimentation is resulting in advances that can
bear fruit eventually on the international scene. The French have
developed a “systems approach” to vault and dome construction. In
1987, in response to the International Year of the Homeless, CRA-
Terre, a French earthbuilding group, constructed a 5-6 room resi-
dence, using these advanced techniques. They built the home in
37 hours deploying knock-down forms, special centering poles and
pressed adobe block. A small scale model helped them to plan the
actual construction.

In all of these efforts, the materials are stabilized - that is, either
French cen-
tering-pole
technloogy
at work
during the
construction
of the 37
hour earth
house at
Grenoble,
France in
View of the plastered adobe domes at Abiquiu, N.M. 1987.
pendentive dome at the school research site. The body of knowl- Pressed
adobe is
edge carried forth by this session has resulted in at least two other being set in
pendentive domes, one at Scottsdale, Az. and the other near El a pendentive
18 Paso, Tx. As of Spring 2001, the Sabinal dome has corner.

Building sequence of the CRATere earth house
at Grenoble. Actual building time to completion
was 37 hours.
waterproofed with asphalt emulsion (both
bricks and mortar), or stabilized with Port-
land cement, in the case of the pressed
adobe. Stabilized materials are consid-
ered mandatory for any form of vaulted or
domed roof.
Another approach to dome and vault con-
struction has been via the research by
architect Nader Khalili. Like Fathy, Khali-
li’s efforts were first directed at helping
villagers secure low-cost shelter. Where
waterproofing of earthen materials is not
available, roof collapse can be a danger
during heavy rains, which soak the struc-
tures.
Khalili developed a firing technique which
turns adobe domes and vaults into
ceramic, waterproof structures. He has
carried out further experimentation in
California and his experiences are doc-
umented in two books, Racing Alone
and Ceramic Houses, both published by
Harper & Row. Fathy also published a
book, Architecture for the Poor, in 1973
(University of Chicago Press), which pro-
vided a fair amount of information about
Egyptian methods. While Persian and
Egyptian methods are somewhat similar,
there are some differences. It could be
said that Ceramic Houses provides more
graphic illustration on how the structures
are actually built. In the 1980’s and 90’s
Khalili turned his
19
 should be first engineered by a licensed professional who under-
stands adobe construction. No one, even with an approved
set of drawings, should attempt a dome or vault if he or she
is not already
experienced
in standard
earth-building
techniques
and has
apprenticed
under some-
one familiar
with vault and
dome con-
struction.

A view of the construction of the French 37 hour domed adobe, built in Grenoble Several prom-
in 1987. The photo corresponds with the drawings on the previous page. ising systems
The block used is a portland-stabilized pressed adobe.
for dome and
vault construc-
attention to creating seismically resistive domes and vaults using tions have
plastic bags filled with earth mixes, stabilized with Portland cement. emerged
Several articles on this technique were published in 2000 in Issue 8 through cross-
of Adobe Builder, a trade publication. dialogue in
Arizona and
At this point, a word should be said about owner-builders or con- New Mexico.
tractors building domes without previous experience. Domes are It seems clear
very strong, and in fact, there is evidence that during some seis- that a very
mic activity they only settle in on themselves and become stronger. efficient way
However, neither the author, Southwest Solaradobe School, or any to proceed in
of the craftfolk or individuals mentioned in the Earthbuilders’ Ency- mass housing
clopedia advocate the building of these kinds of structures without
first studying under an experienced bóvedero or dome builder. In CRATere Earthbuilding School graduate Anastase Baetman and his assistant
the construction of these interesting spaces, considerable hands-on Thierry Joffroy completed this 8-pointed star dome on the island of Corsica
experience is a must. We will go through the construction of one several years ago. The base of the dome is a series of double adobe walls,
such structure shortly, but the procedure explained is not intended graced with squinches above arched doorways.
as a prescription for building. Any proposed designs
20
 Fait’s designs are
eastern Euro-
pean, utilizing a
small fired adobe
Adobero Bill
(see Cuña). They
White of San are set in a
Antonio, Tx. Portland cement-
observes the based mortar,
work of the two high in lime. The
Nubian
masons at the
timing of placing
Abiquiu, N.M. the adobes is
mosque con- important to the
struction site, strength of the
ca. 1980. structure.

situations is to ram the base walls, as they must be two feet thick
or more to withstand the force vectors generated by the domes or
arches resting on them. Since rammed earth is fast for wide walls, In Spanish Colonial
these can be formed and rammed quickly, and the smaller adobes America, most
missions featured
used in the domes and vaults can be set above. These smaller vaults and domes.
sized adobes run from 10x2x10” to 10x7x2” in size. They cure This example is
very quickly and are easily passed up to the higher phases of the located at Alamos,
work. During the construction of the Abiquiu mosque, an impres- Sonora, México.
Photo: Bill Sears
sive speed of construction was established by the Nubian masons,
two very talented men, aged 85 (the Master) and 65 (the Appren-
tice). Agile and wiry, they quickly sculpted the small adobes with
hand adzes, flipping them this way and that into the vaults, as the
forms were built right out into space. In Egypt, an apprentice vault
builder is not considered to be ready to build such catenary vaults
(done without forms) until a three-year apprenticeship has passed.
Western builders usually construct a wood form to guide them, but
certain shaping and fitting techniques must be mastered before the A student at architect Nadir Kahlili’s Adobe
final work begins. Joe Fait, of Scottsdale, Az., has mastered a Dome and Vault seminar in Tucson, Az., held
related technique in the construction of his bóvedas, which sail out several years ago. Various vault and dome
forms were modeled in small clay adobes.
from all four corners of a square room, meeting at the highest point
in the center. He does these without forms - only a practiced eye Photo: Suzie MacGregor
can bring all four vaults into the center with accuracy. 21
21
Let us go through the main sequence of steps required to build Our room must be square, and to find its center point, we stretch
a small pendentive dome. We assume an adequate foundation two strings as pictured, from corner to corner. Under the center
system, with a stem wall at least 6” above grade, on which the struc- point, we place an empty 55 gallon drum. In the drum, and exactly
ture sits. We begin with a square room with rammed earth walls two under the center point of the room, we set up a vertical 4”x4”
feet thick. Our post, 5’-4” above the bottom of the drum. Now we fill in rubble
example will around the post, keeping it under the center point and checking it for
roughly follow vertical with a bubble level. Once the drum is secure, we can drop
the dimensions the strings and pro-
of the dome ceed to building the
actually built at semi-circles which will
Southwest sit atop the four sides
Solaradobe of our room. We will
School, as pic- ram the walls to a
tured. The out- height of 6’-2”.
side dimensions
are 13’x13’, the Where the basic walls
inside 9’x9’. For were rammed, it may
the first several now be easier to build
the semi-circles of
adobe. The sketches
indicate that a radius
steps, we will con-
stick may be set up on
centrate on understand-
the wall to help scribe
ing the basic walls, and
the arc of the
how they are set up to
semi-circles. These
raise the adobe dome.
adobe semi-circles
The rammed earth wall
must be laid up to
should be stabilized with
good masonry prac-
Portland cement. If the
tices, with overlapping
base walls are built of
joints. There will be
adobe, it should be fully
four, one for each side
stabilized with asphalt
of the room. The
emulsion or other equally
semi-circles can be
effective stabilizer, and
perfected by trimming
laid in a fully stabilized
out with mud and
mud mortar.
chipping the block as
needed.
22
Now we will discuss how the doors are done. In Egyptian construc-
tion, different arch forms are used, and all of them are stronger than
the Roman, or semi-circular, arch. The one we will use is called the
3/5 arch and it looks like the shape in the sketches below.

Above: Basic door and arch dimensions. Above

right: Scribing the 3/5 arch for this opening (on
plywood). Bottom right: Ledge detail.
Arches must be constructed of fully stabilized adobes and mortar. They must (regard-
less of the adobe size) be interwoven, (see opposite page). They must bear straight
down on the wall below, therefore the arch form must be plumb when set up. Opposite
page shows a half cross section for clarity. In reality, the arch is begun from both sides,
meeting at the top where “key” blocks are wedged in.

The idea of these arches is to transfer the thrust of the dome above
down into the pendentives, or corners of the room. In actual con-
struction, these forces may cause small vertical cracks in the under-
sides of the arches. These cracks are normal unless they
23
begin to travel transversely to the sides, indicating a design flaw.
The door we want to build can be laid out to look like the one that
is dimensioned. Note that the Egyptian 3/5 arch is set up to start at
the 4’-5” height of the wall. That means that when the area around
the doorways is rammed, a step must be left on either side of the
doorway that is wide enough to accommodate the arch. But at this
point, let us consider the construction of the 3/5 arch. It is massive,
and made up of at least two full courses of adobe that are interwo-
ven, just as the semi-circular main sides that surround them must
have the adobes interwoven. There must be no possibility of shear
from the thrust of the dome. Also, when the adobes are placed on
the top of the form, they should be dry-butted together at the base,
so that the mud wedge which goes between them does not form a
joint at the bottom. This will allow the form to be pulled fairly quickly,
so that air may circulate on the underside of the fresh arch, helping
to cure it (study drawing page 23).

Again, basic knowledge of form construction, shimming the form

and leveling the form are assumed. After the arch is complete, it
should be vertically aligned with the rammed earth wall below, and
the point of the arch should aim straight up, centered in the middle
of the opening. The arch should have been constructed equally
from both sides, until at its top, the last adobes placed were key-
stones, shaved to a wedge shape, and jammed to fit snugly at the
arch peak. The joints are then struck, or dressed, and the shims
pulled. The arch form drops an inch or two, and can be worked out
from under the arch it has helped to construct.

The next step is to set up the radius sticks, which will show us
where add material to the top and sides of our 3/5 arches (over the
doors), so that they are brought to the semi-circular shape, just as
the arches on the sides without doors are semi-circular. Regardless
of any openings in any walls, the profiles of all four semi-circular
arches atop all four walls must be identical. This has to do with the
accuracy of the dome. A little cutting, trimming and filling may be
necessary to match them all (see sketch top right).

24
 cut the extra material off the end of the 2”x2”. At the school, our
centering stick ended up at 5’-10 5/8” long, from hinge to tip. Now,
we swivel our stick up to the very inside top of each semi-circular
arch. When the stick will just touch all the arch tops, as well as
all the inside corners, we are ready to begin the dome. Again, cut-
ting and filling of a minor nature may be necessary to trim out each
touching point, and the arcs of the four semi-circles. A last move is
to nail a piece of 2”x2” to the top of our swivel stick. It acts as a guide
and the notch so formed is the ‘pocket’ that our adobes will fit into as
we lay them into the dome (see top left). The angle of the centering
stick will be the angle of our adobe ‘rings’ that make up the dome.
Now, we go back to our 4”x4” post in the center of the room. Taking
a 6’-0” straight length of 2”x2”, we set up a hinge, so that the 2”x2”
may swivel 360º around the room, and also move up and down.
This hinge may be store-purchased or cut from a piece of old coffee
can, as they do in Egypt. Once set up, we now swivel the 2”x2” to
see if we can touch all four inside corners at the 6’-2” height. We

The adobe size required should be 10”x2”x7”, and they will be laid
so that the dome is 10” thick. All of these adobes must be fully stabi-
lized, and the mud they are laid in must be fully stabilized.
25
Traditionally, the mud for the dome building follows the ancient
Egyptian recipe of three parts clay, one part sand, with some straw
and green manure at the rate of about one shovel per wheelbar-
row. The manure, straw, earth combination forms a kind of lactic
acid that serves as a mild stabilizer. However, since we are introduc-
ing asphalt emulsion stabilizers, the manure can be dispensed with,
and the proportions can be changed to two clay to two sharp sand.
You should test your mix to make sure that it achieves full stabili-
zation, as per the U.B.C. (Uniform Building Code). That means not
more than 2.5% water absorption into the adobe. It should be noted
that the adobe and its mud mortar may also be stabilized using
Portland cement. Methods for this type of stabilization are found
under A.S.T.M. Standards for Soil Cement. In this approach, water
absorption into the adobe will exceed 2.5% by weight. This is allow-
able as long as the adobe can pass a “wet strength” test in which
corners, or bottom of the pendentives. The centering pole is used
a minimum compression of 300 psi is maintained. As for the straw,
to find the spot and angle for the first adobe. Gaps to the side are
it seems to aid in keeping a mass of mud on the course, when the
filled and the process is repeated at the other three corners. On
rings are steep. It is not necessary further down where the rings are
the next course, care is taken to overlap joints and a slightly higher
closer to horizontal (see Stabilization).
angle is attained. As the work progresses, the butt of the center-
ing pole always determines the face of the adobes and the angle of
Ordinary cement mixers should not be used for this process, as the
the pole always sets the angle. The bed joints are always mudded,
super sticky mix will adhere to the back of the mixer, rather than
but the head joints are always dry-fitted, so that they cannot slide
pour out into your wheelbarrow. A plaster mixer is the way to go.
down.
Mixing large quantities of this mud by hand is a killer. If no machin-
ery is available, a soaking pit will do, especially if you can run your
What actually happens in each dome ring is a series of wedges. By
tractor back and forth in it a few times, or turn it over with a tractor
that, it is meant that each adobe is cut to a slight trapezoid shape
scoop. The use of farms animals to tread in such pits is actually
so that the entire ring locks together. When so locked, it cannot
quite appropriate.
fall or slide downward, even at the top of the dome, where the
rings approach verti-
cal. This dry fitting of
one adobe to the next
is a test of the build-
er’s skill. Occasion-
ally, an adobe or two
The adobes should have two grooves in them when made, for better may have to be taken
adhesion to the mud mortar. We start the dome at the down for re-cutting or
26 reshaping, then stuck
back up into the sticky, viscous mud mix. Adobes are set into place, walls, as it was not yet plastered. The dome remained solid. That is
using the butt of the palm. When a ring is finished (360˚), it is because the water does not penetrate fully stabilized adobe. It is the
further wedged by the placing of stones here and there, where a same effect as water running between cracks in red brick masonry
crack or space between adobes would seem to benefit from further set in a Portland-based mortar - that is, the structure is not affected.
wedging. The Nubian masons use their small hand-adze, which is Likewise, during the following winter, a foot of snow sat on the dome
a hammer on one side and an adze on the other. The flat stones for the better part of two weeks and did not affect the structure.
are hammered in, until flush. Once a ring is complete, the mud is
smeared all around the ring and the process begins again. The In 1994, the smooth, stabilized earth cover on the dome was added
School dome required about 54 Egyptians to construct the first ring, to. Felt “shingles” (24” x 24”) were cut out of tar paper, and the dome
and only nine to make up the last ring at the top of the dome. was wrapped, starting at the bottom, with these diamond-shaped
pieces. This was then covered with chicken wire, and a three-coat
Towards the top of the dome, the adobes become more and more stucco applied. In Spring of 2001, this covering is in like-new condi-
vertical. Do not stand under fresh adobes or an unfinished ring, tion. It is the opinion of the author that the felt paper acts as a kind of
because one does not hear a falling adobe until it hits. Set up your slip joint between the earth dome and harder stucco cover, reducing
scaffolding so that you have room to move about. Once a ring is fin- expansion/contraction and the chance of cracks. A second, larger
ished, wedge it right away. It was our experience that longer pieces dome on the property will experiment with a traditional lime-based
of straw helped to hold the mud onto the rings for the last steep plaster as an alternative to the Portland-based stucco. This tradi-
rings. tional lime-based plaster was typical on the adobe domes of old
Spanish missions, such as San Xavier in Tucson, Az.
It is customary to leave a hole at the top of the dome, ours being
about 15” in diameter at the bottom, 17” at the top. A sheet metal We found that a potential water entry point is where the curve of
company can make you a cap that will allow light as well as ventila- the dome meets the square tops of the corners of the vertical walls.
tion, but the finishing of the top is up to the taste of the builder. There, a kind of shelf exists. These shelves must be sloped and
sculpted, so that they take water away from the dome as quickly as
In 1987, the School dome possible. Galvanized metal aprons and canales can also be installed
was finished in several thin at the corners to take water off the dome. They would be installed over
coats of fully stabilized mud the adobe, before any stucco is applied. If the corners are not pro-
plaster, using asphalt emul- vided with protection,
sion. While good in appear- moisture could seep in
ance, such soft plasters will during winter months,
not hold up to hail, and should be considered as leveling and filler and a hard freeze could
coats, with a harder plaster or stucco to come later. Soft, earth plas- crack the corners. Keep
ters do fairly well on the sides of structures where a roof overhang in mind that the corners
or plaster stop protects them at the top (see Plasters). are the main pillars of
strength in this type of
At the School site, four inches of rain fell on the dome in a two hour dome design.
period. Some rain ran down a few cracks in the dome and down the
27
A further test of our dome was the proximity of the Santa Fé railway
tracks, about 100 yards away. A one hundred car coal train, travel-
ing at from 50 to 60 miles per hour, sets up a ground shake that is
quite noticeable. The train passes by at least once a week. Only
one settlement crack appeared about one third of the way up the
dome, about 30 days after construction. It was filled and did not
reappear. We are not sure if this was caused by the train, or was
natural settling from the new work. It is thought that the train’s pass-
ing may constitute a reading of 2 or 3 on the Richter scale. This abil-
ity of a domed structure to settle into a tighter wedge has also been
observed by Khalili. The massive earthquake at Tabas (an ancient
Persian city in what is now Iran) registered 7.7. Striking on Sep-
tember 16, 1978, it flattened the city, including the steel reinforced
concrete structures and many of the rectangular shaped buildings.
But the 10 meter brick domes that formed the water reservoirs (18
of them) stood solid through the quake (see Egyptian Mud and
Bóvedas).
Above: View of a pendentive rising to form a dome at Abiquiu, N.M. Again, the
material around the 3/5 arch shapes is used to bring them to a semi-circle so the
dome may rise.
Below: Filling in a corner at Abiquiu. All doors and passageways are arches. The
room is brought up to its final square shape by filling in around the arches at the
corners until the tops of the arches are reached.

The Sabinal dome in 1987 with its initial stabilized mud

plaster finish. In 1994, a traditional three-coat stucco
28 was added for further protection.
ADOBERA In some areas, this is the term for the hand-held form,
used to cast the block. An adobero (the adobe maker, if masculine)
would use an adobera, but the term can also refer to a woman who
makes adobes.

ADOBERO Generally a tradesman who makes adobe blocks or

one who lays adobe blocks into the walls of a structure. The term
also stretches to include contractors who build an entire home down
to the finishing details.

ADZE A wood-cutting tool with a thin, arched blade, sharpened on

the concave side and set at right angles to the handle. The long-
handled adze was commonly used in Europe and in the colonial
U.S. to square wood timbers before the advent of sawmills. In Egypt,
a small, hand-held adze is used to trim the small adobes used in
vault and dome construction. The adobe mason holds the adobe in
one hand, trimming it with the adze in the other. A certain dexterity
develops with practice, allowing the mason to work surprisingly fast,
trimming and placing the lightweight adobes into the vault or dome
in a fluid motion.

ALIS A slip or coating. Alis is made from tierra colorada, or a red-

dish earth. It is used as a latex-like smoothing-out coat before tierra
blanca (a whitish earth) is applied. A Northern New Mexico usage
(see Enjarradora and Plasters).

ALISANDO The smoothing out process in mud plastering.

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Prevailing outside temperature.

AMENDED SOIL Improving an unqualified soil to a qualified state

with the addition of other soils or amendments.

ANCHOR BOLT A common fastening device, usually a round steel

dowel bent 90º at one end to form the anchor, which is then set into
a concrete pour, and sometimes called a “J” bolt. Common residen- be secured is drilled and lowered over the anchor bolt, which pro-
tial construction diameters are 1/2” and 5/8”. The timber or viga to trudes from the concrete bond beam. The threaded end
29
protrudes an inch or so from the top of the timber and large diam-
eter washers and nuts are used to spread the holding power of the
bolt. Anchor bolts are considered adequate tie downs, but in seis-
mic zones, FHA straps provide a more secure tie. In either case,
the idea is to tie the roof timbers well to the walls. Anchor bolts
can play an important role in the structural integrity of an earthen
home (see also T Bolt and FHA Strap). Anchor bolts have other,
more conventional uses, such as tying a wood plate to a bond beam
(sketch), or tying the bottom plate of a frame wall to a concrete floor.
In recent years, nail guns have replaced anchor bolts as a fastening
method for frame walls.
tional example is in the older section of the Zimmerman Library at
the University of New Mexico, also in Albuquerque.
ASPHALT STABILIZATION (Note: a more comprehensive defini-
tion can be found under Stabilization.) Essentially, a thin film of
asphalt emulsion covers the soil particles. This keeps water from
penetrating into the block. In the trade, it is considered that adobes
with aggregate sizes over 1/4” in diameter are more difficult to sta-
bilize because, in lay terms, it is more difficult if not impossible for
the asphalt spheres (2 to 10 microns in diameter) to wrap around
the larger aggregates when they coalesce to form a “film”.

ARCILLA Clay. The glue in any traditional adobe mix (see Barro). A well-stabilized adobe will allow water penetration only along the
rough surface of the block where more voids are open to weather-
ARENAS Sands, as referred to in adobe making (see Blow Sand, ing from the sun (UV) and moisture penetration. Dr. Richard Ferm,
Sharp Sand and Washed Sand). of the International Foundation For Earth Construction in Washing-
ton, D.C., tested a 30 lb., fully stabilized adobe by immersing it com-
AROS In Latin America, steel rings or hoops to which are affixed pletely in water for six months. On removal and cutting, it was found
lengths of rebar in reinforced concrete. that the water had penetrated only about 1 mm. This shows that
the joke about building a swimming pool out of fully stabilized adobe
ARTESANO Craftsman. Artisan. block and mortar is probably possible, but for reasons of cleaning
and appearance, not practical.
ARTESONADO A decorated pine ceiling, traditional in Spain and
Colonial Mexico, but rare in new construction in the Southwest U.S. AZADA Hoe, specifically, a mortar mixing hoe.
today. Historic examples can be found in some of the old adobe
churches and some public buildings. Variations include inset or inlay AZARAS Split palm trunks used as earth-mix reinforcement in the
in wood, painting and most frequently, carving. These ceilings often construction of floors and flat or domed roofs in the arid zone of
include carved half-corbels. Such work has become rare because of West Africa. Azaras are approximately eight feet long.
time constraints, the lack of larger timbers and fewer craftsfolk who
know the work. AZIMUTH ANGLE The angle of the sun east or west of true south,
important in passive solar design (see Solar Overhang).
Jerry Sánchez, an adobero in Belén, N.M., recently carved a tra-
ditional floral motif in the beams of his new adobe home, with the AZOTEA A flat roof.
flower patterns in a convex pattern on one side of the beam and a
concave pattern on the opposite side. Another contemporary ver- AZULEJOS Tiles. The origin of the word is from the Arabic al-zula-
sion of this traditional form can be viewed in the beams of the main ich, or “little stone”.
lobby at the Albuquerque, N.M. airport. Another more tradi-
30
 of the verticals are nailed horizontal pieces of caña brava, a local,
flexible, bamboo-like cane. Bamboo strips work as well. This forms
a sort of horizontal “lath”. The interior, or space in-between (8”-12”
wide), is packed with adobe-type mud and the wall cures in place.
Thus, bajareque is a type of containment system, making it effec-
tive in earthquakes. During World War II, when supplies were short,
many Costa Rican structures were built using bahareque. It can be
plastered over to be a very presentable wall.

To be effective over many years, it is essential that the cane or

bamboo be treated to discourage termites and dry rot, especially
at the wall base. In an early 1990’s earthquake in Costa Rica,
one older bajareque home collapsed. It was found to have suffered
structural failure at the base, due to damaged cane at that level.
Had this not been the case, the home would have survived. In Costa
An historical bajareque home, and former headquarters of the local Rica, preservation of the cane or bamboo in new construction has
coffee plantation at Barva, Costa Rica. Museum of Popular Culture. been successfully done using a boric acid solution, which is forced
through the green bamboo fibers using a hydraulic pump. The boric
BAJAREQUE A form of earth-wall construction that has a proven acid is inexpensive and environmentally friendly, and is also used in
record of anti-seismic ability in Central America and Northern South the U.S. in cellulose insulation. The bamboo or cane must then be
America. In a late 1990’s quake in Columbia, the traditional bajar- well cured before being split or used in whole form.
eque homes did fairly well, particularly as compared to some more
contemporary constructions. Bajareque uses vertical posts about Two species of Colombian timber bamboo provide construction
three feet apart, with diagonal braces between them. To both sides grade material that is excellent for bajareque. They are Angustofolia
Guadua and Angustofolia Aculeata. Since the 1980’s the Funda-
cion del Bambú, a San José, Costa Rica organization, has fostered
the establishment of Angustofolia plantations around the country
for housing material purposes.
For more information on For architectural assistance in
Bajareque contact: Bajareque contact:

Grupo Bajareque Ileana Granados

P.O. Box 509-1200 P.O. Box 500-2300
San José, Costa Rica San José, Costa Rica

grupob@costarricense.com ilegranados@racsa.co.cr
tel: 506 296 3500 tel: 506 224 7175
fax 506 281 1951 fax: 506 281 1951
31
BAHAREQUE FRANCES A variation on bajareque, where broken
tile chips are stuck into the uncured bajareque wall to serve as a key
for later plastering.
Señor Alvaro Zárate, a bajareque master at the Museum of
Popular Culture, Barva, Costa Rica. Tile chips are the
herringbone pattern.
32
BALCÓN Balcony. Today, these projections from the second-story
level of a home are rare in adobe architecture, due to added costs
and the contractor’s reluctance to deploy them, not to mention a
lack of knowledge about how to build them correctly. They hearken
back to a time when families often lived above their shops or stores.
Support was by way of extended beams, projecting out three or four
feet or more from the structure, to which were attached bases and
railings of an ornate nature. The balcón was of course framed to
its rear by a doorway, often a double door, leading to a bedroom or
living room.
BANCO Banco is Spanish for bank, and as in English, it can mean
either a bank of earth, or a banking institution. In earthbuilding, it
means an adobe seat - a bank of earth - formed to suit your taste.
Bancos are often incorporated with corner adobe fireplaces, to sit
close to the fire, or for firewood storage. They can also be placed
anywhere in the home or out on a porch as a replacement for wood
furniture. Often after they are plastered the owner will have cush-
ions made up to fit. Armrests and any manner of sculpted additions
may be built up with bancos, limited only by the imagination and the
limits of the material.
 A banco is not heavy enough to warrant a foundation under it, and
most of them would sit securely enough just over the compacted
earth below. However, to eliminate cracking from any possible set-
tlement, a 4” concrete slab can be poured under the banco location,
Left: Adobe banco with some 6” x 6” x no.10 reinforcing mesh in the slab. Most codes
under passive solar require the first course of adobe above floor level to be stabilized,
gain windows. and this isn’t a bad idea under bancos as well. The adobes are laid
Designed by Mark up as in regular work, with joints overlapped. Adobes can be cut
Chalom, architect,
Santa Fé, N.M.
for special shapes, and the pieces saved to fill in with more mud
in corners and cracks. After the banco is shaped with a hatchet or
Below: adobe banco adobe file, it is covered with chicken wire or stucco netting, and then
under construction, in plastered along with the adjoining walls. If the builder takes the time
Albuquerque, N.M. to design a contour, then bancos can be quite comfortable. The
area.
more common approach is to make them fairly flat, with an inclined
back, followed by foam cushions (see Adobe File).

Bancos do take up living space, and builders must realize that once
placed and plastered, they cannot be easily moved! Newcomers to
Southwestern construction often become excited about the use of
bancos and may specify them all around the home, without much
thought to the above reality.

BARRAS A term for latillas in southern Sonora (see Latillas).

BARREAL A Chihuahuan Spanish term for clay.

BARRO Clay in Northern México (see Arcilla and Clay).

BASE COURSE A road builder’s term for a mix using crushed

rock, sand and some clay. It is sometimes available at sand and
gravel operations. What is called base course varies from one area
to the next, but in some areas, it can be suitable as an adobe mix,
because it does contain sufficient clay to be compacted in road
work. However, never assume that base course is acceptable as is
for adobe or rammed earth. In most cases it will not con-
tain a sufficient percentage of clay, and will need that addi- 33
tion. Always make up five or six adobes from the material first. Cure the options are many, and decisions revolve around combinations
them well, and have them tested to determine if they pass the mini- of materials being sized to fit the different widths of adobe. Here are
mum compressive strength of 300 p.s.i. and minimum modulus of some choices:
rupture of 50 p.s.i. (see Clay).
(1) Under a 10” wide
BASEBOARD Baseboards add protection at the base of interior adobe wall, (left) a
walls from water, repeated cleaning over the years, and scuffing course of fully grouted
from shoes and rolling furniture. Any sort of baseboard may be 8”x8”x16” concrete
installed in an adobe or rammed earth home, but a popular strat- block, with a standing
egy is to choose a material that echoes the material used in the course of 2”-2 1/2” red
floor. Therefore, red brick floors will often feature vertical brick brick mortared to its
baseboards, and saltillo tile floors will end in baseboards of the inside face. This is the
same material, as will ceramic and concrete tile. approach shown in the
photograph. The work
In general, baseboards require a lot more pre-planning than most is structural - that is, it is
novices are prepared for. You must decide, room-by-room, which part of the bearing wall
type (if any) of baseboard you will use. Then you must determine that makes up the stem.
if the baseboard will become part of the structural makeup of the
stem (to be installed as the stem is constructed) or simply be a cos-
metic “glue-on” to the stem (to be installed much later in the con-
struction). You must find out the physical sizes of the actual base-
board material, to see how the size works out with the thickness of
your plaster coat (if any), electrical boxes and any baseboard heat-
ing that may be placed at points along the wall base. The appear-
ance of the finished baseboard will be of prime concern to all.

The Uniform Building Code does not require a baseboard, but it

does say that the first course of masonry above floor level must be
of fully stabilized adobe or hard masonry such as brick or block, or
some combination of these. Therefore, the choice of a baseboard
becomes a structural consideration as well.

The simplest, cheapest baseboard is no baseboard at all. Exposed

adobe walls are brought down to the floor level. The interior walls
are painted with an agreeable color, the floors finished and that is
it. While rustic, the effect is acceptable and durable, albeit not as
easy to clean if the wall color is light. From this point,
34
Various combinations of block and brick may combine to make up a stem that
will flush out with the wall above. Or, the stem may be an inch or so wider than
the wall above to act as a ledge or “key” for a plaster coat.
The adobe wall may be left exposed or plastered. If the wall is of 2”x2” or 2”x3”, set into the stem wall every 18”. Set them so that
plastered, the vertical brick is set out an extra 3/4” to allow for the the attachment screws or nails will not go into the end-grain of the
plaster coat. The red brick is cleaned and sealed before plastering. nailers. Wood baseboards do not look as good where they are run
This relatively easy solution can produce very effective results in a over brick floors that may have some variations in height. The slight
room’s appearance. dips in the brick create cracks that can show under the baseboard.
(2) Under a 14” wide adobe wall, follow the same pattern as above, Wood baseboards can be set over concrete slabs on which a carpet
but replace the 8” CMU (concrete block) with 12”x 8”x16” CMU. will be installed, and most easily, against frame or straight-plastered
(3) To complement a saltillo tile floor, use a baseboard trim in the walls.
same material (see below). It can be cut using a skill saw with
a masonry blade. The saltillo baseboard pieces are glued onto a
plastered adobe wall using thin-set cement. For appearance, grout
joints must be of the same size as in the floor (see Saltillo Tile).
(4) 6”x6” red
quarry tile, glued
with thin-set
cement to the side
of any width of
CMU (right).
Plaster is trimmed
out to the edge of
the tile. Quarry
tile is relatively
inexpensive and
makes a durable
floor. This is a With electrical installation and baseboards, it is not a good idea to
good solution in run electrical circuitry at baseboard height, unless (1) it is enclosed
rammed earth in conduit and (2) it does not undercut the wall. N.E.C.-approved
homes, where the systems are on the market that provide baseboard and electrical cir-
stem may be cuitry in one. This may be a good approach for renovated adobes,
poured concrete. when it is wise to avoid gouging electrical channels into the wall
(some gouging may have to be done for vertical switch runs how-
If a wood base-
ever).
board is desired,
wood nailers of
A last consideration is baseboard heating systems. They may
some sort must be
require electrical outlets. If so, these are best installed above the
left in the masonry
first 4”-5” height, that is, in the second course of adobe above the
stem during construction, to which the wood baseboard may be
floor level. Check to make sure the baseboard heating grill 35
attached later. These can be treated and chamfered nailer pieces
will cover the electrical connection work. Underfloor radiant heating BEAGLE In Western Australia, a “beagle” is simply a member of
systems may also require a break in the baseboard. the crew or staff. The beagles are the crew.

BASELINE SOIL A baseline soil is a standard to which other earth
mixes are compared. The baseline soil is the point of reference
for what constitutes a good earthbuilding soil. It will exhibit good
weathering ability and good compressive strength when tested. A
contractor may send out his baseline soil to distant points so that
others may have a model to go by when searching for a soil source
(Used by Tom Schmidt, rammed earth consultant, Saint David,
Az.).
BEAGLETTE A female crew member on rammed earth sites, west-
ern Australia (see Beagle).
BEEHIVE FIREPLACE A corner adobe fireplace that has no
mantel and is shaped to resemble a beehive. Such fireplaces often
feature nichos for the display of art or religious objects (see Count
Rumford and Kiva Fireplace).

BASKETWEAVE A pattern
most often used in brick or tile
floor installations. The installer Right: A beehive fireplace by
must take care that a modular adobe builder Steve Belardo
size of a brick or tile is used, of Rainbow Adobe, in Alpine,
or the pattern may be difficult to Texas.
maintain during installation (see
Pinwheel and Herringbone).

BAUGE In France, a mixture of clay, soil and straw, used for build-
ing earth walls between forms.

BATTER BOARDS Wood boards, 24” to 36” long, set up to hold the
strings that determine the outer wall lines of the house, typically the
foundation. Usually scrap lumber such as 1”x8” or 1”x10” is used,
and the boards may be set up so that strings are pulled from both
their top and bottom sides.

BEADED EDGES Beaded edges

were milled into some roof timbers
after the arrival of the first saw-
mills in New Mexico around 1860.
They were a decorative feature.

36
 BIRKA In Egypt, a pit that is left after earth has been dug for brick
making (Used by Hassan Fathy; see Hoyo).

BITCHES Slang term for adobe stabilized with bitumenized asphalt,

a precurser to asphalt emulsion designations. Popular in California
in the 1940’s among adobe builders (Used in past years by N.M.
contractors Peter Harris, Bob Koeber and Nat Kaplan).

BLOW SAND A term used in New Mexico and Arizona for a fine
sand that blows along irrigation ditches and dirt roads on windy
days. It is considered good for mud plasters because of its small
size, but bad for adobe block making because it is a rounded sand
that does not add strength to the adobe mix as do larger, sharp
angled sands.

BOBCAT The trade term for a gasoline powered front-end loader,

used with its scoop to lift adobes, adobe mud, or moistened earth
in rammed earth work. Gehl is another popular brand of front-end
loader.

Stan Huston, a rammed earth contractor, uses a bobcat to load

Beehive adobe fireplace in a home moistened earth into the rammed earth forming during a Southwest
by Albuquerque contractor William Stoddard Solaradobe School class.
37
 BOND BEAM
Bond beams are a code-
required feature in all modern
adobe and rammed earth work.
Bond beams act as a tie or
collar around the tops of all
masonry walls in all countries
where reasonable codes or
practices are in force. This
means that a concrete block
structure needs a bond beam
as much as one of adobe, red
brick, stone or rammed earth.
Bond beams are critical to
saving lives in seismic areas,
as seen in the Guatemalan
quake of the late 1970’s. There,
rural buildings had little or no
foundations and stems under
adobe walls, and no bond
beams. Without the bond
Concrete bond beam being poured using a
grout pump at an adobe site in Southeastern beams, the roof timbers were
Arizona. Adobes by Clay Mine Adobe. not tied to anything. The final
Sturdy scaffolding is a must for safety roofing material was heavy clay
concerns.
tile. When the quake hit, the
untied and unsupported walls collapsed outward and the heavy tile
roofs came down on the occupants.
This was also part of the reason that many historic California
adobes suffered during quakes. Within the earthbuilding industry,
these old types of non-bond beam structures are called “pre-code
adobes”, and in truth, there are a number of them being lived in
today - within the U.S. and within active seismic zones. That is
why restorers or renovators should add bond beams
38 during their work. While bond beams may not be in
keeping with the original fabric, they can be disguised, and their
inclusion may be vital to the continued life of the structure in areas
like California and Central America. Precode adobes that have
been “beefed up” with proper underpinnings (see Underpinned)
and the addition of bond beams have ridden through earthquakes
in California that might otherwise have destroyed them (California
notes: Gil Sánchez, AIA, Santa Cruz, Ca.).
In the U.S., different cities, counties and states all call for different
forms of bond beams. Because so many styles of bond beams
exist, the reader should first understand what a superior bond beam
system would be. Then,
as we look at the differ-
ent forms, we can see
for ourselves how they
compare to this stan-
dard.
Unfortunately, in some
code jurisdictions, bond
beam designs are not
the ideal, and we are
stuck with them until
that portion of those
codes can be changed.
Top view of bond beam
pour shown in left
photo.Note code-required
steel rebar in cavity.
Here smaller veneer
adobes also serve as the
bond beam forming.
We can define a superior bond beam as (1) strong, especially at the heavier seismic zones, such as California and Honduras, more
corners, (2) tied to the walls it is placed on, and (3) flexible, in that steel may be called for in the bond beam cavity, held together by
it is wide and relatively thin, so that it may flex with the wall during a rings or hoops of steel (see Aros).
shake. Let us review these three considerations in more detail.
Under (1), strength is attained through use of reinforced concrete Under (2), in seismic zones
(see Wood Bond Beams). The concrete must be of 2500 3 and 4, it would be expected
p.s.i. strength, mini- that ties to the wall would be
mum. In most codes, required. Dr. Fred Webster
at least two 1/2” steel mentions that these ties rep-
reinforcing rods are resent “stress points” in the
placed in the bond wall. That is, when a quake
beam cavity, and hits, uplift forces, combined
must be continuous with lateral forces will try to
around the entire rip the bond beam from the
cavity. At corners, wall. These forces will be
greater strength is concentrated at the tie down
achieved by not stress points. In a superior system, one would design many ties
crossing the steel as spread out down the length of a wall, rather than a few every 3 or 4
in an overlap, but by feet. This will place less stress on each point or tie, as opposed to a
lot of stress on just a few ties. In practice, this would translate out
bending the rebar to go to anchor bolts or strapping every 12” to 15”. The depth of these ties
around the corner, then into the wall is another factor. In practice, it is generally agreed that
overlapping it 2 or 3 feet one should go down at least 4 courses in an adobe wall or 20” in a
away from the corner. The rammed earth wall. The anchor bolts or ties should have flat plates
overlaps should be forty welded to their bottom end (see above), so that they cannot be
times the diameter of the pulled through the wall under stress.
steel. For 1/2” rebar, the
most commonly used size,
this means a 20” overlap.
These overlaps must be
securely tied with baling
or tie wire. The rebar
should be suspended 2” –
3” above the last course of
adobe and set 2” from the
sides of the forms (see
right and pg 40). In
39
 Another method uses adobes with holes pre-cast in them, so that
steel rods may be embedded in a concrete mix that is poured into
the holes. The steel rods project up into the bond beam cavity, and
become included in the pour of the concrete into the bond beam
cavity. They should go down into the wall 4 courses, or roughly 20”.

In terms of number (3) above, we use the words “relatively thin” for
our bond beam, and here we are discussing the depth from top to
bottom. A “thin” ribbon bond beam then, would typically be one not
over 6” deep by as wide as the wall it sits on. A seismic engineer
may find that some bond beams can be less than 6” deep. We can
Uplift forces under (2) are not confined to seismic activity. A good begin to see that such a bond beam, with steel included to
windstorm or hurricane can lift a roof off a structure, pulling the give it flexibility, can ride with the wall, to a degree, during a shake.
bond beam right off the wall in the process. This would be espe- The situation to avoid
cially true with a wood bond beam, not tied to the wall. Of course, is a bond beam con-
the wind uplift problem exists where the home has an overhanging figuration in which
roof design, or something for the wind to get under. Pueblo or para- the depth exceeds 6”,
peted designs have few wind problems unless the parapet is too especially where the
high. Indeed, high parapets are very unstable in a quake. In the beam passes over
recent Los Angeles area quake, red brick parapets set in old lime window and door
mortar were the most common failure point (see Uplift). openings (see left).
40
 Looking at what code requires in New Mexico, we see the most typi-
cal bond beam as a 6”x10” reinforced concrete collar atop a 10”
thick adobe wall (see pg 39 bottom). This bond beam will become
wider to include the top of the adobe mass around fireplaces (see
Fireplaces, pg 100). It will have the steel described and anchor
bolts or galvanized strapping will be set in, so that roof timbers may
be secured. If an electrical circuit runs through the beam, a channel
will have been left for that, usually by setting a piece of foam inside
the form to be carved out later.

As we move to a 14” wall, the New Mexico code says that a 6”x10”
bond beam is still sufficient, and it may sit to the inside or outside
of the wall. This leaves the builder several options: If he plans
an exposed adobe wall on the inside of the structure, he may set
veneer adobe on the 4” ledge created by the 10” bond beam, so that
it is exposed to the inside of the home (see pg 39 bottom). On the
outside, the concrete bond beam and adobe wall will most likely be
A practice among contractors in recent years is to thicken the bond covered with insulation, stucco netting and a 3-coat stucco. If the
beam over doors and windows, so as to eliminate having a lintel builder is exposing the outside wall, he can place the bond beam to
of wood in that position. However, super bulky bond beam sections the inside, using fully stabilized veneer adobe on the 4” ledge to the
may tend to break away from the adobe below during a shake - outside. Inside the home, he may plaster over the wall that would
that is, they remain stiff, rather than flexing with the wall (see sketch otherwise expose the bond
above). beam.
There is also a fourth factor: weight. Weight adds stability during Now, as we move up to
a shake. Here the concrete bond beam has an advantage over its even wider walls - 16”, 18”,
wood cousin, for each linear foot of a 6”x14” concrete bond beam 24” and so on, the code
puts about 90 lbs. on the wall. That same 14” adobe wall would requires us to cover two-
require a 6”x12” wood beam, which would weigh around 15 lbs. for thirds of the top of each
each linear foot atop the wall (using dry Ponderosa pine at 2 1/2 adobe course with our bond
lbs. per board foot when cured out). Recognizing this, researchers beam (see left). The way
in Perú advise villagers in the Andean seismic zone to weigh down the code is intended to
their wood bond beams with about 3 courses of adobe (being care- work here is to prevent the
ful not to go much above that to avoid high parapets). In most U.S. shearing action that could
designs, however, weight is provided by the roof weight and the take place if we put the
adobe block that is typically infilled between those beams. bond beam atop
41
just one wall in a double wall system. In other words, we
want the bond beam to also act to “tie” double or triple
wall systems together. In a rammed earth wall, the New
Mexico Rammed Earth Code requires that the bond beam
be as wide as the width of the wall. However, the width
may be reduced by 2” in walls up to 23” thick and by 3”
in walls 24” thick or more. These exceptions allow the
builder to install wood forming that will be left permanently
to cover the concrete.

A few notes should be added about shear in double

or triple adobe walls. Traditionally, adobe courses were
interwoven to prevent shear failure and to give the walls
strength. At Guadalupe Church in Santa Fé, the builders
appear to not be as seismically effective as a thinner ribbon style
back in the late 1700’s interwove an adobe that was about 10” x 20”
suggested by Dr. Webster.
in a three wide design, resulting in a wall about 33” thick. There
were no voids in these wall systems. Adobes were inter-woven and
As we move further west to California, we find a number of bond
the resulting wall was solid.
beam designs in the code that almost turn our ribbon type flexible
bond beam up on edge. San Diego County (above right) calls for
In double wall systems with a cavity, two separate walls are put
a bond beam 8” wide and at least 12” high, enclosed in two veneer
up, with an insulation cavity in between. The cavity ranges from
adobe walls. This design reflects the California style of exposing
2” to 4” in width. These walls are tied together with a flat, steel
all adobe, but perhaps at the expense of good seismic design (see
ladder reinforcement system such as Dur-o-Wal™ every fourth to
Seismic Zone).
sixth course. In seismic zones, two such walls, with a cavity in-
between, will never be as strong as a double solid wall with inter-
What happens in practice is often different from what the code dic-
woven adobes. For cavity wall systems, the bond beam must cover
tates. Local officials may recognize that some aspect of their code
at least two-thirds of the top of both courses, as well as span over
is redundant and allow an improved application, but the builder
the cavity in between (see pg 41). But again, even though the bond
must submit drawings to make the point. The strictness of how
beam spans over, the wall will be viewed as two separate walls from
much or often bond beams are tied into their wall masses often
a seismic design standpoint.
depends on the individual building inspection department, the seis-
mic zone and other variables. In New Mexico (seismic zones 1 and
As we move west to the Phoenix area, we find another code in
2b) concrete bond beams on adobe are rarely tied to the wall in
force. Called the MAG code (Maricopa Association of Govern-
practice, but wood bond beams are expected to be pinned to the
ments), it calls for a 10”x10” concrete bond beam (see top right),
wall. In Tucson and Pima County, Az., quite a bit of literature is
and with the exception of variations within the different cities of the
in the code for uplift anchors between bond beam and wall (zone
Phoenix area, there is no provision for widening the beam as the
2a). In zones 3 & 4 in California, steel must extend from the footing,
wall gets wider. This bond beam, required by code, would
42 through the walls and into the bond beam, every so many feet. An
 We will now discuss build-
ing the bond beam. The
sketch at left shows a
typical “formed up” cavity
for a New Mexico con-
crete bond beam. In this
case, we show a 10” thick
adobe wall. The wood
forming is generally 1”x8”
resawn or other relatively
low-grade lumber, which
will be removed once the
concrete has hardened.
The builder places a
board on or against the
wall, leaving 6” protrud-
ing for the pour. His
helper slaps a similar
board against the wall on
the opposite side. A few
16d nails may be driven
into the adobe under the
boards to hold them tem-
porarily. Now, a few small
holes are drilled through
the boards, opposite each
other, in both boards. Tie
wire is passed through in
a scissors fashion. A long
nail is inserted at the “x”
in the wire and twisted.
As the wire tightens, it
pulls the boards against
exception is San Diego County, which is in a relatively mild seismic Note: the above sketch relates the earth wall. A few of
area by California standards. There, vertical steel in the walls is not to the sketch on pg 44.
these “x” wires are placed
required in a typical adobe wall section.
43
 reflect the wall thickness below (in this example, a 10” wall requires
the bond beam to be the same width as the wall, and that is what
is shown in the adjoining sketch). The level of the top of the bond
beam is checked again. Tapping the underside of the form boards
with a hammer will aid in adjusting to level, if they have sunk a
bit. In practice, the entire form assembly is quite tight
on the wall, and the tie wires are the
main tightening feature. How tight is
often illustrated by crew members who
pull themselves up by the forms or
grab the forms when moving around. This
is not advised, but it does illus-
trate that this system works, and
the hydrostatic action of the con-
crete will not blow it out. If
the builder suspects a weak
point anywhere on the wall top,
he should add another tie,
or brace the weak point with
another thin board or “scab” of
Note: Above and previous
sketch do not show
scrap. A roll of tie wire, cordless
at
attachment of bond beam to wall as drill, and some dry-wall screws
favorable spots
discussed on pg 40. are very handy, as is a saw
and the boards are
and whatever type of anchor
adjusted for level. Tightening
bolts or FHA straps you are
the wires will pull the boards in
placing in the void. Not to be
at the bottom, but spread them apart at the top. The crew now nails
forgotten is a long bubble level, for the top edge of your form boards
on some 1”x2” or 1”x4” tie boards across the top of the form, while
should be level all the way around the structure,
pushing the form boards back in the wall width. The form is now
adjusted for level and the remaining wire ties are put in along the
There are other ways to
bottom, usually about 3’ on center. These are tightened by twisting
“skin the cat” with bond
the nails, then pounding the nails into the adobe.
beam forming. Form clips
(see left) using plywood
Before the final tie boards are placed on the top, the steel rebar is
boards or 1”x6” boards
placed into the bond beam void. If you put all the tie boards on first,
work well. A good con-
you will not be able to snake the steel into the void, and corners will
crete supply will have the
be impossible. Once the steel is in, the remaining top
form clips, usually in 2”
44 tie boards are put on, being careful to make sure they
width increments, at a reasonable price. The
sketch shows how the system works. In the form
clip approach, you lose the clips on the bottom
of the pour, but the top ones may be reused.
The form clip approach depends on a fairly uni-
form adobe wall width and top - that is, if the
bond beam is to be as wide as the wall, you may
have gaps showing between boards and adobes
through which concrete may “drool” down the
wall. Large gaps may be plugged with newspa-
per, which is pulled out after the concrete sets.
On wide walls where the concrete does not cover
the entire wall top, form clips are the way to go.
Once the concrete sets, the top clips are popped
off, the boards are removed and veneer adobes
placed adjacent to the newly formed bond beam.
Yet another approach assumes that the builder
wishes to leave the form boards in place. This
can create a very pleasing effect inside the struc-
ture, as nice as an exposed adobe wall or plas-
tered wall. However, a better grade of lumber,
usually 2” thickness, is required. If any such
boards are even slightly “cupped”, turn them as
in the sketch. To prevent outward cupping, study
the sketch to see how nails or screws can be
driven on the concrete side. Using thicker form
boards covers the concrete bond beam on both
sides of the wall, or if desired, the outer boards
may be removed later, making room for exterior
insulation and/or stucco. Builders often deploy
bridge washers in their attachment plan with the
exposed board type of form. Bridge washers give
a “rosette” effect and add a decorative, yet practi-
cal touch to exposed wood forms. Consult a good
bolt company about where to buy them. In the
case of bridge washers, one should still use the
additional nails on the inside of the wood forms to
prevent cupping of the lumber.
Getting the concrete up into the formed void
is always a fun endeavor. On large homes of
2000 sq. ft. or more, it may be well worth your
while to hire a concrete pumper along with the
concrete truck that delivers in your area. This
means that for a few pesos more, you can
pump the concrete right into the forms, using
a large diameter hose. The job goes very
quickly, and may save you money, reducing the
standby charges for the concrete truck. Using
the pumper also means that you have a one-
time continuous pour, adding to the structural
integrity of your building.
The pumper service is usually a different com-
pany than the one that brings the concrete in
the truck. If your site is a rural one, and/or
your project isn’t over 2000 sq.ft. in size, the
hand-bucket system works quite well - and goes
faster than most people realize. It depends on
a steady supply of concrete however, and that
may depend on your crew and the availability of
a mixer. Assuming you do have all the sand,
gravel, and Portland on site and a good con-
crete mixer and crew, the concrete is simply
passed up to the crew on the scaffolds via
bucket and poured into the void. Five gallon
buckets, half-filled, are a typical solution. Any
heavier, and the wire handles can cut through
gloves and there is the danger of concrete
burns which can leave permanent scars. Also,
full buckets add to the weight on the scaffolds,
which can be dangerous. Safety first! Once a
rhythm is set up, the work goes fairly quickly,
and the better the scaffolding, the faster the
work.
However filled, the bond beams can be stripped
of the wood forming the next day (See Wood
Bond Beam, Form Clip, FHA Strap and
Vent Port). 45
The following section and accompanying figures are provided by
Dr. Fred Webster, seismic engineer of Menlo Park, Ca. Dr. Webster
is a leading authority on the behavior of earthen walls in earth-
quakes. This will be of special import to those designing bond Fig. 3 Anchorage of
beams in seismic zones. roof through bond
beam.
Fig. 1 Stress dis-
tribution at top of
earthen wall as a
result of using a
bond beam
the walls from slip-
“One of the most important ping from under the
structural elements for roof and falling over
resisting earthquake, wind, during lateral shak-
and gravity forces in an ing (Figure 4); they
earthen building is the bond can also act as drag
beam. Yet not enough struts to carry roof inertia forces to shear walls that are discon-
attention is paid to this element
in adobe codes or in
design. Bond beams
accomplish sev-
eral purposes:
they distribute
concentrated
roof loads to the
bearing walls
(Figure 1); they
distribute lateral inertia
forces from the roof mass into
the bearing and non-bearing
walls (Figure 2); they provide
anchorage for the roof to resist Fig. 2
wind loads (Figure 3); they keep Distribu-
tion of lateral
inertia forces from Fig. 4 Potential failure of
roof mass into earthen wall unanchored
shear wall through to bond beam.
46 bond beam.
 action of the roof. In the second case, the bond beam must act as
Fig. 5
a regular reinforced concrete beam with the reinforcement placed
Left: Roof wants to near the two faces in order to resist bending from both the inward
pull apart at this point, and outward inertia forces. In this case the roof does not act as
trying to deform in two a diaphragm.
different patterns.
Below: Roof does not Some basic information about bond beams that should be
want to pull apart. reflected in the adobe codes:
Bond beam acts as a
drag strut. • Bond beams should be continuous;
• Bond beams should be stiff and strong in the direction perpendicular to
the plane of the wall (i.e., full, or near full width of the wall thickness with
rebar in both faces if designed as a beam
tinuous (Figure 5). to carry lateral forces). Fig. 7 Bond beam as horizontal
Regarding the transfer of • Bond beams should restrain the out- support beam, spanning
lateral inertia loads from of-plane deflection of the wall as much between perpendicular cross
as possible, although, if they hinge at the walls.
the roof mass to the walls,
corners of the building rather than resist-
there are two basic engi- ing bending moment, this is all right;
neering design • In the vertical direction, bond
approaches to this prob- beams should be flexible, but
lem: construct a dia- strong (i.e., no more than 5
phragm, in which the bond or 6 inches in depth, with
beam is designed as the rebar at mid-depth). Note
that this important concept
chord element (see Figure 6); or construct an independent beam
is new and is the direct
with no roof diaphragm (see Figure 7). The designs for these consequence of observa-
two fundamental approaches are different. In the first case, the tions made of shake table
bond beam reinforcing is placed near the center of the cross tests on adobe structures;
section and is required only to carry tension forces in conjunction • Bond beams should be
with the structural diaphragm positively anchored to the
tops of the walls to prevent
Fig. 6 Bond beam as roof the walls from slipping from underneath
diaphragm cord. the roof structure during lateral shaking,
and to provide anchorage against uplift
from wind;
• Anchor rods should be closely
spaced (i.e., 12 to 24 inches) to
eliminate stress concentra-
tions from lateral forces
or uplift.”

47
 BÓVEDA A masonry vault, most forms of which were executed
in adobe block from ancient times to the present day. They are
found in arid areas where no wood was ever available for roofs, or
where desertification and human misuse had wiped out the origi-
nal forests. Bóvedas have evolved in many forms, and a tradition of
their use as roofs can be found in Eastern Europe, the Middle East,
Africa and Latin America. In the Southwestern U.S., a tradition
of vaulting was known during the mission-building period,
when craftsmen from Europe constructed many impressive

Bond beam block in place atop the adobe wall, ready for the concrete.
Steel has been placed to code. The worker is ready to begin bucketing
concrete (which can also be pumped). Bond beam blocks are not as
effective as continuous bond beams in seismic zones.
Above: A bóveda starting out of the corner of a room, using cuña
BOND BEAM BLOCK A type of hollow concrete block that is an adobes.
aid to setting up a concrete bond beam, acting as the forming for Below: A student’s clay model of bóvedas in Nadir Khalili’s Tucson, Az.
the concrete. Bond beam blocks have knock-out notches so that seminar. Photo by Suzi MacGregor
two lengths of steel may be placed inside, parallel and lengthwise
vaulted ceilings
down the wall. While this method saves all the hassle of setting up
in the churches
wood forms to receive the concrete, the breaks between the con-
of the South-
crete blocks segment the bond beam, and make it less effective as
western des-
a continuous element. For this reason, it is not recommended in
erts and adja-
seismic areas (see Bond Beam).
cent México.
BOOGY On the coast of Southwestern Australia, the term for a Timbers of ade-
shorter piece of forming, 0.9 meter long, used in rammed earth quate size to
work (Used by Stabilized Earth Structures Party, Ltd., Margaret span the width
River, Western Australia). of a large
church were
many miles
48 away, high in
the mountains, requiring an expedition to obtain them. The remark-
able engineering and longevity of these church constructions, often
of unfired adobe protected by lime-based plasters, is overlooked by
modern-day engineers and building inspectors. Today in the U.S.,
only a few bóvederos can be considered to be knowledgeable and
experienced in this craft, which has been slow to re-awaken in a
society addicted to ravaging forests for home building.

Bóvedas were all first executed in unfired adobe. In México and

Eastern Europe, they are typically of fired adobe. Starting in the late
1990’s, these forms began to be recognized as “non-wood roofing”,
or a component of “green” architecture. But while they save wood
in terms of structure, they can also burn wood in order to fire the
bricks. If the wood used to fire the adobes is a sustainable resource,
such as forest slash or orchard prunings, then the heavier timbers
saved from the roof design do indeed make these vaults “greener”.

In the Phoenix area, licensed contractor Joe Fait has built his
vaulted ceilings in adobe quemado, or fired adobe bricks (as men-
tioned above). These are smaller than standard sized adobes, and
are always laid up in Portland/lime-based mortar cements. In the
Albuquerque area, the late Nat Kaplan trained his adobe crews to
build brick-vaulted entryways. In Las Cruces, rammed earth con-
tractor Mario Bellestri has done a rammed earth hallway in vaulted
form. Because building inspection departments have little experi-
ence with this type of architecture, they will require an engineer’s
stamp on the plans. Rain runoff from any sort of domed, arched or
vaulted ceiling can tend to collect in parapet corners, which, if not
properly drained, can lead to leakage problems, or winter freeze/
thaw problems. Thus, the contemporary bóvedero must not only
know the old craft, but also current flashing, sealing and drainage
techniques if he plans to expose the vaulted roof directly to the
elements. In extreme climates, such roofs are often foamed, then
covered with a UV resistant waterproof membrane. Alternatively,
they may be foamed, then covered with a vapor barrier, then wired
with stucco netting, followed by a traditional 3-coat stucco. In this
manner, both insulation and protective coatings are serving their
Two views of a
domed bóveda
under construction
at Los Chávez,
N.M., by Steve
Safken.
The Portland stabi-
lized adobes were
made on site.
functions, while allowing the sculptural shape of the vault to be
seen from the exterior. An alternative, “green” solution for insulating
these structures is the use of a newspaper pulp stucco, stabilized
with a small percentage of Portland cement. This was developed by
rammed earth consultant Tom Schmidt of Saint David, Az., starting
in 1998. It was deployed on an adobe vault by Steve Safken at Los
Chavez, N.M. in the summer of 2000. The final color coat applied is
the same final finish coat used in any standard stucco system. On
the interior, the vaults are exposed, showing off the rather attrac-
tive adobe work overhead. When the work is well-pointed,
49
 it always draws the
admiration of visi-
tors, and may gen-
erate a new job for
the bóvedero.

In México, a
common solution
(left) on shallow
vaults is to finish the
brick portion of the
vault, then pour a
concrete slab over
the entire top of the
vault, sloped to drain off the structure in shed-roof fashion. The top
of the adobe or brick bóveda is already a rough surface, so it will
bond well with the pour. A network of steel rebar is laid atop the Left to right: Lic. contractor and bovedero Joe Fait, apprentice Mark
vault before the pour. Once in place, the concrete ties rigidly to the Kunz, and visiting Arizona State University instructor Tom Ward pose
vault, while adding a somewhat flexible membrane to the construc- under a bóveda in Scottsdale, Az. This project, designed by Joe Fait,
tion. This type of roof, if tied properly into the bond beam and walls, consumed 10,000 cuña bricks (adobe quemados). The vaulted ceiling
creates an excellent diaphragm to resist seismic forces. covers over 1000 sq.ft, reaching a height of 16 ft.

Original inspiration in the U.S. for these forms has been supplied
by visiting architects from the Third World, who are looking for inex-
pensive housing solutions to growing world populations. Notable
How a vault is begun. among these have been Nadir Khalili and Hassan Fathy. Khalili,
Only the bed joints now a California-based architect, continues with his research (see
are mudded, while the
Geltaftan). Fathy’s influence in the U.S. has been chiefly through the
head joints are left dry
and fitted together, design and construction of the original adobe mosque at Abiquiu,
then further wedged N.M., in 1979-80. Both men are authors of works on the subject
with flat stones. See (see Adobe Vaults and Domes).
also Espar.
Some barrel vaults use an arch shape that approaches the cate-
nary arch, one of nature’s strongest arch forms. It is a steeper vault-
that is, the downward pressures from the vault are contained within
the wall below, rather than pushing out to the sides and out of the
wall line. It is determined by hanging a uniform chain or
50
 flexible cord between Because each room size can differ, making up standard forms is
two fixed points as in out of the question. Fait begins his masonry ceilings at the four
the sketch. The length corners of the room, and each vault must “sail” out, the four sec-
of the chain is typi- tions meeting at room center (see page 50). Attention to appear-
cally twice the distance ance and detail must be maintained as Fait works outward, because
across the room, inside he is working in three dimensions at once.
wall edge to inside wall
edge. Hung close to The reader can begin to appreciate why an apprenticeship must
the surface of a piece first be served in such work before a structure is attempted, and no
of plywood, the shape one should casually attempt a vault or dome without understanding
may be traced off to the forces at work. These considerations are apparent in Fait’s work,
show the form or cen- as he first constructs a heavily reinforced concrete collar around the
tering that will serve as top of the walls that define the square or rectangular-shaped room
a guide for the mason. In Egypt and surrounding countries, such over which the vault will be constructed. This ring (similar to a bond
vaults are built right out into the air by experienced masons, and no beam) is essential to resist the lateral forces of the vault.
centering is used. According to Fathy, it takes an apprentice about
three years to master this vaulting technique. Readers may note that some vaulted structures call for no rein-
forced collar beneath them. In these cases, the steeper shape of
Shallow barrel vaults exert high lateral pressures at the spring line, the vault exerts more forces directly downward, and lateral forces
where the vault meets the supporting wall. In Egypt, the average are less. However, thick base walls are still required. In vaults,
vaulted room in a humble home might be 2 1/2 meters across, from especially the shallow designs, there is great lateral force, and such
inside wall to inside wall, and would have supporting adobe walls reinforced collars are mandatory.
around 50 cm (20”) thick. The adobes that are used in the vault
itself would be roughly 25x15x5 cm in size (10”x6”x2”) (see Cuña). BÓVEDA DE CAÑÓN A barrel vault of adobe quemado in México
These lightweight adobes are easily tossed up to the masons, who in which the vault is not catenary, but rather semi-circular, like the
use hand adzes to shape them into slightly trapezoidal shapes. inside of a cannon.
They are set into a very sticky adobe mud and locked into place
(see Egyptian Mud). Flat stones or wedges are lightly hammered BRICK FLOOR Brick used as a flooring material dates back to
between the adobes to further tighten the ring or arch of the vault antiquity and was common during Colonial times in the Eastern
(see Adobe Vaults and Domes). U.S. In the Southwest, floors were originally adobe, sealed with
various mixtures, some containing animal blood, a congealant (see
Building catenary vaults of adobe is made easy, as mentioned, via Adobe Floors). After a brief bout with wood floors during the Territo-
the use of a wood form. But other vaulting forms, such as those by rial period, bricks resurfaced as the preferred floor in central New
Joe Fait, require much skill, as building forms for them is impractical Mexico. Their popularity was sealed as passive solar techniques
if not impossible. That is because the makeup of such wood form- were established in the late 1970’s using them as a solar heat sink.
ing would take as much time as building the vault itself, and would Bricks are durable, historic, attractive and easily installed by the
use too much wood, not to mention its weight and awkwardness. owner-builder. Moreover, a brick on sand floor is often
51
cheaper than carpet on slab. As noted above, bricks need not be
placed on a concrete slab. Instead, a 1” to 1-1/2” sand bed is suf-
ficient. When the bricks are tightly fitted into one of the many pat-
terns (herringbone, basketweave, running bond), the sand below
will not compress and the bricks will not move.
A vapor barrier is placed on top of the subfloor. This is commonly a
6-10 mil plastic, overlapped 12” where sheets join. The plastic must
cover the entire floor, then be brought up to the sides of the stem
wall along the room perimeter. It may later be trimmed with a knife
at the top level of the brick.

From a green building view, red brick requires a lot of BTU’s to pro-
duce as compared to adobe block. Moreover, it is becoming more
expensive, due to its popularity as well as the increased cost of
energy to fire it (natural gas). In 1965, an interior quality red brick
cost 3-1/2¢ in Albuquerque. That same brick in the year 2000 costs
18¢ to 25¢. There is some increased interest in adobe floors as a
result, and from a passive solar standpoint, a dark-colored adobe
floor would make almost as good a solar heat sink as a red brick
floor. A small amount of Portland cement in the soil mix would
harden the floor, while not greatly increasing the number of BTU’s
required.

The general sequence of installation is as follows: first, the builder

must have designed his doorways so that the finished level of the
brick will come up to or pass over the concrete stem wall. Often, the
bricks are cemented into place over the threshold first, so that they
are all level, from one threshold to the next. This gives the installer
a guide, or determines points to set screed bars to later.

This height, called “finish floor”, may be marked around the room
using a water level or a transit. Next, the total depth of the materi-
als to be placed is determined. Brick ranges in depth from 2-1/8”
to 2-1/2”. The sand bed will vary from 1” to 1-1/2” in depth. If we
assume 4” in this example for the combined total, then we know that
the subfloor or “site soil” will have to be graded out and leveled to
that depth. The installer rakes out the subfloor material, levels it,
and then tamps it. Power tampers are not required for this job. A
steel plate tamper available at the building supply is fine. Care must
be taken to tamp thoroughly around corners and along the edges of
the room.
52
The installer knows that only rarely are rooms perfectly square. He
will set up a string system to determine if any two walls are at 90º
(see sketches). Often, a brick floor will start out at the corner of
the two walls closest to a 90º angle and work towards the two walls
that are not. The voids that are outside the string must be filled with
“cuts” or smaller pieces of brick to match the pattern. These may
be cut by hand using a brick chisel, or by means of a table-mounted
wet-saw with a diamond blade.
Sand is placed on top of the plastic. A plaster sand is best, as it
is fine and will not contain gravel that can get jammed between the
bricks later. The sand should be dry, but if it is not when shoveled in,
it will soon dry when spread out on the floor. Wet sand could pos- the sand floor. Using a coffee can filled with sand, he fills the voids
sibly bridge over voids. The sand is spread out and leveled. Strings carefully. A trowel will aid this touching up process from time to
may be stretched to help determine the level of the top of the sand, time.
but the common approach is to place screed bars, which are leveled
Bricks are placed against each other tightly, then tapped lightly with
a rubber mallet to seat them. Bringing the sand bed just slightly
above the level of the bottom of the brick will make up for the “tap” of
the mallet. Once the floor is finished, the installer can walk freely on
it. He brings a wheelbarrow up to the nearest door or window and
shovels in more fine plaster sand, spreading it around the floor, just
enough to cover the floor. This sand is now swept into every crack
or seam, and will “lock” the brick even further. After several sweep-
ings of fine sand into the cracks, the floor is swept off and sealed.
This is important, because generally, plastering of the adobe walls
is the next step, and one does not want to be plastering around an
unsealed brick floor. If you do, inevitably, some plaster will get down
into the porous brick, and it is almost impossible to extract all of it.
Always seal the brick before you plaster!

When plastering is finished, you may seal the floor one more time
if necessary. According to brick floor expert Douglas Ring of Ring
Brick and Stone, Albuquerque, N.M., glossy shellac-type sealers
are not the best choice. If any moisture gets past the vapor barrier
Architect Richard Scott levels his screed board on the screed bars. One of
them is visible at lower left. The 2x4 will be pulled down the bars, making from below, efflorescence of salts on the top surface of the brick
sure that all voids are filled with sand. The bars can be gently slid out last, will show if a shellac-type sealer is used. This is because the shel-
and the installer uses 2’x2’ squares of plywood to walk onto the sand, filling lac does not penetrate into the brick, but forms a layer on top of it.
voids with sand poured from a coffee can. As the salts rise, they crystallize on the top surface of the brick. A
polymer-based sealer, as used by Ring, penetrates into the brick,
sealing it below the top surface, so that any rising discoloration will
on stakes around the edges of the room. Screed bars are valuable not show. There are many, many sealers on the market, but the
tools to the brick floor installer. They must be straight, and while best advice is to choose one that penetrates into the brick, then
limber, not likely to “take a set” or bend. A popular choice is square hardens. These sealers have a matte to semi-gloss finish, but they
steel tubing. A straight 2”x4” is placed at right angles across the darken the brick slightly and bring out its color.
screed bars and pulled down the bars, leveling the sand. Sand may
be added as needed. When the installer reaches the other side of Some wax finishes, applied directly to the raw brick, may also be a
the room, the screed bars are gently extracted. The resulting voids mistake. The wax can penetrate into the tiny voids in the brick sur-
are filled in by hand. This task is made possible by using 2’ x 2’ face, where it can turn white. Perhaps brick floor owners
pieces of plywood “steps” so that the installer may walk out over 53
should not try for high luster wax finishes, but instead the low luster
or polymer finishes. A dry mop, slightly moistened with linseed oil
will help to build up such a luster over time.

Underfloor radiant heating systems may be installed in a brick-on-

sand floor. The underfloor radiant tubing is laid out on top of the
vapor barrier, and the sand is filled in around the tubing, to a depth
of from 1” to 1-1/2”, before being screeded out. The sand and the
brick act as thermal mass. The underfloor radiant tubing is brought
up within a small framed-out box or area in the adobe wall, where it
plugs into the copper tubing that supplies hot water from the boiler.
In severely cold climates or over bedrock, it may be necessary to
install underfloor-rated insulation (minimum 1” or R-5) to act as a
thermal break between the cold ground below and the pipe system.
This insulation layer would install directly over the compacted earth
subfloor, to be followed by the vapor barrier, and other elements.

The brick may be set vertically to form a baseboard. Since these

brick baseboards are often structural parts of the stem, they are
discussed under Foundation Systems.

Tools required are gloves, knee pads, brick tongs (to grab 6 or more
bricks at a time), a brick chisel, claw hammer, rubber mallet, screed
bars, straight 2x4’s, strings, and the use of a brick saw. The brick
saw is not absolutely necessary, in that the brick chisel will do the
same job, but not all “cuts” with the chisel will be acceptable, making
the hand approach much slower. The installer must visit the local
supplier and study the choices available. If the bricks offered are not
modular, some more complicated patterns, such as basketweave,
may not be possible. Running bond and herringbone patterns are
also quite popular.

Placing bricks
in a herringbone pattern
A curving brick floor in running bond pattern by artisan Douglas Ring
54 of Ring Brick & Stone, Rio Rancho, N.M.
BRISE-SOLEIL French term for a screen to block off unwanted
sunlight and heat. Frame walls are tied to
adobe walls or rammed
BUILT AREA The total square footage of a home measured to the earth walls via many sys-
exterior of the walls. Different from Living Area, which is the space tems, including t-bolts,
inside the walls, used by the occupants. Another term used for built gringo blocks, or
area is the home footprint. expanded metal lath
strips. T-bolts are proba-
BUTTRESS A lateral supporting wall. The most effective angle of bly the most secure tie,
a buttress is 45º measured off of vertical. The bond beam should as gringo blocks can pull
be included in the top of the buttress. Most codes require that an apart, and lathe can
adobe wall must be laterally supported at least every 24 feet. How- stretch, if not properly
ever, certain very thick walls, such as in rammed earth construction, installed (see T-Bolt and
require less lateral support because of their stability. Whatever the Expanded Metal Lathe).
distance between lateral supports, when masonry meets masonry,
it should be integrated, overlapped and tied together structurally as Buttressing may be on
the walls go up, not just butted up against the adjoining wall. If a either the inside or the outside of the structure, or both. On the
buttressing wall is raised after the main wall, then steel ladder rein- inside of a home, a Santa Fé wall can qualify as a buttress, while at
forcement, such as Duro-Wall, should be left in the main wall every the same time serving as a location for a fireplace.
four to six courses, so that a good tie may be made. In all cases,
a continuous foundation should have already been poured under- In rural New Mexico, in
neath both walls, with no breaks. the days before codes and
so-called modern building
In the New Mexico materials, buttressing was
code, frame walls often an add-on. The some-
count as buttressing times inadequate stone
walls. Therefore, in foundations under old
most home designs, adobes led to settling and
ample buttressing is cracks near the corners. As
already in place, since time passed, the separa-
most rooms do not tion widened, threatening
go more than 24 feet the integrity of the building.
before they are but- Villagers would simply build
tressed with either a very massive adobe buttresses around such corners, filling in the
frame or adobe wall. cracks and mud plastering over the finished forms. An example
of this is the famous old adobe church at Ranchos de Taos, New
Mexico.
55
In seismic zones, well-designed buttresses can go a long way
towards stabilizing earth walls in a quake. Contractors tend to
discount their use, as they require more foundation work and
adobes. But the smart contractor knows that buttresses can also
serve as adjoining patio walls, for small enclosures in gardens
and for wind deflection. Thus, they are marketed as smart building
features that are a step beyond what the competition is offering.

BYZANTINE DOME A dome that rises from pendentives or from

corners inside a square room to become a circle above the walls
below. It is also called the “poor man’s dome”, as it requires fewer
adobes than the sassinid dome, a more complex form (see Adobe
Vaults and Domes).

The Byzantine adobe dome under construction

at Bosque, N.M. Base walls are 2’ thick Cross section of a sassanid adobe dome on squinches as constructed at the
and the dome is 10” thick. Abiquiu Mosque in N.M., 1979-1980. Hassan Fathy, architect, Egypt.
See page 22 for step-by-step instructions. This type of dome uses more adobes than the Byzantine dome.
56
CAJÓN A type of earth-wall construction in which a clay-soil mix
of appropriate consistency is used in the form of wall panels sup-
ported by a structural wall frame. Derivation of the name of El
Cajón, Ca., near San Diego.

CAMPANARIO Bell tower. One of the most outstanding features of

California mission architecture.

CAÑA BRAVA A popular construction cane in Costa Rica. It is

tough, takes nails well, and is flexible. It resembles bamboo and
can be used to make up attractive wall paneling (see Bajareque).

CAÑA CASTILLA A cane used in Costa Rica for roof construction

in traditional bajareque or adobe houses.

CANAL (CANALES) Waterspouts or drains that take rain water off

the roof and dump it well away from adobe walls. The term canal is
singular, canales is plural and “canale” is not a word. Canales can
be made of metal, cast concrete, ceramic pipe, or wood lined with
metal. On the frontier, they were often simply a small log, carved
out to drain, such as the left over piece of a viga or beam.
Until a half century ago, most canales in New Mexico were often
installed unlined without any waterproofing and they leaked, with
erosion taking its toll down the
Today, building good canales is
face of the wall. Moreover, the
not a problem, as they are lined
apron, or area where roof water
with galvanized sheet metal, sol-
is channeled into the canal must
dered at the seams, and have
be well waterproofed - if it is
adequate aprons that extend
not, a leak is sure to develop
back over the roof deck. The
along the area where parapet
roofing felts are mopped over
and roof join.
the apron, so that the water
must exit through the canal.
Old wood canal without metal
lining. Cast concrete canal in a parapet,
The unstabilized adobe wall has Tucson, Az.
suffered accelerated erosion due
to leaks in the canal.
57
Contractors cut different designs for the wood portions of the canal, as the south or west. Taking the water off to the north side leads
some simple, some elaborate. The styles differ by region, with the to moisture build-up on that side of the house, where it does not
wood types being common in New Mexico, and the ceramic and tin tend to evaporate quickly. Since the north side is the coldest, this
types being popular in Southern Arizona. also causes problems in the wintertime. Along Canyon Road in
Santa Fé, we see north-draining canales that form long and heavy
Metal canales on icicles which are heavy enough to break the canales off the wall and
historic adobe homes in endanger passers-by. If canales must be drained to the north in cold
the Barrio Viejo, Tucson, winter climates, they should be overbuilt and carried out far beyond
Az. the wall. Diagonal bracing from underneath may be advised, along
with some type of heating device to melt ice buildup.
Canales should
always be long
enough so that they CAÑON Another term for canales or rainspouts, originally meaning
take water well away cannon (see Canal).
from the walls. This
may not be so critical CANTERA A type of stone, quarried in México, soft enough for
today, because carving or sculpting with chisels. Cantera comes in various shades
earthen walls are of grey, brown, pink, green, yellow and apricot. Today, much pre-
either stabilized or carved cantera is shipped to the Southwest for use in architectural
covered with a pro- embellishment. Ornate fireplaces and fluted columns are popular.
tective coat of stucco,
but a short canal will
eventually cause a CAPILLA In mission church architecture, a small church or chapel.
stain on the wall. In
historic photos of old CAPOTE The shell adobe wall constructed around the pile of
adobes, it is common adobes that are to be fired in the production of adobe quemado, or
to note canales two to fired adobe. The capote only touches the interior block here and
three feet long. there, for air must be able to pass between it and the adobes to be
fired (see Ladrillera and Adobe Quemado).
If possible, houses
should be designed
so that canales drain CASA BAJA A one story house.
water away to a sunny
side of the home, such
CATIONIC In adobe making, an asphalt emulsion with a positive
Metal canales installed charge. It is the most common type that works with the greatest
below a territorial style range of soils in the Western U.S.
brick parapet.
58
CEDROS A latilla used in roof construction, harvested from the

CLAY
cedar or juniper tree (see Latillas).

CELDA Another term for concrete masonry unit or CMU, with cells
to be filled with concrete, used in Central America.

CHIMINEA Chimney.

CLARABOYA A decorative quatrefoil window, considered a

colonial feature in stately Mexican homes (below).

CLAUSTRA Moldings or tracery in mud, used to decorate doors,

windows, and balconies in the Middle East.

CLAVOS Nails. Popular earthbuilding varieties below:

From top: Clay, lumpy by nature, must be screened to

• square headed cap nail be useful for adobe mixes.

• two examples of round cap

Clay is the essential binding element in all earthbuilding mixes,
insulation nails with
tempered, spiral shanks mortars and adobe blocks. Clays are formed by weathering at the
earth’s surface and are the smallest grain size division of soils, con-
• #20 nail for roughcut sisting usually of materials of flatish configuration and of less than 2
lumber microns (1/256 millimeter or less) in size. These flatish elements or
micelles are layered (or chain-molecular) structures. A microscope
• # 16 nail for standard
lumber. is necessary to see the structure of any clay.

A quick breakdown of the particle sizes in soils and how they act in
All are galvanized except adobe will be helpful in understanding clay’s role.
square head (top).

59
Clay: 1/256 mm or less in size (sticky - necessary as a binder in Locating clay
adobe) The adobero used to rely on local tradition in choosing a suitable
Silt: 1/60 mm - 1/256 mm (called “rock flour”- chalky - too much in clay. Today, USDA soil classification maps, local well drillers, agri-
adobe will weaken it) culture extension agents and soil engineering companies (which
Fine Sand: 1/16 mm - 1/60 mm (if rounded, too much can weaken often know where problematic clays are concentrated) have made
adobe) the search easier. Clay-based soils may also be found at sand and
Coarse Sand: 2 mm - 1/16 mm (vital for interlocking strength in gravel yards, where clay is a reject material. Such soils take up
adobe) room at the yard and may be offered for free or at reduced cost.
Gravel: 2 mm or greater (small, sharp gravels, such as volcanic Another source derives from the natural build-up of clays and other
scorria, or crusher fines add strength to adobe) soils along irrigation systems, where dredging is periodically nec-
essary to maintain the ditch channel. This was a traditional source
Percentage of clay and how adobe works in New Mexico, where the farmers (who lived in adobe structures)
Some think of an adobe block as a clay block. Not true. Clay is not worked closely with the land, and knew an opportunity when they
the majority of the mix, but the minority, ranging from 15% to 35% saw it.
of the total. The major element is always sand, ranging from smaller
sands to sharp, rough sands. The best adobes will only contain suf- Screening clay
ficient clay to bind the sand particles together. Some clays carry an Clay excavated directly from the ground is usually in clod or chunk
ion or electrical charge that attracts them to other particles in the form. In the U.S. Southwest, a pile of rough clay, left to the elements,
mix, an effect that enhances bonding in the adobe. Adding clay will eventually break down through wet/dry cycles. In many desert
beyond the binding point may produce a serviceable block, but it areas, surface clays have completed this process and can be a fine
may not be as strong, and if the clay is expansive, it will increase powder. But, below the surface, clay will be in clod form, and cannot
its chances of cracking. Moreover, if the adobero is stabilizing the be used for adobe, unless screened. In times past, adobe materials
block, the higher the percentage of clay, the more stabilizer will be were soaked in a pit, assuring a breakdown of the clay. In modern
required. adobe production, less time is available for soaking, so screens may
be set up as part of the production facility. For the small operator,
Code minimums screening is usually done by sifting the clay through a 1/4” to 1/2”
The ultimate test of a clay’s suitability in a mix is to form some grid hardware cloth, stretched over a wood frame. The screen is
blocks, cure them until dry and test them to the standards for adobe propped up at an angle. Using a shovel, a worker throws the dry,
in the applicable regional code. If a particular mix makes a strong rough clods up over the screen in a sweeping arc. This simple task
block with few cracks and meets the minimums of 300 p.s.i. com- can produce a considerable amount of fine clay material in less than
pressive strength and 50 p.s.i. modulus of rupture, then it is suit- an hour (see pg. 59).
able. These tests can be performed by a materials testing lab, or the
enthusiast may do the same at home, using ordinary tools.* The danger of using unscreened clay is that clods approaching
* A valuable resource for testing tools is The Manufacture of Asphalt Emulsion Stabilized Blocks 1/2” in size, or larger, may not be fully penetrated by water and
& Brickmakers’ Manual. Available from Kennel Bookstore, California State University, 5284 North thus fail to break down during the saturation process. Undissolved
Jackson, Fresno, Ca. 93740-0022. As of 1999 cost was approx. $10.00, including shipping. Also
available in Spanish. Authored by the State of California and Hans Sumpf Adobe Company.
clay pieces can cause fracture lines in the dried block. In stabilized
adobe manufacture, these undissolved pieces are still unstabilized.
60
If exposed on the wall face, rains may wash them out of the adobe, “That same day, Pharaoh gave this command to the people’s slave
leaving holes or gaps in the masonry. drivers and to the overseers. ‘Up to the present, you have provided
these people with straw for brickmaking. Do so no longer; let them
In areas of frequent rainfall, soil moisture may remain high for much go and gather straw for themselves. All the same, you are to get
of the year. If clay is being extracted from wet ground, it is almost from them the same number of bricks as before, not reducing it at
impossible to screen it when moist. A simple pole shed, 15’ x 15’ all.’ ”
with open sides, will allow the clay to dry out over time. The drying
can be accelerated by solarizing the shed after the clay is placed. This punishment by the Egyptian king of the sons of Israel was
harsh, as the straw was not easily found, even in the river lands
Wall panels can be quickly attached to the vertical posts. The panels along the Nile, and yet the same number of adobes had to be pro-
are inexpensive translucent corrugated roofing material, to gener- duced. This tradition of adding straw or other fiber has persisted to
ate solar heat inside the shed. Vents left open at the top and bottom the current day. For example, in New Mexico, some Native Ameri-
will create a simple thermo-siphon, and allow moisture to escape. can Pueblos insist on chopped straw in their adobes, even when the
Once the clay has dried, most panels are removed, and a screen mix has no excessive clay and is stabilized using modern methods.
can be set up adjacent to the clay pile. This is in respect for certain traditions maintained by the Pueblo.

Today, because of popular stabilizers, there is no need to increase

Too much clay will cause cracking in the blocks, so the adobero may the clay content to repel water, and therefore, no need for the addi-
have to pull back on the amount of clay in his mix or increase the tion of fibrous matter. Today, the average adobe facility produces
sharp sand percentage. Adobe codes specify how many cracks blocks that are roughly 94% to 97% mineral soil by weight, with the
are allowed in the blocks: “No units shall contain more than three remaining 3% to 6% as the stabilizer itself.
shrinkage cracks, and no shrinkage crack shall exceed two inches
(2”) in length or one-eight inch (1/8”) width.” (New Mexico code) Water in clay
Customers will not purchase blocks that appear to have a cracking In clay, water may come and go. Water can be absorbed between
problem. The adobero is acutely aware of this, resulting in a sort ofclay particles, and adsorbed to clay particle surfaces, and inside the
consumer protection at the adobe facility. clay crystal structure. How a clay performs in the presence of water
depends on its mineralogical nature and the characteristics of its
Organic fiber and clay content tiny plates or micelles. Some plates are so formed as to be stable,
As pointed out above, clay is slow to absorb water and thus, in many and swell very little in the presence of water. An example would be
old processes, the clay percentage was increased to help repel Kaolinite, present in common household medicines ingested for an
water from the finished adobe. upset stomach.

But in the manufacturing process, the mix is already totally satu-
rated, so the increased clay could result in cracking. To offset this,
fibrous organic matter was added, such as straw, grass, chopped
yucca fiber, or pine needles. In the Old Testament (Exodus 5:6), we
see the entry:
Others, like Montmorillonite and Bentonite, swell to many times their
original size, and should not be used in adobe mixes. Bentonite
is sold commercially as a waterproofer, applied to the outside of
masonry surfaces. The Bentonite plates expand and overlap each
other like shingles to keep water from penetrating.
61
Color in clay Naming clays
Clay is available in a variety of hues and colors, ranging from reds to
browns, yellows, whites and even blues. Older communities in New Kaolin (stable clays)
Mexico and throughout Latin America were sometimes named after Kaolinite,
surrounding soil colors important to early-day home builders. Exam- Halloysite
ples are Tierra Amarilla (yellow earth) in Northern New Mexico and
Casa Colorada (for the reddish soil) in Central New Mexico.
Illites (fairly stable clays)
Chlorite
Adoberos may purposely pick clay with a concentrated color for Hormites (including Sepiolite)
aesthetic reasons, provided that it is not too expansive and that Micas
there is enough of it to finish the project. The use of soil mixes high Vermiculite
in colored clays and mixed with fine sands to make up slips or inte- Zeolites (no plasticity - not technically clay minerals)
rior plasters was common in New Mexico well into the 1940’s, and
is of renewed interest today, especially with the use of sealers to
prevent “dusting” of the wall surface (see Alis, Alisando, and Enjar- Smectites (unstable clays)
radora). Beidellite
Bentonite
Hectorite
Clay for the commercial adobero Montmorillonite
The commercial scale adobero will personally sample soils, make Nontronite
up test adobes, cure them and take them to the lab for testing. The Saponite
following questions may be asked about the clay deposit:

Impurities
1. What is its extent and thickness? These are often present from the silt elements in clay and contain
Quartz,
2. What is the total tonnage and volume?
Calcite,
3. Which beds are usable and which are waste? Gypsum
Feldspar.
4. Can you mine as a single unit?

5. What are the blending possibilities?

Soluble salts
6. Is deposit physically mineable? Legally accessible ? These are another clay impurity. The Uniform Building Code says
Permittable? that adobe soils cannot “contain more than 0.2 percent of water
soluble salts”. Salt in adobe, concrete block or red brick is destruc-
tive, and can eventually erode the masonry unit. When the soil is
62
first wetted to produce adobe block, the salt is in solution. As the
block dries, the water is pulled out to the surface, and the salt crys-
talizes and expands like slow-motion popcorn. The expansion can
pop off particles of the block. Over time, with wetting and drying,
high-salt soils can destroy a wall. An extreme example is Death
Valley Junction, California - an old, all-adobe mining town. The oth-
erwise adequate adobe soils have a high salt content. Today, the
unstabilized adobe erodes easily, and has for years. Preservation
efforts have been fruitless.
Salt tends to collect in low spots and valleys. It can be present in
surface clay layers, as salt does not easily wash through the imper-
vious clay. On the landscape, these soils show up with snow white
streaks as they dry after a rain. They should be avoided for block
making. In general, locating an adobe facility at a higher location
above the valley floor will yield soils without salt problems. A soils
testing lab can determine the salt content, as can an agricultural
extension agent.
CLAY LUMP An English form of adobe block. The term was histori-
cally used in East Anglia for a mix of soil, straw and water molded
into blocks. Charles Dunnet, Architect, of the Department of Archi-
tecture, Nottingham, gives us this 1850 description of the process:
“The clay to be raised on the farm within 1/4th mile of the site, to
be properly picked so as to leave no large stones and to be trod-
den with long hay or straw and cast into lumps 1 1/2 feet long, 12”
wide and 6” deep, the lumps to be carefully dried and built up in a
workman-like manner, jointed with a mixture of clay and mud, the
lumps to be keyed on both sides while soft for plastering.”
Next to rammed earth, clay lump was the most sophisticated earth
technique in England, according to Dunnet. A few tests have been
run on its properties. It was found that clay lump will easily with-
stand 1 1/2 tons of weight per square foot, and that 8” to 9” of the
material will provide 55 dB. acoustic insulation. Additionally, walls
of clay lump are incombustible.
CLERESTORY A bank of windows above the living area. In solara-
dobe design, they are a common feature. They are always oriented
to the south and are best within 5º of true south, although they work
up to15º off of true south, under a solar overhang, designed to allow
the low winter sun to penetrate while blocking the high summer
sun. They generally pitch rather steeply to the north side. Cleresto-
ries are an effective way to get solar gain into the back or northern
rooms of a home. They generally increase the cost and complexity
of building, especially for owner-builders, who are not used to work-
ing 15 to 20 feet off the ground. A typical clerestory for passive solar
design must rise at least 46” from the first story roof below, and
that doesn’t count the final roof framing above the windows them-
selves. Let’s account for the main components: first, 4” for the rise
in flashing above the first story roof deck, next, 4” for a seal and
sill above the flash, then, a 34” P.R.U. (patio replacement fixed glass
unit, double-glazed and tempered), and last, 4” for the double wood
plate above the window. This will put you at the underside of the
roof framing, which might rise another 8” to 10”. Above this will be
roof decking. If the roof insulation is enclosed within the roof fram-
ing, that deck may be the final one. If however, the roof framing is
exposed, another 8” to 10” of boxed insulation may exist above the
exposed deck, and then, the final deck. If the builder uses 28” P.R.U.
glass, the clerestory height may be dropped 6”. Another inch or two
may be subtracted if metal weatherproof framing is used to affix
the glass on the outside of the window framing, but such systems
require a 4” wide wood face to attach to.
Clerestories
by
Jim Bishop,
contractor,
on an adobe
home in
Albuquerque,
N.M.
63
Some effort should be made to design clerestories that are attrac-
tive, rather than ugly “pop-ups” that detract from the overall appear- COB
ance of the home. A good roof framer, who understands roofing
carpentry, is a necessary asset on the crew at this point. Roof fram-
ers are used to working high off the ground, know the hazards, and
can figure cuts and angles without having to come down off the
job. They usually come with an assistant, included in the price, who
speeds the job. But the place to start is with the plans themselves.
Try to design the front part of the roof, over the southernmost one-
story portion, using a roofing material that does not require more
than a 1 in 12 pitch. That will mean that the clerestory can start at
a lower point than if you, for example, picked a metal roof, which
requires a minimum 3 in 12 pitch. Look at your plan elevations,
and understand how you will finish overhangs, outriggers, insulation
cavities, drip edges, and the sides of the clerestory itself. A sugges-
tion is to pay the roof framer a consulting fee to go over the clere-
story structure with you before the final plans are drafted. A good
framer will know what is on the market and what works, lasts and
looks good. A well-executed clerestory can be a handsome feature
that blends well with the overall home design. It will put solar gain
directly onto the otherwise cold north walls of the interior during the
winter months.

Clerestories for solar homes will also need an insulating device to

cover their glass areas once the sun has set. Otherwise, much of
the solar gain can be lost, radiating to the night sky. Simple, hinged,
insulative panels can be effective, and if the budget allows, auto-
matic light-sensing, motorized devices are on the market, replete
with attractive panels and fittings.* Clerestories should not just be
fixed glass, but have adequate venting windows. These are essen-
tial for conditions during the fall or spring, when a passive solar
home can overheat. Venting windows can also be added on the
east and west sides of a clerestory. East and west windows should
be low-E, air or argon-filled.
Cob house in Southwestern England. The old saying is “Giv’un a gude hat and
pair of butes an er’l last forever.” This refers to the stone stem and the thatch
roof.
* Window Quilt™ (800) 257 4501 Photo by Charles Dunnett, Architect, Dept. of Architecture,
64 University Park Nottingham, England
COB (also Clob or Clom) A form of traditional earthbuilding in Eng- leaving a space for ventilation. Tile or slate lintels were used over
land, especially the western section of the country. Regardless of all openings. The cost of the house finished was 6 1/2 d. a cubic
culture, this statement about earth seems much the same world- foot.”
wide. Here is the English version:
Ernest Gimson, Devon, England, 1916

“No house can be considered more warm and cozy than that built
of Cob, especially when thatched. It is warm in winter and cool in Many Devon Cob houses are 200 to 300 years old with some dating
summer, and I have known workers to bitterly bewail their fate in to the 1500’s, with walls four feet thick. The composition of the Cob
being transferred from an old 15th or 16th century Cob cottage to varies with local conditions, but one analysis revealed the follow-
a newly built edifice of the most approved style, as they said it was ing:
like going out of warm life into a cold grave.”
Coarse sand 19.70%
From “Book of the West” –S. Baring-Gould Fine sand 32.50%
Clay 20.60%
Actually, the different regions of England developed a variety of Stone residue on a 7x7 mesh sieve 24.40%
earthbuilding forms (see Shilf, Wichert and Clay Lump). Straw 1.25%
Moisture content 1.55%
Cob, or Clom, is a mix of shale, chopped straw, clay and water. Cob
was once the cottage material par excellence of Devonshire, South Cob is mixed in a bed of clay/shale close to the wall it will create. It
Wales and the west of England. Today, preservationists maintain it, goes up in “perches”. Each perch is roughly 16 1/2 feet long, 12”
and there is some evidence of new construction, although thatchers high x the wall thickness, usually between two and three feet.
are getting hard to find. A description of the technique follows:

“The Cob is made of the stiff sand [Ed. Note: ‘stiff’ denoting viscosity
with a clay content] found on the site; this was mixed with water and
a great quantity of long wheat straw trodden in. The walls are built
three feet thick, pared down to 2’-6”, and were placed on a plinth
[stem] standing 18” above the ground floor and built of cobblestone
found among the sand. The walls were given a coat of plaster and
a coat of rough cast, which was gently trowelled over to smooth the
surface slightly. I believe that 8 men were engaged in the Cobwork, The mass is turned on the ground with a pick (see Cob Pick) in a
some preparing the material, and others treading it onto the top of circular mass 5 to 6 feet in diameter. The workers also tread the
the walls. It took them about 3 months to reach the top of the walls, mass, turning it with the cob pick a few times. Finally, the cob is
to where the plate was set on; the cost was 6 shillings a cubic yard, forked onto the pick and laid onto the wall in a diagonal pattern. On
exclusive of the plastering (c.1916). No centering was used. The the wall, it is treaded down. The cob is allowed to overhang the
joists rested on plates and above them, the walls narrowed to 2’-2” walls one inch on either side to allow for later paring down. Four
in thickness to leave the end of the joists free. The beams also men can lay about four perches per day on a wall two feet thick,
rested on wide plates and the ends were built round with stone, preparing and laying the material. A flat-bladed chopper 65
is used to shape the wall. Generally, a string is stretched to define “In front of the garden, a swirling stream crosses a strip of green;
the vertical plane. Cob houses take a year or more to cure in the and in the garden, at the right time, one may see the bees busy
English climate, but are plastered once they do. They must be pro- among golden-powdered clusters of candytuft, and dark red gilly-
tected from moisture before and after finishing. The building season flowers, and a few flame rose-coloured tulips… The house is very
is March through September. Even in England, the walls become picturesque; it has cob walls and a thatched roof, and is built in
quite dry, and as in the American Southwest, straw or grass embed- the shape of the letter E; a wing projects at either end, and in the
ded in the wall mass does not decay. middle, the porch juts out slightly. The two wings are gabled; there
is a small gable over the porch and two dormer ones over the win-
Wall thickness varies from 18” to 36”, with 24” being the rule. Some dows at each side of it, the windows having lattice lights and narrow
cob walls reach 30 feet in height. Readers should understand that mullions. Dark carved beams above them show up well against the
the term “cottage” in English cob construction can indicate a very cream-coloured walls. The heavy door is closely studded with nails
large country home of two or occasionally three stories. Roof plates and over it fall the delicate sprays and lilac “butterfly” blossoms of
are sometimes tied to the wall with galvanized iron wire. Wood wistaria.”
blocks are laid into the cob walls to which are attached door and -from “Devon” by Lady Rosalind Northcote
window frames.
Turning to the more rustic realities of building with cob, we refer to
Cob structures, like adobes, suffer most around their bases. In Eng- Clough Williams-Ellis, whose notes have given this definition much
land, pitch or tar is applied on top of the stem to retard rising damp- substance. In 1916 Ellis stated:
ness. This base might later be covered with a lime-horse hair ren-
dering. Portland cement-based plasters are not regarded as stick- “Cob making was, like many other local trades, carried on in some
ing well to cob, but mixing up one part cement, one part lime and families from generation to generation and developed by them into
three parts sand does stick well. an art, but apart from these specialists, practically every village
mason and his labourers built as much with Cob as they did with
Cob floors were traditionally of cobblestone. Stone.”

In England, cob has a mystique similar to the romantic image asso-
ciated with adobe in the U.S. Southwest. Since a history of earthen
dwellings is recorded there as far back as the year 1212, when a
survey identified many of them in London, the nostalgia gets fairly
heavy. Preservationists picture their cob ‘charges’ against a pictur-
esque and pastoral setting from a far time. They lavish an under-
standable amount of attention on them. But of course the houses
are filled with history, are solidly built and set a standard of craft-
building that has long disappeared. That many are not simple “mud
huts” is verified by the following description of a cob house built
before the time of Sir Walter Raleigh’s parents (who lived in it):
66
Today in England, the tradition is carried on by a few “revivalists”
who, luckily, have as much knowledge as they do enthusiasm. But
serious considerations of cob and other earthbuilding forms in Eng-
land only gain firm ground during times of energy shortage or eco-
nomic stress. The real need is in the specific training of building
crews to build with cob, so that a bank of skilled tradesmen may
be established. Generally in earthbuilding, marketing research has
shown that demand follows the availability of the product. If crews
train and promote themselves, they will develop their own market.
Earthbuilding also is in evidence in Ireland (Turf) and in Scotland,
where the tradition of thick-walled country homes was probably car-
ried there by the Celtic peoples who introduced some of the forms COB PICK A tool used in English cob-earth construction to mix
to Wales and Southwestern England. In Scotland, the famed poet, or turn the cob, and to lift it from the mixing pit and place it on the
Robert Burns, was born in an earthen home of three stories height, course.
referred to as “the olde clay big’un.”

In the 1980’s to 1990’s, interest in cob began in the U.S., espe-

cially the Pacific Northwest region. Its rediscovery is part of the
package of alternative building techniques advocated by green
building groups. As of 2001, cob is not in the Uniform Building Code.
Many of its enthusiasts are owner-builders, not familiar with the
code or with design for seismic zones. Code issues and a few dis-
putes have happened and can be expected. The best advice is that
the new cob builders should imitate the British form - that is, start
with the very wide, 2’-6” traditional wall, adding contemporary foun-
dation systems and bond beams. A source of information is a little
newsletter called “The Cobweb”, which has been doing a good job
of technology exchange, as well as keeping up with new projects.
COCINA Kitchen.
For information, write: Cob Cottage Company, attn: Llanto Evans,
PO Box 123, Eugene, Or. 97424. Telephone (as of 1999): (541) COMBUSTION AIR Air pipes from outside of house to inside that
942-2005. Ask about ordering a copy of the book, The Cobber’s feed a fireplace or stove. It is now common practice to set 1-1/2” or
Companion, by Michael Smith. In 1998, Smith’s address was PO 2” diameter pipes running from the outside of the wall, through
Box 10792, Eugene, Or. 97440. the stem wall to a spot usually
on the hearth of the fireplace.
COB PARING IRON A tool used in English cob-earth construction The fire will draw its air
to pare down a cob wall. It is a straight cutting blade on a handle, through these pipes from the
designed so that one side is completely flat to the wall. A line is outside, rather than pulling
stretched to determine the vertical face and a crew member stands the warmed air out of the
atop the cob course, sighting to the line and shaving the wall to room. On the outside of the
plumb. home, a bird/rodent guard
is placed around the pipe.
On the inside, the pipe
end has a threaded
section to accept
an ornamental cap.
Combustion air pipes can
eliminate the cold drafts
felt around ankles and feet 67
when sitting in a room that is warmed by a fire. Combustion
air should be supplied for wood-burning stoves as well. Keep in
mind that if no combustion air pipes are placed, the fire will get
its combustion air by sucking it from every crack in your doors or
windows. A combustion air supply is required by code in some
areas.
CONVERSATION FIREPLACE A term used by adobe contrac-
tors to describe a small fireplace that has charm and an aesthetic
touch, but is not efficient, as opposed to a Count Rumford fire-
place. The conversation variety always has a small firebox, in spite become the ‘trademark’ of that builder.
of the mass around it. It is often placed in rooms where other
heating means are in evidence or where there is little room for a
bigger unit.
CORBEL A rectangular piece of wood, cut to an ornate and
trapezoidal shape, and serving to transfer the load from a parapet
or roof to a vertical support below. Many ancient cultures used
A carver and his corbel in Las Cruces, N.M.
68
corbels. Much of the western influence dates from the Greeks to
Europe and to modern architecture, although in México and South
America, the corbel was deployed by New World cultures before
the arrival of the Europeans. Corbels are popular in Southwestern
adobe architecture.
Today, contractors leave “corbel patterns” of masonite or plywood
at their lumber suppliers. They call on the phone to order more
corbels. The supplier traces the pattern on the block of wood to
be cut, then runs it through a bandsaw. A particular pattern may
From a seismic design standpoint, long
portales with vertical posts and corbels
are weak connections. In heavy seismic
zones, a different arrangement is called
for, involving bracing that starts lower
down on the vertical post and runs diagonally up on both sides of
the vertical to tie into the beam or structure above. Corbels should
be tied to the beam above them and the verticals below. The usual
practice is the drilling of a hole through all three pieces, so that a
length of 1/2 or 5/8” steel rebar may be hammered through.
The photos below were supplied by Paul Logsdon of Santa Fé,
N.M., who here lays out a simple procedure for carving your own
corbels without the aid of a band saw. While the photos are self
explanatory, Paul accompanies them with the following notes:

3. The chisel should be used with the grain to achieve clean cuts.
A sharp chisel is a wonderful thing and a dull one is dangerous, for
it requires hard hammer blows.
1. The design is traced on both sides of the stock to prevent
overcut and make it easier to keep constant curves and edges
when working later with the chisel.

4. The rough-cut material should be removed before the final

chiseling is started. The finished corbel in no. 4 below has all
2. The chainsaw cuts must be delicate, care being taken not to cut edges beveled to soften the overall appearances.
into the traced pattern. Otherwise saw marks will show. 69
Logsdon mentions that an ordinary crosscut saw could be used
instead of the chainsaw, at more expense in time and sweat. In
other conversations about corbels, we visited with Wendell Groff,
advisor at Groff Lumber in Albuquerque, where many a custom
corbel is cut for adobe contractors. Wendell points out that “ball”
corbels, or those designs in which the round circular pattern is
allowed to protrude beyond the mass of the stock, are susceptible
to cracking and eventually separating from the corbel. He sug-
gests designs that make the ball feature less pendant.

A bandsaw cut corbel at Groff Lumber, Albuquerque, N.M.

CORBELED CORNER A way of bridging a square corner with

adobes, most often used in dome construction to turn a square
into an octagon. Octagons can then be corbeled into drums, drums
evolve into domes (see Adobe Vaults and Domes, Squinch Arch).

Two story adobe construction showing half-corbels above

70 and a full corbel below.
Adobes at corbeled corners should be butted up snugly to each
other. On the second course, the ends of the two adobes should
be laid over, staggered to add support. After the ends are covered Right: Mason’s line
over, the middle block may be placed. The wall will not fail coming in from two
because of friction and compression. The more weight placed over directions to line
the corner, the more compression. Because the adobes are butted blocks visible on the
up to each other they cannot turn downward without moving each vertical speed lead.
(see Speed Lead,
other. This they cannot do because of compression and the dead Adobe Laying
weight of the adobes to the sides. The novice should not attempt
these forms in an actual structure without an apprenticeship in
vault and dome construction.

CORDÓN Spanish for mason’s line (see photo at right).

Below:
CORREDOR A Spanish term for a porch, used in place of Corredor, or portal on
portal, which is common in New México. Also used in California, an adobe home in
especially with the arched adobe corredores as seen at Mission Albuquerque, N.M.
San Juan Capistrano.

71
 Count Rumford Perhaps the most efficient of open fireplaces. Named after the
inventor, Rumford fireplaces were common in New England from
about 1796 until 1850. Jefferson had them built at Monticello, and
Thoreau listed them among the modern conveniences that every-
one took for granted. Today, Rumford fireplaces are enjoying a
revival. Essentially, the energy crunch of the mid-1970’s, combined
with the timely promotion of Rumford’s work, caught on with adobe
builders in the Southwest U.S. However, Rumfords are often mis-
understood by the mason. Clarification about their anatomy is nec-
essary after many generations of inefficient fireplaces and building
codes that did not allow Rumfords.

About Rumford
Count Rumford was born Benjamin Thompson in Woburn, Ma. in
1753. A farmer’s son, Thompson was one of those gifted youths
with a curious and scientific mind, much like his contemporary, Ben-
jamin Franklin. By fourteen, he was sufficiently advanced in alge-
bra, geometry, astronomy and higher mathematics to calculate a
solar eclipse within four seconds of the event. He was one of the
first people of his day to understand and use the term “radiant heat”.
Like Franklin, he carried out many of his own scientific experiments.
He was very versatile, active in politics and the military, yet quite
interested in the humanities. When revolutionary hostilities became
intense, the bright but rather conservative Thompson had to make
a choice. He opted for London, and his career magnified from that
point. Thompson went on to become a favorite, not only in the Brit-
ish court, but in mainland Europe. By the time he was a Colonel in
the British army, he had also been made a count by the reigning
monarch of Bavaria, along with other titles.

Albert Avila, of Albuquerque, N.M. building a Count Rumford fireplace. Albert
was the first to combine corner adobe fireplaces with Count Rumford principles
in the southwestern U.S.
72
Rumford was well known and widely read during his lifetime. His
fireplace improvements became “state of the art” within a short
time. Rumford, although American born, was a Tory. At the time
of the revolution, he departed for England. His work had inspired
a generation of American masons, but with his defection to King
George III’s court, he was written out of U.S. history. Masons slowly
lost the skills and secrets of this more efficient fireplace.
Rumford writings
In England, Thompson (Count Rumford) put down his notes on fire-
place construction in 1795. This rare tome is known only to biblio-
philes, is reserved only in special collections, and chances of find-
ing one in the local library are, of course, zero. But as luck would
have it, a New England historian and publisher by the name of Vrest
Orton decided to renovate his home in Weston, Vermont. In one
room was a fireplace with a front opening 42 inches tall with a depth
of only 19 inches. Local masons thought it was funny and were
sure it would smoke. It never has. Orton decided to research the
origins of the style, and in the process discovered Rumford’s work.
Orton then wrote a book, titled The Forgotten Art of Building a Good
Fireplace (Yankee Press, Dublin, New Hampshire).
Avila discovers Rumford
How this all translates to the Southwest goes back to about 1976,
when a Mexican-American fireplace mason, Albert Avila, discov-
ered Orton’s book, and decided that Rumford principles should be
integrated into adobe fireplaces found in New Mexico. He built sev-
eral Rumfords in the Albuquerque area, including corner or “kiva”
styles.
The Adobe News/AdobeToday magazine published articles about
Avila’s work and followed other New Mexico contractors who began
to build Rumfords for their clients. By the mid-1980’s, many contrac-
tors in the Southwest had adopted Rumford principles. But in 2001,
some masons are still afraid of Rumfords, having never taken the
time to learn about them.
Buckley takes the banner
While Orton’s book began to uncover the Rumford legacy, it con-
tained a vital flaw. That was its suggestion that the back of the
Rumford fireplace should be slanted forward, a common feature
on many fireplaces. This is incorrect; the back should always be
straight up and down. The person to research Rumford’s notes and
make the long overdue corrections is one Jim Buckley, a Washing-
ton State fireplace mason.
Jim Buckley, master mason,
of Port Townsend, Wa.
Buckley has become a well-trav-
eled expert on Rumford fire-
places. He has gone on to
prove their efficiency and clean-
burning characteristics through
modern testing. Moreover, he
has been instrumental in getting
Rumford style fireplace dimen-
sions into the Uniform Building
Code. The code change is offi-
cially published in the 1992 sup-
plement of the U.B.C.- page 38,
and reads as follows:
Sec. 3707(c) Add exception as follows: Exception : For Rumford fire-
places, the depth may be reduced to 12 inches when: A. The depth
is at least 1/3 the width of the fireplace opening. B. The throat is at
least 12 inches above the lintel and is at least 1/20 of the cross-
sectional area of the fireplace opening.
In recent years, Buckley has joined forces with Superior Clay Cor-
poration, a well-known producer of fireplace components. Buckley
has designed different sized Rumford components for the throat
and firebox. Superior fires these out of clay. Buckley has developed
a number of outlets around the country, mostly at masonry or build-
ers’ supply houses. The idea is to take the guesswork out of the
Rumford anatomy, making Rumfords easier for the mason. Armed
with charts for firebox dimensions, and with some education about
how to assemble the components, any experienced mason can
handle a Rumford today. For more information contact: Buckley
Rumford Co., 1035 Monroe St., Port Townsend, Wa. 98368; Tele-
phone: 800-447-7788; E-mail: buckley@rumford.com.
73
Before this code change, the U.B.C. had required all masonry fire-
places to be at least 20” deep, preventing the construction of the
historic, shallow Rumfords. The U.B.C. was originally written in the
late 1940’s, after builders had almost forgotten about the design.
Fuel was cheap and the code writers of the 1940’s and 50’s, while
interested in safety, were not concerned about fireplace efficiency.
Additionally, the ranch-style house was popular, and everything
from ceilings to fireplaces took on a low, horizontal look. The so-
called “modern” fireplace described in the U.B.C. is low and deep
with a large throat. It doesn’t heat very well.

The Rumford throat

In the Rumford fireplace, the throat is designed to function as a ven-
turi, and must be necessarily smaller than the flue in area - just as
the throat of a carburetor is smaller than the intake manifold. The
new Rumford code exception (above) now permits the throat of a
Rumford to be smaller than the flue and as small as 1/20th of the
area of the fireplace opening.

View of a Rumford throat under construction at a Southwest Solaradobe

School workshop in Cave Creek, Az. The ceramic piece under the hammer
corresponds to the Superior Clay three piece throat in the drawing at right.

74
 Corner location Traditional

Why corner locations can enhance Rumford designs

Avila recognized that the corner adobe fireplace warms the corner
it is in, as well as the other three corners. This simple fact is noted
in the above sketch.

Back view of Superior Clay throat pieces. See photo page 74.

The Rumford Firebox

The firebox works effi-
ciently because of its
angled sides, height,
width, and shallow
design (see right). More
heat is radiated into the
room. A small fire will
generate much more
radiant heat than in a
low, deep firebox (see
Fireplaces).
View of completed firebox
with throat segments in
place. These throat seg-
ments hang from a piece
of angle iron. Note angled
sides of firebox, which radi- Above drawing of a Count Rumford firebox corresponds with the photo of Albert
ate more heat into the room. Avila on page 72. The slanted back is usually straight.
75
The sketch shows that in a traditional fireplace, much of the mass is
located outside the home. With a corner adobe fireplace, the mass
is to the inside, where it is more effective in heating the home. One
may further advance the efficiency of any fireplace by placing it
against interior walls, rather than against exterior walls, where heat
loss is greatest.

To summarize, a corner adobe fireplace (1) heats the other three

corners of a room through its better radiating position (2) keeps its
mass inside the house, not outside, and (3) can be improved upon
utilizing a Rumford firebox and (4) by a location in an inside wall
corner.

Heat exchangers and other peripherals may also be added. One

necessity is an outside air source located close to the combustion
area. If such combustion air is not provided, the fireplace will pull
air from under doors and around windows, creating uncomfortable
Cross-sectional diagram of a Count Rumford fireplace in an adobe home.
drafts and robbing the room of warmed air (see Combustion Air and
Note that code now requires footings under fireplaces to be 12” thick min.
Fireplaces). Note: use drawing as a rough guide only, since local codes may vary.
76
 COURSE Referring to the courses of adobe in a wall. Such as, “we
will have an electrical circuit installed on top of the fourth course”. A
course is the total of the thickness of an adobe plus the mud mortar
joint in which it is laid. Often a reference to the coursing is a refer-
ence to the quality of the workmanship (see Lift).

The mason first calculates the average thickness of his adobes, and
adds that dimension to the thickness of his mud joint. The sum of
these determines the thickness of a complete course in the wall.
Within the course, wall reinforcement, electrical circuitry and tele-
phone cable can be installed. A good set of plans will tell the crew
at which course these systems are called for.

Count Rumford fireplace by David Peterson, contractor, Bernalillo, N.M.

Photo: Jerry Rabinowitz Adobe coursing. Adobes shown are from Clay Mine Adobe in Tucson, Az. (see
Speed Lead and Adobe Laying)

77
 rammed earth walls must sit atop a stem at least 6” above the sur-
rounding grade. In tropical or heavy rain areas, the stem should be
higher.

CRUSHER FINE An aggregate that passes a 3/8” or 1/4” screen

and usually added to adobe or rammed earth mixes to increase
compression strength. Also used in road work and in landscaping
(see Clay).

CUBIETA Spanish for decking, as in an open beam ceiling.

CUÑA A Mexican term for small adobe quemado bricks (fired

adobes), used in bóveda construction (see Bóveda ).

Coved ceilings in a dining room by David Peterson, contractor, Bernalillo, N.M.

Photo: Jerry Rabinowitz

COVED CEILING A technique in which the builder creates a semi-

circular, smooth surface between the beams or vigas in a ceiling.
First, expanded metal lath is nailed into each cavity to the desired
shape. Each viga or beam must be taped off before the plaster is
applied. Next, plaster is troweled onto the lath. Coved ceilings pro-
duce an attractive, arched effect, but due to their preparation time
are more expensive than an ordinary exposed wood deck.
View of a vaulted ceiling constructed using cuña bricks set in a Portland-based
mortar. (see Bóveda)
COVING Erosion along the base of
an earthen wall by salt, rain-splash CURING The process of drying adobes in the sun. Adobes are
or a combination of both. This is cast flat and begin their cure that way for the first several days. Once
a common condition in pre-code hard enough to keep their shape, they are turned on edge to cure
adobes that never had adequate faster, as in this position a greater amount of surface is exposed
stem walls to protect the earthen to the air and sun. Also, in rammed earth, the time it takes for a
walls. Today by code, all adobe or massive wall to cure in situ. Curing takes a full year for a 24” thick
rammed earth wall in southern Arizona.
78
Small adobes cure rapidly under hot, dry conditions. Egyptian DOUBLE ADOBE A term used for walls two adobes wide. Such
adobes of 7”x2”x10” may be stood on edge 24 hours after casting. walls may be interwoven for a solid wall, or they may be laid to form
After a few more days they are ready to stack. Big adobes of two separate walls with a cavity in the center for insulation. In this
10”x4”x14” or 12”x4”x16” take longer. Under ideal conditions they last case, they are tied together with steel ladder reinforcement, and
may be stood on edge in 2 to 3 days, but should not be moved for insulation is installed in the cavity. Common choices are cellulose,
another 4 or 5 days. Even after that time, they may still be too green vermiculite or perlite.
at the center to be transported by truck to the site. In early spring
and late fall, curing times increase dramatically (see Wind Crack- The most stable double adobe wall is one that is interwoven, back
ing). and forth, with no head joints directly over one another. This was
generally the system in mission architecture, as in the Guadalupe
DADO A corner, cut into a door or window frame, and with the Church in Santa Fé, New Mexico. This church actually has a
grain. Often used as a plaster key (see Interior Plastering). A Dado triple adobe wall, about 32” thick, and a pattern similar to the one
can also be ornamental wall paneling along the bottom portion of depicted below:
an interior wall.

DAMPER UNIT See fireplaces.

DEAD EARTH In adobe construction, earth that has lost its struc-
tural integrity through salt deterioration, freeze-thaw action or any
manner that renders it non-structural. This is a common problem
in old pre-code adobes or at historical sites, where wetting action,
salts and other actions have endangered a structure. A slang term
for the condition is “fluff”. In restoration and preservation work, the
fluff must be removed and replaced with like, but new materials.

DEAD LOAD The inherent weight of a structure. That is, the

weight of roof, bond beam, walls, floors and so on, that bear on
the foundation. Foundation systems and lintels are also designed to Double walls with a center cavity are a thermally superior system,
take the additional weight of “live loads”, such as people and furni- as long as the void is filled with at least an R-5 insulation. The out-
ture. side wall tempers the exterior temperature extremes, so that the
outer face of the insulation does not have to work so hard. The
DECK An exposed board or latilla ceiling. The boards that are inner wall acts as the heat or cool storage. It is easier for the stored
nailed down over open beams. Also refers to the final deck or roof interior energy to radiate back into the interior, rather than fight its
cover. way through the insulation and outer wall mass. Double wall sys-
tems with an insulated cavity work both sides against the middle.
DEPÓSITO Spanish for a deposit of soils suitable for adobe work
(see page 62, #6).
79
Double walls with a center cavity are not as strong as interwoven
double walls. In seismic zones, care must be taken that each free-
standing wall is strong enough, by itself, to resist a projected earth-
quake. Double wall systems are wider, and thus require more con-
crete in the foundation. However, the floating footing as used by
rammed earth contractor Tom Schmidt of St. David, Az. works very
well and cuts foundation concrete costs for wide walls effectively
(see Foundation System).

Pouring insulation to fill the cavity in a double adobe wall system. Scoop the
void clean of protruding mud joints and pour insulation every four courses,
maximum. Otherwise, protrusions between adobe courses could block the
cavity and cause thermal wicking between the two walls.

Double walls with a center cavity do not have to be used all around
a structure, but can be placed where they do the most thermal
good. A double wall would be effective on the north exposure in
a cold winter climate. It would also be very effective on the west
exposure in a hot climate.

DROP BALL TEST A splatter test that aids in determining the clay
content of a soil. A thoroughly saturated ball is squeezed out to
80 about a 15% moisture content (a squishy ball that just keeps its
shape when placed on a flat surface), and the ball is dropped onto EARTH ROOF An inexpensive and traditional method of roofing
a flat, hard surface from a height of 36” to 40”. If the ball hits and
in many areas of the world, particularly those with little rainfall and
breaks, with 90% of the scatter staying within 2” of the ball, the clay
limited wood resources. Not to be confused with adobe vaults and
content is in the 15%-20% range. If the scatter gets out to 3”-4” domes, earth roofs are almost flat, and depend on dry conditions
away from the edge of the ball, the clay content is 10% or less, and layers of clays and adobe soils to work. In earlier days, a series
or the ball has not been properly wetted. If the ball deforms and of continuous rains could exceed the evaporation and runoff rate of
cracks, but does not scatter, the clay content is 25% plus (see Claythe roof, resulting in leaks. Worse, if moisture got into structural tim-
and Ribbon Extrusion Test). bers, dry rot could set in, leading to collapse. Still worse, they have
a poor record in earthquakes, tending to put a great deal of weight
DRUM The portion of adobe dome construction that is just below on supporting timbers. In pre-code adobes without bond beams,
the dome in a Sassanid type dome. Generally, a square room earthquakes can sway the heavy roof structure, cracking walls and
shape is turned into an octagon via squinch arches, which then is supports.
turned into the drum (see Squinch Arch, Adobe Vaults and Domes,
and Byzantine Dome). Earth roofs require heavier beams or vigas to support them. Below
is a portion of a chart prepared by retired contractor Peter Harris
DRY MUD METHOD In New Mexico, denotes an adobe mud stiff of Placitas, N.M., showing beam or viga sizes for supporting a 12”
enough to retain its shape when the adobe form is immediately thick earth roof. It assumes that the builder has a waterproof mem-
lifted away. The mud is not actually dry, but fully saturated. This brane on or near the top of the earth covering. In other words, with-
is the traditional method of adobe making, in which one form is out a waterproof membrane, the earth roof could be soaked by a
used repeatedly (see Wet Mud Method, Adobe Form and Laydown rain, weigh more, and require even heavier timbers.
Machine).

DURMIENTE A Mexican Spanish term for crossbeam. Also a term

for railroad tie (see Gualdra).

DUR-O-WAL A brand name for a type of steel ladder reinforce-

ment used in masonry walls for strength, ductility and to eliminate
cracking in the work.* Dur-o-wal has a zig-zag truss type design
and is usually galvanized. It comes in 10’ lengths and the wire is
about twice the diameter of clothes hanger wire. In practice, it is
laid in the course every 4 to 6 courses. Special pieces are available
for “L’s” and “T’s” at corners and wall intersections. It can be cut with
heavy wire cutters or with a small pair of bolt cutters. Dur-o-wal is
cheap insurance wherever extra strength might be a good idea, and
it helps adobe in seismic zones.
*Dur-o-wal 4950 Olive St. Commerce City, CO 80022 1-800-321-1836
www.dur-o-wal.com
81
In New Mexico, many earth roofs are in evidence, most of them
holdovers from the past. Because they were good sound proofers
and tended to work thermally better than many newer roofs, owners
would leave the earth in place when a new “pitched” roof was
installed. In Tucson, earth roofs in the Barrio Viejo are archeologi-
cal layers, where a “dig” might uncover everything from old bottles
to opium pipes from the late 1800’s, when people slept on the roof
during warm summer nights. Most of these originally flat roofs were
covered with pitched roofs by the 1920’s.
EFFICIENT REFRIGERATION AND COOLING A new line
of energy efficient solaradobe and solar-rammed earth homes is
evolving that use their mass to lower energy requirements, while
also using appliances and coolers with ultra high efficiency. These
load reduction schemes will typically return their investment within
the first 10 years, so it often makes sense to add such units at
the time of mortgage. Examples are Sunfrost and Subzero brand
refrigerators. 16 cubic foot models in these lines will consume per-
haps $30 worth of electricity per year, versus $200 or more for a GE
or Sears standard fridge.

Evaporative cooling units with a 12” thick

filter medium provide low humidity cooling
similar to air conditioning and with the use
of DC motor drives (which can also be run
from an AC power source), can provide
the same service with a 50% cut in power
consumption. Further increases in the
efficiency of photovoltaics are shortening
payback times. The company Adobe Air,
Inc. of Phoenix, Az. produces two stage
evaporative coolers which can lower air
temperatures an additional 6° to 8° F over
single stage coolers.

EGYPTIAN MUD A type of very sticky,

high-clay mud mortar used in barrel-vault
and dome construction in Egypt. The
recipe is generally 3 parts clay, 1 part
sand, a certain amount of fresh (or green)
cow manure (3 shovels per barrow) and
chopped straw (3-4 handfuls per barrow.)
The purpose of the high-clay mix is to
stick the small adobes to almost vertical
Circa 1920’s earth roof at Valencia, N.M. Consists of 8” over a layer of linoleum,
“rings” in dome construction or to the cat-
over wood deck and 4”x10” beams. enary arches in vault construction. The straw is necessary to bind
the high-clay mix together.
82
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
In this section, we will discuss the basic choices open to the earth-
builder. Electrical systems in earthen walls are a bit different than
those in frame construction. We have to assume that the reader is
willing to educate him/herself further before attempting the actual
job. Local codes and the National Electric Code (N.E.C.) must be
consulted. Tools and practice must be learned. Safety must be your
first and constant consideration. This encyclopedia cannot be con-
sidered as a complete guide for any installation.

The two basic methods are to run your system either in pipe (plastic
or metal conduit) or in UF cable. California and most Arizona coun-
ties will require pipe. New Mexico and some Arizona counties (such
as Pima) allow UF cable. UF stands for underground feeder. UF is a
solid cable in which all wires are plastic-sheathed and surrounded
by a plastic core. All is then enclosed with an outer plastic sheath.
With UF cable, there are no voids or hollow areas. Do not confuse
romex with UF. Romex is not a solid cable, and is NOT allowed in
earth-wall systems. It comes in the same colors as UF, and is easily
confused with it. Always look at the end of the cable to inspect its
interior.

Of the two systems, pipe is always the superior and more expensive
choice. Old wires may be pulled out and new wiring installed. How-
ever, because earth walls are thick, the theory is that UF cable is
always set in the center of the wall, beyond the range of the occa-
sional nail or screw. But every contractor has at least one story, in
which a long insulation nail or screw did pierce into a circuit (see
Clavos). Some contractors will snap a line along the adobe wall, to
indicate where an electrical circuit is located. Then, when the nailing
crew goes to work, they avoid those spots. One contractor actually
has a crew member hold a measuring tape from the grade level or
stem top to where the circuits are located. He then takes polaroid In rammed earth work, pipe is almost always used. The pipe is gen-
shots, so that the actual number of inches can be read. Later, if erally run from the plug box directly up through the rammed earth
stucco or plaster is applied, the danger zone can be located. wall (see above), through the bond beam and into the roof cavity.
Home runs are then made in the void above the roof deck 83
back to the main panel. In New Mexico UF cable is not allowed in
rammed earth walls (with a few exceptions) nor is plastic conduit.
Only metal conduit is allowed.

Most of the drawings shown here illustrate UF cable. Because UF

cable is flexible, it can be snaked up and down adobe courses,
and can navigate tighter turns. If you use pipe, allow for more dis-
tance to navigate turns and course changes. If you have no electri-
cal training, you must consult with a licensed electrican to plan a
pipe system.

Owner-builders always consider doing their own electrical work, but

should be cautious. In New Mexico, you must study for a test, which
costs $25, whether you pass or not. The test is not easy. If you pass,
you can do your own electrical work. If not, you are required to hire
a licensed electrican to do the work. In other jurisdictions, such as
California, only licensed electricans can do the work.

We’ll start with the assumption that you have an electrical plan
that has been approved by city, county or state. Keep in mind that A first convenience and money saver is to consider running 1-1/4”
all materials used in your system must be electrical grade, U.L. conduit, U.L. approved PVC or metal pipe, from the main panel to
approved. The heart of your system will be the main panel with its various key locations in the house. For example, such a conduit
circuit breakers. The location for it is very important. It can be back could go to a utility room, and from a junction box, supply dryer,
to back with the meter, or side to side with the meter (see sketches washing machine, iron outlet, freezer and well water pump. Doing
above right and on page 85). The disconnect and meter location it this way saves material and time running up over a ceiling, or
are provided by the local power company. They have limitations on through the wall, going around corners and over frames to reach
where they can attach a service drop. Take your plans to the utility that part of the home.
and have them review your locations.
Once at that junction box, you have several options:
Once you have the panel/meter location, plan your circuits and 1. Channeled Wall Method
where you will place the electrical system. Choices are: 2. In-the-wall method
3. Under the Floor method
1. Under the floor (for some of the system)
2. Overhead in roof cavity (for some of the system) Consult with the electrician on how to identify and specify for each
3. Within the earth walls (adobe or rammed earth) home run as mentioned above. You will have to leave holes or entries
4. Over the roof (for some of the system) in your stem walls for such runs, so this takes some planning from
blueprint to the site.
84
 such channeled areas. Channels must be 2” deep to get the cable
far back enough into the wall to meet code. A better approach fol-
lows.

Most electricians
prefer to stand
the box up on
edge as its height
is almost equal
to a course of
adobe.
Note that the UF
The Channeled or Gouge Method is done on homes in which cable is
adobe or rammed earth walls went up before the electrician deliberately set in
the middle of the
arrived. The assumption is that such walls will be plastered, adobe wall
thus hiding the gouging. It is agonizing to have to gouge beyond the reach
into your walls to install circuits. First of all, the channel of nails or
approach won’t work on exposed adobe or burnt adobe walls - screws.

The in-the-wall method (see above) means that UF cable is laid

in those cases you must plan ahead for in-wall installation. Also, directly onto the middle of the adobe wall at predetermined heights
channeling on opposite sides of a thin adobe walls can weaken and locations. It can stair-step up to reach kitchen counter loca-
them structurally. Codes may require 16 gauge steel plates over all tions, or enter the ceiling via a cavity or pipe left in the bond
85
 Rammed earth builders
should use 3/4” metal conduit if at
all possible, with UL-approved
PVC pipe the second choice.
As mentioned previously, in New
Mexico, only metal pipe is allowed
by code in rammed earth. Most
rammed earth builders run one 3/4”
pipe out of each box directly up
through the bond beam. Later,
both the feed and return wire
are fed through the pipe. The
metal outlet boxes are attached
flush to the inside of the forms
by tie-wire or metal screws,
attached from the outside (see illus-
tration on page 83). A major
word of caution: crew members
should be careful to remember to
remove the screws or tie-wire from
beam (see middle illustration above). It can go up and over wooden
the form before removing the form. Otherwise, you will rip the
window or door bucks.
electrical box out of the green wall when you pull off the form. Care-
fully remove the forms so as not to affect the box - which will now be
Some electricans do not like the in-the-wall method, as they have to
flush with your green rammed earth wall.
be on the job often to lay circuits as the crew lays adobes. A solu-
tion is when the crew is trained or licensed to lay in the UF cable
The under-the-floor method (top, right illustration) can save a lot of
with the inspector’s approval. This arrangement is only seen on jobs
UF cable or under-floor conduit, since it literally “cuts corners”. You
where electrican, inspector and contractor all know each other and
will run, usually via pipe, under the floor across to the first outlet,
trust the quality of one another’s work.
then from outlet to outlet as many times as code permits. This
method entails leaving adequate notching in the stem wall to get the
As mentioned at the beginning of this entry, UF cable is not
circuit up to plug height.
approved in all areas. Check your code. Romex has more
room within the wrappings, allowing wires to cross over each
Consult with your electrician on how to plan the UF cable or wire
other. Putting Romex in earthen walls can mean a red-tag
sizes for your different circuits. Kitchen counters are on separate
by your inspector. If you cannot run UF cable in your
circuits at usually 48” above finished floor. You may have only 4
area, you can run the system in pipe or electrical grade, UL-
outlets (two boxes with two plug-ins per box) on a kitchen counter
86 approved plastic pipe. This will typically be 3/4” pipe.
circuit. In contrast, a living room or bedroom wall plug circuit can EMBODIED ENERGY A green building term. A type of energy
have up to eight boxes by code. Familiarize yourself with the pur- evaluation that determines the amount of energy consumed in pro-
poses of each circuit. Some potential uses are: 14 gauge wire ducing and transporting building materials before they go into a
for plugs and lights, 12 gauge wire for wall plugs in den, study, structure, as well as the energy expended in actual installation.
dining, garage, or for a special purpose circuit that might serve color
TV, gas dryer, dishwasher single receptacle, water pump, computer Aspects of mining, logging, shipping, processing, storage, handling,
system, or furnace/air conditioner. shipping to point of use and installing are included. Historic preser-
vationists are interested, as they can make the case for preserva-
Space constraints do not permit us to go into detail about how to tion of an old structure based on the value of the embodied energy
set up your equipment for your panel before foundations are done, in the building. That is, it is often cheaper to restore or renovate an
but the sketches give you some idea. Likewise, mounting systems old building than to tear it down and build anew at today’s building
for panels onto the adobe walls are not discussed here. Use of material energy costs.
through-wall anchors or gringo blocks are popular means of attach-
ing. Another consideration is how to plan the size of your system, For adobe and rammed earth builders, the studies are interesting
so that your power panel gives you room for growth. because they show that earthen materials are low in BTU’s con-
sumed when compared to common building materials.

In Albuquerque, P.G. McHenry, Jr., A.I.A. was able to determine

the number of BTU’s consumed in the manufacture of an ordinary
adobe block, using modern mechanized equipment and including
delivery to a site in the same city. His figure is shown below, along
with figures for other materials, as supplied by the University of Illi-
nois and the architectural firm of Richard G. Stein and Associates,
New York.

Adobe block 10”x4”x14” 2,500 B.T.U.

Common red brick 13,570 B.T.U.
Paving brick 24,570 “
Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU) 8”x8”x16” 29,018 “
Electrical boxes installed in exposed adobe work must be set flush with the wall. 94 lb. sack of Portland cement 381,624 “
Boxes set in walls to be plastered should protrude approximately 3/4” from wall 100 lb. sack of hydrated lime 440,619 “
so as to flush out with the plaster.

Again, this book cannot be considered a complete installation guide It is suggested by some researchers that a time may come when
or a code book. Safety considerations require that you consult building materials will be given an “energy quotient” with preference
N.E.C. standards and a licensed electrican. given to those materials with low numbers.
87
ENJARRADORA The application of plaster, known by the span-
ish verb, enjarar, leads to the above term for a female plasterer,
although the craft includes a number of skills beyond simple plaster-
ing.
In Hispaño Folklife of New Mexico (Brown, Briggs, and Weigle),
some of the skills of the Enjarradora are enumerated: “with a skin of
fresh plaster, the women covered the outside and inside, using their
bare hands. At Taos Pueblo, the refurbishing is accomplished in a
great community clean-up just prior to the San Geronimo Fiesta.
Over the plaster, a wash of gypsum is soaked into the walls to add
a softening white harmony to the home. For the annual
88
plastering of kivas among the Hopi, a ritual calendar regulated the
work.” Further descriptions relate that “they knew when, where, and
how to construct the ‘sheepherder’s’ fireplace, with its wooden post
and lintel, with oversize smoke hood. They chose the fine clay mix-
tures for color and glinty mica con-
tent.”
In a 1941 Forest Service manual on
adobe, W. Ellis Groben says : “the
traditional coloring used by native
Mexicans and Indians is obtained
from clays excavated from natural
deposits usually found near the site.
They vary in color with different
Enjarradoras mud-plastering at Chamisal,
New Mexico (Peñasco Valley) in the
1930’s. The origins of the pueblo style are
shown here, in that the parapet ends echo
those of buildings seen at Picuris Pueblo
nearby, and especially, the old church.
localities and include tierra blanca
(white), tierra rosa (pink), and tierra
colorada (red). When applied in
delicate, pastel shades, they lend
that particular charm to the exte-
rior plaster-work, so characteristic
of the Pueblo style.”
From the New Mexico village of Córdoba comes this classic descrip-
tion of the enjarradora lifestyle. The writer is Lorenzo Brown, a
schoolteacher in that village in the 1920’s. He says, “The chatter-
ing and laughter of the women could be heard coming from the east
side of the house. This was a sign that they were nearly through
with their task, for in the morning they had started plastering the
west side to avoid the sun, which could still direct its rays with some
force this late in September. Swinging around the house in direct EXPANDED METAL LATHE Metal lathe is used for many pur-
opposition to the sun’s rays, they had succeeded in keeping to poses in home construction, particularly in the earthbuilding trade.
some measure, in the shadows cast by the walls. However, neither Uses include bullnosing around corners to window and door trim so
the heat nor the hard labor seemed to bother these four women as as to shape and hold wet plaster, as a tie between double adobe
they labored at a task which in this community was acknowledged walls, and as a fastening device to attach earthen walls to rough-
as one for women only. Men, if tolerated at all, were allowed only to bucks (see illustration). Expanded metal lathe is typically sold in
mix the dirt and straw into the mud of required consistency. Even 2’x8’ sheets and comes in “black” or galvanized. A pair of tin snips
then, one of the women would work and knead small batches at a are needed for cutting it to shape, and gloves are essential to save
time, carefully extracting stones and other objects and leaving the hands from the jagged edges. Lathe is typically secured to wood or
mud a smooth paste. When expertly applied by her co-workers, adobe with wide-headed roofing nails, at least 1-1/2” long.
this left an outer covering fully protecting the house from the ele-
ments for many seasons. Nearing the end of their task seemed
to add more zest and spirit to their joking and gossiping. Passer-
bys were cheerfully answered as they joked in passing: ¿Ya acaban
las golondrinas con su nido? (Are the swallows nearly through
with their nest?) This allusion referred to the barn-swallow, which
expertly fashions its nest while clinging to a wall. Also there was a
hint of the constant twittering that the swallows indulge in while so
employed.”

ESPAR Middle-Eastern term. The ‘kick wall’ or vertical wall against

which a vault may be constructed. Espars can be curved to echo
the wall or vault that will be built against them, or they may be a
rectangular mass wall.

EVANISTA In northern New Mexico, the term for a simple chisel

design, usually done in a series with a concave chisel. It was popu-
lar in the 1700’s, and has been passed down to the present day
(after Bainbridge Bunting).
89
EXPOSED ADOBE As the name implies, an adobe wall that is not
plastered, with the coursing exposed. If the wall is exposed to the
exterior, or weather side, it must be stabilized or protected in some
other way from the elements. If it is exposed to the inside, it need
not be stabilized, and can be left raw if the owner wishes. Exposed
adobe walls, especially on the inside of the home, are quite popu-
lar and save the cost of plastering. Exposed also means exposed
adobe that has been painted, but still shows the outline of the
blocks.
A variety of finishes are possible for interior exposed adobe walls.
If the owner wishes to maintain the natural color, she first uses
90
the adobe file to remove protrusions or unsightly extended cor-
ners. Then she works the wall over with a large brush and bucket
of water, which will tend to create a “slip” of the same mud the
adobes are made of. Holes are filled to taste, and once the wall has
attained the desired look, it is left to dry for a few days. The next
step is two coats of a cheap logwood oil. The first is applied and left
to dry, followed by a second. The logwood oil will tend to leave the
natural color of the wall, but at the same time keep it from “dusting”.
A word of caution: if all the walls are left in natural adobe colors, the
rooms will tend to be dark.
A more popular finish for exposed walls is to simply paint them
first with a PVA dry wall sealer, avail-
able in clear or white. Clear will main-
tain the natural adobe wall color. White
acts as a base for a finish coat of any
good latex paint, which later is rolled
on. PVA sealers are available by the
gallon commercially.
Exposed adobe wall in a home
located in Tucson, Az., by Gary Wil-
liams of Adobe Building Consultants,
Inc.
Such walls are a popular technique
for both owner-builders of modest
means and with exclusive custom
builders.
FACHADA The front buttress wings
of adobe, usually evident on California
mission churches.
 FACHWERK
A wall construction method where the partitions are filled with a dif- building site, would make such a structure much “greener”. Third,
ferent material than the frame. In common parlence, this is a spe- the builder clearing a piece of land could make excellent use of very
cific construction method where exterior and interior dividing walls thin limbs for the woven wattle-and-daub walls. Last, a properly
are filled. This leads to the easily recognizable construction form engineered multi-story timber frame building with earth infill would
where exposed framing timbers are juxtaposed with the stuccoed show excellent stability in a seismic zone.
infill.
As we move into the
As with all traditional building techniques, the history of fachwerk 21st century, there is
in Central Europe is a long one. Construction techniques used the much research being
local building materials and reflected economic conditions, leading conducted into hybrid
to a variety of styles and combinations of styles. Indeed, one finds a technologies, which
mixture of wattle and daub, adobe brick and rammed earth, all used include elements of
separately and in conjunction with fachwerk. Judging by the few many traditional build-
remaining examples, the basic style we recognize as fachwerk had ing technologies, com-
been well established by the 16th century. Quite unlike the “stick” bining them for greater
construction seen today, fachwerk is a durable and versatile build- effect. One example is
ing medium, which will withstand centuries of use, after which it can the use of bamboo as a
be easily and virtually completely recycled. replacement for timber.
It is highly recom-
It is difficult today to advocate the construction of traditional fach- mended that the pro-
werk from an environmental perspective, due to the technique’s reli- spective earthbuilder
ance on large quantities of heavy timbers. It can in no way be con- familiarize him or her-
sidered an environmentally conscious solution to the mass-housing self with all the mate-
problems facing our world. Indeed, during times of great social dis- rial options available.
tress in Germany, principally in the wake of the Franco-Prussian A rammed earth home
wars, post-World War I and post-World War II, there was a great rise might be augmented
in massivlehmbau, or rammed earth construction. The high cost of with an interior wat-
coal, the country’s primary energy source, put kiln-fired bricks and tle-and-daub wall that
any other high embodied energy construction materials as well as uses on-site branches,
timber out of the reach of the depression-impoverished masses. eliminating a frame and
gypsum board wall.
However, there are a number of reasons to examine fachwerk more
closely. First, the heavy timbers traditionally used, spaced quite Much experimentation has been also done with adding insulating
closely, are often overbuilt. A properly engineered frame house materials such as wood chips to clay infill, a process which
could use fewer, thinner timbers, therefore minimizing wood use. should be limited to non-load-bearing walls, as it reduces
Second, using recycled timber, or on-site lumber cleared for the strength. 91
The following section, written by earthbuilding and mudplastering
expert Karl Giskes, was originally published as a booklet in Hol-
land in 1995. Note that wattle and daub is only one of several infill
options, including adobe brick and rammed earth.

Before the advent of

cheap steel, wooden
members were mainly
connected via pegged
joints, as with the mor-
tise and tenon and
lap joints shown in the
walls here.

Traditionally, oak is used for framing. Vertical and hori-

zontal timbers frame out the space while diagaonal tim-
bers provide seismic bracing.

At the sawmill, timbers

are measured, cut and
marked according to their
location in the structure.
This allows for speedy
assembly on the jobsite.

To support the vertical l members, 26mm holes are

drilled in the footplate.

92
 Once vertical members
have been fastened, split
willow branches are
Vertical members are woven into the wall. Thin
notched to clear horizontal and long branches are
rails, and tapered octago- trimmed to length.
nally for a press fit.

Lateral posts and the bottom rails must

be spaced 2 cm from the wooden frame
to insure the filling comes through.

Vertical members are ham-

merd securely into the foot-
plate holes.

The tops of the vertical members

as well as intersections with
horizontal members are securely
attached with screws.

93
 The Mixture
Dump clay into mixing
vessel.

clay lime

urine
straw (exterior) Spread clay out evenly.
water
(interior)

This mixture (1m3) fills 6 m2 of a 15 cm thick wall.

Break up all clay lumps.

Add the lime.

94
 Mix well. The lime must be
homogeneously distributed.

Add the urine. Filling begins at the posts, pushing the Pushing the mixture behind the frame.
mixture evenly through to the other
side of the wall.

Mix well.

Once a section is filled, the same is

repeated for the whole panel.
When two adjacent posts have been
Add the straw. covered, the middle is filled.

After a wall has been

covered by two layers,
the other side is filled.

Mix thoroughly to make a Here, the first layer is

homogeneous mixture. Let applied to the outside of
mixture rest for 24 hours a wall after the inside
before applying. has been filled.

95
95
 Depending on weather,
panels are finished after
Once a panel has been covered, a second coat is applied. The first layer should
two or three days. Wall
still be wet to insure proper adhesion.
must not be too wet or
too dry.

Above: Begin with an

upward vertical stroke,
then work across the
panel.

Right: A freshly plas-

tered wall.

The top edge of

each panel must be
set back 5 mm. from
the wooden frame,
while the bottom
edge should be level
with the frame.

This insures proper

water drainage and
reduces water
damage to the tim-
bers.
96
FAT Adobe mix with too much clay (used by Old Pueblo Adobe Co., FINES A term for the silts and clays in an adobe mix (see Clay).
Tucson, Az).
FINISH FLOOR The level of the top of the floor, regardless of the
FHA STRAP A fastening device of galvanized steel, set in con- material used - brick, tile or wood. Often referred to on plans as F.F.
crete or nailed to wood on one end, wrapped around the timber or It is important during construction to know where finish floor level
beam at the other, then nailed down. FHA straps come in different is. Builders will use a transit or other method to find F.F. at points
sizes and gauges of metal. In some stores they are available in rolls around the interior face of the stem, and marks are left to indicate
that can be cut as needed. They are considered good tie downs the level.
when well secured. 18 gauge FHA straps are adequate for most
uses in adobe or rammed earth. Large beams should use 2 straps Because floors today are made of strata of various materials, the
at each end, especially in seismic areas (see Bond Beams). F.F. is first determined, and then the thickness of each material is
calculated downward from that point. For example, red floor brick
is 2-1/2”, the sand bed below is 1”, the insulating layer (if used) is
1”, then a vapor barrier, and the sub-floor. The sub-floor is simply
the on-site material. It must be leveled out, high spots lowered,
holes filled, then tamped. When the sub-floor has been prepared,
the various layers of materials are built back up to finish floor.

Knowing the finish floor elevation also gives the builder an indica-
tion of whether or not he will have to worry about a waterproof
masonry course above the finish floor. Code requires that the first
4” above F.F. be fully stabilized adobe, concrete, filled concrete
block, or any hard masonry. If F.F. happens to be marked half-way
up the existing stem, then he will not have to be concerned, as long
as the existing stem is waterproof masonry. But if F.F. is right at the
top of the stem, then he will have to be sure that the first course
of adobe all around the house is fully stabilized adobe or a form of
water resistant hard masonry (see Foundation System).

Finish floor refers to

the top of the red brick
in this installation by
Ring Brick and Stone,
Rio Rancho, N.M.

97
 FIREPLACES
fireplace (see Banco). The plan checker will inspect this sectional
drawing for code compliance. You should determine the size of fire-
An artistically rendered corner place you want in the room. Will it be in a corner or in the side of a
kiva style fireplace by Paul wall?
Chávez of Sculptured Adobe,
Albuquerque, N.M.

This discussion will be

limited to the main code
and safety points that you
must know when building
an adobe fireplace. Do-it-
yourselfers should study Then decide on the size of the firebox - the heart of your system. If
under a mason building a a Rumford design, you will have coved or angled sides and a shal-
regular fireplace, prefera- low box. If traditional, you will have a lower, deeper box. Will you set
bly an adobe one. Some the firebrick on edge or flat? If flat, you will have to buy much more
fireplace masons will not firebrick. This information is needed to arrive at the overall firebox
understand Count Rum- footprint. Knowing the firebox size will give you a better idea of the
ford principles. If you wish finish size of the fireplace and it will also tell you where your vertical
to have a Count Rumford, steel goes (see Sub-grade work below). Remember, the firebox will
read that entry, and find a mason who is willing to learn. Some be surrounded by adobe, plaster, or another finish. A good idea is
masons will resist the use of reinforcement in a fireplace. Do not to cut out a piece of cardboard exactly to the shape of your firebox,
give in to masons who tell you it is not necessary. These quirks including the width of the firebrick. Take that piece of cardboard,
aside, you should see how much you can learn from the pros with set it in any room corner, and imagine how you will surround it with
respect to working with tools, materials and techniques. Then trans- adobe and how those adobes will tie into the running walls. We will
fer your knowledge to the points made here and in the Count Rum- now discuss the steps involved, from the ground up.
ford section.
Sub-grade work
With either mid-wall or corner adobe fireplaces, the footing trench
Basic planning
is widened, so that the resulting footing entirely supports the fire-
Start with your drawn plans. In drafting, fireplaces are almost a
place mass above, plus an extra 6”. By code, footings under fire-
symbol on the floor plan view and tell you little about what the
places must be 12” deep in the average home. For corner adobe
actual finished fireplace will look like. But under Sections in your
fireplaces, the semi-circular shape is scribed as a radius from the
drafted drawings, you should have a good cross-sectional view of
inside house corner. A typical radius for a middle-sized firebox
the fireplace, drawn to scale (one example is shown under Count
would be 32”-36”. As mentioned, the radius should extend about 6”
98 Rumford). Consider an adobe banco off to the side of the
beyond the planned outside surface of the fireplace. A grid of hori-
zontal 1/2” rebar is set up on 12” centers to reinforce the pad. This
rebar will be set up so that it is about 3” off the bottom of the trench
(see drawing in Foundation System).

This grid should tie into the continuous rebar that is placed horizon-
tally around the running walls. To show the steel, at this point, we
will leap ahead through the basic fireplace sequence (as it rises),
then come back to the foundation level to discuss the basic ele-
ments more closely.

Note in the sketches that codes will require four pieces of vertical
1/2” rebar, rising up from the area in back and to the sides of the
firebox. This is tied into the running steel located 3” above the trench
bottom. It will travel vertically up the sides and back of the box, bend
around the smoke chamber area, and continue up to the chimney
top (see next page). It will pass through and be tied into the hori-
zontal steel in the bond beam on its way up to the chimney. At the
start, this vertical steel will extend out of the foundation pour area
3 or 4 feet, as no one can work with limber, swaying long pieces of
steel. The mason ties on additional lengths as the fireplace rises,
using tie wire. He should follow overlap rules of 40x the diameter
of the rebar (20” overlap for 1/2” dia. rebar). Welding of rebar is not
99
advised, as common rebar has no welding specs. Welding it can
actually make it more brittle and prone to break under stress.
100
Items going into the stem
Provision for outside combustion air should be made. Figure on
running a length (plus extra fittings) of 2”-3” diameter metal pipe
from the nearest outside wall, under the floor, or through the side
of the fireplace stem and up into where the hearth or firebox area
will be. The fireplace will draw its combustion air from this source,
rather than from around your doors or windows (see Combustion
Air). Ornate units are available from masonry suppliers.
Any considerations for an ash dump should also be planned ahead
of time and worked out with the mason. An ash dump channel that
cuts widely into the mass of concrete making up the stem should be
reinforced with extra rebar. Ash dump channels must never cut into
the footing below.
Firebox
The firebox is that portion of the fireplace in which the fire is built
(see page 99). Its dimensions are a delicate matter in relation
to other fireplace volumes and sizes, and it is almost always con-
structed of firebrick, set in fireclay. The firebrick may be set on edge
or flat. The firebox sits directly on the concrete pad provided for it.
The concrete pad top is commonly the stem top, widened to accom-
modate the firebox and adjacent walls. For Rumford firebox specs,
read the Count Rumford section.
Damper unit
A standard damper sets atop the firebox, and is easy to install.
A typical one is shown in the photo below. We recommend that
you consider a chimney-top damper, and therefore have put most
damper info at the end of this section, after chimneys, as it is the
topmost fireplace component.
Other types of dampers may be used, such as the butterfly type,
which is essentially an oval or rectangular metal shape cut to fit the
inside of a flue, and opened or closed by way of an exterior key
or handle, welded to a shaft. Butterfly dampers are often installed
on smaller fireplaces, and are set between the ceramic flue liners,
higher up in the fireplace anatomy above the smoke chamber.
In some cheaper fireplaces, they are lower, the smoke chamber
having been eliminated, but this is not recommended.
Smoke shelf
Smoke shelves vary by design, the Rumford style being only 3”-4”
wide. Some fireplace builders will try to eliminate the smokeshelf.
Don’t buy that idea. The shelf is necessary to deflect downdrafts.
Smoke chamber
By the time you reach the smoke chamber, you will no longer be
using firebrick, but ordinary brick. Observing a fireplace mason
building a smoke chamber is especially helpful here. The smoke
chamber should be parged, or smoothed on its inside surface as the
fireplace is constructed, so as to lessen air turbulence. This is easi-
est with mortar-cement, parged onto the red brick surfaces. The
air volume or number of cubic feet in the smoke chamber is also
important. Be sure yours is properly sized to the area of the firebox
and the flue liners above. If all the brick work and parging intimi-
dates you, consider a pre-manufactured smoke chamber. Rumford
smoke chambers are available in fired ceramic pieces from Supe-
rior Clay Corp. and save the entire parging work mentioned above
(see pg 74).
Bringing up the fireplace mass
Build your fireplace so that it integrates into the side walls. Con-
tractors often hire a sub-contractor or professional fireplace builder
to come in after house walls are up. Thus, fireplaces are built
into existing corners, the pad having been previously poured, after
the house walls are already up. If this is your situation, plan to
have Dur-o-Wal™ ties projecting from the running walls, to tie into
the fireplace masonry (see drawing, page 100). New Mexico code
requires such ties in after the fact fireplace construction.
Dur-o-Wal™ ties left in the running walls may be bent down to tie
into the fireplace mass as it rises. Most fireplace masons tend to
resist using these ties, as they slow the work. Some masons will
try to cut them out, while telling you that they were left in, since
the work is now covered over. The ties are necessary to secure
the entire mass of the fireplace to the running walls. Think of your
fireplace as an interior buttress that strengthens the corner. This
becomes more important in seismic zones.
The flue liners
Flue liners are ceramic hollow tubes or rectangles, each section
almost always 24” in length, and serve as the interior of the chimney
in the fireplace. They are set on the narrowed top of the smoke
chamber (same inside dimension for smooth air flow) and then set
on top of one another all the way to the chimney top. It is impor-
tant that Portland-based mortars are not allowed to squeeze out
between the flues, as they will cause turbulence in the chimney.
101
Bond beam and roof
The top of the fireplace mass, at bond beam height, should also be
integrated into the bond beam pour (see drawing on page 100).This
means that you cannot pour the concrete bond beam around the
tops of the running walls until you have set up forming and steel,
so that the top of the fireplace mass is included in the general bond
beam pour. You will have the four vertical pieces of rebar coming
up through your fireplace. You will also have the steel that runs hori-
zontally in the bond beam. Forming up the semi-circular shapes
for corner adobe fireplaces is easily accomplished using tempered
masonite, well-braced to hold up under the wet concrete.
Keep wood away from flue areas. The plan checker at the building clamping device. A pull chain or cable travels to the firebox below,
inspection department will be looking at your roof framing plan to where it can be adjusted and hooked off to the side. They are made
see if you have wood running too close to the combustion area or up to fit all standard flue sizes. One type is illustrated below.
flue area. Most codes require that the fireplace flue be encased in
at least 8” of solid masonry (adobe, brick, block), followed by a 2”
minimum air space to any wood. It is also a no-no to rest any roof
loads such as beams or vigas on the fireplace mass itself. Depend-
ing on where you are, it may be acceptable to run a beam through
a part of the fireplace mass on its way to rest on the running wall
beyond. The value of a good set of blueprints cannot be overesti-
mated in this. Do a clear drawing, to scale, and confer with the build-
ing official before your fireplace work begins.
Chimney
In adobe architecture, the chimney is often a sculptural mass at a
house corner, with stepped adobe or frame parapets creating an
aesthetic effect. Chimneys must be at least two feet higher than
any part of the roof system within ten feet of them. Chimneys are
composed of stacked flue liners, surrounded by masonry. The four
pieces of vertical steel still continue all the way to chimney top. In
adobe, chimneys are often plastered. If you have a pitched roof
requiring a tall chimney, you may opt to call in a brick mason who
can build an attractive chimney out of red brick. Tall chimneys are
difficult to surround with the larger adobes. Safety and seismic
codes must also be considered.
102
Dampers
See photo of standard damper on page 101. The problem with
most standard damper units is that once built into the fireplace they
cannot be removed. If the fit is too tight, heat can warp the metal
and they can jam in either an open or closed position. They must
be installed carefully, so that mortar does not fall down to jamb
them during construction. Moreover, the handle that operates them
is always sooty.
Chimney-top damper
An alternative is a chimney-top damper. These units consist of a
spring-loaded, hinged lid that mounts on the chimney top via a
The All Season Control Cover™
by Benson Chimney Control, Salt Lake
City, Ut.
Chimney top dampers have several advantages. They don’t jam,
they can be removed and replaced without altering the fireplace,
they keep drafts from coming down the chimney, they keep heat
built up in the fireplace mass to the interior, and neither birds,
insects, rain nor snow can enter.
Starting the first fire and finishing
Most fireplaces are plastered. The plaster will hide the wire mesh
or expanded metal lathe that is wrapped around the face to prevent
cracking. A smooth-plastered fireplace is easier to clean. Cure the
work well before lighting the fireplace for the first time and before
lathing and plastering it. Don’t let crew members light up the fire-
place with roaring fires
when the mud joints in
the adobe work are still
green. Start with small
fires and build up the
heat gradually. If the face
of the fireplace cracks
after a few fires, drive in
metal wedges or cut nails
to jam the cracks open
at their widest point,
when fireplace mass has
expanded after a hot
fire. Then, double wrap
the lathe in the areas
just above and to the
sides of the box, where
contraction/expansion is
the greatest. Nail up
the lathe in strips that
cross over to the sides,
where good nailing can
be done.

Fireplaces may incorporate tiles,

mantels, cooking gear, nichos with
electrical plugs, adobe bancos, and
many other features. Make sure
these items are planned before
final drafting begins (see Horno,
Kiva Fireplace, Beehive Fireplace,
Grubka, and Count Rumford).

Top: Fireplace with concha pattern

by Al Knight, fireplace mason,
Corrales,N.M.
Left: Contemporary style fireplace,
Albuquerque, N.M.
Kiva style fireplace in an adobe home designed by Mark Chalom, architect,
Santa Fé, New Mexico
103
FIRE RATING TEST Everyone knows that adobe, like concrete a direct copy of the above test, send $6 with a mailing address to
block, or red brick, will not burn. But insurance companies and build- Southwest Solaradobe School, P.O. Box 153, Bosque, N.M. 87006.
ing inspectors don’t always know what adobe or rammed earth is.
A formal, independent fire rating test has never been done in the
United States. Fortunately, the Australians have carried out such a FLOCCULATED CORNER A soil which builds or aerates on
test. itself in some way. Most often a condition in adobe manufacture in
which upturned corners develop on adobes as the form is lifted off.
The test was performed on July 8, 1982 at the Experimental Build- The pull on the form corners is stronger and stretches the wet soil
ing Station, Department of Transport and Construction, P.O. Box upward. This will be likely on finer soil mixes. It can create a con-
30, Chatswood, N.S.W. 2067 Australia. It is listed under Technical cave condition on one side of the block, but is of little consequence
Record 490. The test was carried out in accordance with Australian in laying the block (use by San Tan Adobe, Queen Creek, Az.).
standard 1530, Part 4-1975, Fire Resistance Test of Structures. The
height of the wall was 2.95 meters, and the length 2.905 meters.
The thickness was 250 mm. FLUE LINER See fireplaces.

The result was: “The wall qualified for a fire-resistance rating of 4

FLUFF Dead earth. That is, earth in an adobe wall that has dete-
hours, in terms of AS 1530, Part 4-1975.”
riorated due to freeze/thaw cycles or salts, and has lost its structural
integrity.
In Albuquerque, N.M., Richard Apgar, Training Officer for Bernalillo
County Fire District One, commented: “Australian adobe has a fire
resistance rating of four hours. Conventional wood-frame construc- FLYWHEEL EFFECT A lay term used to describe the advanta-
tion has a fire rating of one hour. This means, that in laboratory geous thermal character of earth walls in the Southwestern U.S.
tests, adobe walls withstood four hours of exposure to heat and climate. Actually, all mass wall systems have this advantage, but
flame before failure, while wood frame walls would withstand only it becomes more noticeable in adobe walls between 10” and 16”
one hour.” in thickness in desert or steppe climate zones with large diurnal
temperature swings.
In actuality, the 250 mm thick adobes in the Australia test did not fail
even after four hours. The temperature rise on the unexposed side The effect of the flywheel is a twelve hour delay in energy transfer
of the test wall was well below that required for failure. There was from exterior to interior. In other words, at the hottest time of day
no sign of imminent collapse when the test was stopped. on a summer afternoon, say at 3:30 p.m., the interior of the adobe
structure will be at its coolest. Likewise, at the coolest time of
In a few instances where U.S. building inspection departments have the morning, around 3:30 a.m., the interior temperature will be at
stopped work in adobe structures because of fire rating concerns, its warmest. Because of the moderating or dampening ability of
referral to the above Australian test has satisfied the department. the thick earth walls, neither extreme will be experienced on the
Readers are encouraged to write the Australian address above to inside.
obtain an email address for better communication, or to call Aus-
tralian long distance information in New South Wales. For David Robertson, P.E., an engineer employed by the Southwest
104
Thermal Mass Study in New Mexico in the early 1980’s, did much the total loss for the day. Again, these are idealized curves, and
to record and explain the adobe flywheel effect. He wrote: these exact conditions rarely, if ever, occur.

“These two effects of thermal mass, moderation and delay of heat Whereas the lightweight building requires cooling for part of the
flow, have important implications for space heating and cooling day and heating for part of the day, the massive building requires
energy consumption, particularly as the mass interacts with other neither. There are many days in the spring and fall transition
building elements and the space conditioning system. seasons, and in the summer cooling season, when this effect
saves energy. It usually does not save both heating and cooling
The most significant is the moderating influence of thermal mass. energy, but it saves one or the other.
When heating (or cooling) is required continuously throughout the
day, mass has no effect on energy use (the average of cold The delay of heat flow caused by thermal mass can also save
and very cold is still cold). However, when a building experiences energy. Note from the figure that the cooling load for the massive
alternating periods of net energy loss and net energy gain during building occurs in the evening and nighttime hours. This timing per-
each day, thermal mass will save energy. This is the case in most mits the homeowner to cool the building by ventilating with cooler
of New Mexico in spring, summer and fall, and in buildings with nighttime outside air. In many, if not all, of cooling season days, this
high solar gain in winter. eliminates the need for energy for cooling. In a lightweight building,
on the other hand, the cooling load occurs in midafternoon, at the
To see how this works look at the figure. The heat flow for the total hottest part of the day, and cooling is required.
building, not just the walls, is shown, and the average heat loss for
the building is zero in this example. When the curves are above the Another benefit of thermal mass is apparent from the results:
line, the building is losing heat, and when the curves are below the peak load reduction. The figure shows that the building heating or
line, the building is gaining heat. The total gain for the day equals cooling load is more constant, and the peak loads are smaller. This
will reduce: utility peak loads (most
importantly for electric utilities), and
thus capacity requirements and the
size and cost of heating and cooling
equipment in the building as a result
of less cycling.”

Adobe dwellers relate stories of com-

fort enhancement using the adobe
flywheel. “Cool in the summer and
warm in the winter” is the familiar
quote. One example was measured
by the author at an old adobe in
Los Lunas, N.M., where a heat wave
occurred over a two week
105

How a High-Mass Wall works with Passive Solar Design:
Temperature swings in a rammed earth home in Benson, Az.
The winter chart shows how well solar gain works with this type of wall, which
is 24 inches thick, with an insulation and stucco cover on the exterior. The
comfort level is easily maintained at this elevation of 4000’. The summer chart
also shows the moderating effect of thick walls, which is improved with one
evaporative cooler.
Courtesy: Rammed Earth Solar Homes
106
period in the late spring of 1974. Taylor maximum/minimum ther-
mometers were set up inside and outside the home. The exterior
thermometer was installed in a tree-shaded position out of direct
sunlight. Afternoon high temperatures ranged from 99˚F to 104˚F.
Low temperatures ranged from the high 60’s to low 70’s Farenheit.
Windows were not opened during the test, and one door was
opened, then quickly closed, only for observations. The structure
was uninhabited at the time of testing.
On the interior, the temperature reached a maximum of 82˚F at
3:30 a.m. and a minimum of 78˚F at 3:30 p.m. The afternoon heat
seemed to create a pulsation of energy into the walls, expressed
by the slightly higher temperature twelve hours later at 3:30 a.m.
on the interior. The early morning chill also created a pulse,
expressed by the cooler temperature on the interior twelve hours
later at 3:30 p.m. The author believes that the thicker the earth
walls, the less pulse would be observed. The adobe wall thickness
in this example was 16”-18”. The old adobe had an earth roof
about 8” thick.
Although some people would argue that 78-82˚F is too warm, in
ordinary use some windows would have been opened during the
cool night hours for cross ventilation and night flushing. Keep in
mind that the benefit of the flywheel will vary depending on wall
thickness, climate zone, and the sensitivity of the inhabitants.
As one moves to warmer climates, some form of air conditioning
is required, as mass alone will not bring about comfort levels in
climates like Tucson, Phoenix or Yuma. You will still save energy
compared to your lightweight neighbor, because you can purchase
smaller cooling units and run them for shorter periods of time. The
same sort of relative energy use occurs during the winter in colder
climates; as engineer Robertson points out, “the average of cold
and very cold is still cold”. In such climates, the best companion to
mass is passive solar design.
Research done by Southwest Thermal Mass Study (SWTMS) per-
sonnel at Tesuque Pueblo, N.M., as part of the Department of
Energy’s Thermal Mass Program in the early 1980’s, unveiled
much about how adobe works. Participants included National
Bureau of Standards (NBS), Los Alamos and Sandia Laboratories,
the Eight Northern Pueblos Council, the University of New Mexico
(UNM), the Department of Energy (DOE) and Housing and Urban
Development (HUD). The study grew out of energy concerns gen-
erated by the Arab oil embargo of 1973/4, and the objective was
to discover whether or not adobe and other mass wall materials
could play a part in energy conservation. Native Americans and
local contractors in New Mexico felt that adobe worked, while
government officials in Washington were doubtful due to the low
“R” factor reported for adobe. Native Americans wanted HUD to
build traditional adobe housing on reservations in New Mexico,
while HUD wanted to build standard frame housing.
At Tesuque Pueblo, test structures were constructed using different which create strong support for masonry walls when filled with con-
types of adobe walls, with no windows or doors. Entry to test
equipment was via a hatch in the roof of each structure. The
adobes were provided by nearby San Juan Pueblo and had a
density of 117 lbs. per cubic foot, average for adobes. Walls ranged foam-based forms on the market.
from 10” to 14” in thickness, with and without 1” and 2” insulation
on their exteriors. All had the same degree of insulation in their
roofs. No auxiliary heating or cooling was provided on the test
buildings. All test buildings were fitted with thermocouples which
fed back to computer data collection terminals. Some tests were
also run for solar glass.
In New Mexico, the study results became an alternative to ques-
tionable steady-state “R” factors, providing numbers that more
closely tracked true wall performance in nature. They are termed
“Effective U factors” (Ue) in the statewide energy code. It was found
that four considerations - color of exterior wall, type of wall, climate
zone and wall orientation - influenced the mass effect. A climate
zone map was developed for the energy code. Extrapolations into
other climates concluded that the mass effect alone could save
around 11% in wintertime heating costs in Denver, and up to 17%
in summertime cooling costs in Phoenix. The results of the study
revitalized adobe as a viable building material during the energy
crunch years and served as a pivot point for passive solar design,
which has carried into the new century.
In any home design, such mass wall savings assume a well-insu-
lated roof and energy-conservation methods by the inhabitants.
Lifestyles must include disciplines involving window open/close
routines, doors not left carelessly open, the use of weather strip-
ping and caulking, shading devices, low-e glass and many other
measures (See Rammed Earth, Solaradobe and Ue Factor).
FOAM FORM A lightweight polystyrene form, 4 feet long by 16
inches high, and wide enough to support an adobe wall. Foam
forms weigh 4 pounds per linear foot and have hollow interiors
crete and required steel. They have a tongue-and-groove feature
which allows them to interlock, both in vertical stacks and along
the horizontal stem wall configuration. There are several varieties of
Foam forms are handy for
earthbuilders for two basic
reasons: they provide
energy savings around
the home perimeter,
where studies show that
an average 17% of winter/
summer energy loss takes
place, and they are light,
manageable, and quick to
set up.
107
Once the footing has been poured, the foam forms are simply set on
top and locked into place. Corners are navigated by use of a hand
saw, cutting the forms at a 45º angle and bracing them together.
Once forms are aligned and braced, with steel set, the stem is
poured.

In most Southwest climate zones, one layer of the forms brings the
stem top to 6” above grade, as required by most codes. Where
the foundation trench is more than 18” deep, 2 layers on top of one
another may be necessary to keep the stem top at least 6” above
grade. Vertical and horizontal rebar is easily set in place.

The forms are most popular as supporting stems for 10” adobe
walls, but one manufacturer provides foundation details for a 14”
wide wall as well. In seismic zones, special care must be taken that
the foam form’s concrete core is sufficient to support the masonry FOOTING See Foundation System.
walls above. Always check with your local code to determine if foam
forms are allowed.
FORM CLIPS Iron straps, made up in varying widths, and used
Foam forms eliminate the awkward lifting of concrete block, as well to hold wood forms to a certain dimension or width. They are used
as the mortar mixing for that approach to a stem. While they may along the bottom of the forming and at the top. The clips along the
require some bracing, they eliminate the often bothersome task bottom are lost in the concrete pour, whereas the top clips may be
of extensive wood forming for the continuous pour approach to a popped off for continued use.
stem.
Some form clip widths are 6”, 8”, 10”, and 12”. In adobe work, they
This product has been approved by the New Mexico Construction may be placed as illustrated to help form a bond beam, or be used
Industries Division, the FHA, Underwriters Lab and the ICBO. in the bottom of a foundation trench to form a footing or stem.

FOGÓN Fireplace (see Fireplace).

FOGÓN DE CAMPANA A kind of early adobe fireplace, previ-

ously typical in Colonial New Mexico. Few still survive. The late
architectural historian Bainbridge Bunting identifies one from the
José Gregorio Valdez adobe at Taos, built about 1806. It has a
double arch, so the bell shape is modified.
108
 FOUNDATION SYSTEM
The foundation system serves as a rigid collar on which the house crete block filled with concrete, but they may also be made of native
sits. It must be strong and unified so that the walls and structure stone, red brick, or other hard masonry.
above cannot spread, separate or settle.
The footing, located at the bottom of the foundation trench, is gen-
The foundation system consists of two main parts: the stem and the erally 8” deep, and of 2500 p.s.i. concrete. Footings are almost
footing. The stem is the top part of the foundation system. It trans- always reinforced with steel rebar in the U.S. and México. Rebar is
fers the weight of the walls to the footing below. It rises 6” or more expensive in many countries, and native solutions are being stud-
above grade, or the exterior ground level, to protect the earth walls ied. Cured, treated, split bamboo, with more tensile strength than
from moisture. In high rainfall climates, the stem can be 12” or even steel, shows some promise for the future.
18” above grade.
The footing takes the weight of the structure from the stem and
spreads it, much as the weight of a person is spread out by a snow-
shoe.

Most sites can use a prescribed foundation system, or a system

already laid out in the local code. Most soils will support a home
with a footing that is 2” to 4” wider on each side than the wall above.
In soft soils that cannot take much bearing, footings are designed
to be wider, so that the weight will be spread out over a larger area.
On sites over unknown conditions, a soils engineer may be hired to
check for collapsible soils or other unsuitable conditions. Local well
drillers may also have useful information.

Another job of the footing is to take the house weight well below
the frost line, the line above which freeze/thaw heaving could take
place. In Phoenix, Tucson and Las Cruces, the depth prescribed is
usually 12”. In Albuquerque, N.M. and Prescott, Az., one must go
to 18”. In mountainous or colder areas, the trench must be deeper.
For example, at the 6500’ elevation of eastern Bernalillo Cty., N.M.,
Stems also act as borders, establishing a level surface on which trenches must be 21” deep. Always check the local code to see
the walls are laid as well as a clean edge to which masonry floors what the prescribed depth is, or ask your local building official.
may be set. Stems can function as anchor points for electrical or
plumbing components, or as an exhaust border for radon elimina- All of the discussion thus far assumes that we are deal-
tion systems. Stems are usually made of poured concrete or con- ing with normal soils that drain fairly well and that do not
109
expand. But if the structure must be built in an area of heavy or clay
soils, drainage and freeze/thaw heaving could be a danger, so a dif-
ferent foundation system is used. At Southwest Solardobe School,
we call this system the floating footing/sand and gravel system. The
foundation trench is dug in the usual manner, then filled in layers of
3” to 4” with a rock or rock/sand mix. This mix must be “clean”- that
is, be free of clay.
settle once tamped in, but it will drain moisture away to the bottom
of the trench. The mix will absorb any expansion in the surrounding
clay layers.
The steel reinforced footing is now moved to the top and sits over
the sand and gravel fill. The builder forms it up out of wood, and the
steel rebar is placed to code specifications. Once poured, you have

1. Trench dug by backhoe, cleaned out by shovel. 2. First layer of rubble with exterior insulation 3. Wetting the fill & compacting by foot

The sand and gravel is wetted and tamped in with a hand tamper or a “floating” footing that also acts as the stem. The floating system
a flat-plate mechanized tamper. It is brought all the way to is a cheaper system, as it uses much less concrete than a conven-
110 grade or to the top of the trench. This porous mix will not tional footing and stem. This also makes it a “greener” foundation
system. It is a favorite system with ries. There are plenty of other ways to build founda-
many rammed earth builders, who tions than the ones prescribed, but you cannot pre-
use it whether there is an expan- scribe every system in a code book due to printing
sive soil on the site or not. cost limitations. And because the floating system is

A word should be said about why

this system is not prescribed in the
code books. The answer is simply
that the foundation systems we
are used to have been passed
down through tradition. We have
inherited them through the centu-

4. Left: A layer of sand is

worked into fill and wetted
in, followed by another layer
of rubble. Process repeats
to grade line.

5. Above: Forming system

and rebar in place. Boards
hanging from center spread-
ers will produce a keyway for
the rammed earth wall.

6. Right: Freshly poured

floating footing. Forms will
be removed 24 hours after
pour.
111
not prescribed by code, if you wish to use it, you will probably have
to get an architect’s or engineer’s seal on your plan. The cost of the
engineer’s stamp must not be so high as to negate the savings in
concrete.
These systems should never be designed for sites that are near a
cliff, hilltop or embankment that could wash out. They lend them-
selves best to level or gently sloping sites.
In the Eastern U.S., where foundation systems have to hold up
basement walls and resist soils that are often saturated, the foot-
ing is often grooved to key the stem into it. There is nothing wrong
with this practice in the Southwest, but another easy way to get
good bonding is to set the hollow concrete block into the wet footing
before it cures. The builder taps the block gently to level, butting the
units head to head without a mortar joint. If the block are set at the
right time, they will sink about 1/4” into the wet concrete and stop.

The “monolithic” system is another foundation choice. The stem

and footing are poured as one mass from the concrete truck. In
mountainous or rural areas where native stone is handy and con-
crete is precious, the monolithic system takes on a different form.
The builder digs the footings in the ordinary manner. Then a 3” to 4”
layer of concrete is placed in the trench. Native stone is placed in
the wet concrete, and steel rebar is fitted between the stones hori-
zontally. Another layer of concrete is poured and more stones are
fitted. At grade line, the builder switches to a mortar cement of one
part Portland cement to three parts sharp sand (no lime) and the However, this process takes some preparation. One needs plenty
stone is set for appearance and structure, the joints being struck to of help on site right after the concrete truck leaves. The concrete
taste (see Stone Stem). block must have already been stacked around the site. Batter
boards may have to be reset with the strings run on the bottom of
the batter board, so that the block setters can eyeball the blocks to
the house wall lines. The final leveling is done when the second
course of concrete block is set atop the first. Then the hollow blocks
are filled with a slurry of 2500 p.s.i. concrete.

The above system keys the stem to the footing, and at the same
time avoids having to mix up mortar cement to lay the first course. It
saves buttering the head joints on the first course of block. Because
footing tops are below ground level, they are easily dusted, muddied
and difficult to clean. The system described above eliminates these
hassles.

In situations where the stem is more than about 16”, or two blocks
high, it begins to act like a retaining wall. That is, hydrostatic pres-
sures can develop if exterior soils are leaning against it. In such
112
cases, vertical rebar should be set in the footing trench before pour- Another aspect of foundation systems is perimeter insulation (see
ing. The concrete block is set over the rebar. Most plans call for one lower left). It is required by the New Mexico Energy Code on all new
piece of 1/2” or 5/8” steel every 18” to 24”. Waterproofing of the exte- construction as an energy saver. Research has shown that at least
rior stem may be necessary, along with underground-rated insula- 17% of the average annual heat/cool loss in homes nationwide is
tion. For true underground or retaining wall situations, consult an through this usually uninsulated footing/stem area. The drawings
engineer for the proper design and a steel placement plan. Houses shown here indicate its use. If code does not require perimeter
built on sloping hillsides are likely candidates for the engineer’s eye, insulation in your area, consider using it anyway. A good choice is
and some sub-soil investigation may be necessary. R-10 2” board. It can represent a real savings in energy costs over
the years. If you plan an underfloor radiant heating system, perim-
In some districts, such as California, vertical steel is required in all eter insulation will make it more effective. The underground rated
foundation systems, along with more horizontal steel than is used type of insulation should be used, as water penetration into non-
elsewhere in the U.S. California will always require an engineer’s underground rated insulation will destroy its effectiveness. Blue-
stamp, if only because of the seismic hazard. board, pink board and gray board are all underground rated and
come in varying thicknesses. Most manufacturers have eliminated
the chlorine-based blowing agents that made these boards ozone-
depletors in the past, but you should still inquire.

Foundation systems involve stems and stems involve finishing

details, such as baseboards, tile or other materials. In some cases,
these baseboards are structural, helping to support the
wall above. Red brick baseboards (above) can also be 113
 structural. Tile baseboards generally are not; the tile is cemented to
the side of the wall. Adobe homes often have no baseboards at all;
the adobes are plastered or exposed right down to the floor. In other
cases, a very ornate baseboard may be employed. The illustrations
depict several variations using a red brick baseboard.

The following line drawings illustrate one approach to a foundation.

These ten steps cannot show every variation, and your code may
have somewhat different requirements.

114
115

In seismic zones, buildings may need extra reinforcement, such
as drag struts, in the foundation. These are often little more than
reinforced concrete ties poured with the regular foundation. They
may be hidden below the floor line, only visible on the construction
drawings. In an earthquake they can be critical in keeping the foun-
dation from spreading apart, thus keeping the walls more stable.
116
FRAME In adobe block manufacture, forms of wood or steel used
to cast the block are known as forms, and typically cast from 2 to
8 adobes per set. But when the form is mounted into a laydown
machine, and then casts 30 or more block at a time, it becomes
a frame (Used by Old Pueblo Adobe, Tucson, Az.; see Laydown
Machine and Adobe Form).
GALERIA A term used in México for a long, covered, open fronted
outdoor sala (living space), often with furniture, plants and the like.
It is similar to a portal, but usually wider, and is common in tropical
areas or where the climate is a moderate one.
GANCHOS In Central America, steel collar ties used with steel
reinforcement.
GELTAFTAN A process of building developed by the Iranian-born
architect Nader Khalili, which integrates the arts of ceramics, sculp-
ture, adobe and architecture. The word is a combo of two Persian
words - gel, meaning clay, and taftan or fire baking. Essentially,
adobe structures are built, then fired from within using a petrol-
based fuel. The adobe goes from a clay to a ceramic state. It can
be glazed, then fired again. At the present time, Khalili resides in
California, where he has set up a foundation to conduct research
on geltaftan and other shelter ideas. He has conducted many work-
shops around the Southwest and inspired a number of earthbuild-
ers in the construction of adobe vaults and domes. Khalili has also
proposed potential scenarios for earthbuilding on the Moon, and
has worked with NASA on collecting information to that end (see
Adobe Furnace, Horno, and Adobe Quemado).
GLAZING Solar transparent material that controls the collection
of the sun’s energy in buildings. The designer must consider many
factors in the selection of appropriate glazing materials. Transmis-
sivity, or the amount of energy that comes through a glazing product
is affected by the thickness, tint, layers of material, and the physical
properties of the glazing. Heat retention, or R-value, is determined
by air spaces and the addition of low-emissivity coatings or films.
The quality of light, whether the transmitted solar energy is diffused
(scattered) or direct (sharp shadows), will be important for the occu-
pants’ visual comfort and has some thermal performance and plant-
growing implications as well.
Longevity and lifetime clarity of the glazing will also be taken into
account by conscientious designers and builders. Those in the
Southwest and Rocky Mountain regions need to be aware that most
plastic glazing materials are prematurely aged in the high UV-light
conditions at higher altitudes. For that reason, glass is used in the
vast majority of passive solar applications in the West. Warranties
on all glass and plastic glazings should be well understood before
building (courtesy Bill Yanda).
GLAZING SYSTEM A term originated by the commercial skylight
and skyscraper industry to designate a mechanical method to
mount glass and plastic to large areas of structural framing. Glaz-
ing systems usually include (1) Extruded metal base plates with
cushioning gaskets upon which the glass rests, (2) Interior gutters
built into the system to remove any internal condensate or water
leakage, (3) Thermal breaks to inhibit the conduction of heat directly
through the metal in the system to the outdoors, and (4) A low or no-
maintenance exterior cap with a gasket to hold the glazing in place
and prevent water leakage.
Glazing systems are appropriate for passive
solar design, which involves large amounts
of fixed glazing in a vertical or sloped appli-
cation. Old methods of using wood stops
to hold glass in place will fail over time,
leaving the homeowner with problems of
leakage and the dangerous possibility of
that leakage damaging the structural integ-
rity of beams, vigas, or rafters, as well as
unsightly insulated glass units with water
vapor between the glass layers. In recent
years, new skin glazing systems have been developed which allow
builders to use attractive wood beams as structural framing and
mount glass or plastic in leak-proof, no-maintenance exterior metal
extrusions. These systems are sold by stick length and shipped
directly to job sites (courtesy Bill Yanda).
GOAT’S MILK PLASTER A New Mexican recipe of adobe fines
and goat’s milk, producing a very durable interior plaster, no doubt
due to the latex-adhesive qualities of the milk. One known exam-
ple is at the Fechin adobe, Taos, N.M., where such a plaster incor-
porated tierra blanca, goat’s milk, and wheat straw with the grain
heads intact. The house dates from the 1920’s and the plaster is in
excellent condition (see Plasters).
GRADE Grade is the average pre-construction ground level around
the building site. Most codes require that the top of the house
stem be from 6” to 10” above grade, so that backsplash or other
water action cannot damage the adobe walls. If stabilized adobe
or rammed earth is used, this above grade rule is not so critical,
but is considered good building practice. Grade is finished so that
it slopes away from the structure.
GRAVEL Rock material that will not pass a USS no. 10 standard
screen. Also classified as rock material larger than 2 mm in size.
117
 GREEN BUILDING
DEFINITIONS AND QUESTIONS Using this analysis, adobe, rammed earth and pressed block all
A textbook definition of green building would be: materials and con- begin with a tremendous advantage (see Embodied Energy).
struction techniques that take the environment into consideration.
Unfortunately, the popularization of this term has led to a superficial
Let’s visit a rural village in Honduras to get the idea. This is admit-
analysis which does not take into account the full scope of green tedly a simplified, idealized scenario; these villagers could not afford
building. For example, a structure that been designed to be of pas- highly processed building materials, even if they were available.
sive solar construction may still be environmentally harmful due to They use locally gathered materials, transportation costs are low
the materials or construction methods employed. and some adobes are made right on the site. Adobes are made by
hand, so no gas or diesel is burned, and there is no pollution at
The prospective builder is encouraged to ask him or herself the fol- the point of manufacture. The adobes are cured in the sun via solar
lowing questions when contemplating materials and construction energy, as opposed to concrete block, which in the U.S. is fired in a
methods. gas kiln.

1. What is the raw material source for the product?

2. Is the material sustainable or will it run out at some point?
3. Does the extraction process pollute the area?
4. How much fuel is burned to transport the raw material to the
manufacturing point?
5. What is the true manufacturing cost? This includes the cost to air,
water, the health of people and the environment in general.
6. How much energy is used in transporting the material from the
construction site to the building site?
7. Once installed, do the materials emit pollutants?
8. What is the lifespan of the product?
9. Once the structure is no longer useful can it be recycled? That
is, can the constituent materials be efficiently reconstituted?
10. How energy conserving is the building in its design and perfor-
mance, including imported energy costs, such as butane trucking?
11. How is human health affected by all of the above?
In the foothills of the Andes, Ecuadorian villagers build with rammed earth.
All materials are locally gathered and no power tools are used.
PHILOSOPHY Photo by Pedro Zeas S., architect.
A comprehensive understanding of “green” building therefore mea- Roof beams are harvested from local forests (this can be detrimen-
sures more than what the product simply does in terms of energy tal if good forestry practices are not in place) using hand tools.
savings from the time the structure is completed and begins its ser- Rough-cut lumber goes through the sawmill only once, and is air-
vice life. dried. This contrasts to the U.S., where 90% of lumber products
118
go through the saw at least twice (more electricity) and then use
immense amounts of gas energy to kiln dry.

Now, a bit of reality. If the Honduran family is exposed to a number

of “modern” conveniences, they will probably want some of them.
Immediately, the questions at the beginning of this entry come into
play. Where is the balance?

The philosophy of green ideally includes aspects beyond construc-

tion: Photovoltaic power is now being introduced into many vil-
lages, offering families the “modern” conveniences of telephones,
lights, computers.

POWER CONSUMPTION
Let’s briefly look at three common components of buildings - wood,
insulation and masonry - and consider power consumption. In
these examples, kwh means kilowatt hours, a unit of electric con-
sumption. A kilowatt hour is the equilavent of burning 10, 100 watt
light bulbs for one hour, or using 1000 watts (1 kw) for one hour.

Vigas, the traditional Southwestern roofing timbers, save wood. For

example, a hand-peeled, unsawn 9” diameter viga has the same
strength as a 6” x 10” square cut beam of the same wood. The 6”
x 10” beam will require a 13” diameter log for its production. Using
the 9” diameter viga, the log volume is reduced by about 50% and
no sawmill work or kwh’s are used. Besides, when logs are cut into
beams, there is a 20% waste created from slabs and edgings. Cut-
ting consumes 145 kwh per 1000 board feet cut. Each 2800 board
feet of lumber saved leaves 1 acre of forest untouched.

Conventional wall insulation is quite energy intensive. Polystyrene Combination of stone stem and adobe wall at Silver City, N.M. The use of on-
consumes 153 kwh per 1000 sq. ft. of 1” thick board, 614 kwh site native stone reduces the amount of concrete or concrete block that would
otherwise be used. The stone is also a more aesthetic solution.
per 1000 sq. ft. of 4” thick board or 1,058 kwh per 1000 sq. ft. of
R-30 board. It requires major exploitative efforts to produce, using We might instead choose cellulose: it consists of used paper, used
petroleum, natural gas, and pentane gas, which produces low-level cardboard boxes, and residue from paper . It is impregnated with
ozone- an ingredient of smog, in the process. boric acid, an environmentally friendly substance that is
fire and insect resistant. It protects the lumber it is in con- 119
tact with by osmosis. Cellulose consumes 11 kwh per 1000
sq. ft. of 1” layer, 45 kwh per 1000 sq. ft. of 4” layer and 87 kwh
per 1000 sq. ft. of R-30 roof. It requires very low processing
energy, is highly sound absorbent, and has no documented
health risks. While qualified sub-contractors are required for
installation, some do-it-yourself methods are beginning to be
initiated.

Concrete consumes 1,274 kwh per 1000 cu. ft. of wall mass.
We will quickly see that adobe is a big energy saver when
compared to concrete block. However, adobe builders should
temper their enthusiasm with the realization that they too use
concrete in foundations and bond beams, and perhaps within
any stucco coatings on the walls.

Adobe consumes roughly .085 kwh per adobe or 204 kwh per
1000 cu. ft. of adobe wall (a wall 150’ long x 8’ high x 10” thick) The use of adobe is cast in a deeper shade of green by the use of large, south-facing,
Thicker walls, will of course, consume more. energy efficient glazing. Home in Bosque Farms, by William Stoddard, lic. contractor.

“Green” research continues: For example, treated, cured

sive solar heated and cooled structures. Since then, the technol-
bamboo, can replace rebar in adobe walls as an anti-seismic design
ogy has continued to be refined, but fewer adobe home starts have
system. Better foundation design can reduce the amount of con-
been designed with solar in mind.
crete used, even in seismic areas. Passive solar design, used in
conjunction with solar electric systems can reduce or eliminate
Some of the blame can be laid on the architectural and engineering
external power, and create true independence for the family. The
schools, which have done little to offer courses in renewable energy
thermal mass of earth walls works well with these systems.
or green design. Cheap energy and a lack of government leader-
ship after 1980 further hindered progress.
As you can see, green building is relative: one only makes progress
by degrees in any one home design. How much can we reduce the
However, many established earthbuilders are well-versed in solar
use of energy consumptive materials, and still maintain comfort and
design but have given in to clients who want large custom palaces
convenience levels? That is the challenge!
that burn cheap energy (contractors have to eat too). Those home-
owners who have chosen passive solar are indeed quite smug -
they see the return of high energy costs, and are glad that they are
RECENT HISTORY
less vulnerable. Left in the cold are those with large, ostentatious
In the United States, adobe architecture was more green in the
custom adobes, with all of the bells and whistles, but with north
period from 1976 to 1986 than it is today. During that time period,
facing windows, no solar apertures, and a big mortgage.
most adobe builders in the Southwest were designing pas-
120
CONCLUSIONS
Due to land and resource restrictions, the Europeans are moving GRUBKA
more quickly than the Americans, as evidenced in their commitment The Russian name for a European
to solar, wind and biomass technologies. What will finally prompt the masonry stove. They are known for their
United States to take action? Perhaps rolling blackouts and threat- use of small diameter woods, or slash,
ened oil supplies? In 2001, “green building” is a buzz word, thrown and their efficiency, which approaches
about lightly. A builder will claim to be “green”, simply because of a 90%. They are great supplements to
xeriscaped area around an energy inefficient home. Recently some passive solar heating in severe winter
large building supply chains (Home Base and Lowe’s, for example) climates. A Grubka will require perhaps
are beginning to require green building policies from their wholesale two firings in 24 hours, using fuels such
suppliers. The truth is, “green” is relative. If everyone begins to take as salt cedar, orchard prunings or slash
at least a few steps, it can make a tremendous difference. One can gathered for free from U.S. Forest Ser-
become more efficient, energy conservative, and still keep most of vice lands. Fuel diameters should not
the conveniences we are addicted to, but it takes education, aware- exceed 2” for grubka firings. One needs
ness, commitment (see Lorena Stove). a hot, fast burning fire that lasts for an hour. Flue temperatures
may approach 1200º F. All pollutants are burned up, making grub-
kas very clean burning. When a grubka firing is underway, the
GRINGO BLOCK A wood nailer set in the adobe wall as an attach- observer will see no smoke from the chimney; only a clear, shim-
ment for door and window frames, or interior frame walls. Made up mering mirage effect. The labyrinth of fire chambers spreads the
of 2”x4” lumber, they are hollow in the middle. This void is then filled heat throughout the grubka’s mass, which absorbs almost all of the
with the same mud the adobes are laid in. fire’s energy. It then slowly travels through the mass to warm rooms.
In Europe, such masonry stoves are often purposely built into the
intersection of four interior rooms, so as to heat all four.

Up front costs to build these stoves are higher, due to their

larger mass, increased use of firebrick and the careful construction
required for the oven and chambers. In the Southwest, much credit
goes to Robert Proctor, a fireplace mason and grubka advocate. In
1979-80 he worked with the State of New Mexico to construct seven
of these stoves at Senior Citizens’ Centers and Community Cen-
ters. Brick, adobe, concrete block and other masonry were utilized
Gringo blocks were the standard in the 1960’s and 70’s in New in the stoves, which are all in service today. Much testing was done
Mexico, but have declined in use since then. Other attachment throughout these constructions, and thermocouples were installed
techniques have come into use. Gringo blocks must be plastered at points through the stove walls, to track how the heat travels.
over, and cannot be used in exposed adobe work. If they are left These results are detailed in Jay S. Jarpe’s Russian Fireplace Dem-
exposed to the weather, they may begin to pull apart (see T-bolt and onstrations and Workshops, a small portion of which is reproduced
Expanded Metal Lathe). here.
121
 Above: Flue runs for six of the eight grubkas built
in New Mexico in the 1980’s. The tempereratures of
these flue runs are about 1100ºF six minutes after
iginition. All pollutants are consumed.

Below: Chart shows gradual dropoff in heat output in

BTU’s over a 75 hour timespan.

Above: Cutaway of typical grubka masonry stove. All varieties have high
masonry mass, long flow path and resulting high efficiencies in common.
The user may gather less wood and tend the fire for only short periods each
day to achieve comfortable surroundings. The wood can be scrap limbs or
inferior shapes up to four feet long. Variations are found in Sweden, Finland,
Poland, Austria, Germany and Italy.
122
Below and Right: Sections of the grubka built at Santa Fé, New Mexico. The
first grubka built in New Mexico was constructed in an adobe home by George
Rost. Robert Proctor, a young innovative mason used plans acquired from Basi-
lio Lepuschenko of Richmond, Maine, and by a Finn, Sam Jakola, a Maine dairy
farmer.
Thermocouples were placed throughout the Russian masonry mass. A firing of
80 pounds of dry sticks yielded very low chimney losses. The smoke path from
the back of the firebox to the top of the chimey was at least 40 feet. The entire
mass was initially cold at 42ºF. Stack heat losses determined that the unit was
94% efficient. The mass heated and then cooled to 62ºF in the unheated building

68 hours after firing. Starting with a cold unit enhanced efficiency, and
the long flue path also put the Russian fireplace at a distinct advantage.
Cooling slows as the temperature drops. Wood scrap or even straw
which are now essentially wasted products in the United States would
provide a fuel source of high efficiency.

These notes are courtesy of Russian Fireplace Demonstrations and

Workshops by Jay S. Jarpe, New Mexico Energy Research & Develop-
ment Institute, May 1981. For a reprint of this 88 page out-of-print report,
send $20 to Southwest Solaradobe School, P.O. Box 153, Bosque, N.M.
87006
(continued)
123
 GUALDRA In México, a long, heavy beam on which the other
beams rest. The suggestion is that of an antique beam.

GUSSET A panel or bracket of wood or metal used at frame

intersections to add strength. They are often installed as temporary
braces for rough bucks.

H.E.B. European acronym for hydraulically pressed earth blocks.

H.P.U. Hydraulically pressed units. Another term for earth blocks

made by pressing in a machine (see Pressed Block).

HÁGALO USTED MISMO To “do it yourself” in Spanish. Central

American usage.

HEADER The horizontal structural member that supports the load

over an opening, such as a window or door. Similar to a lintel.

HEADROOM The vertical distance between the floor and ceiling,

as in a stairway.

HEATING AND COOLING BY BRUTE FORCE A phrase coined

in the 1970’s in Northern New Mexico, probably by Doug Balcomb,
Buck Rogers or other of the passive solar pioneers. It refers to the
ability of an adobe structure with much internal wall mass to moder-
ate or reduce energy costs. The thermal properties of the materi-
als are such that warmth or “coolth” can be stored in bancos, floors,
and interior walls.

HEIGHT TO THICKNESS RATIO The relationship between a wall

height (measured from the stem top to the bond beam top) to its
thickness (measured from side to side). In prescriptive codes, an
earth wall must not exceed 10 times its width in height. Thus, a
10” thick adobe wall in New Mexico can be 100” tall, or 8’4” from
top of stem to top of bond beam. However, in many code jurisdic-
tions such a wall is considered too “skinny”, especially when seis-
mic design is deployed. Most builders prefer a wall 14” to 16” thick,
and rammed earth builders construct walls from 18” to 36” thick.

In these examples, it is assumed that ordinary ceiling heights of

from 8’6” to 10’0” are called for, so that the builder does not need
124 to build a 16” thick adobe wall 160” high. In other words, within a
range of ordinary ceiling heights, a thicker earth wall will be more
stable than a skinny one, especially in earthquake prone areas.
Noted seismic engineer Dr. Fred Webster recommends an “H to T”
ratio of 6 to 1 up to 8 to 1, depending on the seismic zone.
HERRINGBONE A zig-zag or chevron pattern used in floor
and ceiling installations. The style dates from ancient times in
many cultures. In the Americas, natives placed latillas in this pat-
tern over viga ceilings (see Bas-
ketweave and Pinwheel).
HIP ROOF A roof assembly
which rises from all four sides of
the structure. A style common
on old tin roofed adobes in rural
New Mexico. In Central America,
referred to as a “roof of four waters”.
A wood door is typical, set to lean against the oven door. The heat
of the horno walls bakes the food. A dozen cookies can be baked
in 8 minutes. A crumpled paper test is used to judge the internal
temperature. If the newspaper fires up quickly, the oven is too hot.
If it browns slowly, the temperature is about right for bread. If the
temperature is too high, leave the door open and swab the interior
with water.
All hornos have a smoke hole located toward the back and some-
what down from the top. For cooking purposes, cover the front
opening with the door to retain the heat. When the food has been
baked, the oven may still be hot enough for another run (see Lorena
Stove).

HORNO Pronounced without the “h”, or “ore-no”.

An outdoor adobe oven, fired with small branches,
such as juniper or cedar. Hornos were introduced
throughout the Americas by the Spanish, and can
still be located in rural areas of Central America,
where kitchens are traditionally located in covered,
but open areas adjacent to the home.

In the U.S. Southwest, they have been adopted by

the Pueblo tribes, who use them for bread baking.
A drive to Isleta Pueblo, south of Albuquerque,
reveals that many homes have two hornos. Fresh
bread is sold daily around Isleta.

The fire is set and fed in a wire basket, slid into

the horno interior. The roaring fire dies to coals.
The coals, contained in the wire basket with a long
handle, are extracted. The cook now swabs the
interior with a broom. Then the bread or cookies are
slid in on a flat wooden paddle.
An adobe horno in Tucson, Az.
125
HOYO Spanish term for pit, in this case
applied to the one dug for mixing adobe
soils. An easier method that is related
but requires less work is illustrated. The
hoyo is set at a higher elevation in the
side of a bank or in a pile of delivered adobe soil (see Birka).
HYBRID SOLARADOBE An adobe home that uses both passive
and active systems, such as photovoltaics and direct gain.
ILLITE A less expensive clay type that does well in the manufac- should be nailed to the adobe wall with 8 penny nails into the middle
ture of earthen construction materials (see Clay).
INTERIOR PLASTERING This definition lays out the basics for
interior, gypsum-based plastering, as explained by the late Joe
Gutierrez. Joe was one of the masters of this trade. Readers inter-
ested in other plasters should refer to the general plasters section.
Newly constructed adobe walls will settle approximately 1/4” before
their final cure. Wait three months after the walls are up before plas-
tering.
1. Wall preparation is important. Leave vertical joints in the adobes
open 3/4” for a better bond. Corners should be covered with metal
lathe. The lathe can slide under the door or window frame and
of the adobes. 1-3/4” wide-headed roofing nails also work well.

2. Cover wood: Any wood in the adobe wall that will not be exposed
INDIRECT GAIN Heat transferred to a living space through con-
should be covered with 15 lb. felt, with metal lathe nailed over. This
duction, convection, or radiation from thermal mass that has its
keeps the moisture in the plaster from swelling the wood and crack-
heated surface outside such a living space (see Trombé Wall).
ing the plaster. Treat lintels, nailers (gringo blocks) and other wood
to be covered in this fashion.
INSOLATION The total solar energy, including direct and indirect,
that strikes a surface that is exposed to the sun. 3. Where plaster meets exposed frames, cut a notch or plaster
key in the
INTERFACED UTILITY SYSTEM A photovoltaic system that is framing mate-
used in a grid-connected house. The electricity generated by the rial before it is
photovoltaic system is stored in a battery bank and is used for all put together.
or some of the home’s power. If the battery bank becomes low, an The key can
automatic transfer switch connects the house to utility power until be 1/4”x1/4”. It
the PV system has recharged the batteries. When charging is com- will give you a
plete, the transfer switch will reconnect the home to PV power via straighter plas-
the batteries (see Photovoltaics). ter line, better
appearance
This is a good initial starting system for those people who wish to and no cracks.
phase into PV over a longer period. They will have a system that
will perform during power outages and at the same time, be able to 4. Protect your tile or brick floors before beginning, if they are
enlarge their system until the power company is no longer needed. already in. Lay out plastic drop cloths and use masking tape to
hold them about 1” from walls. The plastic will keep plaster from
126
getting into porous tile or brick, and save a lot of time and money on Softer mixes may slide. The stiff mix sets up faster and you ‘mad
cleanup. Do not let the plastic get under the plaster going onto the dog’ to get it up on the wall before it begins to set. Try a half batch
wall. It is often better to plaster first, then install the brick or tile. first, until you can gauge your speed.

5.Tools: They are vital, 8. Weather: If it’s windy, keep drafts off walls and close the win-
but you don’t have to dows. Dry winds can ‘burn’ the plaster, meaning that it has set pre-
spend a lot. The darby maturely, without enough moisture, and resulting in soft spots in the
takes a simple piece wall. Such spots will appear white instead of the light tan of the
of redwood and a few plaster. They can be corrected with a fine spray of water. Look for
scraps. Keep tools clean. such areas on both brown and finish coats.
Old plaster on a trowel is
impossible to work with. 9. Starting out: Go around and fill the deepest holes that require
Old plaster on a hoe can extra plaster. Start out about mid-point in the wall and work in
cause new plaster to set bands across a particular section of wall. Use a scaffold to work up
up too fast. to ceiling areas. If right-handed, work from left to right; the opposite
holds true for left-handed workers.
6. Crew: Two can do the
job, but three is better. A 10. Cutting from the Hawk: It’s tricky. You’ll drop a lot before you
plasterer and two help- learn. The secret is a certain twist of the hand and wrist, while tilting
ers: one to scoop between the hawk with a little motion. The Hawk will supply up to 4 scoops
wheelbarrow and mud board, when fully loaded. The motion of plastering is more like a sweep or
the other to screen sand and arc, while using a little pressure. Practice on a small, out-of-the-
mix plaster. way area to get the feel. Keep the Hawk about one foot from the
wall. It will be hard to keep plaster from falling off the Hawk at first.
7. Mixing the first or Brown
Coat: Use standard bags of
fibered gypsum plaster. The
fibers keep the first thick coat
from cracking. Mix 40 square
shovels of screened, clean
plaster sand to one bag of
plaster in the mortar box. Mix
dry, slowly adding water to the batch. It’s a good idea to mix a small
batch on the side to see what the local water does to the mix. Some
water can cause the plaster to set up too fast. One time in Placitas,
N.M., I had to mix up half batches at a time due to the water from
that particular well. I prefer a stiff mix as it stays up on the wall.
127
11. Bullnosing at door and window openings or frames requires a
motion where I pull the trowel up and around the bullnose. If you try 16. Clean up your tools and floor
to go around sideways, the plaster will want to slide off. right away. Don’t paint walls for
at least 2 weeks, especially if you
In the sketch above, I am using my homemade darby to bullnose an plan to use an oil-based paint.
exposed 4”x10” lintel. The motion is a sliding to the right, and up. In Check for and wet down any
this case as with bullnosing anything, the tools are not loaded with burned spots on your walls, and
plaster, just used to tool the wall. good luck!

12. The darby is used to straighten the wall. The trick is to get the
plaster on a large area with the trowel, then still have time to go INTER-TIED UTILITY SYSTEM
back over with the darby, before plaster begins to set. Use a brush A PV system that is grid connected, but instead of having its own
and clean water to throw sprinkles on the wall, then work with your storage system, sells all of its power to the utility company. It has
darby until you feel the wall is straight. a special type of inverter and is very reliable. Systems have been
installed with many years of trouble-free service. This approach
13. After darbying and touching up around windows and doors, you usually requires a bare bones minimum of 1000 watts of solar elec-
are through with the brown coat. Keep doors and windows closed tric power, since the smallest utility inter-tie inverter requires that
to let the room cure slowly. Be sure electrical boxes are not covered amount to go ‘on-line’ (see Photovoltaics).
over. Wait at least a day for the finish.

14. Finish coat: It’s about 1/8” thick, using unfibered gypsum plas- INVERTER An electronic device which converts direct current
ter. The mix is three 5 gallon cans of screened fine sand to one bag (DC) into alternating current (AC). The selection of an inverter
of plaster. This goes a long way, so try a 1/2 batch at first. With for an alternative energy system depends on the quality of power
practice, you can go a full batch. Screening for the sand in this mix required by the household goods that will be operated. The selec-
should be fine - through a window screen. tion also depends on the types of loads, such as motors that require
a high surge start. Inverter costs have dropped with photovoltaic
15. Several finishes are possible: Two popular ones are the smooth costs since the early 1980’s, with prices in some cases falling by
or slick coat and the more textured float coat. The float uses a 50%. Their reliability has at the same time increased.
small, rectangular trowel with a sponge on its bottom. Use a circular
motion and splatter water with your brush. Keep the sponge wet. Cascading units are also available. They work together to supply
This is a good way to finish bedrooms, den and living room. The power to large loads, and if one fails, the other can continue to func-
slick coat is a good finish for bath and kitchen. There are slicker tion for critical uses, such as refrigeration and computers. Some
ones available using Keene cement, lime and a bit of gauging, but I inverters can also be used for battery charging.
have found the slick coat adequate for most adobe work. The idea
is to get a slick finish by following the wet brush with a trowel. The ISOLATED GAIN A system in which the collector is on the exterior
darby is not used for finish work, just the trowel, float and brush. of the structure, sending collected heat to the interior of the living
space through ducts or pipes. North-facing rooms in solar homes
128 are often so warmed.
JACÁL A type of adobe-log structure, more typical at higher eleva- KAOLINITE A stable clay type that does well in adobe and pressed
tions where wood was more plentiful, and usually pre-dating the adobe manufacture, as well as in rammed earth.
time of sawmills. Jacales were made by setting up poles vertically,
then packing mud into the spaces from both outside and inside. KATCHA A Pakistani term for adobe, or the adobe block product
These houses were often small, and used by sheepherders or as and its mix. Mud is mixed to a stiff consistency via the mud-pit
line shacks. In New Mexico, they were found above 6500’ or 7000’ approach. It is then molded into a form with one open face. At
elevation. Elfego Baca, the legendary sheriff of San Francisco the bottom of the form, various keys are set, so that when cast, the
Plaza, N.M. (now Reserve), held off scores of outlaw cowboys from katcha has an indentation in it for better bonding. In Pakistan, as in
within a jacál during the early cattle driving days of western N.M. other countries, work teams usually consist of two family members,
Although the structure was riddled with countless rounds of ammu- with output for a 12 hour work day ranging from 700 to 750 katchas.
nition over a day and night, Baca survived to cook his breakfast the In 1983, the pay was 25 to 30 rupees per 1000 katcha bricks. An
following morning, the wood smoke showing from the roof stack, almost identical method is used in Perú.
much to the dismay of the attackers, some of whom had been killed
by Baca’s sharpshooting. This was probably the most famous use Katcha bricks are 9” to 10” long and are usually laid up and cross-
of a jacál, worldwide. tied to form a wall 18” to 20” in width, but many walls in Pakistan
are 30” in thickness. In Pakistan, it is recognized that the most ther-
JACK RAFTER A short rafter framing between the wall plate and a mally superior wall is a katcha wall, but that the most desirable wall
hip rafter or between the hip rafter and the ridge board. Jack rafters for status is a pakka wall (fired adobe), even through all know that
might be seen on a hip roof. the pakka wall is thinner and less effective against heat and cold
(Used by Abdullah Nouri, Ahmed Pur East, Pakistan; see Pakka).
JALOUSIED WINDOW A window built with a series of parallel,
slightly overlapping slats that move simultaneously, much as a KERF To run a series of saw cuts into the surface of any semi-
Venetian blind. These serve as a privacy screen to reflect sunlight flexible building material so that it may take a sharper bend without
or to direct solar gain into a space. They are quite popular in tropi- rupture. For example: “the piece of chip board (O.S.B.) was kerfed,
cal areas. so that it could be bent to the curve of the parapet.”

JASPÉ In northern New Mexico, a white coloring used for plaster- KILLERS In western Australia, the 90º clamps that set inside
ing consisting of a homemade calcimine and paste flour. Used as rammed earth forming and at right angles to the forming to frame
an interior finish (see Plasters). out windows and doors (Used by Stabilised Earth Structures, Pty.,
Margaret River, Western Australia).
JOIST One of a series of parallel framing members used under a
floor.
KILN-DRIED Wood seasoned in a kiln by means of artificial heat
JÚCO Costa Rican term for bark from the tree of the same name. (usually natural gas), controlled humidity and air circulation. Solar
Used as a lashing in the wood roofs of traditional adobe or baha- kilns have also been used in recent years.
reque houses (see Bajareque).

129
KIVA FIREPLACE A corner adobe fireplace that has a mantel. LADRILLERA A kiln for the firing of adobe bricks into burnt adobe
There appears to be little relation between such fireplaces and or adobe quemado. The raw bricks are stacked in rows with pas-
Native American ceremonial kivas, except that both are rounded sages between the rows for firewood to be pushed in. Each layer
(see Beehive Fireplace and page 103). of rows is called a tanda. In the Sierrra Madre, adobe author Bou-
dreau reports that a ladrillera of 15 tandas is said to take no more
KNEE BOARD A surfing term from the west coast of Australia, wood than one of 10 tandas.
but applied to the 1.2 meter piece of forming used in rammed earth As the trapezoid of adobes is stacked upwards, it becomes easy
work (see Killers). to mud up a shell of other adobes around the stacks which will

A ladrillera
under construc-
tion. The
capote is the
final shell that
we see coming
up from ground
level. Note the
wood ports.

Photo by
Eugene Boudreau.

130
enclose the fire.This shell is the capote, and it rarely, if ever, touches clays and hydroxides of iron and aluminum. Lateritic soils are gener-
the inner blocks. That way the fire may circulate freely around the ally favorable for adobe production.
stacked adobes.
LATILLAS The small diameter sticks or branches that tradition-
The wood of choice is mesquite or some other small diameter hot ally are laid cross-ways or diagonally over the vigas, beams or main
fire fuel like salt cedar or orchard prunings. Thicker hardwoods and roof supports. The practice is ancient. Latilla comes from lata, the
green wood create localized heat in the kiln that can cause some Spanish word for stick. Actually, latillas are larger than sticks, rang-
adobe quemados to melt. One desires a hot, spreading fire for even ing from 1-1/2” to 3” in diameter.
heat. The firing begins slowly, building up to a steady, low roar. To
properly fire the adobe, a temperature of 1200º F must be main-
tained for about 12 hours. The whole process, from start to finish,
takes 24 hours. One sequence of firing starts about 2:00 p.m. of
the first day. By midnight, the last of the wood is used, and the kiln
is sealed, excepting a vent or two left in the top. Any holes in the
capote are sealed with adobe mud.

The kiln will be too hot to touch the following morning and will not
begin to cool until the afternoon of the second day. In México, the
kiln is allowed to cure for a week before being taken down. The
belief is that the long cure will produce the desirable red color. How-
ever, a firing done by the author and several friends at Corrales,
N.M. in 1970 produced red and orange adobes when the kiln was
taken down late on the second day. The fuel was apple orchard
prunings. Hotter fires produce light-weight adobes with variegated,
swirling colors and a definite ceramic ring (See Adobe Quemado,
Adobe Pinto, and Cuña). Latillas in the home of Allen Mayfield of Las Cruces, New Mexico.

Before waterproofing materials were available, the latillas would be

LADRILLERO The person who makes burnt adobes, sets up the covered with selected reeds or brush, then grass, then layered over
kiln, takes it apart after firing, etc. with adobe soils up to 12” or more in depth. So long as rains were
brief and followed by a sunny, dry spell, this primitive technique
worked. Continued spells of cloudy, rainy weather however, could
LAGOS DE MORENO A town in central México, important produce leaks. Anyone who has lived in an older pre-code adobe
because the traditions of vault building in adobe quemado are still knows this, and can relate that bits of material could fall out of the
passed on from father to son (See Bóveda). ceiling. Today, the availability of more modern building materials has
eliminated discomforts and latilla ceilings are installed as a decora-
LATERITE (or lateritic) Clay soils formed under tropical conditions tive feature, rather than from necessity. They can be structural, but
by the weathering of igneous rock. They consist chiefly of stable most often have another layer of structural material built 131
above them. Latilla ceilings add a hand-made look and texture to
a room. As with vigas, a variety of finishes are possible. The main
choices are listed below:
1. An ancient technique was to de-bark the latillas, then dye the
white wood different colors. This time-consuming process must
be done on the ground. The builder alternates the latillas as they
are placed, so that a color pattern is set up, such as green, red,
blue, brown. This is particularly effective in a herringbone pattern.
The stain is made from oil based paint, roughly 1/4 gallon of the
desired paint to 3/4 gallon paint thinner (vary to taste), which is then
brushed on.
Bundled latillas ready for customer pick-up
at Groff Lumber, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
132
2.The traditional two-tone effect is achieved by using a Bowie knife,
or draw-knife, along with a ‘skip-peel’ action that alternates white
wood and cambium. Typically, this finish is done with Ponderosa
pine vigas from 1-1/2” to 2” in diameter.
3. A 3” to 4” diameter machine peeled latilla. These are straighter
and more uniform in diameter. They can be used as is, or sand-
blasted for a softer effect.
4. As above, then drawknifed for a whiter look, then split with a
bandsaw. The round side is visible from the room below, so that
one gets the 3” or 4” look at half the cost, as each length yields two
pieces. This latilla is again done in Ponderosa pine. In previous
times, these were split by a hatchet or chisel and were called rajas
or strips. However, such split wood was traditionally laid with the flat
side down (see Latillas labradas).
5. Same as above but hand-knifed to white. Usually of fir or spruce,
the best species for a ‘white’ look. They are straighter than Aspen,
another common choice.
6. The grey look latilla. The grey color is that of aged wood that has
been left out in the elements, perhaps with some bark remaining.
Usually available in 2” to 3” diameter sizes in fir or spruce.
7. As above, but with ‘hit-and-miss’ finish of fir or spruce.
As mentioned above, latillas can be structural if the diameter is suf-
ficient for the span. Modern roofing techniques call for them to be
covered, first with a layer of black felt (tar paper), then with a layer
of 1/2” plywood. The black felt acts a vapor barrier and also helps
minimize cracks between latillas when seen from below. In fact,
even a 1/2” to 3/4” crack or opening between the irregular latillas will
appear acceptable when covered above with felt.
Next comes a layer of 1/2” plywood. It adds structure to the roof,
but also provides a uniform nailing surface from which to frame up
 Grande valley are latilla “ceiling panels”. These are
knotty pine pre-fabricated panels that span up to four
feet and cover about 16 square feet of roof per panel.
They are sandblasted on both sides (thus reversible)
and can be easily cut on the job. They are available
in straight-across or diagonal (30º herringbone) pat-
tern. A tongue-and-groove feature allows them to
be quickly fitted together. Such panels are a quick
way to get an artistic feeling without intense labor,
but they will not give quite the same craft effect as
the traditional. The latilla ceiling panels work best over
square-beamed ceilings, where they can be nailed up
to a flat surface quickly. One of their positive aspects
is that they are structural and can be walked on with-
out the plywood layer above, but a vapor barrier would
still be required by code.

Latillas have different names in different areas,

Latilla installation on a round adobe room in Old Mesilla, New Mexico by Brad
Niblett, contractor (left). This type of installation, where each latilla must be
custom-cut and fitted, is time consuming and expensive.
depending on the wood and the local tradition. Any
wood with sufficient strength can become a latilla
(see Cedros, Rajas, Sahuaritos, Barras, and Caña
Brava).

the second or final roof above. The plywood is nailed right through LATILLAS LABRADAS Split latillas, placed with the flat side down
into the beams or vigas below. Structurally, latillas alone do not pro- to the room (see #4, pg 132).
vide a uniform diaphragm that adds strength to the roof plane. They
would be a poor choice alone in seismic zones 3 or 4. The addition LAYDOWN MACHINE The laydown machine is an adobe making
of plywood can lend rigidity, making such a roof design stronger in device that is an improvement on the old hand-held form that uses
an active seismic zone. a stiff mud. Therefore, laydown machines use the dry-mud method.
The mix is not dry, but fully saturated adobe mix that is stiff or vis-
As mentioned, latilla ceilings can consume a great deal of time cous, so that when the laydown machine form is lifted, the adobes
when done the traditional way. Only the most patient owner-builder retain their shapes. The big advance in this machinery traces back
types will cut their own, then peel or knife them to a desired finish. to the Hans Sumpf Co. near Fresno, Ca. Some years ago, George
Cutting, fitting, and nailing them down is a job in itself. McFadden designed the prototype of the machine we see today
(see Wet Mud Method and Dry Mud Method).
This time intensity has resulted in certain entrepreneurial efforts to
find a faster way. A recent and successful innovation in the mid-Rio 133
 The hopper runs up and down a track over the frame and the mud
fills the frame. A large metal screed is then run over the top of the
frame, pushing off any extra mud. The frame is then lifted and there
are 30 to 50 adobes, depending on the size of the block.

Laydowners can outproduce any other machine, including pressed

adobe machines. They are capable of 20,000 adobes per day,
assuming a continuous supply of mud, good weather and no equip-
ment breakdowns.

View of a Hans Sumpf laydown machine in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Note

Laydown machines are distinct from pressed adobe machines. The
mix is not squeezed, simply deposited in the forms, just as in hand-
how hopper has been modified so as not to spill any mud being loaded.
adobe making. The Hans Sumpf machine has a Kraft paper roller
Hydraulically operated and capable of being driven like a road
(see photos below) that unrolls in front of the machine as it goes
grader, the laydowner, as it is often called, runs along a flat field,
along the field. This feature keeps the fresh adobe from sticking to
casting one “frame” after another of adobe blocks. These frames
the raw ground. Where stabilized adobe is made, this is important
are interchangable for different sizes of adobes. A hopper on top of
so that unstabilized soil from the ground does not become part of
the laydowner is loaded with mud. This is stiff mud that has already
the block (see Adobe Field).
been mixed by a pug mill with the asphalt emulsion as part of that
process (see Mud Buggy). Photos below courtesy The Adobe Factory, Alcalde, New Mexico

134 Examples of the hopper on two Hans Sumpf laydown machines. Also notice the roll of craft paper mounted on the front of the machines.
 Simple homebuilt-style wooden laydown machine.
After forms are filled, levers on front and back of
machine raise frame off fresh adobes, then the
machine is rolled forward for the next batch. Wooden
forms should be coated with motor oil to prevent grain
from raising and adobes sticking.

When designing a ledger detail, it is extremely important

that the ledger be very well secured to the wall. Ledgers
that rest on the bond beam and are well secured
to the wall system are superior.
Those simply bolted to the wall have failed due to shear
forces from roof loads or seismic activity.

LEDGER A board, bolted to the earthen wall, over which may

be nailed a wood deck. Ledgers may be unsafe in seismic zones
where shear forces can pop them off the wall. In such areas, they
may be designed to bolt atop the bond beam to resist shear. Led-
gers are also a technique for nailing decking around a fireplace so
that wood will not be in proximity to the flue, or even penetrate into
the masonry around the flue (see T-bolt).

135
LIFT A rammed earth term. A layer of earth mix that is placed into
rigid forms and then rammed. Lifts are the equivalent of courses in
adobe work. The average lift is about 8” thick and compacts down to
about 5”. Lifts are placed by shoveling the material into the forms,
either with a shovel or a Bobcat or tractor scoop, then spreading
it out evenly with a shovel. The lifts are then rammed, using the
tamper. The observer will be able to discern where one lift ends and
another begins. Lift lines are always slightly ‘snakey’ in appearance,
never following a perfectly straight line. This effect can be exagger-
ated by the builder, and if colored soils are used, creates a ‘painted
desert’ look that can be very attractive (see Rammed Earth).
LINTEL See Wood Lintel.
LIQUID LIMIT The point at which the moisture content of a soil
acts to dissolve the mechanical or chemical bond of the soil par-
ticles in an adobe mortar or block. A mud flow is soil beyond the
liquid limit.
LIVE LOAD The total of all moving and variable loads that might
be placed on a structure. People and furniture are live loads.

LIME LINES Lime is used to mark the foundation lines for excava- LOAD CENTER The typical photovoltaic system is not much dif-
tion work. The white lines show up well on all soils and backhoe ferent from a conventional system in its power distribution. The
operators may insist on them. Strings are set up first, followed by most likely difference is the use of a direct current (DC) load center,
the lime line, then the strings are taken down. Strings may be set with fuses or circuit breakers rated for their respective loads and cir-
up again to the batterboards after foundations are dug. cuits. The photovoltaic electrician will typically design and install the
power production system up to the load center, and a conventional
electrician will complete the work from there.
LINE The mason’s line, usually of a colored nylon and stretched
tightly between speed leads or storey poles. The line determines
the verticality of the wall face. LOGGIA WALL In Egypt, a perforated adobe wall, set to wind-
ward, so that air sweeping over and around the wall pulls air through
the openings at a greater rate, increasing the cooling effect (after
LINE BLOCK A small ‘L’ shaped Fathy).
piece of wood, into which the line is
strung and wrapped. The block is LOOKOUT A structural member, often a 2”x6” or 2”x4”, that abuts
then pulled tight and hooked onto the a rafter at right angles, then runs out of the roof structure to abut
speed lead or storey pole. The ten- an outside rafter. It will rest on and nail to the plate that forms up
sion of the string holds the line block in a gable in many cases. Lookouts make up the structure of wood
place. Adobe workers then lay adobe overhangs. Sometimes called “outriggers”.
to the line, the block is slid up to the
next mark or course height. LORENA STOVE A remarkably efficient wood-burning adobe
stove developed at Estación Experimental Choqui, Guatemala by
LINEAR FOOT Having length only, as differing from cubic foot, Ianto Evans and Donald Wharton and local villagers between
square foot, or board foot. Vigas are measured by the linear foot. November 1976 and April 1977. The name bestowed by the afore-
136 mentioned inventors stems from lodo (mud), and arena (sand).
A book on the design and construction of these
stoves was published by the Appropriate Technology
Project, Volunteers in Asia, Box 4543, Stanford, Ca
94305. A more up-to-date source is: Cob Cottage
Company, attn: Llanto Evans, PO Box 123, Eugene,
Or. 97424. Telephone (as of 1999): (541) 942-2005.
The stove is important because of its increased fuel
efficiency. In third world countries, the consumption
of wood fuels is leading to the rapid deforestation
of large areas. 80% of the fuel wood cut in the
third world is used for cooking. The lorena can cut
fuel wood consumption by half and in some cases
by 75%. The stove’s inventors have done a great
deal to promote its use, working through interna-
tional groups and via workshops held in Guatemala,
Honduras, California, and Oregon. The practicality
of the stove is evident through the following list:

• Will burn almost any fuel.

• Keeps coals alive up to 48 hours without attention.
• Can be used to cook almost anything, by any method, in all sizes
and types of pots.
• Can be built wherever adobe soils are in evidence.
• Costs almost nothing to make.
• Requires no special construction skills.
• Uses tools that are found in even the poorest home.
• Heats water with waste heat that normally escapes up the chim-
ney.
• Serves as a house heater in cold regions.
• Protects the cook from the fire in hot regions.
• Shape, size and functions can be varied to fit cultural cooking
habits.
• Can be broken apart to return to the earth when no longer
needed.
Basically, the stove is heavy adobe with high thermal mass. Large
amounts of heat can be stored in the mass. It works on the same
A two-burner Lorena, made of adobe bricks, the heating channels having been
first cut out of the layer or two below the top layer. The pieces of metal jutting
from the top are the dampers. This Lorena is very much in the rough, and
can be trimmed, mud plastered and finished once completely cured. Cracks
are filled with more mud.
principle as a European masonry stove or Russian grubka. Many
passages within the mass take the fire and heat over many sur-
faces, so that the smoke is cooled by the time it exits the stovepipe.
The proof of this is that one can hold the stovepipe in bare hands
without being burned, although we do not suggest trying this! A
damper system allows the user to close down the stove, trapping
the heat, and to continue cooking for several hours after the fire-
wood is exhausted. This includes the baking of bread.
The requirement is to first build up a solid adobe base. Then layers
are built up on the base. By corbeling out these layers, a toe-kick
is left at the bottom. The layers are 2” to 4” thick adobe. By build-
ing up thin layers, serious cracking can be avoided. After
137
about 16” of adobe has been built up, the stove is trimmed to the
desired shape and the top flattened and smoothed out. The next
stage involves tracing around pots and kettles to define where pot
holes will be cut into the mass. A variety of cutting tools are now
used to carve, tunnel and shave the moist adobe. Metal chimney
pipe, machetes and knives may be deployed. The trick is to cut into
the lorena when the adobe is still moist, but not so moist that it could
slump or collapse. Dampers are made out of the metal from old
cans, given wood handles and installed. A hot water heater tank
can be installed in the mass, over a heating tunnel, with a hot water
faucet attached, so that the water can be drawn in the normal way -
something that many villagers haven’t access to.
LUBRICATED SOIL A term probably originated by Dr. Richard
Ferm of the International Foundation for Earth Construction, in
Washington, DC. It denotes a condition in which too much asphalt
emulsion is added to a soil mix, usually resulting in a weak, crumbly
block that does not meet code. The soil particles almost roll over
each other. A lubricated soil occurs when the ratio of asphalt emul-
sion to dry soil exceeds 5.5% by weight (see Stabilization).
MACHÓN In Spanish, used as a buttress. A line of machones
along a wall would be a system of buttresses. Machón can mean
anything strong or supporting. With adobe construction, they must

Lorena stoves can be made in a variety of sizes up to quite large

models for public kitchens and restaurants. The inventors point out
that stoves with a length more than twice the width tend to crack
badly across the center. They also mention that square lorenas are
easier to build than round ones, small lorenas easier to build than
big ones, and spacious ones easier to build than crowded ones.
The finished stoves are quite attractive and can be sealed and dec-
orated. Repairs or additions are just a matter of mixing up more
lorena mud.

L-SHAPED One
of the worst possi- be integrated into the running walls, not just
ble design shapes built against them. Particular care must be
for an earthen home taken at corners, where adobe walls are
in a heavy seismic less than 14”-16” thick. Seismic forces will
zone, such as Perú. severely stress such locations, especially if
However, using a windows or doors are placed too close to the
cross wall (see corner. A rough rule has been to locate no
sketch) can
If the open archway incorporates a concrete drag
strengthen the
strut below grade and a concrete bond beam above
structure against this 2-room adobe is fairly safe in seismic zones.
quakes. Seismic forces, regardless of direction, will tend to
stress the inside corner on this L-shaped adobe.
138
opening closer than four feet to a corner, measured from the out-
side of the structure. In the drawing, the machón also serves as a
garden entry (see drawings pg 140).

139
 MAD-DOG A term used in the Rio Grande valley of New Mexico
for short-term, high energy construction work. “Let’s mad-dog this
job” implies that the crew will work very hard for a short period of
time.

MALIBU On the west coast of Australia, surfing lingo has crept into
the rammed earth work. Thus, the longest piece of form work (2.4
meters) is a malibu (Used by Stabilized Earth Structures Pt., Ltd.,
Margret River, Western Australia).

MALKAF In Egypt, a passive solar wind catcher made of masonry.

It is set at the highest point of the house to take in the prevailing
winds and direct them below to a pool of water or fountain, where
the air is humidified and cooled for the occupants (after Hassan
Fathy).

MARCO Spanish for window frame or buck.

MATERIALS CERTIFICATION The right of the state or county to

require certification by the I.C.B.O. of any building material to be
used in your home. In areas such as California, where building
inspection departments know little about earth-wall building, testing
may be required on the adobe block to be used in a project. Accep-
tance of a known maker’s product often eliminates the testing. If
the individual makes his own blocks, he will hire a testing lab to
test the block to meet UBC standards. In New Mexico and Arizona,
where adobe products are more known, the certification issue has
not been a hassle (pointed out by Robert Nicolas, Architect, Los
Angeles, Ca.). In 2001, coding authorities have begun to recognize
that alternative building materials need definition for code inclusion.
Several groups have formed nationwide in this effort and progress
can be expected as green building interest intensifies.

MAZIARA In Egypt, an alcove for water jars, recessed into a very

thick wall and thus kept out of the sun. The jar is cooled by evapora-
tion and by the wall mass around it.

140
MEZCLA Spanish for mix. The infinitive is mezclar, to mix. MISSION REVIVAL STYLE Adobe was a natural material for this
style, as it derived its inspiration from the adobe missions of Califor-
MICA WINDOW (also selenite window) From a kind of nia. Quite different from the more austere Pueblo or Santa Fé style,
gypsum found in crystal form that served in colonial times as
glazing. The
pieces were
seldom found
in nature in
widths over
3”, and thus
a number of
small pieces
made up a
window, and
a practical
style evolved.
Today, one of the few remaining spots where these windows may be
seen in place is at the church of San Miguel del Vado, near Pecos,
N.M. San Miguel was one of the first stops on the Santa Fé trail,
and dates from the 1830’s.

MICROCLIMATE Site-specific conditions which differ from the sur-

rounding climate. For example, a house located on a mesa top will
have more wind than in lower terrain. A house located at the bottom
of a valley will have more cold air on still winter nights.

MICROFINES The very fine particles in adobe or rammed earth

mix, including clays and some silts (see Clay).

MIRADOR A lookout, usually constructed as an attachment to a

portal or roof terrace. The idea is to have access to the roof from
outside, which is possibly a carry-over from the need for defense
in colonial days (source: Traditions of Craftsmanship in Mexican
Homes by Patricia W. O’Gorman and Bob Schalkwijk).
Joseph Joesler adobe in Tucson, Az. Photo: Bill Sears 141
Mission Revival romanticizes the way life and architecture were in MOCHETAS A cross
Spanish colonial days. However, the style does also draw from shaped buttressing con-
authentic sources of the time: red barrel tile roofs, long portales with
figuration used in some
arches, the use of wrought iron, burnt adobe, fountains, and the like.parts of Latin America
Mission Revival began late in the 19th century and by the 1920’s to beef up wall intersec-
had grown out of California to spread across the inland southwest tions and corners. They
to Texas and Florida. It became more ornate as it evolved, com- are made of adobe, with
bining with another style, termed Spanish Colonial Revival, which some sort of treated cane
drew directly from more ornate, Baroque influences in México and or wood collar every three
Spain. courses. Treated, cured
vertical cane or bamboo
One Tucson designer-builder stands out as a champion of the style. also is placed in the center
Joseph Joesler, the Swiss-born son of an architect, settled in Tucson of the mocheta, and this
after studies and travels in Italy, France, Spain and México (see ties to the horizontal
photo, page 141). It was the mid 1920’s, a time when the search collars.
for an identifiable regional architecture centered around Santa Fé,
Santa Barbara, San Diego and Southern Arizona. Joesler, a crafts- MODULUS
man in his own right, put together crews of tradesmen who could OF RUPTURE
duplicate the old skills. His crews usually made the adobes right See Soil Testing.
on the site, with their walls averaging 13” to 24” thick. The houses
featured genuine wrought iron, hand-carved doors, barrel-tile roofs,
and hand-painted shutters. White plastered walls were set against MONOLITHIC To
dark stained beams and carved corbels. Working with John Mur- describe that a wall acts as one mass, as in an adobe or
phey, a developer-builder, Joesler was able to build hundreds of rammed earth wall. This is often demonstrated by a comparison of crack-
well-appointed and solidly-built adobes. Today, some 219 of them ing in earth and hard masonry. Adobe walls will crack straight through
are still verifiable as “Joeslers”, although many have been lost to or down a wall, regardless of the joints between adobes. A con-
the expansion of the University of Arizona campus. One outstand- crete block wall, however, will crack along the units.
ing example is the Saint Phillips in the Hills church, located at the
corner of River Road and North Campbell Avenue. The building
exudes the flavor of old mission architecture, with elaborate entry
doors, arched portales supported by torneados, and patios cen-
tered around fountains.

MOALLEM Master adobe mason in Egypt. This title is bestowed

in a ritual or ceremony after many years as an apprentice, and can
only be proclaimed by another master.

142
MONTMORILLONITE An expansive clay with a reputation for to reflect more heat. The mortar wash also penetrates the fired
giving adobe makers trouble. It is also a clay to be avoided by adobe and strengthens them against freeze spalling after a rain.
pressed adobe manufacturers. With a high contraction/expansion
ratio, this clay can swell, putting pressures up to 900 p.s.i. on a foun- MOSOTE (also mozote) A local term in Costa Rica for a kind
dation system. If the foundation is too shallow in zones where heav- of plant that exudes a natural latex that is used as a stabilizer for
ing can take place, such pressures can break concrete slabs and lift adobe. Machetes are used to chop up the plant, then the pieces
up foundation systems (see Clay). are thrown into a pool of water to ferment in the sun. After a time, a
skim forms on top of the pool. This is raked off and mixed with the
MONTÓN A stack of adobes: un montón. The Spanish infinitive, adobe mud, resulting in a water-resistant adobe.
amontonar, means to stack or heap.
MOSQUE Most simply, and originally, an enclosure open to the
MORADA The Spanish word for a meeting house for religious sky with a covered area for prayer. From these simple beginnings,
purposes in northern New Mexico. Surviving moradas are impor- all other complicated designs of mosques have evolved. An excel-
tant because they indicate the form of many colonial New Mexican lent treatise on this topic, titled Mosque Architecture, was written by
structures: compact, low-lying, massive, with a paucity of open- Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy.
ings. They generally displayed simplicity in their interior fittings (after
Bainbridge Bunting). MS-2 A type of asphalt emulsion used to stabilize, or waterproof,
adobe blocks and mortar. MS stands for medium set. This emul-
MORRÍL (also moril) In old Santa Fé, c. 1710, morillo was a tenon sion has an anionic charge and works well with soils in the Alpine,
or peg to tie together wood scaffolds during adobe work. Scaf- Texas area. It was successfully used by Rainbow Adobe there. In
folding then had no sawn lumber. The term was more often used the 1980’s it was used by Rainbow Adobe there and supplied by the
for a mushroom or andiron laid into the adobe wall as it rose, to Fina Oil & Chemical Co. of Big Spring, Tx.
which scaffolding could be attached or laid over. They were used in
the rebuilding of San Miguel mission in Santa Fé (1710) and were MUD BUGGY A small 4-wheeled vehicle which is used in larger
found in the walls of Las Trampas church when it was replastered in adobe making operations to carry mud from supply to the lay-down
1967. or forming machine in the field.
Mud buggy posi-
MORTAR WASH The practice of painting on a burnt adobe or adobe tioned under
pug mill, to
quemado wall a thin slurry of Portland cement and water. This can
receive mud for
be done artistically, filling forms.
as in the photo, or
applied as a wash Location: San
over the whole wall. Tan Adobe near
Phoenix, Az.
In hot desert cli-
mates, the practice
serves to lighten
the wall color, so as
143
Mud buggies were no doubt first utilized extensively at the Hans
Sumpf adobe plant near Fresno, Ca.
Mud buggy dumping stabilized mix into the hopper on a Hans
Sumpf laydown machine. San Tan Adobe.
MUD PLASTER See Plasters.
MULLION A slender bar of wood or metal that forms the division
between panes of glass in window units. While they add stiffness to
the window unit, they are generally non-structural.
MUNTIN The vertical middle piece in a door, running from top to
bottom and attaching to the top and bottom rails.
MUSHRABIYA An Egyptian oriel window with latticework screen.
NAILS See Clavos.
NAILER Any wood let into the adobe or rammed earth wall during
construction, and to which frame walls, cabinets, window or door
frames may be attached. Such nailers depend on the weight of the
earth mass above them to hold them in place (see T-bolt
144 and Gringo Block).
NEE-SUWAN/ TU-PI/ CHAWAN-CHA Adobe in China. Adobe
contractor Jim Bishop of Hawaii toured China in the summer and fall
of 1988. His report corroborates the earlier stories about the exten-
siveness of earthbuilding in this huge country. The Chinese gov-
ernment estimates that 45 million people throughout the land live
in earthen structures. The range of techniques is almost a cross-
section of world techniques. All parts of China feature earthen con-
struction. The highlights of the Bishop report follow.
In the south of China, the climate is wet and warm. This is the
rice-growing region. Houses have pitched roofs of dark clay tile.
Bearing walls are adobe, the usual size being about 8”x8”x14”.
The method of construction is to simply stack the adobe into walls,
although often a thin mortar is used. In this climate, infiltration is
not a problem, no doubt explaining why plasters need not cover the
loosely laid walls. Generally the gable end walls are the bearing
walls. The other two sides of the typical dwelling carry out porch
roofs away from the building to expand the living area. In the far
south, the walls are left exposed, but as the traveler moves north,
plaster is apparent, often in the form of a fancy, white finish, both
inside and out. In the southern Hill Region, art work is added to the
gable ends, in the form of animal images or symbols, one favorite
being the dragon, for good luck.
Further north,
in central
China’s Hunan
and Szechwan
provinces,
adobe brick
gives way to
poured adobe
walls, used
extensively by
the peasants.
Large sections
are poured,
often 5 to 6-1/2 feet long, 2 feet high and 1 foot thick. Once the
builders have poured two of these courses, bamboo is laid laterally Nan, Ying Jing
in the wall, so that a base is formed for higher forming and new Gansu Natural Energy Institute
pours. Scaffolding may also be placed on the bamboo. The plaster 77 South Ding X. Road
in this region is mud and straw, but often walls are left exposed. Lanzhou, Gansu
Roofs are of tile, set tightly in a small size. There is no access to Peoples’ Republic of China
felt or building paper as a waterproofer under the tile roofs. Often
a brick ridge runs the perimeter of the tile roofs, apparently to hold NET FLOOR AREA The gross floor area, less the area of open-
the tile in place. ings in the floor, interior walls, stairways or columns.

In northwestern Szechwan, the landscape changes, becoming hilly NICHO Spanish for niche, or ledge, cut into the adobe or rammed
and then mountainous. Courtyards and walled compounds begin earth wall. Nichos serve as a place to display religious or art
to appear. These denote a defensive architecture to protect villag- objects. Smaller ones are chopped out of the wall with a hatchet,
ers from wild dogs and the barbarians who live to the west on the
Tibetan plateau. In another part of the northwest, in Gansu and
Lanzhou provinces, an Islamic influence is evident. The climate is
similar to New Mexico - high and dry. Lamb and beef are the main
meats, as opposed to pork in the south. The fine clay soil supports
barrel vaults, cave dwellings and walled adobe compounds. The
adobes used here are the smaller Egyptian-sized block. Long yard
walls are capped with red brick to reduce erosion. In the Tibetan-
influenced areas, the adobes are two stories. The livestock is kept
on the first floor with the living quarters above.

The Lanzhou government is modernizing their famous cave dwell-

ings, using new materials and passive solar design. Lanzhou City
is becoming the major growth area in the northwest. The architects
are land-use conscious and they wish to preserve the valuable
valley farm lands along the Yellow River by creating new cave dwell-
ings along the north steppes, and reforesting the hills above the
steppes. This effort is being financed by the Central Government.

Earthbuilding is important to the Chinese. They see information

then plastered. Larger or deeper ones may have a wood lintel
exchange about it as “the first brick in the bridge between our two
or adobe arch to carry the load above. Some rammed earth
countries”. They are attempting to house many more people than
contractors shape styrofoam nicho forms, then affix them to the
we can imagine in earthen dwellings. Experienced earthbuilders
inside of the formwork. The walls are rammed around
are invited to write to:
the nicho, forms taken down and the styrofoam easily dug 145
 out. Touch-up is done with an adobe
file and the nicho is ready for plaster.
For a really atmospheric nicho, an
electrical circuit can be run to a box
recessed into the top or bottom of
the nicho, so that indirect lighting
may later grace the art object dis-
played. Nichos can be tiled, plas-
tered or exposed.
NICHO DE CONCHA In México, the term for a nicho set in
the adobe wall, but with a shell shape formed
above it with ornamental plaster and borders.
NOMINAL The declared size of something,
or the size at which it is sold or advertised.
In actuality, it is not that size, and is generally
smaller. For example, a 2”x4” stud is actually
1-5/8” x 3-5/8” . Adobes that are 12” wide by
nominal definition may in reality be 11-5/8”.
NON-BEARING Any wall, adobe or frame,
that carries only its own weight, not the roof
load or other loads. Foundations will usually be lighter for non- area available for a structure and doesn’t take up additional floor
bearing walls.
ON CENTER The distance from the center of one component to
the center of the next, usually designated on plans as O.C. Vigas
36” O.C., means from the center of one to the center of the next.
Frame studs are usually 16” O.C.
ORIENTATION The compass direction a structure or south collec-
tor faces. 45º west of south would be a southwest orientation.
OSTA In Egypt, the term for a master craftsman of adobe. Some-
one who knows how to construct barrel vaults, domes and other
architectural features using mud brick (after Hassan Fathy).
OVERHEAD GLAZING The use of glass or plastic in roofs, sky-
lights, clerestories and the top of sunrooms. The glazing can be
justified for solar gain, increased light to the living space, neces-
sary light for plants, or dramatic effects (allowing the occupants
to observe the clouds, moon and stars while laying in bed eating
pizza). In recent years, overhead glazing has received a bad rap
from many solar designers and builders because they don’t under-
stand its specific benefits and drawbacks and have not properly
installed the material. Overhead glazing is necessary for maximum
solar gain in a house using a sunroom or greenhouse as its primary
collector. Using roof glazing almost doubles the amount of collection
space.

OJO DE BUEY Cut stone or precast concrete “bull’s eye” windows. Often, the best strategy is to design for overhead glazing about half-
The style is very old, brought to way up the roof, putting the mass house wall (adobe or rammed
México from Europe, and exam- earth) in sunlight in winter and shade in summer. Substantial roof
ples can be seen in old buildings glazing is mandatory if the structure is to be used as a plant-grow-
in the central and south of México. ing greenhouse. Vertical glass alone is inadequate for the light
They are usually set high in the needs of fruiting plants and most flowers on a year round basis.
wall of high-ceilinged rooms to Contrary to many publications produced on the east coast or in
increase the light. Occasionally, Europe, sunrooms can be extremely effective as food producers
the style can be seen in the south- and solar collectors simultaneously in the arid southwest and Rocky
west in the more ornate custom Mountain regions of the country. The secret of success in solar
homes around San Diego, Los Angeles or Phoenix. greenhouse/sunroom homes is air circulation and seasonal shad-
146
ing, not the amount of overhead glazing or the presence of plants.
The designer/builder of structures incorporating overhead glazing PARAPET
must be cognizant of three important facts: (1) Overhead glazing
is prone to overheating from spring to fall. Adequate shade sys-
tems must be incorporated if the structure is to be used during that
period. Many new and innovative shading systems that deal with
this problem have reached the market in recent years. (2) Venti-
lation requirements are increased because of the additional solar
input the overhead glazing creates. High/low ventilation is best and
can be accomplished either passively by windows and operable
skylights or actively with a thermostatically controlled fan. (3) Over-
head glazing is prone to leakage. The designer should not assume
that he/she can use the same installation details that are used on
vertical glass. Wood stops, even redwood or cedar, will fail on
overhead glazing applications in a short period of time. The best
approach for overhead glazing is to install manufactured skylights
or use a proven glazing system to mount the glass (courtesy Bill
Yanda, Brother Sun, Santa Fé, N.M.). Parapets on adobe home in Santa Fé N.M. Indentations in parapet are for
canales. Note that roof drains to southern exposure. This prevents heavy icicles
from forming, a concern in cold winter climates. Mark Chalom, Architect.
OVERLAP The distance that one block overlaps the block below,
usually 4” (or more) by code. Each course is laid so that the vertical A vertical wall that projects above a flat or pitched roof or any verti-
or head joints are never directly above each other, and that corners cal part of the structure built above the bond beam. Parapets usu-
and courses interlock. In Spanish, translape. ally surround the entire roof, but are sometimes found on only three
sides. They serve as a vertical base against which to frame up the
PAJOSO A term used in the Sierra Madre country of México for roof structure above the living area. They also act as an anchoring
the organic matter mixed with adobe mud. It is used to provide point for canales, vent pipes, and cant strips.
an initial binder and prevent wind cracks. Green grass, straw and
sugar cane pulp are other types of pajoso. Under dry, hot and windy Parapets have become taller since 1900 for three reasons: (1) The
conditions, up to 3 bushels of pajoso might be added for every 100 availability of metal flashings, which require more height for proper
adobes (see Wind Cracking). installation, (2) Beginning in the 1950’s, the need for an insulated
space in the ceiling, and (3) Style or fashion.
PAKKA The Pakistani term for adobe quemado or fired adobe.
They are manufactured the same way as in México and are 9” to Parapets on adobe homes are not always built of adobe. Once
10” long (Used by Abdullah Nouri, Ahmed Pur East, Pakistan; see above the bond beam, adobes are heavy, slow and costly in terms
Adobe Quemado). of labor. In such cases, the parapets are framed, covered with ply-
wood or O.S.B., building paper, stucco netting and a three coat
PALA Shovel (see Adobe Laying and Throwing the Shovel). Portand-based stucco.
147
 In the case of an exposed adobe wall, a
frame wall is built to the interior, with an
adobe wall as a veneer to the exterior (see
left). From the outside of the structure the
adobes in the parapet resemble adobes in
the walls below. Such exposed adobe walls
are fully stabilized by code.

Parapets are of much concern in active seis-

mic zones such as California. Many precode
red brick buildings in Los Angeles have 5 to
8 foot high parapets, with the masonry set
in a weak lime mortar. There is rarely any
reinforcement in such old buildings. In the
recent L.A. area quake, many parapets fell,
causing a great amount of damage. High
parapets are not a good design solution.

In Perú, parapets over 30 cm high are con-

sidered dangerous. That is about three
courses of adobe. Within the New Mexico /
Note veneer adobes to Arizona area, where seismic activity is much
outside and frame wall to less, parapets can be higher, but an effort
inside. should be made to keep them to 24” to 30”
maximum. Ladder steel reinforcement may be added to further
strengthen a parapet (see Veneer Adobe).

From a green building standpoint, adobe parapets may prove the

better choice when compared to wood. Kiln-cured, sawn lumber is
more energy-intensive (and costly) compared to locally gathered
adobe materials. But as mentioned above, unless they are low and
reinforced, adobe parapets are not the better choice seismically. At
present (2001), the combo of frame and veneer adobe seems a rea-
sonable parapet design compromise that reduces wood use, light-
ens the adobe block sizes that must be lifted, and satisfies aesthetic
parameters.
148
These details are provided for educational purposes only. They are not intended
for use on a specific project. Consult your design professional as to the
appropriate use of this information. Courtesy Old Pueblo Adobe.
Another solution, advanced by architect Robert Barnes of Old
Pueblo Adobe in Tucson, Arizona, is to eliminate the parapet by
raising the bond beam to almost the top of the wall (see above).
 Three conventional parapet layouts. All show beams or vigas resting directly on the concrete bond beam.
As the reader can grasp, this is a seismic solution. However,
because most Southwestern-style roof designs call for an insulated,
vented cavity (see above), this approach forces any viga or beam
ceiling timbers down the wall, so that they are no longer tied to the
bond beam itself. The first part of this argument is that the bond
beam at wall top does tie the structure sufficiently, especially with
the upper roof framing well tied to the bond beam. The second part
of the argument is that the code-approved adobe is strong enough
to support the beams or vigas when they simply bear directly on
the adobe wall. In other words, in this application, the beams or
vigas have become semi-load bearing in that they now carry only
the exposed decking and insulation layer on top of them, not the
upper roof framing and final cover. At this point, there is mild con-
troversy on two counts: (1) In an earthquake, what will the effect
of heavy beams be on the wall system, when they are simply rest-
ing on the adobe wall, and (2) From a green-building standpoint,
shouldn’t the diameter of the exposed beams or vigas be reduced,
as they no longer carry as much load? The reader should under-
stand that in many Southwestern ceiling solutions, fairly large diam-
eter vigas or timbers have become the rule, from an aesthetic and
marketing standpoint. Reducing them to smaller diameters may not
look as impressive. The above points will no doubt be argued back
and forth. Hopefully, solutions can be arrived at that address aes-
thetic, green building and seismic solutions all in one.
Where tradition can be abandoned for practicality and green build-
ing, the architect Barnes’ design (on previous page) must be com-
mended. That is because the upper framing system that ties to the
bond beam can be sufficiently deep and strong enough to carry
insulation, the air venting cavity, and an undercover (as seen from
the room below). For example, TJI style joists, which save wood
in their own manufacture, may be deployed. The heavier 149
beam or viga ceiling is then totally eliminated. From an aesthetic
standpoint, the undercover now becomes important. We will leave
this solution to the builders, but hopefully something nicer and
lighter than sheetrock or gypsum board can be found.

Parapets for Rammed Earth

In rammed earth, as with adobe, the question must be asked “sta-
bilized wall or not?” If the wall is to use unstabilized rammed earth,
code will typically require that it be protected with a protective cover
such as stucco. Then the builder can ram the walls, pour the bond
beam and set the roof framing, tying it to the bond beam or the
wood plate that attaches to the bond beam. Then the option exists
to either frame up the parapet with wood or to utilize adobe blocks
(refer to earlier adobe parapet sketches). On the outside of the
structure, the differing materials will be covered by the stucco.

Visually, from the inside of the home, the area between the top of
the bond beam and the underside of the exposed deck must be 24-inch thick stabilized rammed earth wall supports concrete-filled bond beam
blocked in with wood or adobe to flush out with the wall line below. blocks to which wood plate is bolted. Cavity between vigas above can be used for
Again, if the interior walls are to be plastered, the differing materials art objects or other decor. This system avoids the problems inherent in forming
will all be covered. Today in the U.S., most rammed earth contrac- up around the vigas.
tors frame out the parapet, stuccoing the outside and plastering the Courtesy Huston Rammed Earth, Edgewood, N.M.
inside. between them, handy for art objects and the like. Instead of pour-
ing a regular grey, concrete bond beam, he utilizes colored concrete
Why not ram earth between the vigas or beams? Because it is dif- bond beam blocks, available locally. They have a cavity for place-
ficult to set forming for rammed earth around the round vigas, and ment of steel, and are filled with 2500 p.s.i. concrete.
while square-cut timbers are easier to form around, doing either will
slow the work. On the outside of the home, the first course of concrete blocks are
the bond beam blocks. The next two courses are ordinary 8” x 8” x
With exposed, stabilized rammed earth walls, the parapet cosmet- 16” colored concrete blocks, filled with concrete. This is an honest
ics become trickier. One has the challenge of exposing the rammed solution that saves materials and time.
earth, while blending it agreeably with the exposed bond beam
and parapet above. Stan Huston of Huston Rammed Earth in Another parapet solution for exposed rammed earth is to use the
Edgewood, N.M. has been innovative in this respect (see photo). approach advocated by architect Robert Barnes of Tucson (page
On the inside of the home, he simply sets the vigas on a wood 148). Because the bond beam is moved to the top of the structure,
plate, attached to the bond beam, and does not try to flush out a there is no change of materials, except at the very top where the
wall between the vigas. Instead, he creates an open shelf bond beam sits. If aesthetics are a concern, the concrete may be
150
dyed to match the wall color, or dyed to be a complimentary color. exposed adobe, care must be taken to shape the blocks to a prede-
On the inside of the home, the roof framing will be attached to the termined “look”, as no stucco can be used to make a change.
bond beam, and it will not show from the room interiors.
One solution that is straight forward and attractive when carefully
Parapet Styles executed is to create a horizontal parapet with few or no steps,
Parapets go a long way to define a style, such as “Pueblo” or using stabilized adobe, then cap the adobe with native flagstone,
“Santa Fé”. In these styles, the corners are typically stepped set in a cement-based mortar. The flagstone is allowed to overhang
or sculpted into the adobe a few inches on each side of the wall.
design motifs.
Where the para- Parapets can also be more fancy and formal, using exterior grade
pets are of unsta- red brick, set in a standard masonry cement mortar. The
bilized adobe, most well-known exam-
crew members ple is the Territorial style,
actually shape where several courses of
them with red brick are laid up in dec-
hatchets and orative patterns. These
adobe files. The were common in the late
final shapes are 1800’s in Territorial New
formed with the Mexico as a water protec-
stucco netting and tion cap on unstabilized
stucco coats. With adobe structures. They
stabilized, were still common into
the early 20th century, but
today are rare, due to the
higher cost of labor and
the large number of red
brick required to complete
an ornate pattern.

In summary
Builders today have several options when constructing parapets.
The answer for each builder will depend on (1) Seismic zone and
code, (2) The versatility and skill of the crew, (3) Lifting equipment
and scaffolding on site and (4) What the budget will allow in ratio to
aesthetics and the client’s desires (see Bond Beam).
Example of an adobe home with a pueblo-style parapet. Stucco covers the
adobe, bond beam and parapet materials.
Climate is always a factor. Designers should keep in mind
that parapet styles worldwide evolved in desert regions, 151
where rainfall is PARTY WALL A wall used jointly by two parties under easement
less than 15” agreement and different ownership. In adobe construction, it also
a year. For serves as a firewall for the protection of both parties.
example,
Albuquerque, PATIO Area enclosed by walls, usually protected, and traditionally
New Mexico with a well and garden.
receives 8” of
precipitation
a n n u a l l y, PECHO DE PALOMA A
Tucson, Az. 11” term in México for a type
and El Paso, of corbel cut, stylized, at
Tx., 7” . Don’t least roughly, to resemble
expect slightly the dove’s breast.
pitched roofs
with parapets to
remain watertight in climates such as East Texas, where rainfall PENDENTIVE The curving triangular section that rises to form a
exceeds 50” a year. dome, rising out of the inside corners of the square room on which
the dome sits (see Poor Man’s Dome, Adobe Vaults and Domes).
Likewise, parapeted, low-pitch roof styles may not be able to take
the weight of heavy snows within the Southwest at higher eleva-
tions, such as Durango, Co. In areas of potentially heavy snow, low- PENNY A term formerly applied to nails to indicate their cost per
pitch parapet styles should be designed to withstand the greatest hundred, but now used as a measure of their length. Since “d.” is
possible snowfall. the old English abbreviation for penny, or pence, nails are called out
as 16d or 20d instead of 16 penny.
High parapets can shield the snow from the sun, resulting in slow
melt, ice buildup and expansion/contraction problems leading to To make matters worse, 16 pennies stacked will not equal the
leaks. length of a 16 penney (or 16d) nail, which is about 3-1/2” long.
Therefore, the penny or “d” system is just a relative size compari-
PARGE Smoothing over a masonry surface, usually with a trow- son. Of interest to adobe builders who use rough-cut, full dimen-
eled-on masonry cement. Parging helps to create a smooth draw sion lumber in 2” thicknesses, is that a 20d nail is needed, whereas
in fireplaces, where protruding brick and other rough surfaces are frame walls in surfaced lumber require only a 16d nail. This is espe-
skimmed over. cially true on roof decks, where rough-cut 2” lumber can be 2-1/2”
thick (see Clavos).

PARTITION WALL A wall that subdivides space within any area of PERCH In cob construction in England, “perch” is a course of Cob
a building, usually of lightweight construction. work (see Cob).

152
PERIMETER INSULATION Any one of a number of under- Perimeter insulation may be scored with a matte knife, then snapped
ground rated insulation boards designed to cut energy loss around over the knee to cut shapes. It can be secured in a vertical position
the foundation of a building. They are placed along the foundation against the outside of the foundation trench until the concrete pour
trench, usually on the outside (weather side) of the footing/stem. locks it in place. On higher stems, it can be glued against masonry
surfaces with a cement. Common names are blueboard and gray-
The average U.S. home loses 17% of its energy through the area board (Dow Chemical) or pinkboard (Owen-Cornings). Most manu-
between the bottom of the foundation trench and the top of the facturers offer the board in 1/2” increments. The R-factor rating is
stem. Thus, perimeter insulation reduces this loss. It is particularly R-5 per inch. A Dow grayboard 1-1/2” thick would provide R-7.5. A
valuable in adding to the effectiveness of an underfloor radiant heat- 2” board will provide R-10.
ing system.
In New Mexico and some other states, perimeter insulation is
required by code on all new construction. The inspector will expect
to see it in place in the foundation trench, along with required steel
reinforcement. It must extend from the bottom of the foundation
trench up the side of the footing/stem to a height of 24”. This means
the insulation board will show about 6” above grade. New Mexico
code allows a 14” wide adobe to overhang a 12” C.M.U. stem by
2”, with the perimeter insulation filling the 2” void. This creates a
Curving concrete flush wall and the stucco coats cover all materials to about 4” below
foundation with grade. On exposed adobe walls, some aesthetic provision must be
underground rated made to cover the insulation.
R-5 perimeter insu-
lation on the exte-
rior. Perimeter insulation is placed on either the inside or outside of the
foundation system. An example is an exposed stone stem, where
Wide foundation is perimeter insulation would install to the inside. Outside placement
necessary for the is a better choice if possible. That is because the foundation system
24” rammed earth
represents considerable thermal mass as an extension of the earth
wall which follows.
walls above. That means that the foundation can be used as part of
Home by Soledad the heating or cooling storage system of the house.
Canyon Earth
Builders, Las From a green building standpoint, perimeter insulation originally
Cruces, N.M.
emitted chlorine-based gases that were ozone depleters. In recent
years, manufacturers have made progress in reducing or eliminat-
ing these agents. Builders should always research the possible
brands to determine what the manufacturer says about their prod-
uct’s ozone depletion rating. (see Foundation System and
Foam Form).
153
PERUVIAN ADOBE A contemporary adobe block developed
in Perú that bonds in all directions, and is sometimes made with
notches in both ends to accept vertical bamboo or cane reinforcing.
Its size is 16”x4”x16”. The half-block that goes with it is 16”x4”x8”
(source Peter Beope).

PHOTOVOLTAICS
For the earthbuilder, a photovoltaic or “solar-electric” system is a
wise choice. Start with a high mass adobe or rammed earth struc-
ture, which with passive solar design can cut January heating costs
by 60% in most climates, then tie in a photovoltaic system. The combi-
nation of passive and active systems can reduce or eliminate depen-
dence on heating oil,
natural gas and electric- Philosophy of lifestyle- can you afford yourself?
ity. Lights, fans, com- The more power you consume to maintain your lifestyle, the more
puters, low-resistance your pocketbook is hit - a kind of immediate retribution for indul-
appliances, and even gence! On the other hand, the more Spartan you are, the less you
refrigerators can be oper- pay.
ated with photovoltaics.
However, high-resistance Compile a detailed, itemized list of every electrical load and appli-
appliances, such as elec- ance that you will use in the home. Short and long-term lists
tric stoves, will be a are useful in determining your immediate needs as well as future
challenge. Appropriate expansion. Organize using a chart with the following categories:
alternatives depend on
1. Description of the load or appliance
lifestyle or location: a
2. Electrical consumption of the above in watts or amps
country home suggests
3. Type of power (ac or dc)
an efficient wood-burning
4. Number of hours per day the load is used
cook stove, while natural
5. Number of days per week the load is used
gas or propane may be
the city dweller’s choice.
Reasonable System design parameters:

1. Battery efficiency = 80%

You must have a drafted plan in order to size your PV system. Our
2. Inverter efficiency = 80% average
plan is the solar adobe/rammed earth home shown, consuming a
3. System autonomy (days of battery storage) = 3 days
moderate amount of power. We will use it as an example.
4. Winter peak sun hours = 5.5 hours/day
5. Battery design depth of discharge = 50%
154
Appliance use assumptions:
We will assume hot water via an Aquastar 125LP-S on-demand,
tankless water heater (S indicates that this unit is designed to uti-
lize a pre-heated solar hot water). The oven/range will be propane
fueled. Space heating will depend on a passive solar system, fans,
and efficient stove back-up. Summer cooling will use fans, cross
ventilation, and photovoltaically-powered evaporative cooling. The
evaporative cooler will be fitted with a more efficient DC motor,
pump and switches, in order to reduce consumption and eliminate
conversion losses (DC to 120 AC). The refrigerator will be a highly-
insulated Sunfrost model, using photovoltaic power. Likewise, the
circulating fans that move air from the solarium to other parts of the
home will be DC-powered, taking power directly from the battery
bank, thus avoiding efficiency losses from inversion.

Additionally, we will assume a future solar water pumping system

for the underfloor radiant heat. This is a separate cost, involving an By interacting with the photons emitted by the sun, the two ions
insulated, underground water storage tank and pumps, not shown exchange/generate electron flow (current) at a voltage across the
here. This eliminates the need for a boiler and reliance on natural pathways of each silicone cell. These cells are combined into
gas or propane. Finally, this example assumes a well pumping panels or modules to generate a specific power output.
system separate from the house. With a separate well house, the
owner will have dependable water-pumping power to fight a house For our design we will need (10) 75 watt panels. We have selected
fire, when the house power would be shut down. either the model PW750 Matrix panel or the Siemens model SP75
panel. The modules are installed together on mounting structures
Electrical Load Analysis table: A basic list of the loads are (racks), creating what is called an array.
shown.This is only one consumption scenario, and may not include
some common appliances. The AC and DC loads are separated to The Controller:
insure that the inverter efficiency losses inherent in AC power are The array power passes through certain safety devices and then to
not added to the electrical load in the design process. the controller or controllers. Their function is to regulate the power
input into the batteries. We have selected the Trace C40, a pulse
From this table, the total AC watt hours per day are 2931 (2.93 width modulated controller that has the option for a system monitor-
kilowatt-hours/day). The DC watt hours are 1740 (1.74 kilowatt- ing attachment.
hours/day). These figures will be used directly and indirectly to size
the system. The Batteries and Battery Bank:
They are your energy storage bank. Our choice is the Trojan
The Photovoltaic Modules: L-16HC model. This is a 6 volt, 395 amp-hour battery. It incorpo-
These are the largest and most expensive components of a PV rates two things that most others do not: removable, easy
system. They are comprised of ion impregnated silicone cells. to carry handles and a large portion of recycled paper in 155
its outer casing. They are electrically connected in parallel. We will
need 12 of these batteries for our plan. Think of the modules making
daily deposits into your battery bank. Then, think of your daily use
as being withdrawals from this bank.

The Inverter: ing them or contacting

Main panel houses breaker box, inverter and con-
The inverter takes the low-voltage DC power from the battery bank residual acid. The bat- trollers.
and transforms it into 120 VAC, which most of your appliances are tery box vent exhausts Installation by Sol Dynamics, Moriarty, N.M.
set up for. Our choice is a Trace SW4024 programmable 4.0 kw the caustic and poten-
true sine wave inverter/battery charger. It interfaces with and is pro- tially explosive hydro-
grammed to use up to two external 120 VAC power sources, such gen gas produced by
as a back-up generator or the utility power system itself (should you the batteries during
decide to do so). Currently, this unit is in a class by itself, made by charging. A further
a company with proven reliability. consideration is to pro-
vide a concrete floor
The Battery Box and Equipment Room (B&E) with a drain located
An ideal layout separates the utilities from the B&E room with in the same compart-
a lockable door (see plan). From the B&E room, wires connect ment with the batteries.
through the earth wall to a readout panel in the kitchen. The owner This allows a conve-
can monitor the system without having to go outside. Another set nient way for batteries
of monitors can be located inside the B&E room for service per- to be cleaned, hosed
sonnel. Safety is a big concern: the battery box should be located down and acid spills
away from the face of the equipment panel, and not directly below neutralized.
or blocking convenient access to controls or equipment.
Equipment and
The batteries should also be completely enclosed in a box, with Controls Layout:
adequate ventilation to the outside. The box keeps The three main consid-
156 people from accidentally contacting the batteries and short- erations in layout are
serviceability, accessibility and expandability. The wiring and con- PIER A vertical section
duit should be done so that any electrician, new to the installation of wall, often between two
in question, can easily follow the basic wiring and function of the window openings in a build-
system. This takes some initial time and effort, but will pay for itself
ing. Piers in adobe or
at the first service call. rammed earth should be
substantial - solid enough
Further sensible options: to withstand lateral seis-
The B&E room will benefit from at least one DC light, DC receptacle mic loads that could crack
and GFI (ground fault interrupter, required by code) AC receptacle. or tip them over. In adobe
This assures that even if the inverter becomes inoperable, lights will construction, piers four feet
function. If the inverter is operable and AC power is needed, the wide or more are consid-
GFI receptacle may be utilized. ered sufficiently solid for
most seismic zones, unless
When AC power is needed and the inverter is inoperable, the ser- they are built to above aver-
vice person can utilize the DC receptacle to temporarily power a age heights.
separate inverter to run power tools.
Consulting on this plan by Sol Dynamics, www.soldynamics.com. Because clients often want
large view windows, some
architects and contractors
overlook the skinny adobe
piers in between. Skinny
piers are unsafe, even with-
out a seismic disturbance, Don’t try this one. The 10”x14” adobe pier
as a portion of their cross shown is further weakened by the wood nail-
section must be devoted to ers, which reduce its cross-sectional area. A
attachments, which further minor quake could topple it on the inhabitants.
erodes their strength.

By New Mexico code, piers in rammed earth must constitute a cross

Southwestern style parapets neatly hide and protect photovoltaic panels from
dust, damage and wandering animals.
section of not less than three square feet (for example, 24” wide x
18” long would qualify). If a pier in earth must be skinny, then the
opening supports on either side can be designed in post and beam
style, so that the pier becomes an in-fill material. However, the pier
should then be well attached to the vertical posts. If piers cannot be
designed for sufficient strength, another option is to eliminate them,
bringing the openings together, and using a vertical wood timber for
support (see Post Adobe).
157
PILASTER By definition, pilasters are no more than half again as PILLOW BITER In western Australia, a crewmember who is a bit
thick as the wall they emerge from, whereas a buttress can project too gentle for the job. He probably will not last very long, as the
out from the wall it supports for two, three or more feet. Pilasters are regular “beagles” pride themselves on being animals (use by Stabi-
lized Earth Structures Pty., Margaret River, Western Australia).

PINWHEEL A pattern
usually expressed in brick
or tile. Each leg of the pin-
wheel is an element in the
adjoining pinwheel, and
each pinwheel encom-
passes a half-brick or tile
in the middle (see Herring-
bone and Basketweave).

Adobe pilasters on an acoustical boundary wall, Montaño Blvd,

approaching the Montaño Bridge, Albuquerque, N.M.
Adobe work by Rio Abajo Adobe, Belén, N.M.
PIT HOUSE A prehistoric type of dwelling used by Native Ameri-
cans prior to the development of “pueblo” or puddled adobe archi-
tecture in what is now the Southwest U.S. A pit was dug two to
four feet below grade. In the pit perimeter, a network of poles were
inserted vertically, then arched over to form the pit house shape.
Then sticks were woven within the poles to further form a dome-like
enclosure. This was in turn mudded over, using the dug material,
and graded out to take rainwater away from the walls. Pit houses
were thermally superior to tipis, being partially sunk into the earth,
and also because they could trap cool air at night, keeping it well
into the day with the entrance closed.

PITCH The slope of a roof, usually expressed as the rise divided

by the run, such as 3 in 12 or a rise of 3” for every 12” of run.
In the Southwest, with rainfall amounts below 20” annually, pitches
are as little as 1/2” to 12” of run behind parapets (see Parapet).
If the builder increases the pitch, then the up-slope sides of the
stiffeners and cannot be expected to take the place of buttresses in parapet must also be heightened, leading to more materials and
seismic design. Pilasters should be built into the wall as it cost. Where more conventional roofs are deployed, pitches are gen-
158 rises, not added later as attachments.
erally steeper. For example, a 3/12 pitch is the minimum for most nails poorly, bend easily, and have little thickness in their galvanized
metal roofs. Commercial roofers may refuse to issue a warranty if coating. 26 gauge (the smaller the number, the thicker the material)
the builder insists on a metal roof with less than a 3/12 pitch. panel is a good workable, durable sheet.
PITCHED TIN ROOF A roofing style that has become established
in northern New Mexico. Actually, the roofing material is not tin, but
galvanized steel. This style embraces the old barn siding material,
with its corrugated pattern and this astonishes visitors from other
parts of the country, who would not consider its use.
Galvanized steel roof installation, Corrales, N.M.
In reality, pitched metal roofs are some of the best. They don’t
leak and have lives of up to 40 years or more, depending on gauge
and installation. They can now be purchased with enameled colors
baked over the galvanized surface. Additionally, they are a relatively
easy system for the owner-builder or small contractor to install.
Probably the only difficult parts of installation for the novice are the
flashing details and the time spent learning about crickets for flash-
ing chimneys, plumbing vents and the like.
The one warning for those interested in metal roofs is not to buy the
thin gauges of galvanized steel now sold at most big building supply
houses. These metals, 28-32 gauge, are simply too thin. They take
Research by the state of New Mexico (see Radiant Barrier) shows
that a galvanized metal roof provides a naturally selective surface.
It absorbs solar radiation, while emitting very little long-wave radi-
ation. The major difference between the galvanized roof and an
identical one with asphalt shingles is long-wave emissivity. In cold
climates, the galvanized metal roof performs approximately 40%
better than does a shingle roof on otherwise equal construction.
Historically, this type of roof arrived in the Southwest with the rail-
roads. In its most baroque forms, roofs were decorated with ser-
rated ridge flashings, with scrolls at the gable ends. These features
may still be purchased through historic preservation suppliers.
PITILLA A grass that is used as a binder for the mud-mix in adobe
blocks in Costa Rica.
PLACITA A small plaza, enclosed on all sides (see Patio).
PLAN (or Plan View) The view from above, looking down on a struc-
ture in drafting, so that one may see a cut-away of the home interior,
room by room, with dimensions, wall thicknesses, and the locations
of various features. Often drawn to a scale of 1/4” = 1’-0”. In a set
of working drawings, the Floor Plan, Foundation Plan, Roof Framing
Plan, and Electrical Plan are all shown in plan view.
159
 CAUTION! Readers are urged
to take appropriate safety mea-
sures against caustic materials
and chemical reactions, espe-
cially when working with lime.
Protect your skin and eyes.
Safety gloves and protective
eye wear are a must! SAFETY
FIRST!

A. PORTLAND CEMENT-
BASED MIXES

1.Traditional 3 coat finish

-1 part Portland Cement
-6 parts washed, clean plaster
sand (ASTM 144 or 897 UBC)
(some use 4 parts sand)
-1 part lime (type “S” lime is not
too “hot”)

Portland cement-based hard

stucco is the standard cover-
ing for most adobe or rammed
earth walls in the Southwest-
ern U.S.

On adobe, it is somewhat con-

troversial, since cement-based
The next several pages compile many recipes for wall coverings. plasters are not considered to be the ideal bond with earth walls.
They are both hard and soft, variously referred to as renderings, However, a life of 30-40 years or more may be expected when the
plasters, slips, stuccos or whitewashes (see Enjarradora, Sheep- wall is properly prepared with a stucco netting or chicken wire. Par-
skin and Interior Plastering). apets may be wrapped with felt papers before wire is applied. A
grade “D” tar paper allows vapor to pass, but keeps water out.

160
Wall preparation- Stucco netting-
The preparation of the earth wall for plaster or stucco is a craft unto Next comes the stucco netting, a self-furring, 17 gauge wire in a hex
itself. The crew arrives on the site, and using adobe files and other pattern, or chicken wire. The hexagon shapes are 1-1/2” in diam-
tools, cleans and prepares the wall. Corners that are too square eter. Self-furring means that on a set pattern, a narrow tab of the
may be rounded, and protruding chunks of adobe are removed. In wire extends outward. When the wire is nailed onto the earth wall,
plastered and stuccoed Santa Fé style homes, this preparation is the tab will catch the stucco. Some codes allow chicken wire, which
quite important and labor-intensive. It is one of the factors that can is cheaper, but not as sturdy. It has no self-furring feature.
drive up the price of a custom adobe. It is all done to get a certain
effect in the finished home and could be said to be a combination of Where the stucco
sculpture and plastering. netting is nailed
directly to the
Expanded metal lathe- adobe, #16 gal-
Expanded metal lathe is nailed up around window and door open- vanized nails are
ings. Over time, there is vibration from use (slamming doors, win- a common choice.
dows) and the lathe will prevent cracking. It is shaped in bull nose or The nail must twist
other patterns to create rounded turns which the stucco will follow. around the wire,
These bull noses often require that the wire is turned on itself, or so that a loop is
formed. This way
the wire cannot
slip from the nail.
The nails are set
16” on center .

Nails are always

nailed into the
center of the
adobe, never too
close to the edge,
to avoid splitting
inserted into dados in a door or window buck. This way, a key is the block. As the
formed, making it easier for the plasterer to finish the detail in a nailing moves
smooth and professional manner. Where wood is covered, as at a along, the wire is pulled as tightly as possible. As the bands of the
lintel, a layer of tar paper precedes the wire, so that moisture from stucco netting are unrolled and cut, each horizontal band overlaps
the stucco will not get into the wood, causing swelling. The tar paper its neighbor by a few inches. Any bulging or loose areas are nailed
or felt is attached to the wood using wide-headed roofing nails. The down. On a good job, a crew member could easily climb the wall like
heads are too wide to go through the expanded metal lathe. a monkey and the wire would not be loosened in the slightest.

161
Insulation board covers-
In some cold-climate areas, codes or passive solar designs may
require insulation board nailed to the adobe, especially on north
and east exposures. Special nails with large washer-like heads are
used so that the nail heads will not sink through the soft board
(see Clavos for a photo). These are sometimes called “cap” nails or
adobe nails. They have tempered, spiral shanks for a good bite into
the earth wall and are available in many lengths. For example, when
nailing up 2” insulation board, a 5” cap nail would be a good choice,
giving a 3” bite into the wall.
The color coat-
Last coat is the finish or color coat, applied 1/8” thick. Mist the wall
to set the color. This last layer is the “stucco” purchased in various
colors from stucco suppliers. The bag covers roughly 80-90 sq. ft. of
wall area. It contains Portland cement, color dye, certain additives
for smooth coverage, and a fine sand.

Before nailing, someone on the crew must first identify any areas
where a long nail could penetrate to an electrical circuit (see Electri-
cal System). A few nails are used to position the board - usually
one in each corner and one or two in the center. Boards are posi-
tioned on the wall, set tightly together, and then taped so as to seal
cracks. The procedure in the paragraph above is followed, replacing
the #16 nails with the long cap nails as the stucco netting or wire is
applied.
Applying the color coat around territorial window trim on an adobe home in
The scratch coat- Albuquerque, N.M.
The first coat applied to the wall is the scratch coat, applied 3/8”
thick and water-cured a minimum of 48 hours before the brown Note: Sand must be screened and cleaned (washed of salts or
coat is applied, although 15-30 days is a better curing period. It is other impurities) for an attractive durable plaster. Buying cheap
“scratched” with the trowel, usually in a horizontal, wavy pattern, for sands can result in discolored walls. On the west coast, sand con-
bonding. Water-cured means a fine mist or spray 3 spaced times a tent is increased to 9 parts sand due to higher humidity and moder-
day, and twice that in hot weather. If the wall is not water-cured, the ate temperature fluctuations, which stress the wall surface less.
hydration process in the cement can rob the plaster of its moisture,
turning it to powder. Any swales or dips in the wall should be filled. 2. Spanish Lime/Portland Plaster
This way, the wall is straightened. This is why a good adobe crew -6 parts sand
lays up a straight adobe wall to begin with. If they don’t, the plaster- -3 parts lime
ing job will be more expensive. -1 part Portland cement

The brown coat-
The second coat is the brown coat, also applied 3/8” thick, but then
water-cured for 72 hours. It is left slightly rough. With this coat, any
flourishes or sculptured effects are finalized. Wait seven days before
applying the color coat.
162
Spanish colonial buildings were plastered with a clay lime / sand
mix, the Portland cement not being present. The cement has been
recently added at Las Matas, where the government is experi-
menting with rammed earth construction (source: Government of
Dominican Republic, late 1970’s - early 1980’s, title unknown).
3. Albert Parra’s interior smooth, hard plaster Apply the paint with a large brush in two coats. Moisten the earth
wall before applying the first coat. Paint only on shaded walls and
-1 five gallon can of medium grit sandblast sand keep the painted surface slightly moistened so the cement does not
-3 square shovels of white Portland cement cure too quickly. Let the first coat cure at least 12 hours. Only the
-1 small (1 lb. size) coffee can of gauging plaster second coat needs to be colored. It can be thrown or “dashed” on
-1 small (1 lb. Size) coffee can of lime with a large brush or broom to obtain a pleasing surface texture
(Source: Handbook for Building Homes of Earth by Wolfskill, Dunlap
This type of plaster is troweled on and then rubbed down for a & Gallaway, Texas A&M, College Station, Tx., early 1940’s).
luster. Skilled crews spend hours attaining the nicest finishes (Albu-
querque, N.M.).
B. SEMI-HARD MIXES
Notes on Cement-Based Paints: Properly applied cement-based
paints may give service for 8 to 10 years. The surface will usually 1. Pozzuolana / Lime Cement
have to be painted at least twice. The success of such paints Unfortunately we have no specific recipe, but experimentation will
depends directly on the condition of the wall itself. The stronger the produce a compound similar to cements of Portland origins, but far
wall, the better the durability. The first coat should be applied at the more flexible. Pozzuolana is a powdered volcanic rock. The poz-
consistency of milk, and the second coat about the thickness of a zuolana must have sufficient silica content. When added to lime
thick cream. On rammed earth walls, a stiff brush with short fiber and water, the result is a hydraulic cement used for finishing flat
bristles does best. On very smooth textured walls, a whitewash or and vaulted earth roofs (source: Earth Construction Primer, United
water painting brush is best. Walls must be clean and damp before Nations Center for Human Settlements, 1984).
application. A curing time of 24 hours is suggested between coats.
After finishing the second coat, the walls should be cured by moist-
ening them about 3 times per day for 2 to 3 days. Avoid working C. LIME-BASED MIXES
the walls on the sunny sides or during extremes of weather (Source:
Soil Construction by S. Cytryn, Structural Engineer, The Weizmann Introductory Notes on Lime Plasters and Mortars:
Science Press of Israel, Jerusalem 1957). True lime plasters have fallen out of use in the U.S. since the 1930’s.
Due to the interest in green building, there is renewed interest in
4. Cement Based Paint the old recipes. Lime-based plasters adhere to earth walls largely
-1 part calcium stearate (powdered) without the need for stucco netting or wire. If the wire can be elimi-
-2 parts calcium chloride (powdered) nated, then building costs are lowered and energy and air quality
-50 parts Portland cement are saved. However, lime is caustic, and safety precautions must
-25 parts clean, fine sand (washed) be observed. The apprentice unfamiliar with lime-based plasters
will be on a learning curve. A good source of information is Kaki
Mix these ingredients to obtain a uniform dry mix. Then add 50 Hunter or Doni Kiffmeyer, 256 East 100 South, Moab Ut., 84532.
parts water, mixing with a hoe until a creamy mixture is obtained. Email (as of 2001): okokok@lasal.net.
Pour the mixture through a fly screen to remove lumps and large
Traditionally, quicklime was obtained by roasting limestone, sea-
particles. Use white Portland cement if a white coating is desired.
shells and some marbles to a red glow, resulting in cal- 163
For other colors, add 3 to 4 parts of a powdered oxide pigment.
cium oxide. This powdery substance was then screened to remove
lumps, which could later “pop” or spall when mixed with water. The
powder was then mixed with water, a process called slaking or
hydrating. This mixing was done on site, and the chemical reac-
tion would release a lot of heat, expanding the mass to two or
three times its original volume. After slaking for about 24 hours,
the quicklime was considered ready for use, although longer slaking
improves its hardening ability later. At this point, the chemical reac-
tion changes the mix to calcium hydroxide. Lime putty is simply a
screened paste of a slaked lime.
In the Southwest, limestone was gathered from local deposits and
roasted in the horno or bread oven to obtain the calcium oxide. This
was followed by basically the same procedure as noted above to
obtain a calcium hydroxide putty, the basis for many plaster mixes.
One historic example of lime-based plaster is San Xavier Mission in
Tucson, Arizona. There, the Padres amended their lime plaster with
the fermented juice of chopped prickly pear cacti, which increased
its water repellant qualities.
Lime washes should be applied to clean, dust-free surfaces, using
at least 2 coats, with 3 to 4 coats preferable.
Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime by using gloves
and eye protection. The first coat should be thin, with subsequent
coats increasing in thickness. They should be applied to shaded
walls, avoiding extremes of heat, cold, or rain. The earth wall
should be moistened with milk of lime, but without soaking the
surface. Many recipes call for simply moistening the surface with
water. Drying should be slow and excessively thick coats should be
avoided (source: Earth Construction Primer, United Nations Center
for Human Settlements, 1984).
Notes on coloring whitewashes:
Earth pigments such as Vandyke brown, red oxide, yellow ochre,
sienna, umber, Indian red, cadmium yellow, ultramarine, cobalt blue,
chrome green, emerald green and all black pigments are appropri-
ate for coloring whitewashes. The quantity of pigment added to the
mix determines the final shade.

The Spanish used these same roasting techniques at Saint Augus- Other Additives To Lime Washes / Plasters:
tine, Florida, firing or “burning” the seashells and mixing their lime Some of these additives will work with plaster mixes as well.
putty with sand to make a mortar (tapia in Spanish, corrupted to
“tabby” by the English). They mined large sedimentary stones of 1. Linseed oil improves durability, adhesion, and withstands varia-
seashell conglomerate in the area (coquina in Spanish). These tions in humidity.
coquinas were then laid in the mortar to build the Castillo de San 2. Tallow (animal fat composed of glycerides) increases plasticity
Marcos, which has withstood the elements and cannon fire over the and adhesion. Add 10% by weight of tallow to lime. An alternative
centuries since its construction in 1672-1695. to tallow is calcium stearate or linseed oil.
3. Skim milk (or whey-10 days) increases the impermeability of the
Notes on Lime Washes/Whitewashes: limewash. Add 1 part skim milk or whey to 10 parts water.
They are cheap protection against rain, but are more suitable for 4. Casein glue (in powder form, called ‘cold glue’) acts as a fixa-
interior or sheltered exterior walls. They can be improved with tive. The addition of formalin increases strength. Dissolve the glue
additives to last several years outside. Suggestions: (1) Vegetable in boiling water. Add 2.5 kg of glue to every 7 liters of water. Such
drying oils such as linseed oil, nut oils, castor oil, crotin oil, hemp animal glues will improve the adhesion of the lime wash or mud mix
oil, (2) Glues such as casein, and (3) Hydrated salts including zinc (source: Earth Construction Primer, U.N. Center for Human Settle-
sulphate, potassium alum, sodium chloride, resins and rubbers. ments, 1984. Authors Hugo Huben and Guillaud Hubert).

164
1. Lime Whitewash (weather resistant exterior): Place the quicklime in a barrel with the tallow and color. Slake
Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime with gloves and with hot water, covering with a sackcloth to keep in the steam from
eye protection. the reaction. When the lime is slaked, the tallow will have disap-
peared, having formed a chemical compound with the lime. Thin to
-62 lbs. (one bushel) quicklime (slaked with 12 gallons of hot an easily flowing consistency with water, strain and apply directly to
water). the earth wall (source: USDA Farmers’ Bulletin no. 1500, “Rammed
-1 lb. Sulphate of Zinc and 2 lbs. of table salt dissolved in 2 gallons Earth Walls for Buildings”, 1926).
of boiling water.
-2 gallons skim milk 4. Casein Whitewash
Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime with gloves and
This produces a weatherproof lime whitewash (source: Earth Brick eye protection.
Construction by Ebert Hubbell, U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, 1943).
-50 lbs. hydrated lime with 7 gallons water
2.”One Year” Whitewash: -5 lbs. casein with 2 gallons hot water
Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime with gloves and -3 lbs. Trisodium Phosphate (TSP) with 1 gallon water
eye protection. -3 pts. formaldehyde

-1 1/2 gallons un-slaked lime (quicklime) Procedure for outside walls: soak the 5 lbs. of casein in 2 gallons hot
-3 1/2 gallons water water until the casein is thoroughly soft. This takes about 2 hours.
-1/2 lb. melted tallow Dissolve the 3 lbs. of TSP in 1 gallon water. Add this solution to the
casein solution, making sure all ingredients are dissolved. When
Boil the water in a large can, add the lime, and stir well. Then add the casein-TSP mix is completely cool, stir in 8 gallons of cool lime
the melted tallow to the boiling mixture and stir again. Apply the paste. The lime paste is achieved by slaking 50 lbs. of hydrated lime
mixture with a large brush. If it is difficult to spread, add a little in 6 gallons of water overnight.
water. Considered a temporary protection, lasting about a year
in most climates (source: Handbook for Building Homes of Earth Just before using, dissolve 3 pts. of formaldehyde in 3 gallons of
by Wolfskill, Dunlap & Gallaway, Texas A&M, College Station, Tx., clear water. Slowly add this to the casein-lime solution. Stir con-
early 1940’s). stantly and vigorously, for if you add the formaldehyde all at once,
the casein will jell and ruin the whitewash. Mix enough for only one
3. English Lime Whitewash
day’s painting at a time, as this mix will not keep.
Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime with gloves and
eye protection.
This whitewash is reportedly quite durable, and will not chalk or
-1 bushel quicklime (62 lbs.) rub. It is very weather resistant. Its origins date back to 1921 when
-20 lbs. beef tallow it was promoted by the U.S. National Lime Association (source:
-Dry color as needed “Building with Adobe and Stabilized Earth Blocks”, USDA leaflet
535, Washington, D.C. 20402, 1965).

165
5. Lighthouse Whitewash for 5 gallons of whitewash renders the lime more soluble, allowing
Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime with gloves and deeper penetration of the masonry (source: “Rammed Earth Walls
eye protection. for Buildings”, USDA Farmers’ Bulletin no. 1500, 1926).

-62 lbs. (1 bushel) quicklime with 12 gallons of hot water 7. South African Lime/Earth Plasters
-12 lbs. rock salt with 6 gallons boiling water Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime with gloves and
-6 lbs. Portland cement eye protection.

Slake 62 lbs. (1 bushel) quicklime with 12 gallons of hot water. Dis- -6 parts red earth
solve 12 lbs. rock salt in 6 gallons boiling water and add it to the -2 parts sand
slaked lime mix. Add 6 lbs. Portland cement and stir thoroughly. -1 part hydrated lime

This recipe is of English origins for along the seacoast, or for The mix is prepared like regular adobe mud. When it reaches the
more humid locations where wind-driven moisture could be a factor correct consistency it is thinly applied with a trowel to the dampened
(source: “Rammed Earth Walls for Buildings”, USDA Farmers’ Bul- wall. It will dry and crack, after which the applicator rubs the wall
letin no. 1500, 1926). down with a sacking pad. The pad is covered with the same mix
wetted to a thin cream consistency. This is essentially a clay/lime
6. Government Formula Whitewash mix, made less clay-like with the addition of sand. Lime and clay
Protect yourself against the caustic aspects of lime with gloves and react well together, providing a relatively durable coating. Hydrated
eye protection. lime will tend to neutralize acid soils and stabilize clays (source:
“Rammed Earth Walls for Buildings”, USDA Farmers’ Bulletin no.
-One half bushel quicklime 1500, 1926).
-One peck salt
-3 lbs. ground rice Notes on Ancient Pakistani Mud-Lime Combination Plasters:
-1/2 lb. powdered Spanish whiting “While in Uch, we found basically three kinds of plasters used
-1 lb. clear glue through the centuries and as long ago as 800 years. At one site,
we found a scratch coat of coarse sand and small gravel mixed with
Slake the quicklime with boiling water, keeping it covered until lime and jute fibers. This was applied in a thick coating of 3 to 4
slaked. Then strain it and add the salt, dissolved in warm water. inches over massive walls…Over the scratch coat was a thin, fine
Boil the rice in water to a thin paste in one pot. natural white finish coat composed of lime, sand and cotton fiber.
This finish coat, known as “batana”, though in some places exposed
In an adjacent pot, dissolve the Spanish whiting and glue in warm to the elements for many centuries, still maintained a smooth off-
water. Mix all together and let stand for several days, keeping the white finish. In another location at the same site, we found a thick
mix warm in a kettle or portable furnace, then apply as hot as pos- scratch coat formed of adobe mud, course sand and small gravel,
sible. with jute fibers again intermixed. This was finished with a coating
of what is known as “surkhi”. It is formed by pulverizing burnt brick
One ounce of Alum added to each gallon of whitewash to make a coarse or fine sandy substance, depending on the finish
166 increases adhesion to the earth wall. One pint of molasses desired. This is then mixed with lime and jute fibers to yield a semi-
smooth naturally light pink finish…This investigation is still incom-
plete. We know the names of the plasters and have some notion
of their composition, but have yet to witness the actual brewing and
application…There are techniques and compositions that yield a
quite resilient mud plaster in use among certain tribes of the region.
Mud plasters with straw, jute, rice husks, sugar cane wastes, dung,
etc. are employed for inside and outside plasters...There are reports
of particular procedures and natural additives used in some parts
that achieve a thoroughly stable material through the use of sugar
cane wastes and other procedures allowing organic additives to fer-
ment over several days”. (source: Abdullah Nouri on Model Village
at Ahmed Pur East Pakistan, June 1983).

D. EARTH-BASED MIXES WITH LESS

CAUSTIC ADDITIVES

Notes on dagga or earth plasters:

Caution: Mud or dagga plasters are attractive, but most must be
regarded as soft against hail. Hail will pockmark a dagga plaster
wall. Their use is best limited to walls under good roof overhangs,
unless a hardener has been added to the plaster mix.

Caution: Asphalt emulsions are listed here as “less caustic”, which

they are for most people, as the volatile petro-chemical substances
have been removed. If you are sensitive to some substances, it is
your responsibility to have your doctor advise you via a testing pro-
cedure before committing yourself to a particular application.
Mud plasters are referred to as Dagga plasters. “Dagga” is an Afri-
can term (Hottentot) for hemp, but dagga plasters are considered
to be mud plasters throughout the middle east and parts of Africa.
The reference to hemp may stem from the idea of mixing hemp fiber
with mud for greater strength. In Pakistan, White reports of daggas
with various additives (see following recipes). In Jerusalem, Cytryn
considers daggas to be simply mud plasters.
Enschede Tax Office, Netherlands. Tierrafino earth plaster
by Leembouw Neederland
Applications of daggas worldwide is about the same. The adobe or
rammed earth wall is allowed to cure. Often, joints between adobe
blocks will be left rough or slightly open for a better “key” of the mud
plaster. In Jalisco, México, the mud mix is first thrown into the pock-
ets or hollows, where it adheres well. The wall is moistened, but
not to the point where the mix will run off. The mud plaster is trow-
eled on, usually in upward curving sweeps. This first coat is applied,
about 1/2” thick, and always on the shady side of the wall. It
may be slightly scored with the notched side of the trowel.
167
 The second coat is applied, some localities, Jugo de Tuña, (prickly pear pulp) has been added to
again, about 1/2” thick. If the serve as a stabilizer (source: Rolf Ruge, architect, San José, Costa
temperature is high, the wall Rica,1986).
may be water cured.
2. Egyptian Exterior Mud Plaster – asphalt emulsion stabilized
Mud or dagga plasters may -10 parts sand
have trouble adhering to -1 part red clay
adobe walls that suffer from -1 part earth (mainly recycled adobe)
fluff, or dead earth, or those
which are too smooth. The For one batch in a 10 cu. ft. mixer (above ingredients will be
wall must be cleaned of fluff, repeated to capacity) add 6 no. 10 cans of asphalt emulsion, diluted
soft spots removed, and the in adequate water to make the mix (source: Hassan Fathy, architect,
wall dusted, before a fine as reported to Joe Vaughan, architect, Abquiu, N.M., 1980).
Tierrafino mud plastering accents tile door
door trim in Dutch apartment.
spray of water is directed to
Plastering by Leembouw Nederland the wall. 3. Standard Exterior Stabilized Mud Plaster
-1 part suitable clay, as non-expansive as possible, screened
Usually work begins at the parapet, or even on its back side. The through 1/8” hardware cloth
dagga is brought over the top and down. However, working in hori- -3 parts sharp, clean sand, also screened through 1/8” cloth
zontal bands from bottom up allows upper layers to overlap those -5% by weight, CSS-1 or CSS-1h asphalt emulsion (good in most
below, giving better waterproof protection when stabilizers are used Western U.S. soils)
in the mix. Traditionally, no stabilizers were used, and layering that
could direct water into the wall was rubbed down with sheepskin In a wheelbarrow, dry mix Tierrafino finish in Dutch dwelling
rags. the sand and clay thoroughly. by Leembouw Nederland
Have a mark on the inside of
A stabilized dagga plaster costs less than a cement stucco finish the wheelbarrow that tells you
and requires no mesh or chicken wire when the wall is left rough. when you have achieved a cer-
It bonds better to the earth wall than Portland cement-based plas- tain weight of your mix. Add
ters. It also better reflects local soil colors. Asphalt emulsions will 5% by weight asphalt emul-
give more durability and will darken the mix, until UV from sunlight sion. For example, 170 lbs.
lightens the wall over the course of a few years. of dry mix in your wheelbar-
row X .05 = 8.5 lbs. of emul-
1. Costa Rican Traditional Earth Plaster sion. Asphalt emulsion weighs
The first coat is applied over the adobes and consists of pulverized the same as water, (8.3 lbs.
cow dung mixed with a finer sand/clay soil. The dung provides the per gallon) so this would be
fiber to prevent cracking. Mix to typical plaster consistency. approximately one gallon of
emulsion. Trying to pour
The second coat is a fine river sand, mixed with a little asphalt emulsion directly into
168 clay and some calcium carbonate added (CaCO(2)). In the dry mix will cause it to con-

geal in one or two places, rather than disperse. Therefore, pour the
emulsion into 2 gallons of water (in a separate container) which will
disperse it. Pour this mix into the barrow, mixing as you go. Add
more water as needed to bring the mix up to a plaster viscosity. You
will achieve full stabilization in most soils with one gallon of emul-
sion. If you try to add more than 5.5% asphalt emulsion to weight of
dry soil, you will weaken your plaster. When using a plaster mixer,
increase ingredients proportionately.
Plaster may be mixed with chopped straw for desired aesthetic
effects, but the straw isn’t necessary and should be kept to a mini-
mum to prevent moisture from entering the plaster coat through it.
This plaster adheres well to most earth
surfaces, but experimentation on a test
patch first is a good idea (source: South-
west Solaradobe School, Bosque, N.M. -
used successfully since 1978).
Example of a stabilized earth or adobe plaster
applied on Tucson contractor Jeffrey Smith’s
solar adobe in Tucson, Az.
4. Jeff Smith’s Stabilized Adobe
Plaster
With the appropriate blend of sands and
clays obtained and screened, and using
a plaster mixer, 2-1/2 gallons of asphalt
emulsion is added to the water and mixed
with 70 shovels of the earth mix. The
resulting mud plaster is put on 3/4” thick
for the first coat, using a square trowel
with sufficient force and troweled up on
the wall. The same mix is used for a
finish coat after the first coat has set
up. The finish coat is applied 1/4” thick
(Smithworks, used in Tucson, Az.)
5. Tierrafino™ (Carl Giskes)
In Europe, technologies for earth-based
plasters have advanced under the leadership of Carl Giskes, of
Amsterdam, Holland. A noted earthbuilding and mud plastering
expert, Karl traveled the world in search of indigenous plastering
techniques and pigments. He has distilled this knowledge and his
company now offers a range of mud plasters, under the name Tier-
rafino. These plasters, featured in this section, are noted for their
full range of tones, high quality and consistant color. Tierrafino has
been used in projects ranging from homes to government office
complexes, and at Expo 2000 World’s Fair in Hannover, Germany.
(Leembouw Nederland, Carl Giskes 2E Helmersstraat 49, 1054
CD Amsterdam; info@tierrafino.nl www.tierrafino.nl)
169

Tierrafino finish applied to Dutch residential wall. An
earth plaster finish cuts interior humidity by up to
50%, reduces allergic reactions and enhances liv-
ability. Plaster application Leembouw Nederland.
Notes About Additives To Earth Plasters:
Experiment with your soil first to find an appropriate mix.
1. Rye Flour forms a vegetable glue, soluble in water. This increases
surface hardness and resistance to rubbing.
2. Alum is a double sulphate of potassium and hydrated aluminum.
A small quantity should be boiled in water for one hour, then added
to the mix immediately before use. This increases workability and
surface hardness.
3. Molasses can be added at 0.2% by weight to lime washes. It
speeds carbonation of the lime and increases strength.
4. Gum Arabic is added to sandy soil, to produce a good interior
protective coating which is hard, does not crack and adheres well.
Performs poorly if exposed to exterior moisture. Its color is a pastel
red ochre. Used as a rendering chiefly in Sudan.
Notes on Liquids in Earth Plasters:
-Rainwater most desired
-Deflocculants and dispersants may improve mixes:
Sodium carbonate and sodium silicate are deflocculants.
From 0.1 to 0.4% by weight can be added to clay soil weights.
-Humic acid, tannic acid, or horse urine can replace the water.
170
Notes on Fibers in Earth Plasters:
Straws, animal hairs, polypropylene fibers, chopped yucca, and
pine needles all act as reinforcement. They are chopped to fairly
short lengths (1” to 1-1/2”) and added to the mix at about one hefty
handful per wheelbarrow. Use of animal dung is related to the short
fiber content present, and acts as a binder. The use of dung also
provides a mild preservative action through the process of lactic
acid fermentation.
Traditional Natural Stabilizers for Earth Mixes:
Experiment with your soil first to find an appropriate mix.
1. Mosote plant (Costa Rica). Plant is chopped up and allowed to
ferment in a pool of water under warm sunny conditions. After time,
a milky skim will form on the pool surface. The substance skimmed
off the surface is mixed with the mud as a stabilizer.
2. Juice of aguave and prickly pear cacti (opuntia family). Cactus
leaves chopped up and fermented in a 55 gallon drum, with just
enough water to cover them. Juice reported to stabilize when mixed
with mud. Used in lime plaster mixes on Colonial adobe missions.
3. 15 liters of rye flour, boiled in 220 liters of water, the resulting
paste added to the soil.
4. Horse or cow dung (lactic acid) mixed at the rate of 1 part dung
to 1 part clay to 5-15 parts sand.
5. Sap of the fruit of the acacia scorpiodes (Gonahier) boiled in
water with several pieces of limonite, a rather effective water repel-
lant.
6. Euphorbia latex precipitated with lime.
7. Sap of the Néré tree, obtained from a concoction of the pow-
dered fruit.
(source: Earth Construction Primer)
E. GYPSUM-BASED MIXES
Notes on Interior Gypsum Finishes:
See Interior Plastering for a contemporary New Mexico step-by-
step application by Joe Gutierrez. Gypsum is a common ingredient
in many interior earth-wall finishes. It is not waterproof. Gypsum
is a hydrated sulfate of calcium, occurring naturally in sedimentary
rocks and used for making Plaster of Paris. It is a common ingredi-
ent in wall board, also known as gypsum board or sheetrock.
1. Ancient Egyptian Interior Finish
From the Valley of the Kings, near Gourna, Egypt.
-Use over a 2 coat mud plaster base as a finish coat.
-Have gypsum mixed with water, and stir continuously until it loses
its setting power.
-Add 1/10 gum arabic to the gypsum at the consistency of sour milk
(as in thin yogurt or buttermilk).
-Apply to earth wall with a brush.
-Powdered tempera could possibly be added for color (source:
Hassan Fathy, architect, as reported to Joe Vaughan, architect,
Abiquiu, N.M. 1980).
2. Duncan Milloy Rough Textured Gypsum Finish
When the adobes are laid up, a determination should be made
as to where this finish is to be applied. In those areas, leave the
adobe joints rough. After the wall has set up and dried, mix stan-
dard gypsum plaster with sand, at the rate of 2 sands to one plas-
ter. Apply to a wetted adobe wall with a brush in swirling patterns
to your taste. Provides a very textured, artistic finish (see Interior
Plastering).
F. SOLUTIONS FOR HISTORIC STRUCTURES
1. Michael Moquin Historic Preservation Finish
A permeable, long lasting (10 years or more), well-bonded, appro-
priately textured finish which can be tinted any color. Preservation
specialist Michael Moquin has had excellent results using vinyl resin
coatings, with or without fine or medium sizes of aggregates. In
finish coating historic adobe buildings which have been stuccoed,
whitewashed, then often painted, the preservationist is confronted
with the following challenges:
1. General lack of maintenance of the structure for 20 years or
more.
2. Chalky surface areas.
3. Cracked surface areas.
4. Spalling paint layers.
The finish procedure is:
1. Hand scrape the surface, removing spalling paint and exces-
sively chalky material.
2. Dust the surface, and apply a solvent-based masonry sealer
which makes the surface firm and bondable.
3. Fill all cracks and voids with a vinyl patching compound such as
“Triko-Plex Flexit-Filler”.
4. Skim-coat the surface, again with a compound such as “Triko”.
Use it to fill and level the surface in damaged areas.
5. Manipulate the texture with finish coats of aggregated vinyl
resin coating (Triko-Plex) to achieve a uniform, aesthetically pleas-
ing finish coat. No repaired or patched areas should show. Transi-
tions between old and new work take time and skill. This approach
has been used successfully on several historic masonry buildings in
the New Mexico area.
El Zocalo Building (adobe), Bernalillo N.M. Built by adobero Abeni-
cio Salazar in the 1920’s.
Monte Vista Fire Station (block), Albuquerque, N.M.
Luna Mansion (terrón and adobe), Los Lunas, N.M.
G. ALTERNATIVE MIX
Tom Schmidt’s Recycled Newspaper Insulation Stucco
This stucco is relatively green compared to the 3-coat traditional
stucco (see A. 1. at beginning of Plasters), in effect doing two jobs
at once. It reduces the amount of Portland cement, eliminates the
need to buy insulation board (which may contain ozone-depleting
chlorine), and at the same time recycles newspaper. It also elimi-
nates the need for buying long cap nails, as used to attach insu-
lation boards. In 2001, Tom successfully applied it to his bed and
breakfast facility at Saint David, Az.
171
It is necessary to wire the wall and put up a scratch coat of ordi-
nary stucco (see A.-1.) Make sure the horizontal grooves are well- PLUMBING
defined. The following ingredients are then utilized in a two-sack
plaster mixer. If you are unfamiliar with plastering, start with a half Plumbing systems in adobe or rammed earth walls are the same as
batch to gauge how much you can do before the stucco sets. in any other type of construction. The same codes apply. The ques-
tions revolve around how to run pipe in earth walls. In most cases,
Pour 20 gallons of water into the mixer. Add in 20 to 25 lbs. of a little cutting of the adobe will suffice, but you must know ahead of
shredded newsprint. A crew member can do the shredding ahead of time whether a particular wall will be plastered, as that may deter-
time. The water will soften the newsprint and it will become mushy, mine exactly where a supply line or vent pipe will emerge from the
breaking down to its fibrous state. Add in two bags of Portland slab or other floor material. Accurate drafting and good layout on
cement. Add in 1/2 sack of lime. The lime buys you time. Add the site are critical.
in a five gallon bucket of clay. The clay should be added as a dry
powder, and will add smoothness and “trowelability”. With both adobe and rammed earth, it is easier to run waste and
supply trees in frame walls. The drafter or architect will purposely
Newsprint swells, absorbing huge amounts of water. This is normal design a frame wall for bathroom or laundry room areas. These
and leads to the insulating properties of the material. Aim for a frame walls are just like any frame wall, most often of 2”x 6” con-
smooth mush, applied with a viscosity similar to other stuccos. struction. However, they abut adobe or rammed earth walls as in
Using ordinary plastering tools, apply directly to the wall. the sketch (see pg 173).

Build up successive layers, scratching each layer applied with defi-

nite horizontal grooves. Tom has applied up to three layers of the
material in this manner. Finish out with an ordinary color coat as
per A. 1. above. Tom floated his out, using a sponge trowel for a
sand finish.

PLASTIC LIMIT The moisture content below which the soil is non- Sketch C
plastic in handling.

PLAZUELA Spanish term for a courtyard enclosed on three sides.

If enclosed on four sides, it would be a placita.

PLUMB Exactly perpendicular or vertical. The mason’s line,

moving up the speed leads, indicates a plumb adobe wall.
Occasionally, pipes must be run in the earth wall. Copper supply
172 lines typically do not run in the adobe or rammed earth. Instead,
Note: diagram for instructional
purposes only. Actual plumbing tree With under-floor radiant heat-
varies according to local code
jurisdiction.
ing systems, a special wood-
framed box is planned,
around which the adobe wall
is built. Plastic-based hot
water pipes representing dif-
ferent zones emerge from
the slab to meet the copper
hot water supply pipe in this
box. This tubing, such as
Aquaplex, by Wirsbo, does
not have to be sleeved. It
is designed for underground
and in-slab use (photo).

Sketch A

they come up through the slab at the point where the floor meets the
Underfloor radiant piping emerges from
wall; for example under a kitchen sink or behind a bathroom vanity. concrete and brick. Supporting wood
Because they run through concrete, they will be plastic-sleeved to aperture is framed within an adobe wall.
avoid corrosion. Blue sleeves are used for cold water, red for hot.
Some copper pipe is made to withstand corrosive soils, but should David Peterson Construction,
Bernalillo, N.M.
you have to run copper through earth, it’s not a bad idea to sleeve
it as well. 173
The plastic (ABS/PVC) waste system pipes are of larger diameters
than supply pipes, and caution must be observed when cutting
adobe for them. In most cases, the vent stacks will already have
been installed before the adobes are laid, and the wall is cut around
the plastic pipe as it rises. If the wall is to be plastered, as is usually
the case in bathrooms, a channel of 1/2 the pipe diameter is cut.
For example, a typical vent pipe is 1-1/2” in diameter. The adobero
would cut a 3/4” half-circle out of the adobe. Then, the typically 3/4”
plaster coat will cover the rest of the pipe. To keep the pipe snug
within its channel, plumber’s tape is used to wrap the pipe, nailing it
off on the top of the adobe course.

In any area where the

Sketch B
channeling is frequent
or especially deep, it is
a good idea to run Dur-
o-Wal or other ladder
steel reinforcement in
the adobe wall about
every three courses.
Make sure not to install
the reinforcement in the
same course as any
electrical circuitry.

A typical area where the

Left: 1-1/2” dia. vent pipe let into
adobe wall is often cut the wall 3/4”. Exposed half of
for vent piping is at the pipe will be concealed by plaster
kitchen window. The finish.
vent pipe rising from the
clean out and goose-
neck will have to run Right: Installation in an exposed
around the corner of adobe wall requires completely
the window that is enclosing pipe within wall system
almost always centered for a cosmetic finish.
on the kitchen sink. This necessitates drilling through
adobes.
Once around
174
 the window frame, it PORTAL A covered porch or arcade, usually running the length or
turns vertically to exit almost the length of one side of a building. Also typical as running
through the roof. around all four sides of an enclosed patio. The portal is an impor-
Rammed earth walls are
so massive that vent
trees can be rammed
within them. Be sure that
there is enough room
between the vertical vent
pipe and the edge of the
rammed earth wall for a
tamper to operate. The
New Mexico rammed
earth code has provi-
Wood enclosure rammed into wall houses both
supply and drain lines for a kitchen sink appli-
sions for how pipe may
cation. Note sleeves on copper supply pipes to be placed or channeled
inhibit corrosion. in the wall. Most rammed
earth contractors will use
Stan Huston Construction, Edgewood, N.M. frame plumbing walls as
Above: Portal on adobe home at Corrales, N.M.
noted above. Plumbing
Below: Portal at Old Pueblo Adobe, Tucson, Az.
vents can be run straight up through rammed earth walls and vent
through a stabilized rammed earth parapet where there is no over-
hanging roof. This works on Santa Fé or Pueblo styles. Always
check your local codes before finalizing the design of a plumbing
system.

POINTED ARCH There are many forms, a common one being the
3-5 arch from Egypt. These arches are stronger than Roman or
semi-circular arches. They are also known as Gothic arches, and
are found in many European cathedrals, where they are generally
built of stone (see Adobe Vaults and Domes).

POOR MAN’S DOME Used in Egypt to describe the Byzantine or

pendentive dome, as it requires fewer adobes to build than the Sas-
sanid dome (see Adobe Vaults and Domes).
175
 PORTICO Porch (see Portal).

PORTÓN A gate or doorway within the zaguán (see Zaguán).

POST ADOBE A post and beam type of construction, occasion-

ally seen in California. In this system, the roof structure does
not bear on the adobe walls, but instead on horizontal wood timbers
and vertical posts
which transfer the
load directly to the
foundation. The
posts are anchored
to the concrete with
galvanized post
holders designed to
withstand shakes.
Other post to beam
Portal under construction on an adobe home by William Stoddard, contractor, attachments are
Albuquerque, N.M.
equally secured.
tant traditional statement in adobe architecture. It may be simple, Generally, a verti-
serving as an extension of the entry area, and providing shade and cal post is required
shelter from the weather, or it may be more ornate, as in the pri- on each side of
vate patio where furniture, hammocks, plants and tile work are in a window or door
evidence and a protected microclimate is maintained for the family. Steel frame details in
A minimum portal is six feet wide, with eight feet considered to be a the Richie residence,
better space for living purposes. When you request a portal in the an adobe constructed
design of a home, it is assumed that you are asking for a roofed, in the Sierra Nevada
foothills east of
watertight cover, but some portales only provide shade and other-
Fresno, Ca. The home
wise let the weather through. used 8” wide adobes
on the exterior walls,
The deck or floor of the portal might be 6” or 8” above grade and will with 12” wide adobes
be slightly sloped away from the house to carry off any wind blown on the interior walls,
and both walls were
rain. Typical decks are floored in tile, red brick, or flagstone (see
tied together with no.
Corredor). 10, 4”x4” concrete
mesh. Insulation was
PORTALÓN A large or long portal, as at the Palace of the poured into the result-
Governors in Santa Fé, N.M. ing cavity. Total wall
176 thickness is 24”.
 practicing seismic engineer specializing in earth wall constructions.
His address is P.O. Box 4043, Menlo Park, Calif. 94026, email
Adobe walls rise from steel adobebrix@aol.com
pipe system
at Richie residence.
POURED ADOBE A system in which wood forming moves along
a wall, allowing large volumes of adobe to be poured in place. The
opening. The adobe mix is relatively liquid. Once set up, the wood form is hinged open
then becomes infill, and moved along the wall. In the 1970’s, the technique was revital-
rather than load-bear- ized by Dr. Mike Belshaw near Prescott, Az. In his project, labor
ing. Electrical systems costs were reduced because the poured adobe was handled fewer
can be run to the posts, times as compared to traditional adobe construction. Poured tech-
where a channel might niques are good for the owner-builder as a somewhat wider wall
take conduit up to and is more efficient to build, and unlike rammed earth, no expensive
over the roof deck, or tamping tools, compressors or loaders are necessary. However,
below the floor system, working on the scaffold will still call for a strong back and biceps.
to N.E.C. standards. Belshaw developed a “toothed” approach, in which the form skipped
a section and was then set up again. On the second go-around the
A variation is a steel pipe system, which also works in a post and gaps were filled.
beam fashion. The vertical pipe is cemented into the foundation.
Horizontal members are welded into place at roof height. The roof A variation of poured adobe is Cast Earth, a technique developed
may be installed before the adobe walls are raised. In this fashion, by Michael Frerking, Architect, of Living Systems Architecture in
adobes may be stored on a concrete slab under the roof, and the Prescott, Az. Frerking and his associates have been able to build
crew works from the inside, regardless of weather.

While the roof system is secured to the verticals, it must be remem-

bered that adobe piers or wall sections could still move from under
a horizontal beam in an earthquake. Therefore, securing the adobe
to the post and beam system via hinged Dur-o-Wal™, hinged
expanded metal lath, or other means approved by the local build-
ing officials, is a good idea. In California, some building inspection
departments accept post adobe more readily than regular adobe.
Cast earth method employed at Minkel Residence. Living Systems Architecture.
In 1980, Charles Scribner’s Sons published The Owner-built Adobe
House, by Duane Newcomb (ISBN 0-684-16609-7). The author large, creative structures in short periods of time using a special
built a 2700 sq. ft. post adobe in California, and described his earth mix that sets up quickly once “cast” into forms. His method
step-by-step process in the book. Californians needing seismic has potential for economical, large-scale projects. Further informa-
design help may find it from Dr. Fred Webster of Menlo Park, a tion is available at michael@michaelfrerking.com.
177
 PRESSED BLOCK
Also described as pressed adobe, or HPUs for hydraulically pressed
units in New Mexico. In Europe, they are called HEBs - hydraulic
earth blocks. In Latin America, the term is adobe prensado.
Pressing machines range from simple, hand-operated devices that
make one block at a time, to gasoline or diesel-powered automatic
machines on trailers that produce many blocks in rapid succession.

Ceraman manual press in action at San Pedro Sula, Honduras.

Contractor Rodrigo Flores Gómez F.
santaclara87@hotmail.com
rounding the French Revolution. Over the next 100 years, not much
happened to advance the art, but evidence of various machines is
documented from almost all European countries. In 1904, the Ter-
staram machine was introduced in Couvin, Belgium. It was also
Pressed block home in South Texas.
Earth blocks manufactured by an AECT pressing machine, San Antonio, Texas. popular under the names Super Madelon and Stabibloc. In that
same year, the Ceraman manual press was marketed in Ploeg-
History steert, Belgium. Both companies are still making pressing machines
Pressed block may have begun in France, where illustrated trea- in 2001, exporting them worldwide. Carlos Lola of VITA (Volunteers
tises of 18th century rural life show a method that borrowed from in Technical Assistance) reports that a 5 to 6 man crew, using a Bel-
both adobe and rammed earth technologies. Workers packed moist gian pressed adobe machine, can produce from 800 to 1200 blocks
soil into adobe-like forms using tampers. It would only be a simple per day in former Upper Volta, Africa (see photo page 180).
step from this to a metal form, followed by a levering device to
pack the soil, as opposed to tamping it. During the French Revo- Other popular pressing machines such as the Ellson Blockmaster
lution, from 1789 to 1792, François Cointeraux explored this tran- and the Landcrete Press, both of Johannesburg, South Africa,
sition, publishing five or more detailed booklets. At the time, regu- and the Winget Rotary Block Press of Rochester, England were
lar rammed earth, using forming devices, was known throughout designed in the 1950s for use in European colonies to produce
Europe, and the significance of Cointeraux’s device may blocks for low-cost housing projects. Different machines went to
178 have been over-shadowed or lost in the turbulence sur- many African countries, and to India and Asia. After independence,
some patent rights diffused, as did machine designs. More variet-
ies of machines appeared. Everyone had some idea about how to
improve the machine with which they were familiar. In this simple
manner, pressing technology grew rapidly after 1950.

Advent of the Cinva

To many people, the vision of an earth pressing machine is that of
the CINVA-RAM, developed in 1952 by the Chilean engineer Raúl
RamIrez. Working with CINVA (Inter-American Housing Center in
Bogotá, Colombia), Ramirez’s machine evolved as an answer to
remote sites in developing countries. The CINVA-RAM is relatively
lightweight at 140 lbs., simple, easy to maintain, and totally hand-
powered, pressing one block at a time. A crew of three can pro-
duce 40-60 blocks an hour, or about 300 per day. Five workers can
step up to 600 blocks a day by dividing up the labor. Steps include:
processing the soil, molding, extraction, stacking, and curing. The
blocks are typically stabilized with Portland cement, although other
amendments are sometimes used.

Today, the original company appears to be defunct, possibly Examples of Cinva-like machines are many. Here is a list of some
because dozens of CINVA-RAM copies are found worldwide. of the names and their respective countries of origin:
View of CINVA-RAM.
Handle dissembles into three sections. All
Tek Block Press Ghana
CINVAs are bottom-pressed machines. As La Palafitte France
the handle is depressed downward the CETA-Ram Guatemala
piston forces earth upward from below. Ceneema Cameroon
SISD Dirt-cement Press Thailand
Meili Switzerland
Maro Switzerland
UNATA Belgium
Jesson South Africa
ABI Block Press Ivory Coast
CTA Block Press Paraguay
GEO50 France
Sturnia Switzerland
Brepak England
Packer Presser USA
179
All of these To achieve this, Webb recommends a minimum block compressive
machines offer strength of 2.8 MN/m2, which requires roughly 10MN/m2 compact-
some convenience ing pressure to produce. Webb achieved this strength of block in
or feature slightly one case by using 8% hydrated lime with an 80% silt/clay content
different from the soil.
others. Some offer
more pressing
power, others pro- Visible U.S. Companies
duce more blocks In the U.S., pressed adobe began in the mid to late 1970’s, when
per cycle. An four or five companies began to produce machinery in the South-
example is the west. Before that time, only an occasional CINVA-RAM or other
BREPAC, devel- import was in evidence. From the onset, almost all U.S. machines
oped in the UK were gas or diesel powered, using hydraulics. Patent disagree-
by David Webb of ments plagued the development of some companies.
VITA. This
machine produces A few companies evolved to stand at the forefront of active design
up to 5 times and manufacture. Today, A.E.C.T. (Advanced Earthen Construc-
higher compaction than the CINVA-RAM. The argument for some tion Technologies) of San Antonio, Tx. and Adobe International, Inc.
of these higher pressures is that stabilization can be achieved in of Milan, N.M. are well established. Both offer a line of pressers
high clay soils when lime is used in place of Portland cement. with capacities from single bricks to automatic machines on trailers.
These larger machines come with trailer hitch, lights and wheels,
and are highway-ready.

Making pressed block in Upper Volta, Africa

using a Belgian pressing machine The Impact 2001, a low cost A.E.C.T pressing machine.
180
 AECT’s larger model. This machine features full computer automation.

A.E.C.T.’s Lawrence Jetter offers a large, fully automated machine

on double axles, as well as a smaller, lightweight one-block per
cycle machine on single axle. The smaller machine, known as the
Impact 2001, was designed by David Lienau, a respected pressed
block veteran. Recent orders of the Impact 2001 have gone to
domestic buyers and to Honduras to help with rural housing proj-
ects.
Above: Rear view of an Adobe International machine on site in
Choluteca, Honduras.
Below: This large custom Pueblo style home near Grants, N.M.
employs blocks produced by an Adobe International machine.

At Adobe International, Sue and Larry Elkins are the managers.

The company was led for many years by its founder, Henry Elkins,
who did much to advance the trade. Adobe International offers a
line of machines from a smaller manual style on one axle (the Earth
Press V) to a larger, fully automated, two-axle model (the Earth
Press II). Recent orders have gone to domestic buyers and to Nige-
ria for housing development.

Pros and Cons

Pressed blocks are generally more regular in size than traditional
adobes. Therefore, mortar joints between units can be reduced in
thickness. This means that less mud mortar has to be prepared by
the crew, as opposed to ordinary adobe, which is less regular and 181
 point out that pressed block walls look too “perfect” or mechanical,
and that “true” adobe has the charm and aesthetics required in
All contemporary
pressing custom work. The pressed block camp argues that because they
machines, like this spend less energy and time mixing mud mortar, they can get walls
Adobe Interna- up faster, important in low-cost housing.
tional model, are
outfitted for towing.
In seismic zones, earth walls need to be thick. Because pressing
machines tend to produce smaller sized units, more blocks have to
be made and laid to attain a wide wall than with adobe.

Regular adobe is somewhat more accepting of larger rocks in the

mix than is pressed block. Pressed block machines can jam if
stones get between the ram and sides of the pressing chamber.
Soils need to be well screened for pressed block making.
requires thick mud mortar joints to make up for differ-
ences in individual block sizes.

In fact, some pressed block contractors have been able

to eliminate the mud mortar joints entirely. They simply
paint water on the block faces and slide them together.
It is true that with some soils, the blocks will fuse
quite well. Thus, the entire mud mixing aspect can
be eliminated, leading to a real savings in labor and
material. The danger is that if hard particles of gravel
get between blocks in the above method, point loading
from the weight of the wall can create vertical cracks.

An inexperienced crew, not aware of these concerns,

can ruin an otherwise good structure. A wise compro-
mise is to use a slurry or thin mud joint. The mason
still experiences a real savings in the amount of mud
mortar mixed, while being able to absorb the occa-
sional piece of over-sized material without compromis-
ing the integrity of the structure.

Adobe and pressed block makers argue their

182 differences vociferously. The adobe camp will
Pressing machines can be trailered to remote locations to produce joints, he will utilize a side-pressed machine. If he is using thicker
block far from the nearest adobe yard. Since the cost of trucking mud mortar joints, while trying to maintain a more uniform width of
regular adobe block over long distances is prohibitive, pressed wall, he may choose a top or bottom-pressed machine.
block can find a market where the distant adobe yard cannot.
Pressed block differs from adobe in its manufacture, even though
Manufacturing Details both use approximately the same soil mix. The chosen soil is
The terms “side-pressed” and “bottom or top-pressed” require clari- wetted to an optimum moisture content, usually 7% - 9%. The soil
fication. If the block is pressed from the top or bottom, the width is moist, not wet or muddy. The moisture content is generally a little
of the block (side-to-side) will always be constant, although the less than rammed earth, which requires about 10% water, and far
thickness, or depth, may vary. If the block is pressed from either less than regular adobe, which uses a saturated mud. This drier
side, the thick- mix is fed into the hopper of the machine, and hydraulically pressed
ness, or depth, either from the top or side by a ram. The ram squeezes the soil in
will always be a chamber that determines the size of the block. It is then ejected,
constant, while that is, hydraulically pushed down a tray or removed by hand.
the width (side-
to-side) may The resulting blocks are firm enough to be moved directly into the
vary. These vari- wall, or into a stack to cure. Care must be taken at this stage, as
ations have to do the blocks can be delicate. The technique is to use the flat palms of
with the moisture both hands to move a block from machine to the wall or stack. Once
content of the there, complete curing under normal weather conditions is rapid.
soil, and with a
sustained quality Portland cement is the only commercially available stabilizer in use
or type of soil. in many countries. The amount of cement used ranges from 5% to
7% by weight, depending on the soil. Water mist-curing of pressed
Thus, if the adobe that is stabilized with Portland cement is a must. Spray the
builder is trying blocks three to six times a day, depending on heat and dryness.
to reduce the In the tropics, cure blocks under an open shed, using damp burlap
thickness of his sacks, draped over the blocks. Curing times vary depending on
mud mortar weather conditions.

The test for whether a pressed block is stabilized is the “wet-

strength” test. A fully cured sample is totally immersed in water for
Pressed block work 24 hours. It is then removed and immediately subjected to a com-
by CRATere,
pression test. The sample must withstand a minimum of 300 p.s.i.
Grenoble, France.
The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) lab tests for soil
cement can serve as a procedural guide.

183
The above type of test is not found in the Uniform Building Code
(UBC), which uses a water absorption test for asphalt-emulsion sta-
bilized adobe. Building inspection departments must realize that
Portland-stabilized masonry such as ordinary concrete block should
not be subjected to the UBC 2.5% absorption test but to the ASTM
test. The ASTM wet-strength test demonstrates that even after
absorbing water, the unit retains more than sufficient strength to
hold up the wall.
This excellent study appeared in February 1986 and has clear
charts comparing the different machines, including some U.S.
brands (See Side Load and Top Load).
Consumer Protection, Time and Testing
With regular adobe consumer protection and quality control are built
in. That is, if an expansive clay or too much clay is used, the adobes

Over time, machines have become more complex and automatic,

with some machines producing a variety of blocks, tiles and shapes, Pressed block
using various inserts and templates. The history of many of these construction in
Thailand. Note
machines, along with details of their operation, has been docu- interlocking
mented by Kiran Mukerji in Soil Block Presses, a 130 page, spiral- feature of blocks
bound book prepared by GATE (German Appropriate Technology and holes for
Exchange). GATE’s address as of 2001 is Dag-Hammarskjold Weg vertical rebar.
1, 6236 Eshborn, Germany. telephone 011 49 6196 793095 gate-
basin@gtz.de http://www.gtz.de/basin.
184
will crack in the yard while still flat on the ground. If the sand content
is too high, they will crumble when a few are lifted. Such bad batchs
are quickly evident, and the material is recycled.

In the case of pressed block, the scenario is different. Even with

a poor soil mix, pressed blocks can look perfect for the first week
or so after manufacture. If the blocks contain too much clay or an
expansive clay, spider-web cracking or large structural cracks will
appear after several days or so. By then, the machine operator
has been paid and is long gone. Worse, the blocks may have
already been used to raise the structure, with more money and time
expended.

For this reason, any soil going into a pressing machine must be well
tested beforehand, allowing ample time for the blocks to cure while
being observed. Samples should be pressed from random parts of
the soil stockpile. The consumer should have the testing completed
before the machine operator arrives on site. This means starting
the testing procedure at least a few months beforehand.
Pressed blocks made from properly tested soils are outstanding
masonry units, in every respect as good as adobe or rammed earth.
With pressed block, the longer curing stage necessary for adobe is
avoided. That means that a pressed block crew can arrive (assum-
ing testing has been done) and begin building walls quickly.
PRIVACY SCREEN Important
architectural element, serving
to expand the living area around
adobe environments in many
desert climates. They add pri-
vacy as well as air flow. Used
along streets where a patio is
separated from the public, they
provide a shaded micro-climate
for humans and plants. Typical
materials are tile, fired adobe or
Both Images: Privacy screens in Agua Prieta, Sonora, México.
Below left: ceramic tile; Above: formed concrete block.
ordinary adobe. On east and west exposures, they act as a cooling
device to keep sunlight off the house walls.
PROFILE A crosscut or section of a stream bank, road cut or
other feature that gives the viewer an idea of the clay, sand or rock
strata, so that an idea of suitable soils for adobe making can be
determined, along with the depths at which they are found.
PUEBLO-DECO Adobe’s answer to the Art Deco movement in
architecture. Typified by bands and designs of color or ornament,
often reflecting Native American design elements. These can be
repeated in any one of a number of features in the structure, such
as tile work, engraved or carved corbels, torneados, geometric chip-
carving in beams, or design work in cast concrete canales.
Colors range from bold to muted, but pastel blues, pinks, oranges
and browns are popular. These colors are stained
185
 or painted into semi-circular bottom. Through the center of the tank are usually
routed designs two rotating shafts, to which are welded the mixing paddles. The
in doors and paddles rotate into each other, intermeshing so that the ingredients
cabinets, or into are thoroughly mixed. In some pug mills, a gate keeps the mix from
wooden rejas being dumped to a storage pit until the viscosity of the mix is just
and lintels sur- right for adobe making, as used in a lay down machine. In other
rounding door- operations, the mix is continuously being emptied into an adjacent
ways. Pueblo- pit, where a front-end loader scoops up the mud and dumps it into
deco is stylized, waiting forms. Pug mills are powered by electric motors or a diesel
geometric or engine.
abstracted, as
opposed to the PULIDO Spanish term for the smoothing of the last coat of plaster.
elaborate and
An example of Pueblo Deco. Wood delicately exe- PULGADA A rough field unit of measurement in México, roughly
reja covers a window in an adobe wall.
Woodwork by Sandoval family, Albuquer-
cuted profusion of the rococo an inch and determined by the first joint of the thumb.
que, N.M. style (see Adobe Rococo,
Pueblo-Tech, Mission Revival).
PURLIN Purlins are the wooden boards or metal tubing nailed
or welded at right angles to the rafters, onto which shakes, tiles or
PUEBLO-TECH A contemporary adaptation of the traditional metal roofs are attached. On adobe homes, they are usually 1”x4”
Pueblo style, characterized by simple forms and masses, hard lines or 1”x 6” boards, set varying distances apart, depending on the
and minimal detail. An example is the La Luz adobe project in Albu- finish roof above. For example, when set under shakes or tiles, they
querque, designed by architect Antoine Predock.

PUG MILL A mixing

device for adobe mud.
Pug mills are found
at most larger adobe
facilities. They receive
the various ingredi-
ents of the adobe
making process, such
as soil, asphalt emul-
sion, water and occa-
sionally straw. They
consist of a long tank
or tub with a
186
must be fairly close together, to support the back and front ends of RADIANT BARRIER Any one of a number of energy saving mate-
the tile or shake. rials that reflects energy back in the direction of its source. Radi-
ant barriers most typically use an aluminized surface or in some
When set under a metal roof, they might be on 24”, 30” or 36” cen- cases two layers, silvered on both sides. Earthbuilders have made
ters, depending on the gauge of the metal roof. Stiffer gauges of the mistake of simply building them into double wall systems, where
metal will support a human, even though purlins are widely spaced. the foil touches the earthen wall. For the radiant surface to work
Thinner metal (above 28 gauge) could buckle under a human’s properly, it needs a 3/4” air space between itself and the building
weight, so purlins must be spaced more closely together. Most material next to it. Thus, in a double wall system, the adobe would
builders prefer to nail up entire sheets of plywood across the rafters, have 3/4” air, before the positioning of the radiant barrier. The
so as to produce a solid nailing deck. However, where trusses are
used on steeply pitched roofs over an uninhabited attic or storage
area (photo), purlins use much less wood and cut costs consider-
ably.

PV-GENERATOR COMBINATION This is the most economical

alternative to the use of a large-scale photovoltaic system, particu-
larly when it comes to providing enough battery storage capacity to
get through several days of bad weather. A gasoline, propane or
diesel generator combined with a battery charger can supply power
whenever the PV array or battery storage is inadequate.

The generator is typically sized to start on its own and will cut out
the use of the inverter in an AC-powered home. It will run the AC
loads directly, with excess power charging the batteries. Battery sketch indicates one way a radiant barrier could be installed on
storage systems now have 5-10 year warranties in these applica- a west-facing adobe wall in the low desert, where overheating is
tions. Some systems are sized so that the generator only is used for always a problem.
peak loads of shortest duration, such as water pumping or washing
Studies have shown that such reflective barriers turn back up to
and drying clothes. Sizing this type of system takes a lot of calcula-
95% of all radiant energy striking them. This translates to a reduc-
tions and is best done with a consultant (see Photovoltaics).
tion of up to 70% of the heat getting through the radiant barrier and
RABBET A cut across the grain at the end of a board, done into the material behind it. Thus, when used with insulation, radiant
usually to fit one board into another, as in barriers allow the insulation to be more effective.
window and door frames. In green, rough-
cut lumber rabbeting is almost always done There are many different schemes for the use of radiant barriers
to keep boards from warping or moving, as in roofs, and which one you design into your plans often depends
often nails alone will not resist the pres- on whether or not you are emphasizing cooling in hot climates or
sures. increased warming in cold climates. In Florida, builders
187

unroll the silvered foil, attaching it to the underside of the roof raf-
ters (reflective side up). This will greatly reduce heat gain in the ceil-
ing cavity below at minimal extra cost. The silvery surface will not
accumulate dust in this position, in contrast to horizontal placement
on insulation batts at the bottom of the attic air space. There, dust
buildup reduces its reflectivity and effectiveness.
Much of the interest in radiant barriers relates to roof construction
in respect to energy savings. In the late 1970’s the New Mexico
Research and Development Institute, a state funded organization,
conducted research on the subject. Their publication number EMD
2-66-1108 or U-Values for Roof/Ceilings, by engineers W.J. van der
Meer, M.E..Dexter, and L.W. Bickle, is an in-depth study of how
roofs work “in nature”. The roles of radiators, conductors and con-
vection are revealed.
The study was most concerned with wintertime heat loss through
roof/ceiling combinations. The research group found that “it is
unreasonable to attempt to compare heat loss across different
roof/ceilings using a steady-state U-value, which fails to include
the effects of solar gain and of long-wave radiation barriers.” In
other words, how a roof actually performs cannot be predicted via
steady-state “R” or “U” factors. The real measurement is “in
188
nature”. Here are some of the conclusions that were reached:
1. Attic ventilation does not significantly affect the rate of conduc-
tion heat loss across a ceiling (winter setting).
2. Thermal insulation in the ceiling works. As thermal R is doubled,
average heat loss can be cut in half.
3. Solar radiation absorbed by a roof helps reduce daytime and
average heat loss. But in summer, the use of a dark roof could
result in severe summer cooling loads.
4. The dominant role of heat loss at the ceiling and attic surfaces
is radiation rather than convection. Radiation counts for 70-89% of
the heat transfer across these surfaces. Long wave radiation bar-
riers (e.g. reflective foil) could reduce average heat loss by 7% to
29%.
5. The orientation of the roof ridge line has a negligible effect on
average heat loss (less than 1%). It does, however, have an effect
on the time of day at which maximum solar heat gain occurs.
6. Flat and pitched roofs with the same thermal resistance have
about the same average heat losses.
RADON Radon is a naturally occurring, odorless, colorless gas
that rises out of the ground and is quickly dissipated by the atmo-
sphere. It only becomes a danger when it is trapped in homes - par-
ticularly in more recently built homes with very low infiltration values
- where it can build up to dangerous levels. The major threat is lung
cancer due to long-term exposure. Radon is well known to cause
lung cancer in miners who co-exist with it underground.
At one publicized site in eastern Pennsylvania in 1985, a home was
found to be so contaminated with radon that living inside was deter-
mined to be roughly the same hazard as smoking 135 packs of
cigarettes per day. The location had been chosen for its view from
a wooded ridge, but the site was over a low-grade uranium deposit.
The basement, sunk into the ground, acted as a collector for the
gas. The radon was able to enter through cracks in the porous con-
crete walls. The solution in underground or basement situations is
to patch and seal all cracks, but more importantly, to install a vent going to be a local or on-site well, have excessive levels of radon
pipe system under the floor. In existing homes, this means break- been detected in other wells within the same geologic area? Levels
ing out a section of slab to get to the sub-soil, breaking up the soil measured above 40,000 pCi/l of water could alone produce indoor
to form a trench that can be back filled with gravel, installing the radon concentrations of about 4 pCi/l or above. Such levels are
vent pipe under the floor, then re-pouring the slab and sealing any considered excessive. State or local health agencies, departments
cracks. In homes with severe radon counts, some sort of fan-pow- of natural resources, or environmental protection offices may be
ered system may be necessary to vent the gas, in conjunction with able to assist in providing this information. Testing well water for
the vent piping. radon before the home is built could provide an additional indica-
tion of a potential radon problem. If excessive radon levels are con-
With earthen homes, basements are the exception, and in most firmed, a granular activated-carbon filtration system or an aeration
cases, we are dealing with “heat sink” type masonry floors that form system might be designed into the plumbing plan.
layers at least 4” thick. If radon is present, it exerts pressure from
below as it hits the underside of the masonry layer. Builders should Another approach to direct
first test their sites to see if there is a problem. Most state EPAs on-site testing is sug-
have yet to offer specific procedures to do this, but the federal gov- gested in the sketch. A
ernment does offer the following ideas: hole is dug, and radon-
testing canister is placed
• Have the existing homes in the same geologic area experienced at the bottom for the pre-
elevated radon levels? Same geologic area is defined as an area scribed length of time,
having similar rock and soil composition characteristics. State or most often 7 days. The
regional EPA offices may be able to assist in obtaining this informa- hole must be covered with
tion. Radon maps have been done and are becoming more accu- a vapor barrier which has
rate. been made airtight around
its edges, that is, sealed
• What are the general characteristics of the soil? State and with soil. Care has to be
local geological or agricultural offices can normally help in providing taken that the seal is not
answers to the following questions on soil: broken by passing people,
• Is the soil derived from underlying rock that normally contains dogs, etc. At the end of
above-average concentrations of uranium or radium, e.g.- some seven days, the canister is returned for a reading. More than one
granites, black shales, phosphates or phosphate limestones? location on a building lot should be tested.
• Is the permeability of the soil and underlying rock conducive to the The EPA generally feels that a reading of 4.0 picocuries per liter
flow of radon gas? Note that the soil permeability, influenced by or more may constitute a health danger over a protracted period of
grain size, porosity, and moisture content, and the degree to which time.
underlying and adjacent rock structures are stable or fractured can
significantly affect the amount of radon that can flow toward and into Without realizing it, many Southwestern builders have installed
a home. Clay layers act to impede radon flow. radon barriers through the use of 4 to 6 mil plastic vapor barriers,
• Water can also carry radon. If the source of water to the site is typically rolled out over packed sub-soil to prevent moisture
189
from rising into masonry floors. Two rammed earth houses in south-
east Arizona with red brick floors were tested - one had a vapor bar-
rier, the other did not. The houses were similar and within a few
hundred yards of each other. The house without the vapor barrier
had a reading of 9.2 picocuries per liter. The house with the vapor
barrier had a reading of 2.3 picocuries per liter.
design can afford to have more air changes per hour without really
affecting the thermal performance of the home. Avoid “super tight”
home designs, unless an effective air changer is deployed. Actually,
in super tight designs, it has been found that human performance is
lowered. Toxins of all sorts, rising off the plastic furniture and fabrics,
are inhaled by the occupants. Air exchangers may be necessary.

However, casual installations of plastic vapor barriers are not Designers are now realizing that super tight structures with few
enough. Edges of the plastic must be sealed or lapped over the air changes per hour can impose a danger. This situation, some-
stem wall. Where sheets of plastic overlap, they should be sealed. times known as “sick building syndrome” affects the building occu-
A 10 mil plastic will be tougher and less likely to get cut during pants through ventilation systems that push chemical or bacterial
installation. pollutants throughout the structure. Severe headaches, earaches,
nausea, fatigue, coughs, chest colds and temperatures of 104ºF
Where plumbing rises through the plastic, it should be sealed. A have all been reported.
two plastic layer system, as in the drawing on page 191, is a good
idea. In areas of severe radon, the EPA has recommended a 24 mil In reference to the adobe or rammed earth mix itself, most supplies
plastic barrier. come from alluvial deposits that are without or low in radon. How-
ever, soils of decomposing granite should first be tested. The EPA
Where is the danger? The national map gives only a rough idea, has identified some stone fireplaces in the eastern U.S. as radon
because radon is scattered and one cannot say that over a general producers due to the presence of decomposing granite.
area, all sites would have a problem. We do know that sites over
decomposing granite (dg) or uranium deposits are risky. Potash The cost of installing a radon elimination system on a particular site
and oil shale areas may carry a risk. Some random tests have depends entirely on the severity of the radon. Our drawing shows
shown the following: a relatively low-cost approach, installed under an under floor radi-
ant heating system. The main costs are the 1-1/2” plastic pipe,
Arizona of 81 homes 19% levels >4 picocuries/liter round gravel fill, plastic and plastic cement for sealing. Care must
New Mexico of 136 homes 27.2% over 4 be taken to leave apertures in the side of the stem for the 1-1/2”
Idaho of 17 homes 52.3% over 4 pipe. The sketch (next page) depicts a passive elimination system,
Maryland of 16 homes 31.2% over 4 since there is no powered equipment. To enhance its ability to draw
Colorado of 158 homes 29.1% over 4 more gases from the underlying soil, we suggest a 3” vent pipe
Maine of 615 homes 20.0% over 4 somewhere towards the center of the pipe system.

Many earthen homes are geared to passive solar design - mean-
ing that their occupants gain their comfort levels through radiant
energy off walls and floors, rather than the air temperature. What
this means for adobe and rammed earth designers, in reference
to radon, is that a relatively ‘loose’ house with good solar
190
The vent pipe must be sealed where it penetrates the vapor bar-
riers and any concrete. The vent pipe runs vertically up through
the house structure with as few bends as possible. It should exit at
a high point on the roof, so there is no danger of radon gas blow-
ing back into the home through open windows. More severe radon
problems may require a wind-powered turbine or a low-watt-
age fan.

Except on sites with very high counts, radon should not be

a cause for alarm as long as the combination of under floor
removal, good passive solar gain into mass walls, and a rea-
sonable amount of ventilation all work together.

Radon could indeed be a serious threat in a home where no

removal is in place and the house layout creates a vacuum
situation where kitchen exhaust fans, bathroom exhaust fans,
and fireplaces without outside air sources, all suck radon from
below. When exhaust fans of this nature are utilized, a window
can be kept open to balance the air pressure.

RAFTER One of a series of structural members in a roofing

system, designed to support loads. In the roof, they are
sometimes called roof joists.

RAIL The horizontal pieces in a door assembly. The top rail

runs across the top, the bottom rail across the bottom and the
lock rail runs through the middle, intersecting the muntin (see
Muntin and Stile).

RAJAS A term meaning “strips” in Spanish. Applied to round

latillas that have been split, with hatchet or chisel, then laid flat
side down across vigas as the secondary element in a roofing
system.

RAMADA An arbor or thatched shelter, usually separate

from the house. Popular on the Papago Reservation, south-
west of Tucson, Az. Ramadas are simple pole structures with
palm or other thatching for a sun shade.
191
 RAMMED EARTH
Overlooked because of the on-going mystique surrounding adobe,
rammed earth is a viable, cost-effective approach to earthen con-
struction. It delivers very wide walls and the ultimate in thermal
mass - aside from living in a cave or underground. Tremendous
energy savings could be achieved if a higher percentage of homes
built today were of high mass rammed earth, coupled with solar
heating and cooling.

Brief history-
The age of this proven earth building technique isn’t exactly known.
Pliny’s report about Hannibal’s rammed earth watch towers shows
it in evidence a couple of hundred years before Christ. The idea
of stuffing or tamping mud into a form had to have occurred long
before, as adobe blocks began thousands of years B.C. and cer-
View east from living room shows massive 24 inch rammed earth walls under
tainly the two methods suggest each other. Just where rammed construction. A contemporary rammed earth home in Corrales, N.M.
soils began is another mystery. It is found almost everywhere, in all Courtesy: Huston Construction.
the old cultures: from African cities to the Great Wall of China. Most
likely it had multiple origins, born out of many builders’ desires to The great advantage of rammed earth is that the soil is moved only
find an easier way. a few times, compared to adobe’s many. Add to the fact that curing
takes place in situ, and you have eliminated the need for blocks and
a dry season. In rainy climates, the existing soil moisture is often
about right for ramming purposes.

The Romans used the technique as they moved through Europe.

The cultures already in place had earth building traditions, some
quite old. The Franks had been building out of wood and mud since
the beginning of the Iron Age (750 B.C.). This was the old balco,
a clay and straw mix, built on stone foundations. No doubt altera-
tions took place as methods were traded, but rammed earth was
pushed as far as England, where many examples exist today in the
Devon countryside. Almost every European country has a history
of rammed earth construction. One may drive through the Rhône
Valley of France and into Northern Italy observing farmsteads and
A pisé building, ca 1800’s, near Grenoble in the region of walls of rammed earth or pisé de terre, the old French term. Ger-
Isére, France. many adopted rammed earth during economic crises. One example
192 Courtesy: H. Gillaud
 Strong evidence for the inherent
strength of rammed earth. Although
such a structure would today be rein-
forced, this building is perfectly safe.

is the town of Weilburg an der Lahn.

Found here are 120 houses from
the 1870’s, including a fully intact
five-story rammed earth apartment
building (left) built in 1820. This
freestanding, unreinforced structure
has not developed any cracks in the
intervening years.
This old rammed earth structure, in the heart of San Antonio, still serves after
American beginnings- 150 years. Today, it is a well-known restaurant.
-photo by Doris Martin
The Spanish exported rammed earth technology to the New World,
where it can be found today in South America. In New Jersey, W. J. Johnson, a New Brunswick builder, raised
a rammed earth home in 1806 near Trenton. He wrote about the
In the colonial U.S., German immigrants had established rammed experience in his book, Rural Economy. English planters also used
earth in New York and Pennsylvania by the late 1700’s. Some of the method. Plantation owner William Anderson constructed a large
these homes are still in use, although it is difficult to document church in Statesboro, S.C. in 1850. The Church of the Holy Cross
them. Today, the dwellers themselves are often unaware of the type measures 105 feet by 27 feet and has a gabled roof 43 feet high. It is
of building they inhabit, due to covered wall constructions. still in service after many hurricanes and the earthquake of 1886.

The Hilltop House was rammed in 1773 in Washington, D.C., and
presided at 1300 Rhode Island Ave. for almost two hundred years.
The story is that after World War I, an attempt was made to raze
it, but the wrecking contractor at the time gave up, as the demoli-
tion ball had little effect on the 27” thick walls. The building was
then renovated and served as an embassy. While well documented
through photographs and historical notes, preservationists did little
to save it from greedy speculators, who demolished it in the 1960’s,
allegedly because of increased site real estate value.
In the 1920’s, the U.S. Government and a number of state sup-
ported universities became interested in rammed earth. Research
and projects commenced at the Agricultural Experiment Station,
University of California, Davis, in 1926. That same year, architect
M.C. Betts and engineer T.A.H. Miller published “Rammed Earth
Walls for Buildings” for the USDA, also known as Farmers Bulletin
No. 1500. By the 1930’s, a number of other schools were involved,
perhaps the foremost being the South Dakota Agricultural &
Mechanical College (now South Dakota State University). There,
a number of treatises were published by Ralph Patty and
his associate L.W. Minium, as a result of extensive field 193

The Clyde Rice rammed
earth home, built in 1937 in
the rain forest of Oregon,
near Carver, on the Cla-
chamas River. The house
has withstood several earth-
quakes and a 100 year flood
which put water 30” over
ground level. Clyde used the
old hand tampers to ram the
walls. Working alone, it took
him 3 months worth of 12 to
14 hour days to finish them.
constructions. This is by no means a complete list, but the point is
that during that period, a great deal of research about the nature of
rammed earth soils and strengths was carried out, and the results,
for the most part, are viable today. This research intensified into the
early 1940’s. Much of it was a result of the federal government’s
interest in building projects for the C.C.C. and W.P.A. Most
194 of these reports and treatises are long out of print, but can
be obtained through certain specialty bookstores, and government
reprint services.
In the mid 1930’s, the Farm Security Administration hired an engi-
neer by the name of Thomas Hibben to study and design rammed
earth homes for rural use. The result was a number of attractive
residences built in 1936 at Mt. Olivet, near Gardendale, Alabama.
They are still occupied and in excellent condition.
Unfortunately, the U.S. government failed to recognize the truths of
its own research, and has done little to promote earthen construc-
tion since pre-World War II days. This may have to do with lobby
pressure by the Lumbermens’ Association, or ignorance on the part
of bureaucrats who have little interest in digging back to find out
what their own government documented in earlier generations. The
U.S. Agency for International Development (US AID) has success-
fully built rammed earth houses in many parts of the world, but
its parent agency, Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has a
record of anti-earth construction sentiments within the U.S. This
record of anti-earth building attitudes is a 180º change over the pre-
World War II attitude of our federal officials. Growing interest in sus-
tainability may force a change (see Green Building).
Southwest U.S. history-
In the 1940’s and 1950’s, two families were largely responsible for
keeping rammed earth skills alive in the United States and particu-
larly in the Southwest. Their influence has been the vital link that
gave birth to today’s crop of rammed earth builders. Because of
them, rammed earth has developed far beyond its early, more rustic
beginnings.
The late couple Lydia and David Miller built five rammed earth
houses in Greeley, Colorado between 1945 and 1950. They docu-
mented their experiences in Manual for Building a Rammed Earth
Wall (1982) and Rammed Earth - A Selected Bibliography (1982).
The Millers worked diligently with coding bodies and various hous-
ing organizations to promote their craft, and were well-known in
New Mexico through their promotional organization, Rammed Earth
Institute International. The Millers toured Europe, documenting
many old rammed earth structures and sharing the information with
the Southwestern earth building community.
The other family’s story began along the Russian front during World
War II. A German ambulance driver named John Schmidt noticed
the Russian rammed earth houses, and made a study of them.

After the war, he moved his family to the U.S. and in the 1940’s con-
structed two rammed earth houses in Ohio.
The experience was remembered by his son Tom Schmidt, and
when the family moved to Arizona in 1974, Tom began Schmidt
Brothers Rammed Earth, now Rammed Earth Consulting. An early
project was a Catholic church at Saint David, with 18” walls and
dimensions of roughly 83’x50’. This church and other Schmidt

Top Left: The Wilson residence is a 2 bedroom, 1200 sq. ft. design, built in the
Dragoon Mountains east of Benson, Az.
Bottom Left: A two story rammed earth bank, Sierra Vista, Az.
Above: Massive buttress and front entry to St. David Catholic Church, Az.

All buildings by Schmidt Bros. Construction, Az.

195
 rammed earth residences in southeast Arizona became the inspi-
ration for the formation of several rammed earth contracting com-
panies. Today, dozens of structures have been completed in the
Pima/Cochise County area of Southeast Arizona, including a major
two story bank at Sierra Vista. Tom still consults on custom proj-
ects, but he has also expanded his business to general consulting
about energy-efficient building practices. He can look with satisfac-
tion to neighboring Tucson where today, four companies are active
largely because of his influence.

In New Mexico, the late Don Huston was an expert in road con-
struction, instilling his knowledge about soils and equipment into a
family enterprise that became Huston Construction. His son, Stan
Huston, has since advanced the industry with an innovative soil-
mixing machine and improved methods of delivering material to the
forms. Like Tom Schmidt in Arizona, Stan Huston has influenced
others in New Mexico to ply the trade. Approximately four compa-
Exposed interior rammed earth walls are both aesthetic and cost-saving. Note
nies are active in New Mexico.
nichos, which Stan Huston creates with foam plugs (see photo pg 201).

California-
Rammed Earth Works, in Napa, California, has for twenty years
been the one visible rammed earth company in the golden state.
David developed his own forming style, attuned to the owner-
builder. His approach embraces stamped, patterned, stabilized
adobe floors, live sod roofs and an organic charm that integrates
them with the northern California landscape. Easton’s book, The
Rammed Earth Experience, describes the earlier years of his devel-
opment. In 1996, Chelsea Green Publishers printed Easton’s latest
title, The Rammed Earth House, featuring many of Cynthia Wright’s
photographs.

The 270 page book has introduced many to rammed earth. In

recent years, Easton has developed a technique called P.I.S.E., a
take-off on the traditional French term for rammed earth. P.I.S.E.
is an acronym for “Pneumatically Impacted Stabilized Earth”. The
Huston soil mixing machine assures a sustained quality soil mix at optimum method blasts a stabilized earth mix onto forms and around rebar
moisture content. much like gunnite. Easton was forced to develop this approach to
196
 ports this method of construction which is appropriate because it
is simple and based on materials that are locally available. It is a
Above: Building with rammed earth the old-fashioned way in Ecuador. technology that the people understand and desire.”
Wall thickness range from 50-55 cm.
Right: finished home Photo: Juan Alfonso Peña
How it’s done-
get around restrictive California codes, which made it difficult to We can now turn to rates of speed, equipment, foundations and
build with traditional rammed earth. general construction for rammed earth. The account that follows is
modified from statements made by the rammed earth group around
South America- Tucson and
Further south in the Américas, rammed earth is evident in the Saint David, Az.
Native American cultures of the Andes. Today, a number of the old It provides a
hand tamp forming systems, called tapial, are in use. These meth- generic cross
ods are practiced along with adobe in all the rural areas. Both the section about
Peruvian and Ecuadorian governments are dedicated to evolving rammed earth
anti-seismic, well-built homes for the rural dwellers, and a great deal work in their
of research and documentation has been done, much of it valuable vicinity.
to earthbuilders anywhere. A leader in this work is Juan Alfonso
Peña of Cuenca, Ecuador. Juan is an architect who works with the “Rammed earth
local people in areas where 60% of all structures are of earth con- construction
struction. He writes: minimizes the
number of times
“The inhabitants of the high zones of the Andean Mountains posses
a rich tradition of rammed earth building (tapial). This project sup- Rammed earth forming in place with ties and whalers.
197
 10% moisture content, or about the wetness in the middle of a pile
of sand that has drained itself after a rain.

“This well-mixed, dampened soil is scooped and dumped into the

forms that delineate the wall (photo left). It is placed in lifts of 7” to
8” and tamps down to 4” to 5” with pneumatic tampers. The forms
can be stripped immediately, as the wall is strong enough to stand
right away. For each day that passes, it gets stronger.

“It would be necessary to double the usual number of adobes to

equal the mass of a typical rammed earth house wall. It would also
double the amount of mortar needed, as well as the labor time.
But rammed earth building costs-per-unit measure decrease with
increased thickness. The cost of setting up the forms is the same,
regardless of the thickness of the walls, be it 18”, 24” or 36”.

“Looking at foundations, if we are at a building site with clay or silt

Using a bobcat speeds up the work. Monolithic sections of wall are rammed soil (expansive soils), we excavate one to four feet down, depending
individually and connected with keyways. Steve Stephens, contractor. on the soil condition, and wider than the wall will be, by 6” to 12” on
the soil is moved. If suitable soil is not available at the building site, each side. This trench is filled with compacted ABC or gravel mix,
it may be brought in by truck. The soil is placed so that it is not all the way to grade. At this point, we form up our footing on top of
too close or too far away from the wall construction. Then we wet the gravel base, designing it to be 10” thick and as wide as the wall,
the soil, turning it with a scoop on a bobcat or tractor. We look for with four no. 4 rebar as reinforcement. Obviously it is also serving
as a stem, so that the rammed earth work will begin 10” above the
grade. This foundation has proven quite adequate under conditions
of less than 2” frost penetration in winter time.
Small, 2-1/2”
diameter “Moisture drains to the bottom of the gravel pack where it is well
pneumatic below frost line, so that heaving does not occur. This system saves
head is as quite a bit in concrete costs, and while adequate research has not
effective as been done, it may be superior seismically, since you have built a
the 4” head, floating reinforced ‘island’ that may suffer less shear during a quake.
but easier to
handle. Another seismic consideration is that the walls we build are so wide
that they have more stability during a seismic action. Obviously
a 10” adobe wall is going to topple more easily than a 24” wide
rammed earth one.

198
“The forming system consists of plywood panels measuring 4’ x “To achieve a waterproof or stable stem above floor level, the first
4’, reinforced with channel steel that is drilled so that the panels 4” to 6” of rammed earth (the first lift), may be mixed with 5% to 6%
may be interlocked. The panels are set up and plumbed by vari- Portland cement to soil by weight. This is protection from a water
ous means - ties, turnbuckles and whalers. We can pull forms up spill inside the house, so that as it seeped into walls, they would be
or down a wall to close a corner or shim them up (see Vampire stable.
Stake).
“The electrical circuits can be tamped right into the wall (see Electri-
“The floor is usually a concrete slab, poured before the walls are cal System). You have to check your local code on what is allowed,
rammed. We pull out the topsoil to about 8”. We compact the soil at but “smurf” pipe (see Smurf Pipe), can flex right around corners,
that point and refill to a depth of 4” with a gravel or ABC mix, treated and snap into plug boxes, or one can run a rigid plastic conduit that
against termite infestation. Above this goes a layer of polyurethane screws into the boxes (metal conduit is required in N.M.). We set
6 mil plastic, then a 6”x6” wire mesh, then 4” of concrete. You can the boxes up on the inside of the forms, wired in place with some tie
then finish this floor with a tile, such as Saltillo tile, cemented with wire through a few small holes in the form. These wires are care-
thin-set mortar. This slab offers up a level surface on which to fully cut before the forms are removed. In fact, straighten the wires
quickly set up our forms. so they will not offer any resistance as the forms are taken off. That
way, you have a nice clean box, rammed right into the wall, and no
“Once forms are up, we start with the lifts, as described above. As pieces of earth are pulled out when you remove the form.
the lifts go in, a crewmember takes a square cornered shovel and
evens the lift out, raking the shovel back and forth in the forms (see “In some areas, underground rated cable (UF), may be tamped
below). Tampers can be either the big foot type, that has a 4” diam- directly into the lifts. If you use this method, make sure the wires are
eter head, or the smaller “jet” variety. covered with earth before you go over them with the tamper. The
same holds true for the boxes, and the tires that stretch horizontally
between the two sides of the form.

“Concrete bond beams lend them-

selves to rammed earth. They are
easier for us to do than for the adobe
builder, because our forms are already
in place. We stop ramming 6” below
the top of the forms. Next, we install
steel rebar, and anchors, then pour in
2500 p.s.i. concrete.

“The most durable rammed earth walls

achieve a hardness on drying near
that of concrete. The soils we use are
often a gravelly, stony loam.
199
Pure clay or heavy clay soils are not appropriate because of shrink- “Over the insulation, we attach a self-furring stucco netting. It is
age cracking. The best soil is a combination of sand, small gravel put on with the same nail, roughly on 16” centers. That is followed
and some clay. with a three coat stucco plaster. Twelve parts 1/4” screened sand,
5 parts Portland cement and 2 parts lime are one workable recipe.
“Exterior protection is applied only after the walls have dried. This The color coat is usually purchased from the local stucco supply
time varies but could take as long as three months. Even if it takes house, and of course, there’s a real choice in color coats. One
four months to cure, there will still be other work to do on the house, can also screen up a good stabilized mud plaster, using finer soils,
so it’s generally a good idea to save that for one of the last tasks asphalt emulsion, and building up the coats about 1/2” thick.
anyway. In the meantime, if the design has no roof overhang, some
pitting of the walls could occur from rain. This is a minor concern, “Interior plaster has been done successfully a few days after form
for the walls hold up very well to rains. The only danger is during removal. We prefer a sanded gypsum or cement plaster over 1”
winter when repeated freezing and thawing of walls with a very high poultry netting. Dense plaster facilitates good thermal coupling with
moisture content could take place. If storms threaten under those the interior air, which aids in a successful passive solar design.
rare conditions, we will cover our walls and uncover them as soon
as dry weather returns after the storm, so that they may continue to “Speed of ramming has been greatly increased since the advent of
cure. the pneumatic tamper. In 1935, a USDA bulletin described 3 men
tamping 54 cubic feet of 18” wall for the first story of a house in one
“Our practice is to cover the wall with R-8 insulation board, nailed day. This is about 3.4 cubic feet of material per man hour. The Saint
directly to the rammed earth wall. Six or 8 inch cap nails are the David/Tucson group, a crew of four men, using a front end loader
ticket. This is a long, wide-washered nail, sometimes with a spiral and pneumatic tamper can tamp a 2 foot thick wall at the rate of
shank. They have a lot of holding power. The adobe builders use 25.2 cubic feet per man hour. That is 7.4 times more productive
them for the same task (see Clavos). than the 1935 crew
working by hand.”

In New Mexico, we
watched Stan
Huston and a crew
of 5 students from
Southwest Solara-
dobe School ram a
wall 22 1/2” thick
by 4’ high and 42
feet long in under 3
hours.

A stuccoed rammed earth veterinarian’s office near Las Cruces, N.M. Con- The bigfoot tamper in action. The head is approximately 4” in diameter.
struction by Soledad Canyon Earthbuilders.
200
Rounded corners and foam-block nichos-
Every rammed earth apprentice soon learns a few tricks of the trade
to add practical aesthetics. The two examples here are described
to give the reader a few ideas. Every experienced rammed earth
contractor will have a collection of these custom touches.
enough for the opening. It is then carefully cut quarter-round, pro-
ducing four 90º staves. One stave is inserted vertically within the
formed corner and secured with screws (to the outside of the form)
as desired. The wall section is then rammed. Screws are removed
before the forms themselves are loosened. When the corner is
revealed, a smooth 90º turn is in place, complete with rabbets on
each side.

The nicho (see Nicho) is simply a niche in the rammed earth wall
for art objects, a telephone station, a tiled fountain, or any number
of ideas. The rammer secures a piece of block styrofoam. Using a
hot wire or knife, he cuts the nicho to the desired shape - usually
flat on the front and bottom, possibly arched on the top and
rounded in back. At the proper height in the wall, the block is set
within the forming, flushed up against the form. The nicho should
be slightly trapezoi-
dal so that it may
be easily removed.
The wall is rammed
around it.

After forms are

removed and the
wall has cured for
a day or two, the
block is removed.
It may be finished
with the adobe file
(see Adobe File), or
plastered with the
Styrofoam nichos, at a project by Huston Construction. rest of the wall.
Rounded rammed earth corner in a project by Huston
Construction, Edgewood, N.M.
If the nicho needs illumination, a steel electrical box may be rammed
A common one is rounded corners around doors and windows. First into place above, below, or to the side, with conduit leading to
the desired radius is determined. A large entry might have a 6” a switch location. Low-voltage, multi-colored fiber-tube lights may
radius rounded corner. A 12” inside diameter water pipe is located, also be planned for nichos.
sturdy enough to withstand the ramming pressures. It must be tall 201
Plans, designs, drafting- up with 4, 4-foot forms, the 3” cannot. And the 21 foot measure
The sample floor plan below is for a smaller home of 1050 sq. ft. will easily make 20 feet, leaving the extra foot to a “job-built filler”,
It features 2 foot thick walls, viga/latilla ceiling, beehive or corner requiring extra time to fabricate by the contractor.
fireplace, a sun space with French doors (to the Jacuzzi) and an
open plan between kitchen and living areas. It was designed by Likewise, heights are generally in two to four foot multiples, eight
Tom Wuelpern of R.E.D. in Tucson. It is included for educational pur-
and ten feet being common. An eight foot high wall will also
poses only. include the poured bond beam, as will a ten foot wall. That means
that timbers resting on such walls will add their depth to the
Today’s rammed earth home is a natural for passive solar design. ceiling height. Attachments for roof timbers will be set in the con-
We see evidence of this in Tom’s
plan. Note the large south windows
in the living area, and of course, the
sun space creates heat for the bed-
room. In southern Arizona, the west
exposure is shielded from a harsh
sun by Ramada and storage areas.
Square footage loss to thick walls is
more often offset by thermal bene-
fits, bookshelves, nichos and other
practical aesthetics.

Drafting for rammed earth is as dif-

ferent from adobe as adobe is dif-
ferent from frame. The draftsperson
is wise to visit rammed earth sites
to study the methods used. He or
she will then be more confident and
quicker in the design aspect, reflect-
ing what is actually done on the
site. For example, drafting is done in
whole foot figures, preferably in two
to four foot multiples. The forms are
typically 2 x 4 feet, turned either ver-
tically or horizontally. The unknowing
draftsperson might specify a living
room at 16’ 3” x 21’ 0”. While the 16
foot measure can be made
202
 Courtesy
Rammed
Earth
Solar Home,
Tucson, Az.

The chart shows four conventional house heating costs, all with air
crete bond beam at conditioning supplied by refrigeration for cooling. The definition of
the time of pouring. the conventional home bar chart is: 1366 sq. ft., ceiling insulation
When the rammed earth wall reaches 6” below the Uplift anchors may of R-22, wall insulation in frame of R-11 and double-glazed win-
top of the forms, steel rebar is laid and the concrete dows (see Editor’s Comments, p. 204). The 5th bar chart at bottom
bond beam poured.
be rammed into the
wall, some 16” to 18” right represents energy costs for the rammed earth home shown on
below the bond beam, and extending up into it. Each contractor will page 204. It is located at Benson, Arizona at 4000’ elevation and
use slightly different attachment schemes. The draftsperson should was designed by Kenneth Branch, A.I.A. Using a direct gain pas-
consult with the contractor to study these details as they will be sive design, south glass makes up a collector area of 120 sq. ft.
expected on the plans by every crew member on the site. Readers Heated/cooled floor area is 1408 sq. ft.(slab on grade). That means
starting from scratch should note the N.M. Rammed Earth Code at the south glass represents about 11.7% of the living area; typical for
the end of this entry. While it may not apply in every code jurisdic- this elevation in Southern Arizona. The roof contains R-37.5 insula-
tion, it covers most main points in safe rammed earth construction, tion. Non-south glass is 72.3 sq. ft. The east door is 20 sq. ft. metal,
and should be required reading by every draftsperson or architect insulated.
unfamiliar with rammed earth.
Winter performance: The ASHRAE gain/heat loss procedure was
Heating/cooling annual costs comparison- used with recorded outdoor/indoor temperatures, as well as the
Let’s compare a conventional frame home with a rammed earth amount of sunshine each day from Jan. 22 through Feb. 6. An air
solar home. change rate of 1/2 air change per hour was used.
203
 Editor’s comments: Today walls on a conventional home would be R-19,
and the roof R-38 or more, making the Branch residence a little less effec-
tive compared to the conventional model. However, today’s technology
would also upgrade the rammed earth home, so the bar-chart comparison
might be about the same. One or two more direct gain windows or Trombé
walls on the south would put the BTU figures definitely on the plus side
for gain.

New codes for rammed earth-

In 2001, the Construction Industries Division of New Mexico passed
the first code expressly for rammed earth in U.S. history. Work on
the Statewide code began in 1994. Prescriptive in nature, the code
Gains: (16 day period) South is designed with safety minimums for construction in N.M. seismic
glazing pulled in 2,585,124 BTU’s. zones. Standards for wall height to thickness, testing, stabilization,
The house generated 819,200 lateral support, openings, lintels, bond beams and attachments are
BTU’s internally. Total gain was defined. Adobe Builder magazine published a special edition of the
3,404,324 BTU’s. code in March 2001. Copies are available from Southwest Solara-
dobe School, P.O. Box 153, Bosque, N.M. 87006 for $10 which
Losses: Over the same period, losses includes first class postage within the U.S.
through conduction and infiltration were
-3,524,704 BTU’s.

Results: According to the empirical results, the gains offset the

losses, indicating no auxiliary heat source requirements. The
residence performs very comfortably without backup heat. The
thermal environment is very stable due to the extensive mass.
Observed daily temperature swings averaged 4ºF throughout the
16 day period. Due to the super mass and insulation, the residence
performs on an annual cycle, not unlike that of the ground below
(see Flywheel Effect for temperature swing charts on this home).

With current, much higher 2001 energy costs, it becomes clear why
a state of energy crisis has developed in the U.S. The mass wall
rammed earth home, using passive solar energy and a low-energy
evaporative cooler, uses only a fraction of the energy required to Open viga portal on south facade of rammed earth home by Soledad Canyon
force comfort levels in the stick-frame structures. Earthbuilders, Las Cruces, N.M.
204

Above: An scale model of a slip-form for rammed earth construction by Shane
Carlson, Durango, Co.
Below: A rammed earth wall in Kyoto, Japan.
Photo: Bill Knauss
REBAR Reinforcing rod of steel, available in standard diameters.
Rebar is set into all footings and bond beams, and then covered
with concrete. It adds greatly to the strength and ductility of con-
crete. Rebar is purchased in 20 foot sticks at the building or
masonry supply. The most commonly used size is 1/2” diameter.
Rebar is called out as “number 2”, number 3, 4, and so on. Each
number adds 1/8”. A number 3 rebar is 3/8” diameter. A number 4
is 1/2” diameter.
Most builders see rebar as cheap insurance, but in any case, it is
required by code. Inspectors will typically check footing trenches
and bond beam cavities before concrete is poured to make sure
that the right size and amount of rebar is in place.
Rebar is required in fireplaces, and codes generally require four
pieces of no. 4 steel in the fireplace, running from the foundation
under the fireplace all the way to the chimney top (see Foundation
System).
Rebar is cut with a hefty pair of bolt cutters. Many builders do not
realize that they may order their rebar from a steel company, all cut
to size, bent to curve around corners, or in various configurations at
relatively small cost. The builder may call a day or two ahead, then
pick up his order, saving much time at the building site.
In some countries, research is under way to find alternatives to steel
rebar. The idea of setting split, cured and treated bamboo into foun-
dation trenches, then covering with concrete is under inspection
in Brazil. Since bamboo has more tensile strength than steel and
is readily available in the tropics, it may provide a low-cost, green
alternative.
Rebar is dangerous around building sites, especially when it is used
vertically, extending up from the foundation. Crew members often
push empty pop or water bottles over the top of the rebar as a safety
feature. Fluorescent orange, plastic mushroom caps are available at
most concrete suppliers.
205
REFLECTOR ENHANCEMENT The use of reflectors to
increase power output from photovoltaic panels is a practical
choice for sites with critical wintertime power production
needs that do not have heavy snow concentrations. The use
of an aluminum reflector can increase power output up to
40% throughout the year (see Photovoltaics).

REJADO Spanish for roof tile.

REJAS Spanish for vertical pieces of iron or wood that serve

a protective as well as decorative purpose over windows. In
Central America, rejas can form entire wrought iron screens
in front of courtyards or entrances.

In New Mexico, they are often of wood, cut in multiples on a

band saw, then set into window frames. A few popular pat-
terns are shown below. In recent years, cheaply made cold-
rolled steel rejas have become popular for security reasons,
replacing the true wrought-iron scrolls and shapes of past
centuries.

Left: Example of wood rejas on an adobe home in Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Above: Iron rejas in Alamos, Sonora, México. Photo: Bill Sears

206
 fully-cured samples must attain a minimum 300 p.s.i. compressive
strength and a modulus of rupture strength of 50 p.s.i. minimum. If
Pueblo Deco wood rejas the material is not suitable, it may be amended with sharp sand or
on an adobe home in clay to bring it up to par (see Clay and Soil Testing).
Albuquerque, N.M.
Woodwork by Sandoval
Family. REMODELING Any construction that changes the shape or image
of a structure. To convert, extend or add onto a structure is to
remodel it in some fashion.

RENDERING In Australia, a thin mud slurry, used to fill cracks in

adobe walls, or to cover mud block as in a thin plaster. In the U.S.
the meaning is the same, but the term has not been popular since
the 1920’s to 1940’s.

RETAINING WALL Any wall subjected to lateral pressure, not

including wind loads. Retaining walls are usually reinforced con-
crete walls, set to resist lateral loading and hydrostatic pressures.
Properly designed, they act as the stem under an adobe wall.

RIBBON EXTRUSION TEST A simple test to determine the clay

content of a soil, or its plasticity. The sample must be thoroughly
wetted and rolled into a tight ball of 1-1/2” to 2” in diameter. The ball
is worked into a ribbon by rolling it along a flat surface, then over an
edge. The sample should be worked to 3/8” to 1/4” diameter, then
REJECT MATERIAL At commercial sand extruded out over the edge. If the sample breaks at a length (over
and gravel yards, materials such as plaster sands, concrete sands, the edge) of from 1-1/4” to 1-3/4”, mechanical proof shows a clay
and 3/4” gravel/sand mixes for concrete that are prepared for the content of from 15% to 20%. If the break occurs at 1-3/4” or beyond,
Portland cement-based construction industry must be free of clays. the clay content is 25% or more. If the break occurs at 1” or less,
Landscaping stones and gravel must also be free of clay. Where the clay percentage is 10% or less (see Drop Ball Test).
yard equipment screens out the unwanted material, it is often called
“reject” and piled off to the side. RINCHILLO Spanish for excavation.

Often, the clay content of the reject pile is sufficient for adobe or
rammed earth mixes, and the earth builder may be able to buy it at
greatly reduced cost, or even obtain it for the cost of hauling. How-
ever, the responsibility falls on the earth builder to test the material
to determine if it is suitable. When made into adobe block form,
RING In rammed earth construction, a resonance in tamping that
may indicate over-pressurizing the forms, forcing them out, or bulg-
ing the earth walls. The danger is greater with dryer soil mixes
(used by Tom Schmidt, Saint David, Az.).
207
ROPE POST (see Torneados)

ROMAN ARCH A semi-circular arch, or half circle. One of the

most popular arch forms. It can carry the loads of the wall above it Below: Roman arches
in schoolhouse con-
and the roof load. Not as strong as the catenary arch or vault or the struction, Honduras.
Egyptian 3/5 arch.
Right: Building and
Forms are quickly made up for any size of arch using scrap lumber, positioning the arch
form on the wall.
tempered masonite and 1/2” plywood. The form is set up on shims,
so that the form may be dropped when the arch above is complete.

Cutting a keystone is not necessary in this

type of arch as the mud joints between the
adobes act as keystones.

Arches should be brought up equally from

both sides, as the pressure of adobes from
just one side may push the arch sideways.
As the arch is constructed, a few courses
of the wall around the arch should be laid
on both sides to secure it until the mortar
cures. (see Bóveda and Adobe Vaults and
Domes).
208
 ROWLOCK A course of red
brick, set side to side, but
laying down, so as to form
the edge of a step or change
in floor level, usually in brick
floor work.

S-4-S “Surfaced four sides”

is the meaning behind this term. The standard 2”x 4” is S4S lumber,
sold at a nominal size, but actually sawn down to a dimension of
close to 1-1/2” x 3-1/2” (see Rough Cut).

SADDLE A small gable type of mini-roof, placed where the roof

slope meets the chimney, to divert rainwater and debris. Some-
times called a “cricket”, and constructed of galvanized sheet metal
Roman arches installed in adobe walls at a project by Rainbow Adobe, Alpine,
as a flashing/saddle combination.
Texas. Note electrical conduit embedded in wall, as these adobe walls will be
exposed. SAHUARITOS A part of the traditional roof structure in Sonora and
southern Arizona, consisting of the dried out ribs of the Sahuaro
ROUGH BUCK A window or door frame of rough-cut lumber, usu- cactus historically laid crosswise over the roof timbers or vigas, then
ally of 2” thick stock. Finished, pre-hung units may be slid into them covered with grass, thatch, and finally layers of adobe soil for the
after walls are up and ceilings on. Because they are often made finished roof.
from green lumber, it can be difficult to construct these bucks to an
exact dimension, due to later warping as they dry. SALITA In New Mexico, a small hallway annex (after Bunting).

Regardless of the builders’ technique, it is considered imperative SALT EROSION Salts are an enemy to adobe or rammed earth
that all such bucks be heavily braced on both sides of the buck (see construction. A classic example is the destruction of historic adobe
Rabbet). structures around Death Valley Junction, Ca. If moisture high in salt
gets into an earth wall, the salt tends to crystalize at or near the sur-
ROUGH CUT Lumber that has not been surfaced to an exact face of the earth wall, usually within a six month period. As the salt
dimension (as in S4S), but simply run through the mill saw to the crystals form, they expand and pop, turning the adobe into powder
full, or rough dimension. Adobe and rammed earth builders gen- and quickly eroding the wall.
erally like this full dimension lumber as it is stronger, more sturdy
looking, and cheaper. It is also “greener” as it goes through the saw In historic pre-code work, this results in coving, or wear along the
once and is not kiln-cured. base of the earth wall, where it meets the ground. As the years
pass, this erosion may become severe enough to threaten
209
the wall, even causing collapse. Today’s codes require at least a 6”
high stem that keeps back-splash from surrounding salty soil off the
earth wall. A high stem may not be enough protection if porous con-
crete block allows salty water to rise through it into the wall. In very Tom Schmidt has set
salty areas, a waterproof membrane, such as tarpaper or a brushed these saltillo tiles to
on waterproofing may be necessary across the top of the stem (see guidelines. Once a
line is established,
Coving and Soil Testing).
he can create other
guidelines in other
parts of the room,
SALTILLO TILE A soft-fired ceramic floor tile, from Saltillo, México. using the original
It comes in a variety of sizes and shapes, the largest being 12”x12”. guideline as a basis.
After filling in the
It is generally about
center of the room,
1.2” thick. Saltillo is he will return to fit
used on floors and is custom cut tile pieces
usually set in “thin set” to the odd spaces
as in the photo. Many remaining at the
edge of the wall.
different recipes are
available.

Most agree that not

sealing the tile first will
allow thin set into the
tile, which is difficult to
remove. Directions are
generally on each box One Contractor’s Saltillo Recipe
of Saltillo.
1.The slab must be clean. If installing the saltillo on new concrete,
acid wash the slab with 1 part muriatic acid to 10 parts water.

2. Set your guide lines. Measure the floor to decide the best way to
lay the tile, so that the fewest number of tile cuts are required. Once
you calculate your starting point, strike a line parallel with the wall
with your chalk line. Next, establish a line at right angles to the first
Saltillo tile floor set diagonally to the room lines. This artistic installation requires
and chalk it. You now have a true right angle.
more cuts than conventional installation. Adobe home by William Stoddard, con-
tractor, Albuquerque, N.M. Start at the intersection of the chalk lines, making sure the tile is
square with the lines. Since most rooms are not truly square, this
210 step is necessary!
 7. Grouting: A. Use a natural grey grout, but to each 50 pound bag
add 1/4 cup of Dehydratine 80. This accelerates drying of the grout
and prevents powdering. Mix the grout to a thick fluid consistency.
Colored grouts tend to discolor the saltillos. B. Pour the grout out
of a coffee can or other handy container. Pour between the tiles a
bit higher than the edge of the tile to allow for shrinkage. Allow the
grout to set until stiff ( 5 to 10 minutes). C. Scrape off the excess,
using the back of a small trowel. D. Wipe the grout joints with a clean
sponge and clear water to smooth the joints. Do not allow any grout
to dry on the tile surface. E. Continue working the same 4’x4’ area,
cleaning each tile thoroughly with a clean sponge and clear water.
You may have to go over each tile three or four times to completely
clean it.

8. After floor and grout have completely set, a gloss sealer is

applied. Again, many choices are available at the building supply.
The gloss coat will seal the grout joints.
Installing saltillo baseboard tile. Note that the worker is inserting broken pieces
of tile to match basehoard grout joints with the floor grout joints and tile spacing. There are many other finishes and sealers, such as Ring Tile Floor
Sealer. Contact Ring Brick and Stone at (505) 891-0943 for other
3. Clean the tiles using the above solution of muriatic acid. This will suggestions.
bring up imperfections in the tile, while removing any tile dust. Brush
off loose material on the back of the tiles. SASH The perimeter framework that holds the glass in a window.
Within the sash are the mullions or vertical dividing pieces, and the
4. Paint the tile with linseed oil. Use enough to penetrate without sash bars, or horizontal dividing pieces.
pooling. Wipe excess oil from the tiles. Let dry.
SASSANID DOME An earthen dome on squinches, in which the
5.Seal the tile with a non-gloss grout release sealer. Many selec- square structure below is transformed into an octagon, and the
tions are available at larger building supplies. octagon into a circle or drum, with the dome springing from the
drum. This type of dome requires more adobes to build. It is also
6. Apply Thinset to the floor with a 1/2” to 5/8” notched trowel. Never a higher dome. Often, windows may pierce the drum portion (see
work with an area larger than 4’x4’ at a time. Butter the back of each Squinch Arch and Adobe Vaults and Domes)
saltillo as well as the floor. This will eliminate air pockets between
the tile and floor which can cause cracking. When you set your tile in SAVINA Spanish term for a piece of wood from which rajas are
the Thinset, allow a grout groove about as wide as your small finger. split. A type of roofing that is placed over beams or vigas (see
This line will vary due to the irregularity of the titles. Do not walk on Rajas).
the tiles for 24 hours, after which they are ready to grout. 211
SAVINOS Latillas of unsplit Juniper. From Savín, red cedar, or
Juniper.

SCORIA A crushed, volcanic aggregate, used in landscaping, but

also in adobe mixes to produce a hard, but relatively lightweight
adobe block. Scoria is generally 1/4” diameter or less, quite sharp
edged and from brown to red and black in color.

SCREENING Hardware cloth stretched over a wood frame breaks

up clods and removes larger aggregate. Use 1/2” hardware cloth. A
necessary procedure when preparing clay materials for earthbuild-
ing (see Clay).

Map showing strength of shaking that has one chance in ten of being
exceeded in the next 50 years.
maps have become the duty of the ICBO (International Conference
of Building Officials) which maintains a seismology committee, and
the SEAOC (Structural Engineers Assoc. of California). An upgrade
to a higher number will translate to new codes and higher building
costs. Such changes are always weighed against safety and struc-
tural integrity.

Earthbuilders should always consider seismic hazards when design-

ing a structure. A good foundation system, stout walls that are not
too high or thin, a bond beam that attaches to the earth wall, and
a roof framing system that is well attached to the bond beam are
some of the main considerations. Openings should not be located
Screening clay manually at a Honduran building site. This material will be used to
too close to corners. Piers of adobe between openings should not
make pressed blocks for a housing development. Rodrigo Gómez F., contractor.
be too skinny. Walls should be laterally supported by intersecting
walls that are built together, not just butted together. (see Pier,
Foundation System, Bond Beam, and L-Shaped).
SEISMIC ZONE A mapped risk area that can range from no
danger of earthquakes at all to a guarantee that one or more signifi- Dr. Fred Webster, a California-based seismic engineer, specializes
cant shakes will occur in your lifetime. In the United States, a zero in the effects of earthquakes on adobe, rammed earth and baja-
designates the no-risk zones, with 4 indicating the high- reque structures. Traveling the globe from New Zealand to Costa
212 est (as in California). The creation and revision of such Rica and England he has compiled information on what works and
 Dr. Webster A danger for the
demonstrates uninitiated is pull-
how stout walls ing a lower section
exhibit superior of forming before
behavior in a
seismic event.
the one above has
been filled. There
are pressures
within a form,
caused by the
what doesn’t. tamped earth.
Incorporating his knowledge into your building design could help Equal pressures
you to earthbuild safely in a seismic zone. For information about his within a series of
research and reports contact <adobebrix@aol.com>. forms is what you
want. That means
SEQUENCING (also leapfrogging) A technique in rammed earth filling them to the
construction. The idea is to make a limited number of forms go fur- top or near the top.
ther by filling a section, then taking those forms down and moving If a section of forms
them along or up to ram a new section. Generally for the beginner, is only filled half way, and the section below is loosened, the top
the method works best by first going all around the structure at one section will toe in at the top and spread apart at the bottom. At this
level, but if soils are good and experience sufficient, the builder may point, the builder will no longer be able to match up the next genera-
also work along and up (used by Tom Schmidt, Saint David, Az.). tion of forms, and worse, the green wall becomes distorted.
213
SHARP SAND A sand, that when examined under a microscope, a determination of the stability of the soil may be made. If by rare
shows sharp or very angular surfaces. Sharp sands are considered chance the sample swells and “humps”, discard it, as this indicates
to be stronger or more binding in adobe mixes (see Blow Sand). a very expansive, unstable soil.

SHEEPSKIN Mentioned as a tool. A dampened sheepskin was Usually, the sample will shrink: if the void left from the contractions
the traditional means of finishing mud-plastered walls in N.M. (after range up to 3/4”, the mix has allowable plastic limits for earthbuild-
Bunting). ing. If the void is 1” or more, the material will have to be blended.
If the shrinkage void is over 1-1/2”, the material should not be used
SHILF A Cornish term for small pieces of waste slate that are tra- (see Clay, Soil Testing and Stabilization).
ditionally mixed with 2 parts mud and some straw to make clob, a
variation of cob (see Cob). SIDE LOAD A term used in pressed adobe machines. It describes
the action when the hydraulic ram presses the moistened earth with
a side action into the chamber. The resulting blocks are always the
SHIPLAP Lumber with edges same in depth, but may vary in width. Side loaded machines insure
that have been rabbeted to the mason a block that is always the same depth, allowing very thin
form a lap joint where they join. mortar joints or slurries between the courses (see Pressed Block
Also, a method of overlapping and Top Load).
lumber for a textured look in a
roof deck. Popular with build- SIEVE ANALYSIS A particle size distribution in a particular earth
ers who use green lumber, as or soil as determined by standard U.S. testing sieves.
boards may shrink, but they
still will not show any cracks. SILL As opposed to window sill, usually a horizontal resting on the
foundation stem to which the vertical supports of a frame structure
SHORT Adobe mix with too much sand which causes too much are attached (see Sleeper).
contraction (use by Old Pueblo Adobe Co., Tucson, Az.).
SILT The larger of the fine-grained soil particles in a mix, usually
SHRINK BOX A wood recognized as material passing through a US standard no. 200
box made up to form a very sieve, down to a minimum size of .005 millimeters. Silt is often mis-
long rectangle of saturated taken for clay, but has no “glue-like” qualities. Too much of it in the
soil, usually 1-1/2” x 1-1/2” mix can weaken the adobe.
x 24” long. The wetted soil
mix is packed into the box SLEEPER A timber laid on or near the ground to support floor
and left to dry. The inside joists and/or frame walls above.
of the shrink box is coated
with a thin layer of lard. SLUSH JOINT In adobe work another term for head joint, or the
After about 4-5 days, the approximately 1” wide space between each adobe as placed in the
sample is dry and wall.
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SMURF PIPE An American slang term for the flexible accordion-
like electrical conduit that is used in rammed earth walls. It happens SOIL TESTING
to be the same blue hue as the Smurfs on television. Any number of tests, tools or assemblages that help the builder
determine the suitability of a soil for adobe, rammed earth or
SODDIE A low-profile, primitive, sod house, typical of the early pressed block.
Plains frontier. The sod plow could cut a ribbon of this material,
which because of the grass roots and moisture content of the soil, Soil or earth is a variable and complex building material. A great
was flexible and could be laid on the wall in strips, the grassy side range of soils will fall within the parameters that are suitable for wall
down. Some examples still exist in the Kansas / Nebraska area. constructions, so testing is absolutely necessary.
They were known for the same thermal advantages of adobe and
are somewhat related to the terrón construction of the pueblo Indi- Strength and stabilization are the two main areas of concern. This
ans and the turf house of Ireland. entry deals with the former. If you plan on stabilizing your material,
digest this entry first, then the entry on Clays. Next, move on to the
Stabilization entry. Remember that stabilization will not save a poor
soil. Always start with a strength-qualified soil before considering
how you will stabilize it.

How does adobe work?

A general statement about the mechanics of adobe strength is
simple: sharp, angular sand particles interlock and give strength.
They are held together by a glue. That glue is clay. Because a
relatively small amount of clay is necessary to do this job, the sharp
sand will generally be the majority of the mix. The other likely ingre-
dients in a mix are fine (or rounded) sands, silt, and gravel, which
will be discussed later on.

Mention is made of “sandy loams” as being ideal for adobe. The

A frontier family and their soddie creation. National Archives photo.
novice, on scooping up a handful of this material, will assume it to
be too sandy for wall construction. But when wetted, the small per-
SOFFIT The underside of various surfaces in a structure. The
centage of clay is activated and the soil’s character changes to a
soffit of a beam is its underside. The soffit of an arch is its under-
sticky mud. At this point, the sharp sand, although a higher percent-
side. The underside of a roof overhang with a furred down surface
age of the mix, becomes less noticeable than the clay. This is the
of plywood is a soffit.
nature of a good adobe soil.
SOFTWOOD A reference to conifers, such as pine, fir, spruce etc
The jar test is a good way to discuss the ingredients of a successful
(with the exception of cypress larch, and tamarack). Softwood has
adobe soil.
no reference to the actual softness of the wood, but serves as a
general separation from hardwoods, such as walnut and oak. 215
Jar Test- The Clay layer-
More of an identification You will be able to identify bands of different hues and textures. The
procedure than a test, this clay layer, at the top, will usually be a super-fine band of a different
gives the adobero a good hue from the rest, much too fine to see individual particles. Clay
idea of soil composition is 1/256 mm or smaller in size. One very good adobe mix used
through a layering effect. by the Hans Sumpf Co. of Madera, Ca., used a soil that was 75%
After being shaken in a sand, 12% silt and 13% clay. In other soil mixes, the clay percent-
water-filled and capped jar age could be 25% or more. The more stable the clay, the higher
and allowed to settle, the a percentage it can occupy without causing problems. But sharp
heaviest material falls to sand is still needed.
the bottom of the jar: small
gravels first, then larger What if the entire sample in the jar is all the same color and texture?
sands, finer sands, silts, That means that it is all one material, or mostly so. A danger is that
and clays last of all. it is all silt, a material that many people mistake for clay. To find out,
consider the suggestions below:
Pick a straight-sided jar
with a flat bottom, such as The silt layer-
a tall olive jar, or larger Silt is the “hamburger helper” of adobe. It ranges from 1/256 mm up
mayonnaise jar. Fill it to 1/60 mm in size. It is a sort of neutral extender, often called rock
about 2/3 full with the soil flour, and has little if any strength. As shown in the Hans Sumpf
to be tested. Fill the jar sample above, some of it in your mix is o.k.
with water, making sure
that the soil is completely saturated and the water level is near the The palm, taste and grit test for clay and silt-
jar top. You may add about one teaspoon of ordinary table salt, Mix a little saliva with the material into a paste in your palm. It
which will aid in settling the fine clays. The jar is capped and vigor-
should be viscous, not watery. With your index finger, press into the
ously shaken until all of the material is in suspension, then placed material forcefully. Now peel your index finger slowly to one side. If
on a flat shelf. the material is clay, it will actually lift the skin from the palm, peeling
off with a sticky feeling. If the material is silt, it will disengage from
After 4-8 hours, all material should have settled out, with almost the palm more easily with a tacky feeling.
clear water between the top of the soil and the water level above.
Consider the entire soil depth from bottom to top as 100% and Next place a small sample of the material between your teeth. If it
then mark off equal increments of 10% on the side of the jar with a is clay, you will not detect any grit. If it is silt, you will detect a fine
grease pencil or oil-based marker. This will give you a rough idea of grit.
the percentages of the above ingredients in your soil.
Caution about fine sands-
The next material down in your jar is fine sand. It is 1/60 mm up to
1/16 mm in size. If the material is a fine or rounded sand, you will be
216
able to see the individual particles. On rare occasions, builders find broken, they are sharp in nature. In larger adobe facilities, crushers
a fine red sand, which they assume has a clay content because of are on hand to break up larger rocks, and the adobero feeds these
the color. Clays are actually more likely to be gray or brown, rather materials back into the mix, a practice called average blending.
than red.
Naturally occuring gravels can also be sharp enough to add
The problem with fine sands is that they have little strength for strength, but gravel over 3/8” in size is generally not desired. As
earthbuilding. A percentage of fine sands in your mix can act one uses larger pieces of aggregate, fracture lines can be set up in
as “void fillers” (see Stabilization), but too high a percentage will the block. A scattering of rocks in the mix might happen to locate
reduce the strength of the adobe. This is especially true with themselves in a rough line. If the block is stressed, it is apt to break
rounded sands, which have no angular surfaces that allow them to along that line. Larger gravels can also cause aesthetic issues.The
interlock with one another. Fine sands can be useful in making up appearance of the adobe becomes important in exposed work.
mud plasters and slips, but not for building blocks or rammed earth Those building with exposed adobe on interior walls will have a dif-
walls. ficult time creating the popular “creamy” look of a smooth adobe
when using large aggregate. However, if the walls are to be plas-
Sharp sand- tered or stuccoed, a rough wall is acceptable and even desirable.
Often called course sand. It ranges from 1/16 mm to 2 mm in size.
This is a requirement in your mix, as sharp sand interlocks to add Now that you have an idea of the players in an earthbuilding mix,
strength. It will have a scratchy or gritty effect in the hand. let’s look at a few simple tests that will probably save you money at
the lab. That is, if your material passes the tests below, it is likely to
Gravels- meet code requirements at the lab. This saves you taking just any
Above 2 mm in size. Gravels can add strength to a mix. The material in, only to have it rejected.
sharper or more angular, the better.
1.The Ball Test
One good example is scorria, a crushed volcanic rock. It is color- Start with a fully saturated mud. Squeeze out the excess moisture,
ful, with red, brown and black colors that look good on exposed, sta- tightening and rolling the samples by hand until firm. Make up 4 or
bilized exterior walls. It is sharp and naturally pock-marked, so 5 golf ball-sized spheres. Set them on a car dashboard or window
that sharper sands and clays bind with it readily. It is also porous, sill where solar curing will dry them completely. After a few days,
causing adobe blocks in which it is used to be lighter. The same break one in half as a way of judging the cure. If you see a darker
porousity creates air pockets, adding insulating quality to the block. area in the middle, give the remaining samples another day or two.
The down side is that scorria is a prepared material, used in land- You may cure them in an oven for an hour at 200-300º F.
scaping, and will be more expensive than ordinary screened gravel.
However, one shovel of scorria in an entire wheelbarrow of mix can Observe to see what, if any, cracking has taken place. A fine spider-
make a difference, upping the compressive strength of the earth web cracking pattern is a bad sign, as are large structural cracks.
wall. This indicates too much clay, or an expansive clay. If the block has
no cracks, or only a few small cracks of a superficial nature, then the
Another type of gravel is “crusher fines”. These are also prepared soil may be suitable, but it must also pass the next test.
materials, in this case, for road work. Because they are machine-
217
2.The Fingernail Test the weakest aspect of a block - the flat side.
The next test is to scratch the block with If it is dropped on its edge or corner, it will
your fingernail. If the block is easily gouged, survive from a much greater height without
with granular material falling out, the soil damage. Failure from knee drop height indi-
is too high in sand. If the scratching cre- cates too much silt or too much sand.
ates a fine, flour-like powder, that floats in
a breeze rather than falling straight down, 5. Crude Field Modulus of Rupture test-
the soil is too high in silt. If the block resists Set up two adobes on the ground, as in the
easy digging out by nail, and is quite hard, sketch. Place a fully-cured sample adobe
the mix is probably about right. across them, so that the sample bears about
1-1/2” on each ground block. Again, we are
Keep in mind that soils too high in clay can testing the block at its weakest aspect. A
be amended with a sharp sand. Those full-grown man should be able to stand on
too high in sand will need a clay addition. the block, with all his weight directed to the
Experiment, repeating the ball and finger- middle, and not break it. Lift one leg, so that
nail tests, until you determine a recipe that all weight is on one foot. Any good block will
consistently produces a tough sample with pass this test. The Uniform Building Code
few if any cracks. directs that adobes must withstand 50 lbs.
psi minimum, without failure, in a lab-con-
3. The full sized adobes test- ducted modulus of rupture test.
Make two dozen full-sized adobe blocks, curing them completely
from the above qualified soil. For testing purposes, a simple 2”x4” 6.Crude Field Compression Test
form will do. Wipe the interior of the form with car oil to facilitate lift-
If your adobe is little
ing the form off the adobes. Pack the form, and especially the inte- more than a sand block,
rior corners, with a stiff but fully saturated mix of your soil. Remove it will not withstand driv-
the forms immediately and allow your samples to dry. After 3 days ing your vehicle up on it
in full sun, you should be able to turn them on edge, which will without crumbling. Try
speed the curing process. They may take three weeks to cure in this on three or four
hot desert conditions, and more in wetter, cooler climates. Always of your samples. Set
break one to see if it is still “green” on the interior. They should curethe samples into a firm
without any major cracking. As above, they should not be easily but sandy bed, with no
scratched. protruding rocks under-
neath. You may break
4.The knee drop test- edges and corners in
The block must be fully cured before trying this test. Hold the block driving up on a block,
in both hands, in a flat position, not on end, then drop it from approx- but the basic module
imately knee height onto level ground. It should not break. This is should stay intact.
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If your blocks have passed all of the above tests, it may still be 9. Lab Compression Test
required that you prove them through a certified testing laboratory. The nature of a compression test is to put equal weight on the entire
At this point, cost becomes a factor. Most adoberos also test for top surface of the block. Then the weight is slowly increased until
water absorption or wet strength at the same time they test for mod- the block crumbles. At that instant, a reading is taken as to how
ulus of rupture and compression. The lab can do all in one testing many pounds per square inch the block sustained before failure.
sequence at lower cost. In 2001, local labs in the Albuquerque, Traditional adobe is often uneven when set on a flat surface, creat-
N.M. area could run the tests for between $75 and $250. Generally, ing ‘point loading’, which can put excess pressure on one portion
you must submit three to five samples. of the sample, shattering it. Thus, to be fair, the sample is either
sanded, so that it is even on its top and bottom, or a plaster cast
8. Lab Modulus of Rupture test- is made for these surfaces before the test. In any case, the U.B.C.
This test gives you an idea of the “bending ability” of your adobe. dictates that a good block should sustain 300 lbs. p.s.i. pressure,
If your block will not pass the crude field compression test, it prob- minimum, before failure.
ably will not pass in the lab. You should test at least 3 of your
samples the “crude” way to make sure that your soil is consistently About compression figures-
good. At the lab, steel cylinders are placed under the ends of the The above figure is not difficult to attain, even in ‘backyard’ adobe
sample. A third cylinder presses down from above on the middle of operations, where quality control is not practiced consistently. Aver-
the sample. At the instant of rupture, the p.s.i. is registered. The age compression results for ordinary adobe often exceed 300 p.s.i.,
Uniform Building Code dictates that it must be at least 50 p.s.i. The and with some soil mixes come in regularily between 400 and 500
formula the lab will follow for modulus of rupture is as follows: p.s.i. Pressed blocks usually attain higher figures- from 600 to 1200
p.s.i. However, this does not necessarily make them better than
The unit shall average 50 pounds per square inch in modulus of ordinary adobes. Let’s see why:
rupture when tested according to the following procedures:
A. A standard 4x10x14 cured unit shall be laid over cylindri- In a one-story, average adobe structure, with concrete bond beam
cal supports two inches (2”) from each end and extending across and roof load, the pounds per square inch pressure exerted on the
the full width of the unit. bottom course of blocks rarely exceeds 13 p.s.i. Without the bond
B. A cylinder two inches (2”) in diameter shall be laid midway beam and roof, the figure is generally around 9 p.s.i. Thus, we can
between and parallel to the supports. see that if our blocks attain 300 p.s.i., there is a tremendous safety
C. Load shall be applied to the cylinder at the rate of 500 factor built into the code.
pounds per minute until rupture occurs.
D. The modulus of rupture is equal to: If someone boasts to you that his or her blocks come in at 800 or
1200 p.s.i., that is good, but the higher figure really doesn’t mean
much when the static load on the foundation is perhaps 13 p.s.i. on
3WL W=Load of Rupture a one-story structure and 25 p.s.i. on a two-story. What becomes
----- L= Distance between supports more important at this point is the overall height to width ratio of the
2Bd2 B= Width of Brick walls and the quality of the foundation and bond beam system in
d= Thickness of brick settlement or seismic upheaval.

219
For example, a structure with 300 p.s.i. adobes, and walls 18” thick, scale. If there is enough salt crystallization taking place, the adobe
with good foundation and bond beam, will always beat a structure can spall, fluff or weaken. Since the salts will be concentrated at the
with 800 p.s.i. adobes that has walls 10” thick and a poor foundation/ evaporation line on the face of the adobe, every wetting cycle will
bond beam design. deposit more salt, and the face of the block will erode further. Test-
ing for salts is best done in the lab and involves the following steps:
10.Dr. Ferm’s shrinkage test-
Yet another test of how suitable a soil might be for adobes is the a. The soil sample is carefully weighed in its dry state.
shrinkage test. The technique is to make up several small adobes. b. It is then washed several times with water, using distilled or
They are carefully measured around their entire perimeters when de-ionized water. In the washing process, some sort of cloth or
first cast. After completely curing, they are measured again. Care sieve must let the water through, but retain the soil particles.
must be taken to measure carefully. c. The water should now be filtered through an analytical grade
of filter paper (VWR Scientific Grade no. 94).
Dr. Richard Ferm, of the International Foundation for Earth Con- d. The filters are evaporated carefully and the salt residue is
struction in Washington, D.C., suggests a slide caliper. If the origi- carefully weighed. The salt weight divided by the weight of the origi-
nal perimeter of a 4”x4” block measures 16” and it shrinks to 15.5”, nal sample will indicate the percentage of soluble salts.
the difference is 0.5”. 15.5” divided by 16” = 3% shrinkage. Dr.
Ferm’s table of results grades shrinkage from 0 to 3% as ‘favor-
able’, 3 to 5% as ‘favorable with curing precautions’, and over 5% as
“excessive cracking indicated”, and therefore not suitable material.

“Curing precautions” can mean that various techniques are used to

let blocks cure gradually, by covering them with tarps, or casting the
block at the end of the day, so they can first cure under cover of
night. Blocks that are tricky in terms of cracking will usually finish
out their cure if they get past their first several hours without crack-
ing. In Southern Arizona, heat can be so severe that adoberos
make their products at night, under lights, so that the blocks will get
past their first hours without thermal shock.

11.Salts in the soil and testing

Salts in the soil are damaging to adobe and adobe mortars. In fact,
they are equally damaging to concrete block, red brick and other
masonry. The Uniform Building Code says that a soil must not have
over 0.2% salt by dry weight to be suitable for adobe. Water soluble Adobes ready to be shipped are stacked on pallets and covered in plastic. Note
salts become a problem when the wall or affected area dries out. At the many rows of adobes lying flat in the field. Inspection of drying adobes
that point, the water soluble salts migrate to the surface of the block. quickly reveals any cracking problems. Thus, the consumer is protected by visual
There they crystallize and expand, “popping” on a very tiny inspection. The Adobe Factory, Alcalde, N.M. - the world’s largest adobe yard.
220
Another approach to finding out about salts in your soil and about Solar collectors are broadly defined to include both active solar
your soil composition is through your County Agent. He may know devices and passive solar collectors like windows and Trombé walls,
of an agricultural extension service or a lab at a nearby college that as long as the collector is capable of generating at least 25,000 btus
can help you for free. on a clear winter solstice day (Dec. 21). You also have to show that
“beneficial use” occurs. That means that your solar apparatus must
Salts have their heaviest concentrations in desert basins, where be put to beneficial uses such as water pumping, heating, cooling,
they build up deposits after washing down from higher elevations. or generating electicity.
Examples of areas with heavy salt problems are found around
Death Valley Junction, Ca., the Lower Colorado Valley of Az. and In disputes, “priority in time” is the judge of which party rules. That
Ca., and the greater Phoenix basin. is to say, the solar right must be vested before the solar obstruction
came into being.
Testing from the consumer’s standpoint-
Traditional adobe has the advantage of being tested by its very Because exactly how to claim the right was not defined in the ini-
manufacture in the field before it goes into the wall. That is, if a bad tial statute, the right was further added to in 1983 under the Solar
batch is cast, everyone, including the customer, can see the crack- Recordation Act (Section 47-3-6 to 47-3-12 NMSA 1978). It pro-
ing or notice the crumbling. Any responsible adobero will not try to vides that the right may be claimed by filing a declaration with an
sell such an inferior product! But with rammed earth, the builder attached survey or plot plan showing the height and location of the
must know his soil before it goes into the forms. With pressed block, protected solar collectors, their distance from lot lines and the maxi-
a bad batch will not show its problems for a week or more, and by mum height of a theoretical fence along the lot lines that would not
then, the customer will have paid the pressing machine operator interfere with the collectors access to sunlight.
and that operator may be four hundred miles away. For this reason,
regardless of which wall method you use, you must take the time A form for the declaration is set out in Section 47-3-9 NMSA 1978.
to go through the testing procedures long before the project gets The declaration must be filed with the County Clerk in which the
underway. property burdened by the solar right is located. Besides filing a dec-
laration, the claimant must give written notice to the owners of the
SOLAR ACCESS New Mexico was one of the first states to recog- affected property, who have 60 days to contest the claimed right. If
nize and protect “solar rights” or the legal right to have unobstructed notice is not so given, the solar right is not enforceable.
access to sunlight on a solar building or a solar collector. Many
states do not as yet have solar rights, so New Mexico’s statutes are The Solar Recordation act also limits the burden a solar right can
discussed here. impose on surrounding property. It first authorizes counties and
municipalities to regulate solar rights using their zoning, planning,
New Mexico Section 47-3-1 through 47-3-5 NMSA 1978 describes platting and subdivision approval powers. If local governments do
the right as a property right that can be protected by law, and trans- not regulate solar rights, then they are regulated under this act,
fered, bought and sold like any other property right. The right is which sets out time of day and height/location requirements to pro-
defined as “an unobstructed line-of-sight path from a solar collector tect the affected property owners’ ability to develop their land (Sec-
to the sun.” tion 47-3-11).

221
SOLAR ALTITUDE The angle of the sun above the horizon. To
find the maximum summer sun altitude for your location (June 21), SOLAR OVERHANG
subtract your latitude from 113.5º. To find the minimum mid-winter
sun altitude (Dec. 21), subtract your latitude from 66.5º. For exam-
ple in Albuquerque, at 35º north, the sun would reach 78.5º above
the horizon on June 21. On December 21,the shortest day, it would
be 31.5º above the horizon (see Solar Overhang).

SOLAR CHIMNEY A vertical space or shaft which uses the heat of

the sun to warm the chimney’s masonry mass. As the air is warmed
and rises, it pulls cool air into the living area from a cooler source,
such as a north-facing garden or misted area.

SOLAR DWEEB (or Conehead) A person who, without any real

world experience, becomes unreasonably enamored of a particu-
lar solar energy design (usually his own) and persists in trying to
design or build it despite the advice of competent builders, suppliers Low sun angle has completely flooded this southern facade in the winter. This
or associates. The dweeb believes that there is no logical reason overhang extends approximately 2 feet. As the days lengthen in the spring, the
suns rises higher each day and the shadow line descends further down the wall.
why an R-15 window can’t be purchased at or near the price of stan-
By June 21st, the south wall is completely in shadow. Solaradobe home located
dard insulated glass. The dweeb will spend eons sending for free in Las Vegas, N.M., designed by Joe Tibbets.
literature in the back of magazines, while he pounds on the sales
staff at the local lumber store for a better price. The only known In passive solar construction, the distance or projection of an over-
cure for dweebiness is three months digging footings and laying in hanging roof or sun shield that shades walls, particularly on the
rebar on his own home (Submitted by Bill Yanda, Brother Sun). south side. Solar overhangs are an important element in heating
and cooling loss and gain. In the summer, overhangs shade the
SOLAR NOON The time of day when the sun is exactly halfway south wall from the sun’s rays, helping to keep the home cool. In the
between sunrise and sunset. A way of orienting a passive solar winter, they allow sunlight to penetrate glazing on the south side,
structure to true south. Take the time of sunrise and sunset for an where it is absorbed by adobe walls, brick or other masonry, con-
approaching date. Figure the total elapsed time between the two tributing to the warming of the interior.
and divide in half. Convert this number back to hours and minutes
and add it to the time of sunrise. Drive a straight stick into the The colder the winter climate, the more southern sun dwellers wish
ground, making sure it is plumb. The shadow cast at the time deter- to receive, and the warmer the winter climate, the less so. Thus, in
mined above will be a true north/south line, or solar noon. Solar cold climates the overhang will be shorter than in warmer climates.
enthusiasts may place a scale model on a horizontal surface, orient
it to the above line, and see exactly where the sun will Solaradobe builders at high altitudes will want the sun to begin
strike at any time of year. peeping under overhangs early in September. As fall progresses
222
and the sun drops lower, more solar energy will be received through
the glass, the maximum being on Dec 21, or the shortest day of the
year (winter solstice). This shorter overhang, perhaps only 18” out
from the wall, will keep the sun at work into late April or early May.

On the other hand, in low desert climates such as Tucson, the win-
ters are Mediterranean in nature. Days in late October can still be
warm, so overhangs project out further to keep the sun off south
glazing until November. The same larger overhang will begin to
block the sun in late February. By late April, the first hot days can
arrive, but by then the entire south face is in shadow.

In such southern climates, the solar overhang might project out

from the face of the wall as much as 3’-6” or even 4’-0”. In the warm-
est of the low desert climates, such as Phoenix and Yuma, very
little solar gain is needed, and design emphasis is on cooling for the
long, hot summers.

How far to project the overhang depends on many factors, includ-

ing the design of the home or building, height of windows, and how
they are placed within their frames. Generally, long galleys of the
same size window are used on the south, not only for cost reasons,
but because one overhang design will suffice for all. They will be
as much as possible at the same height and depth, with only a few
smaller windows set at different heights in the wall.

The simplest method uses the summer noon sun angle and winter
noon sun angle for your vicinity. The designer must first draw a typi-
cal south wall section to scale. We suggest 3/4” = 1’-0” or 1” = 1’-0”.
This allows you to easily visualize all of the building materials going
into the wall and roof section. Locate the south window in the wall,
with the glass towards the outside of the opening to maximize gain.

1. Project the Summer Noon Sun Angle from the bottom of the
glazing. For example, on June 21, this would be 78.5º at 35º north
latitude.
2. Project the Winter Noon Sun Angle from the top of the glazing.
223
For example, this would be 31.5º on Dec. 21 at 35º N. latitude.
3. The intersection of these two lines determines the limit of your SOLARADOBE
overhang. You will now know:
a. the height of the shading device off the grade.
b. the distance out from the wall of the shading device.

If the wall section you design doesn’t extend to the point of angles,
rearrange your wall section and projecting roof structure (calcu-
lations courtesy Quentin Wilson & Associates, La Madera, N.M.,
derived from the standard 1930’s manual for awning installers).

The formula given above has one omission: it must be adjusted

for elevation. For example, Alpine, TX at almost 30ºN latitude, has
cool to cold winters at almost 5000’ above sea level. Further west,
Hermosillo, México is almost at the same latitude, but is in a sub-
tropical desert with frost-free winters and extremely hot summers.
Both are desert cities at the same latitude with very different over-
hang design requirements.
Classic southern facade of an Albuquerque solaradobe. Note the large glazing
Start by allowing the roof eave to project an extra distance over the units with operable windows for ventilation on bottom. Solar overhang also drains
rafters, 6” beyond what the calculation indicates. Go through a typi- roof slope to south side of house, avoiding ice buildup.
cal year living in the home and noting how the overhang works with
Photo courtesy Terry Taggart, Adobe Building Supply
the sun. If you need more sun, set up safe scaffolding, “snap a line”
to determine your cut and remove the extra material. If your over- This term, made popular in the late 1970’s, has caught on as a way
hang is too short, you will need roofing that matches your original to describe adobe or rammed earth structures that use the sun,
pattern and color. Set up extender strips fastened by hex-headed directly and indirectly, as a way to heat and cool.
metal deck bolts under the eave. Pick bolts with a wide washer
extension under the head that protects a neoprene washer. You Orientation
may slot the under-piece to make it more adjustable. The typical passive solar building is designed along an east/west
axis. This reduces the depth of rooms, allows the south sun to
If your overhang design fully shades your south glass by the first hot penetrate and provides plenty of room along the south for glazing.
days in spring and lets the sun begin to flood the glass by the first The structure can be turned within 15º of true south and still per-
cool days in fall, your solar overhang is doing its job. form well. Turning the house to the southeast will mean more early
morning gain, desired by early risers. To the southwest, more late
A design tool called winSARC™ for solar angles is available through afternoon gain increases the chances of overheating. For best
Tait Solar Co., Inc., 51 W. 13th St., Tempe, Az. 85281. gain, stay within 5º of true south (see Solar Noon).
The web site is www.taitsolar.com
224
Classic profile of the small owner-builder solaradobe from the early 1980’s. Basic elements include mass walls, a well insulated roof, fireplace backup
heat, large solar aperture. Note lack of glazing on west facade. Modern advances in window technlogy allow more glazing to the east and west.
Incorporating these advances, this design is just as effective as it was twenty years ago.
225
Shapes-
One is not confined only to rectangles for an overall structure
shape. Rectangles can be offset, arranged in a wing pattern or an
“H” shape. Passive solar homes can be half-circles, or combina-
tions of circles and rectangles. However, keep in mind that:

1. Offsets can reduce gain if a section of the building shades the

solar aperture.

2. “H” shapes or shapes with a patio between units, must be set far
enough apart that the low winter sun can get over the front structure
and penetrate the glazing on the back one.

Southwest Solaradobe School recommends that any passive solar

designer build a scale model of the proposed home, so that accu-
rate sun and shadow areas can be identified. Accurate models can Clerestories on a solaradobe near Cortez, Co., Michael Sandrin, builder.
be done in 1/4” = 1’0” scale, and for less than a ten dollar invest-
ment, one can avoid very costly mistakes in the real structure. House color-
In solaradobe architecture, exterior wall color is a factor. In cold
winter climes, dark wall colors absorb more solar energy. In hot
Basic requirements and operation- summer climes, walls are lighter, to reflect the sun.
The three basic requirements of a well-designed solaradobe home
are (1) a well-insulated building envelope, (2) solar gain which must Mass
take place through south-facing glazing (and in the southern Hemi- Mass prevents daytime overheating and carries the home through
sphere, north-facing), (3) thermal mass in the walls. (see Double periods of cloudy days. Interior mass walls are great battery banks
Adobe and Tom Schmidt’s insulating stucco under Plasters). for this purpose. Design your solar home so that some major
cross walls are of adobe or rammed earth. They will also help to
strengthen the structure of the home. Closet and plumbing walls
Clerestories- can be frame walls.
When a tier of back rooms must be heated, clerestories are a
common solution. Clerestories rise about 1-1/2 stories above Prior to the mid-1970’s, thermal mass gave adobe the reputation
grade. For the experienced contractor, a clerestory will be enjoy- of being “warm in winter and cool in summer”, but mass was not
able to build. For the owner-builder, clerestories slow down the job, optimized to cut energy costs, nor were adobe structures oriented
cost more and increase safety risks. Owner-builders are encour- to maximize solar gain. When mass is enclosed in a blanket of from
aged to take on the advice and services of a good roof-framing car- 1” to 3” of insulation, a thermos-bottle effect is created. Think of
penter when a solar clerestory is planned. the south exposure as the wide mouth of the thermos bottle. By
day, the glazing is open to the sun, and solar energy enters, loading
226 walls and floors. By night, insulating curtains or roller blinds retain
the energy, keeping it from radiating out to the night-time sky, actingIf we move to a site southeast of Tucson in the Dragoon Mountains,
as the cork seal on the thermos bottle. also at 5000’ at 32º latitude, we find that rammed earth consultant
Tom Schmidt cuts the ratio to around 10% of south glass to interior
Solar overhangs project over the glazing, allowing winter sun to heated and cooled area. Even though this site is at 5000’, its prox-
penetrate (lowest in the sky on Dec. 21) yet bar the sun from striking imity to the surrounding Sonoran Desert and out of the storm tracks
the wall during summer, when the sun is high in the sky. Take the to the north means less glass is needed.
time to design an effective overhang (see Solar Overhang).
If we travel 55 miles away to Tucson, at 2500’, we find the ratio
Nighttime insulation- drops to between 6 and 9%. In Phoenix, further down on the desert
After about 4 p.m. on a winter day, the effectiveness of the sun floor at 1200’, it drops to between 4 and 7%.
declines rapidly. At dusk, the south glazing becomes a heat loss,
rather than heat gain mechanism. It is imperative that the solar
dweller put up insulating panels or curtains at this time of day. Com-
panies such as Window Quilt™ (800-257-4501) make insulating
curtains with decorative patterns that can be manually pulled down
or electrically lowered. The insulation remains until sunup the fol-
lowing morning. They should also be used on cloudy or snowy
days, when gain is very low.

A budget application is to buy sheets of beadboard (R-5) insulation.

Cut the board to fit the window, slightly smaller than the frame it
will sit in. At a building supply store, obtain a number of small
round magnets. Glue magnets to the four corners of your board.
At the fabric store, pick your favorite color or pattern. A seam-
stress can sew a pillow-case style of cover, which will slide over the
board. Glue the matching magnets to the window corners, to match
magnet positions on the board.
Designing rammed earth for passive solar approximates its adobe cousin. This
Rough calculations of south glass to floor area- example is located at 3500 ft elevation in the east Tucson foothills. A combination
The first calculation is the percentage of south glazing to floor area. of passive solar design, efficient appliances and photovoltaics allows this building
The colder the climate, the more glazing in ratio to floor area. independence from the power grid. Solar electric design by Bill Cirritio, passive
solar design and construction by Tom Wuelpern, R.E.D.

Here are some examples:

In Albuquerque, at 35º north latitude and 5000’ elevation, local
solaradobe builders often use 16% of interior floor space dedicated
to south-facing glazing. In Santa Fé, 65 miles north at 7000’ eleva-
tion, this figure climbs to 22-25% of glass to floor area.
Tighter calculations and references-
Edward Mazria’s The Passive Solar Home Book (Rodale Press,
ISBN 0-87857-237-6 paperback and 0-87857-237-0 hard-
cover) has been a classic design reference. Although it is
227
 In 1987, the New Mexico Solar Energy Institute, located at N.M.
In this passive solar design, deciduous vines act as summer sunshields, clere-
stories allow direct gain into back rooms, and angled louvers determine seasonal
State University in Las Cruces, published NMRDI 2-75-PSTS,
gain. Home by Allen Mayfield, Las Cruces, New Mexico.
titled, New Mexico Passive Solar Home Temperature Survey. The
research and resulting 160 page book was led by Martin Selin-
one of the earlier design guides, the illustrations and general con-
freund, a well-known solar investigator at the time.
cept explanations can’t be beat.
In this little-known work, Martin’s team visited thirty already con-
The SBIC (Sustainable Buildings Industry Council) promotes pas-
structed and lived-in passive solar homes in New Mexico. They
sive solar through a non-profit organization based in Washington,
ranged from 900 to over 3000 sq. ft. in size, were scattered state-
D.C. SBIC has design guidelines available for over 200 U.S. climate
wide in different climate zones, and used a mix of Trombé walls,
locations. E-mail: sbic@sbicouncil.org. These formulas calculate:
direct gain, sunspaces and water walls. The average size was 1800
sq. ft. Many of the homes were of adobe construction.
1. The maximum direct gain area that you can use.
2. The recommended area of non-direct gain.
The dwellers were asked to participate in a thermal survey. They
3. The building’s energy requirement.
were given max/min thermometers and took scheduled high/low
4. The Solar Savings Fraction.
readings inside and outside their homes for a year. They provided
5. The back-up heating requirement.
the researchers with a floor plan and all house specs and calculated
6. The clear-day temperature swing inside the structure.
the performance of their homes with research team help.
Also available through them is Energy 10, a powerful but user-
The results of the program confirmed that passive solar homes
friendly energy-analysis software. It computes and illustrates the
are comfortable structures with low auxiliary energy requirements.
energy cost savings one can achieve through more than a dozen
Large mass homes tended to have smaller indoor temperature
sustainable design approaches. But while software packages are
swings than less massive ones. As far as we know, this is the
great tools, you can learn as much or more about successful pas-
only extensive solar survey of this type ever performed. Information
sive solaradobe design from the contractor or homeowner who has
about this book is available through Southwest Solaradobe School,
built a few. The contractor will hear back from his/her cli-
email: adobebuilder@juno.com.
228 ents about how well a design has performed.
Temperature swing-
A successful solaradobe should not have a temperature swing of
more than 13º F from its daytime interior high to its nighttime interior
low. The Design Guidelines mentioned above (as well as Energy
10) will analyze your design and tell you the swing. If it exceeds 13º,
options are given on how to improve performance. You may have to
increase the gain on the south (another window), cut out an energy
wasteful window on the north, or increase the insulation levels in
your roof.

A flaw in some software programs is that they allow only 4” of

mass (as in red brick) for a thermal mass storage, reflecting the typi-
cal “brick and stick” mentality of builders nationwide. Adobe and
rammed earth have much, much more mass than a 4” veneer! If
your adobe design passes the software standard for a successful
solar structure, it will probably perform better than the software indi-
cates.

South-glazing choices-
Direct gain, in the form of clear south glass, is just one option in Examples of south facing glazing using patio replacement units. Note glass is
passive solar design. Other popular choices are greenhouses and installed towards outside of earth wall to reduce “shadow effect” and increase
solar gain.
Trombé walls. Mixing two or three of these techniques on the south-
ern aspect of the home produces a more effective design than just us as sliding patio doors. They are sold all over the U.S. and are
one alone. inexpensive, compared to similiar-sized made to order units. The
commonly available sizes are 28”x76”, 28”x90”, 34”x76”, 34”x90”,
For example, if you are building a solar adobe in Santa Fé, you 46”x76”, 46”x90”.
will probably dedicate about 20% of your heated/cooled floor area
to south solar gain. That means that in a 2000 sq. ft. home, 400 When buying them, always check for a good seal warranty. Each
square feet of glazing will be installed on the south. Depending on PRU is made up of two glass sheets, separated by 1/4” air, and the
room use and views the builder could put 50% of this into Trombé seal is the spacer and the glue at this juncture.
walls, and 50% into direct gain. Or 40% could go to direct gain, 30%
to Trombé wall, and 30% to a greenhouse. Trombés use a sheet of the above glass mounted 4” away from
the earth-wall surface. The wall is painted a dark color to absorb
Glazing- more energy. The solar absorbency of the earth wall color should
Both direct gain windows and Trombé walls (see Trombé) use large be greater than 0.92. The glass is “boxed-out”, so that no air moves
pieces of fixed, insulated and tempered glass, commonly known through it. The sun will super-heat the air inside the box
as PRU’s (patio replacement units). These are familiar to most of to between 160-200º F even on a cold January day. The
229
 to 2% if possible (because of summer overheating intensity on this
exposure). North glass should not exceed 4%. The use of low-e
glazing or heat-mirror type systems to reduce heat gain on the west
in summer and heat loss on the north in winter is recommended.
Do not use low-e or heat mirror schemes on south glazing. If a
skylight is used, it should be the insulating type and small. Sky-
lights and west windows add to the annual cooling load tremen-
dously. For example, west windows add to cooling loads an aver-
age of 75,430 Btu/yr-sf. Skylights add 102,690 Btu/yr-sf.

Mountings-
Most installers use an aluminum mounting system for solar glass,
whether over clear openings, greenhouses or Trombé walls. This
material is bought by the linear foot and is designed with rubber
pads to cushion glass and keep weather out. Information is avail-
able from U.S. Sky in Santa Fé (505) 471-5157. The metal system
requires a 4” wide face to attach to. As a result, vertical timbers are
typical on many passive solar homes, spaced at regular intervals to
accept the glass and mounting system. The most popular timber
Trombé walls under solar overhangs in an adobe by William Stoddard, contractor, size is rough-cut 4”x10”.
Alameda, New Mexico. Dark coloring increases loading.
One may dispense with the above mounts and set the glass within
wall heats up and conducts the energy to the interior. Nine to twelve the rough buck aperture, rather than mount it to the face. This is
hours later, the interior surface of the earth wall becomes a radiat- a low-cost approach, popular for many years. Simple 1”x2” is used
ing panel, heating the room. for stops, and installation is cheap and easy. If not properly caulked
and sealed, such wood stops can leak in a wind-driven rain. Plan
If the designer alternates or mixes Trombé walls and clear glass on replacing them every ten years or less.
direct gain windows along the south side, the home will perform
better than if just one technique is used. Trombé walls offer stron- Keep in mind that you must decide at the drafting stage which of
ger corners, privacy and more area for furnishings inside the room. the above mounting systems you will use for your solar array. That
They also require the same overhang that would be used on their is because the on-center distances from vertical timber to vertical
clear glass neighbors (see Trombé Wall). timber will be different from metal mounts to wood stops.

Glazing on other house exposures- Ventilation on the south-

Try to reduce the amount of glazing on east, west and north expo- At least a few openable units should be incorporated along the
sures. The SBIC recommends that east glass be no more than 4% south for ventilation purposes. Since PRU heights are standardized
of the total interior floor area. West glass should be held at 76” and 90”, the designer purchases an openable unit to that
230
height and frames it into the opening. This avoids a custom modifi-
cation of the large rough buck frames that house most of the units.

Greenhouse-
Greenhouse rooms are often referred to as isolated gain spaces.
This is because they must be able to close off from the rest of the
home when the sun sets. Operable windows and doors do this
job. By day, greenhouses distribute excess heat to adjacent home
spaces through wall conduction, slider windows, fans and ducts,
or French doors. If only doors are used between greenhouse and
other rooms, the open area of the doors should constitute at least
15% of the greenhouse south glass area. If only windows are used,
their openable area should be about 25% of the greenhouse south
glass area.

By night, the greenhouse is closed off from the rest of the home.
A typical greenhouse temperature swing on a clear winter day/night
cycle is about 30º F. In cold winter climates, greenhouses work best Square footage of direct gain glass is calculated based on solar calcuations.
when they are set into the overall house mass, so that they share This house, located at 4800 ft elevation, requires southern glazing to be 16% of
total interior heated and cooled square footage. Owner-built solaradobe home in
common walls with adjacent rooms. If gardening is done in the
Bosque Farms, New Mexico.
greenhouse, it is advisable to have screened doors and windows,
as some gardens will breed gnats, which can then travel next door Recent trends in underfloor hydronic heating call for an insulation
to the kitchen. sheet (R-5) about 4” below the slab. This increases the floor mass
storage and the recovery time of the radiant heating system. Under-
Greenhouses need to be vented to the outside. Overheating can floor hydronic systems work fine as far as sending heat to the inte-
be a problem on some spring or fall days. Low inlets and high out- rior, but without insulation, they can also charge the ground below
lets can be used in a stack effect, since warm air will rise. Vent to a depth of 24” and in some cases, as far as four feet.
windows should be about 14% of the total greenhouse south glass
area. Small vent fans can be powered by photovoltaics. In New Mexico and some other states, perimeter underground-
rated insulation is required by code around all foundations. It must
Floors and insulation schemes- typically extend from the top of the stem to the bottom of the founda-
Floors are an important part of solaradobe design. In the New tion trench. The popular thickness is 2” for R-10. Using this insula-
Mexico/Arizona region, they are often brick on sand, Saltillo tile or tion will greatly aid in floor heat retention, for both passive solar gain
other tile on concrete slabs. They can also be adobe or flagstone and underfloor radiant systems (see Perimeter Insulation).
floors. Generally, 4” thickness is regarded as sufficient for floor
mass to store energy. They should be of a medium to dark color Living with the seasons-
value. In cold winter climates, air the house out during the day,
when outside air temps are higher. During summers on 231
the high plateau, cooling is needed only on warmest days. Cross- SOLDIER COURSE A course of red brick, set up vertically with the
ventilate at night to prevailing breezes. sides together, so as to form the underside support to a rowlock in
a stepped brick floor (see Rowlock for sketch).
Summer ventilation in the low desert is timed. Run an evaporative
cooler at night and into the early morning hours. Nighttime air tem- SOMBRAJE A branch-covered screen used in dividers, furniture,
peratures are lower, and the dweller further reduces them with an window shutters and cabinets. Screens may be made up of any
evaporative unit. small diameter wood such as salt cedar, cottonwood, willow, ocotillo
or sahuaro rib and give an effect of natural color and texture.
A two-stage evaporative cooler will take humidity out of the air and
drop room temperatures another 6 to 8º F (source: Adobe Air, Inc. While the salt cedar is often cursed as an invader of riparian wood-
Phoenix, Az.). By 9 a.m., shut down the cooler and close up the lands in the Southwest, it is a blessing to those who harvest the
house. The solaradobe will coast through the day. Remember that multi-colored one to two year-old slips along irrigation ditches. With
the adobe flywheel also works for you. their bright orange, red and maroon colors, they are a favorite mate-
rial at cabinet shops (see Latillas, Savina and Sahuaritos).
Roof cavities in the low desert are best ventilated through upducts.
Exhaust the used evaporative cooler air through these upducts, and SONORAN STYLE The low-desert version of Santa Fé style. The
through the roof cavity, rather than out a window. This will greatly basic, box-like adobe home shape, with or without stepped para-
reduce summertime heat gain through the roof system. pets, typified by a lack of architectural embellishment. The differ-
ence between the two is that Sonoran style has much higher ceil-
Room layouts for solar- ings, to create air spaces above the living area for ventilation in the
Room layouts in solar houses are important as well. The SBIC rec- hotter deserts. Santa Fé style has lower ceilings so as to minimize
ommends that living areas and other big activity rooms should be heating needs in wintertime on the high plateau.
located on the south side. Closets, storage areas, garage and less-
used rooms can be buffers on the north side. Baths, kitchens and
laundry rooms can be clustered, with the water heater in close prox-
imity to save on heat loss through long lines.

The SBIC plan shows a kitchen on the southeast corner of the

home, a living room on the south middle, and one bedroom on the
southwest corner. A garage is located on the northwest, buffer
spaces (closets, utility, bath) on the north middle and another bed-
room on the northwest.

Open floor plans work best with passive solar homes. The collected
solar heat can then circulate freely through natural convection cur-
rents (see Trombé Wall and Solar Overhang).
Sonoran style adobe in the Barrio Viejo, Tucson, Arizona.
232
SOTOCORO Spanish for the area under a balcony, usually just
inside the main door of historic adobe churches. In earlier architec- SPEED LEAD
ture, it represented a lower, cramped area, in contrast to the spa- (also Storey Pole) Speed leads are a set of vertical posts which are
cious sanctuary (after Bainbridge Bunting). set up near the house corners. The mason’s line that moves up and
down them represents a perfectly vertical plane (imagine a sheet of
glass) that will be your house wall.
SOURCE CENTER The use of photovoltaic systems requires a
safety power cutoff point and place to provide emergency fusing in Line blocks serve to slide the line up or down. They are small blocks
case of a failure at the load centers. A UL-approved source center of wood with a line groove and right angle corner that hooks onto
is used for all large systems (courtesy S. Verchinski, electrician). the lead. Line tension keeps the blocks attached to the leads. This
can be seen by studying the adjoining sketches (see Line Block).

SPALLING The flaking-off of masonry surfaces caused by a The term speed lead originated in California. Most adobe work is
number of factors. The most simple is when moisture is absorbed exposed there, and the cosmetics of the adobe coursing are impor-
into the earthen wall, then freezes. Salts in the soil can also cause tant. Leads are set up so as to expose corners so that the mason
spalling when they migrate to its surface. can strike the joints in an attractive manner.

On old sites near rivers with stone foundations, moisture can wick
up through the packed stone into thick adobe walls. It will migrate
to the outer wall surface and evaporate. If a non-breathable sealer
is placed on the wall exterior, spalling occur within the wall at the
boundary between sealer and moisture.
Speed leads also mean that the line blocks, and thus the line, can
be raised all around the house at one time, rather than in different
levels or courses at different times. This is in contrast to the old
approach (below), where first the corners were built up, then the
wall was filled in.

At Tumacacori Mission, near Nogales, in the 1970’s, the National The terms leads
Park Service experimented with silicone-based sealers with nega- or poles are
tive results. Since then, only breathable sealers have been deployed. interchanged
These keep rainwater out of the wall, yet let water vapor pass with different
through it. In historic buildings, restoration often removes damaged meanings in dif-
blocks and replaces them with new ones that replicate original soil ferent regions.
mix formulas. Solutions include adding overhangs and plastering Today, a set of
with adobe-compatible lime-based plasters (see Plasters). four or six angle
steel leads is
SPAN (or Clear Span) The distance of support or the measurement made up by a
of space that a beam, viga or lintel must cover with clear air beneath welder. These
it, as in: “the viga spanned a room 16 feet in width”. Bainbridge angle iron metal
Bunting reports that in Colonial New Mexico, average viga spans leads are very straight as compared to wood leads, which can warp,
were 13’ to 15’. especially if green.
233
 Two flat flanges are welded to the extension legs. They are punched
to slide over the steel stubs extending from the angle iron. To disas-
semble, the mason simply lifts the extension leg up . The three pieces
can then travel easily in the bed of a pickup truck.

The angle iron verticals have a toe welded to the bottom

of the angle which just sits on the corner of the stem. The
side steel braces are swiveled out and adjusted so that the
lead is perfectly vertical. The side braces are adjustable in
length and have pods (feet). The pods are then secured
with weighty objects found on the site, such as block or
234 brick.
Beyond 8 feet in length, angle iron leads become heavy. In Arizona,
a typical lead is 12 feet long, about the complete height (with para-
pet) of a one story adobe. They represent an investment on the part
of the mason, but they are great to work with. There is no hole dig-
ging for wood posts or any flimsy wood braces to pound away on,
and they are always straight.

Regardless of the type of lead, it is paramount that it be in a per-

fectly vertical position throughout the job. Masons will check their
leads with a bubble level before starting work, and after weekends,
or when people have been visiting the site. If it falls out of plumb,
even by a fraction of an inch, the wall will follow. The delicate anat-
omy of the lead set up determines how tons of earth will be placed.

When you stretch your line, try to determine the high point on your
stem top. To that rise, add the thickness of your mud mortar joint,
then the thickness of your adobe blocks. In adobe work, the mud
joints are thick to make up for the variation in block sizes, meaning
that 3/4” to 1” joints are common. Your adobes will probably be
close to 3-1/2” or 4” in thickness.

For each course, add the total of one mud mortar joint and one
adobe to define the top of each course. A transit can also be used
to shoot the leads from any vantage point on the site. 235
As work progresses check all the way around the house at different SQUARE A roofing term for 100 square feet, or an area of 10’x10’.
points to make sure you have remained level. If someone knocks Commonly used in figuring roofing materials, which are priced “by
over a lead or the adobe size changes, you will have to readjust the the square.”
marks.
SQUINCH ARCH A support arch that carries across the corner of
Pressed adobe thicknesses are more uniform, so the mud joints a room, changing a square room into an octagon. From the octagon
can be thinner at 1/2” or 5/8”. In some pressed block work, no shape, it is relatively easy to move to a drum and then to a dome
mortar joint is used at all, and the blocks are wetted with a thin (see Corbeled Corner and Adobe Vaults and Domes).
slurry, then set on the course. Regardless of your coursing, setting
up vertical leads or poles and marking your courses accurately is This form of earthen roof produces a higher dome than the penden-
the key to good adobe work. tive type and it is common to see the drum area pierced with arched
windows or openings.
In areas where adobe work is stuccoed over, some masons get
sloppy, even dispensing with the leads. They will say: “it all becomes
one wall mass, and it’s going to be covered anyway.” However, accu-
rate coursing allows the builder to locate electrical runs between
courses or attachment points in the wall after plaster has covered
them over.

SPLASH BLOCK A wide, flat piece of masonry or stone, used at

the base of an adobe wall to deflect water draining from the canal
above away from the wall.

The squinch resembles a rough half-hemisphere, with the open

side to the room. A few planks are set up to initially bridge the
corner and to determine the octagon line.

In Egypt, where wood is scarce, the rest of the forming, called “dry
forming”, is set up in adobe blocks without mud mortar. This dry
form is then shaped with a pack of mud over the top of the dry-
stacked adobes to a final shape.

A dusting of sand is applied over this final shape to keep the dry
form from sticking to the actual squinch that will be built over it. The
squinch is then built out in bóveda fashion (see Bóveda) from the
two sides to the octagon line. After its completion, the dry form of
236 adobes is removed along with the planks.
 STABILIZATION The two looks-
This creates two basic camps of adobe aficionados: those who like
In contemporary adobe and rammed earth work, stabilization is pop- exposed work on the exterior and those who prefer the plastered
ular. In areas such as California, all earth materials must be stabi- look. Exposed work is popular in Southern Arizona and California.
lized by code (U.B.C.). In other areas, such as New Mexico and Ari- Plastered work is popular in Southern Colorado and New Mexico.
zona, the builder is given a choice: either use natural (unstabilized)
materials and protect them with a coating of plaster, or use fully sta- The nature of the natural wall-
bilized ones, which require no protection and may be exposed to the All earthen walls contain a percentage of clay. If moisture pen-
elements. etrates, expansive clays will swell and shrink on drying. Some
earths with stable lateritic clays are almost unnoticeable in this
action, while others, with expansive smectite clays, may crack or
spall. Whatever the case, unstabilized or unprotected earthen walls
will slowly disintegrate over time. Paul McHenry estimates that an
unstabilized wall left open to the elements will erode on an average
Stabilized adobe of 1 inch every 20 years. Native builders in many parts of the world
used in a cre- simply applied coats of mud plaster over their walls as part of their
atively designed regular maintenance cycle. This was done every three to five years,
home, Rancho depending on rain, and was quite effective. For a description of how
Santa Fe , Califor-
nia. The adobes
this was part of a regional lifestyle, see Enjarradora.
that appear to
hang vertically Why did they use straw originally?
are actually sus- One hundred years ago, builders would purposely increase the
pended by stain- amount of clay in their adobes to repel water. But the clay would
less steel rods
within the wall,
eventually absorb some water, resulting in cracking. To offset this,
an unusual plant fiber was added to the mix. Popular choices were chopped
technique. The straw, yucca fiber, grass or pine needles. Today, using stabilizers,
adobe blocks are we combine mineral soils that need no organic material.
from the Hans
Sumpf Company,
Madera, Ca.
Today’s reality-
Homeowners in busy America choose not to take the time for com-
munal wall maintenance tasks. We want a wall that does not require
much upkeep. Hard stucco is generally applied over unprotected
walls, using a wire mesh. This has grown into a strong “sub-indus-
try” in New Mexico, where many talented crews compete for the
larger custom adobe projects. The sculptured lines of the stucco
hearken back to a time when the same effects were rendered in
mud.
237
Which is cheaper?
Cost estimates on unstabilized, stuccoed walls vs. fully stabilized,
unplastered walls have shown that the latter is cheaper to build.
Stucco crews must apply nails and stucco netting to the wall, which
are not required when the walls are fully stabilized. Additionally,
labor costs are higher when separate crews must come in to stucco,
vs. the contractor’s crew mixing a stabilizer into the wall-making
materials.
job is to surround the clusters with a thin film of asphalt, providing a
physical barrier to the passage of water.
Adobe makers often use asphaltic emulsions to stabilize their
blocks, because asphaltic emulsions come as liquid and will easily
disperse in a very wet mud mix. The Uniform Building Code’s test
for what constitutes a stabilized adobe is built around the assump-
tion that asphaltic emulsion is the chosen stabilizer.

How stabilizers work- Test for stabilization using asphaltic emulsion-

While some methods, such as cements, have been well established The U.B.C. says that a sample must not absorb more than 2-1/2%
over a period of centuries, others, such as asphaltic emulsion, are of its weight over a seven day period, during which it is constantly in
about 60 years old. Still others are experimental. contact with a water-saturated surface. The range of percentages
required to stabilize most soils varies from 3% to 5.5% of pounds of
Earth stabilizers work in three main ways. asphaltic emulsion to pounds of dry earth.
1. Increasing the strength and cohesion of the soil
2. Waterproofing the soil Run your own asphalt emulsion stabilization tests-
3. Reducing the moisture movement in the soil You will need: large cooking pan or cookie sheet with 1” sides, stan-
dard rectangular sponges, accurate electronic scale, small forms to
Start with the basics- make samples (2” x 4” or so), notebook.
The first method is used by any backyard adobe maker while adjust-
ing the mix for good proportions of clay to sand. It is known that
adobe is more sand than clay. In fact, only enough clay is needed to
hold the sand particles together. Too much clay, and the block will
crack in the sun, admitting water and ruining its structural quality.
Too much sand, and it will admit water too easily, crumbling under
pressure.

Asphaltic emulsions-
With no. 1 (right), we have a film of clay surrounding clusters of
sand particles, binding
them together. In other
words, an unstabilized
sample. As we move
on to no. 2, we intro- 1. Start by making up a family of five small samples, each of which
1. 2.
duce asphaltic emul- has 3% by weight asphalt emulsion. Identify each one clearly. Cure
sions. Their them completely. Weigh each one, recording the figures on a chart.
238
2. Make up two more families, one at 4% and one at 5%. Cure all If too much water is
completely. added and the mix
3. Weigh all samples of all families, marking clearly on your chart. is too soupy, place
4. Fill pan or cookie sheet with 1/2” water. Set sponges flat in water, the wheelbarrow in
so that at least half the sponge is above the water line. Keep pan(s) a sunny location.
supplied with water throughout the test. After a few hours of
5. Place adobe samples flat on the sponges. Leave them for seven sun, it will stiffen.
days, making sure that pan is supplied with water. In the meantime,
6. At seven days, remove each and weigh it immediately, marking switch to another
the results on your chart. wheelbarrow.
7. Determine which families gained more than 2.5% by weight.
These are not stabilized samples. Do not flirt with the 2.5% thresh- The next sized tool
old. If one family comes in at 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6%, then increase the up is a plaster
percentage of emulsion in the mix. If a family weighs in at 2.2, 2.3 mixer. Again,
and 2.1, you are sufficiently under the threshold to be safe. If a increase the recipe
family comes in at 1.5, 1.7 and 2.0 (for example), you may be able accordingly.
to cut back on the percentage, but with caution.
Even larger is the
scoop on a bobcat
Size the recipe to your tools- or front-end loader.
Once you know what percentage stabilizes your soil, you must Have the operator
translate that to the tools you will use. For example, a wheelbarrow set the bucket level.
holds 140 lbs. of dry earth. The tester determines that 4.5% will sta- Fill the bucket
bilize his soil. 140 x 4.5 = 5.3 lbs. of emulsion. Using a scale, the evenly with dry soil,
adobero marks the weight line on the side of a one gallon can. screeding off the top of the bucket with a board, and shovel out the
material and weigh it. Again, determine 4.5% of that weight and find
The emulsion will congeal if you pour it directly into the dry soil in the right pail or bucket to use as a measuring spoon.
the wheelbarrow, so mix the emulsion into a few gallons of water.
The water is the medium that mixes the two, but the water is not Quality control-
weighed, as it will eventually evaporate out, leaving pounds of emul- Each earth or soil is different. Sandier soils require less asphaltic
sion to pounds of soil. emulsion than clayey soils. One cannot take a figure that worked
for a neighbor and assume that it will work at home. A competent
Pour the mixture into the wheelbarrow, mixing it thoroughly. In dry stabilized adobe manufacturer always keeps an eye on the mix he
weather, the mix will require more water to bring it to a viscosity that mines or buys, testing periodically. For example, the Hans Sumpf
is good for mud mortar or making blocks. But remember, more water Co. in Madera, Ca., has installed their own asphalt emulsion manu-
will not spoil the recipe, since the correct weight of emulsion to soil facturing plant so they can maintain the quality of their emulsions.
is already in place.
239
Danger of lubricated soil- For example, soils in the Albuquerque area work best with a vari-
Owner-builders often make the mistake of assuming that they can ety called CSS-1 or CSS-1H (Cationic slow setting-1 hard). Pro-
avoid the testing and time involved by simply dumping a higher cedures at the petroleum facilities can also be important. Builders
than normal percentage of asphaltic emulsion into their mix. The using emulsions need containers with large diameter openings or
assumption is that they will overcome the needs of the soil with pop-top lids, so that bigger hoses can fill them. The emulsion is
more asphaltic emulsion, and thus produce a super-stabilized block. usually pumped through large valves at 90ºF or higher. It is a sticky,
This is a mistake. chocolate-looking substance. It is mildly caustic in a pure state,
but once diluted with water and earth, odor disappears. No known
Over 6% asphaltic emulsion by weight to earth will weaken the cases have been reported of negative effects after a half century of
block and can set up a condition known as lubricated soil. The par- use. It can ruin new shoes or clothes unless washed out quickly with
ticles become so saturated or coated with the waterproofer that they water. Once it is exposed to the air it reverts quickly to an oil base,
almost roll over each other. The adobe so produced is not suitable and a hand cleaner or paint thinner will remove it.
for construction.
The people at the
Thus, it is necessary to know your soils, and to try to assure yourselfasphalt plant are
of a constant supply of one soil, once you have determined how used to dealing with
much asphaltic emulsion is necessary to stabilize it. If you change 18 wheeler rigs that
the mix or earth, you should retest. The standard manual for asphal- buy thousands of
tic emulsion stabilization is The Manufacture of Asphalt Emulsion gallons at a time.
Stabilized Blocks and Brickmakers’ Manual Available from Kennel If the builder shows
Bookstore, California State University, 5284 North Jackson, Fresno, up with a 5 gallon
Ca. 93740-0022. can, wanting imme-
diate service, he
Keep in mind that all soils have an electrical charge, as do the emul- may have to wait,
sions. Opposite charges attract, causing the asphalt film to bind only to discover
tightly around the clays. Occasionally, a particular soil and emul- that the aperture on his can is too small for the hose.
sion will not marry, and some local research must be carried out to
either change to another type of emulsion or to amend the soil in Call ahead, and buy a quantity that will justify the hassle. 55 gallon
some way. drums are unwieldy and owner builders may find a 20 to 30 gallon
drum much more convenient. They can use a moving dolly to walk
Emulsion suppliers and handling the material- a 20 or 30 drum down a plank on their pickup truck. Being able
Asphalt emulsions are available from a variety of petroleum prod- to move the drum is important in cold weather, as the asphaltic
ucts distributors around the country, or from your local adobe yard. emuslion cannot be allowed to freeze. If it does, it will separate,
Standard Oil (Chevron) is one supplier. Koch of Albuquerque, N.M., returning to its oil-based state. There are many days during the
or Hawker/Evans of Mesa, Az. may be more willing to deal with winter when adobe laying can be done on a rising thermometer, but
small contractors or owner-builders. These manufacturers will know at night, the asphaltic emulsion should be wheeled into a protected,
what variety of emulsion works best with most local soils. non-freezing area.
240
While asphaltic emulsion may sound like a real hassle, the insur-
ance it provides to adobe work is worth it. Stabilized adobe block
and adobe work may be left exposed to the elements without fear.
At adobe making facilities, it is not uncommon to see fully stabilized
blocks sitting in puddles of water from a recent rain with no damage.
The asphaltic emulsion will add a gray cast to some soils, but in the
total effect of the wall this is not noticeable.

Portland Cement as a stabilizer-

In many parts of the world, where asphaltic products are unobtain-
able or expensive, Portland cement is the only stabilization possi-
ble. Method 3, (pg 238) generally relies on cementitious materials to
be effective, Portland cement being the most popular. The amount
used is not enough to completely fill the voids between sand and
clay, but instead to chemically cement the cluster together.

The effect is something like that in a concrete block - water may

migrate through it, but it retains its shape and sufficient strength.
Percentages that stabilize most soils range from 5 to 7%. Some
limestone based soils may only need 3%. At 6% by weight, a 100
pound pile would be 94 lbs. dry soil to 6 lbs. Portland cement.

Unlike asphalt emulsion, if too much Portland is added to a mix, These exposed adobe walls are stabilized with Portland cement, as is the mud
lubricated soil is not a danger. Instead, the mix will get stronger, but mortar they are laid in. Clay Mine Adobe, Tucson, Az.
photo by Daniel Snyder
also more expensive.
Start at 5% Portland cement by weight, which would be a 50 lb. pile
Testing for stabilization using Portland cement- of prepared material with 47.5 lbs. soil and 2.5 lbs. Portland cement.
As in asphalt emulsion, families of test samples are set up using Do at least five of these. Identify each sample. Prepare another
different percentages (see above). They must be completely cured 5 cylinders at 6% Portland by weight, and yet another 5 at 6.5%.
before testing. However, the shape of the samples and how they are Identify all samples.
tested is quite different. The sponges and tray can be eliminated.
Wet strength test-
The test samples are made up as cylinders. A common testing lab After the samples are completely cured, they are fully immersed in
size is 4” in diameter by 4 1/2” high. Check with your soil testing lab water for four hours. At the end of four hours, they are pulled out
for their requirements. Using a piece of plastic pipe, ram your pre- of the water and immediately subjected to a compression test. To
pared soil into it, to the top. Let it dry, and push it from the cylinder. qualify, each sample must attain a minimum of 300 pounds per sq.
A hydraulic jack can be used to extract stubborn samples. inch.
241
It will generally be easier to hire a soils engineering lab to do this Determine batch sizes-
work than to try to do it yourself. Such labs are established in all In New Mexico, the rammed earth code allows 60 minutes to ram
larger cities. They are constantly testing these sorts of materials your prepared soil once the Portland is added. Hydration will start
for highway work, overpasses, etc. The standards for wet strength immediately on mixing where moisture is present. You must deter-
testing are found under the American Society for Testing Materials mine how large a pile of material you can press or ram in 60 min-
guidelines (ASTM). There are several tests for Molded Soil-cement utes, assuming certain equipment and size of crew. The above rule
cylinders. One that approximates the description above is ASTM will also work for pressed block. If weather conditions are hot and
designation D 1633-84. It is possible that a particular code jurisdic- windy, prepare your soil in a shady area, and turn the pile, misting
tion may require a different ASTM test, in which the sample is sub- occasionally to maintain “optimum moisture”.
merged for 12 or 24 hours before a compression test. In any case,
the lab will deliver a conclusive report that can be taken to the build- Wet-curing-
ing inspection department. In New Mexico, such reports must be When rammed earth or pressed blocks use Portland cement, they
attached to the working drawings for stabilized rammed earth when need water of hydration and must be “wet-cured” after pressing.
submitting for a building permit. If they dry out too quickly, they can crumble or powder, losing
strength. In the U.S., workers water the stacks or the wall with a mist
The wet strength test assumes from the onset that Portland-based three to six times a day, depending on weather. In the tropics, if a
soils are porous. Therefore, samples will usually not pass the hose is not available, freshly pressed blocks may be stacked under
absorption test used with asphaltic emulsions. The question is a ramada with damp burlap sacks draped over them.
whether or not the sample will retain sufficient structural integrity
and strength to do its job, after it has been immersed in water. If
a particular sample does not meet the 300 p.s.i. compression test, Mortar should match the blocks in strength and stabilization-
then the percentage of Portland cement must be increased. All stabilized block or adobe must be laid in a fully stabilized mud
mortar to meet code, regardless of the means of stabilization.
Adding Portland to pressed adobe and rammed earth- Therefore, if you buy fully stabilized adobes, you must also stabi-
Both of these wall systems use a dry mix where the soil and Port- lize the soil or earth you lay them in. Keep in mind that in standard
land cement are mixed in a dry state to an even color and texture. adobe construction, the mud mortar joints in the wall can constitute
Water is then added slowly to bring the pile to between 8% and 10% 20% of the wall mass. Owner-builders who purchase adobes from a
moisture. The trade term for this is “optimum moisture”. The nature commercial facility will tend to overlook this logistical reality.
of the soil can be described as damp. If a ball of it is squeezed into a
fistful, and then the fingers released, the ball will hold together, but The process for testing and stabilizing the mud mortar is exactly
without dripping water. the same as for making the adobe blocks. They can be from the
block source or a different location. If the adobero tells you that you
Pressed adobe requires a little less water in the mix, rammed earth must buy his earth to mix a mud mortar to go with his adobes, from
a little more. The best way to know your soil is to mix a small pile and a structural standpoint, this is not true. You should however, make
try tamping it into a small but sturdy wood box. If it packs tightly with- sure that your source for mortar material can be maintained for the
out heaving or plating, you are at optimum moisture for that soil. life of the project. If the wall is to be exposed, the same soil color
should be maintained.
242
Crew morale and quality control-
The wise builder realizes that the person running the plaster mixer STARTER HOUSE
and adding the stabilizer is likely an entry level worker. If your aim
is a fully exposed, beautiful, adobe wall (without plaster), an angry
client’s call five years later about wall erosion will not make your day.
Quality control with stabilized earth walls is a big deal. Explain the
stabilization process to the crew. Test them on the recipe. Make sure
that your attitude towards them is as positive as the attitude they
should have toward the project.

Green Alternatives: Lime and clay stabilizer-

Referring to no. 3, pg 238, it is important to reduce the moisture
movement through the block. A pozzolanic reaction occurs between
lime and certain clay minerals. The reaction forms a variety of A one bedroom 950 sq.ft. starter solaradobe at Las Vegas, N.M. The builder used
cement-like compounds which bind the earth particles together. plans developed at Southwest Solar Adobe School.
Because lime reduces the extent to which clay absorbs water, we A term used for a design/plan that provides the dweller with
can make the soil less sensitive to changes in its moisture content. a basic, livable core that may be expanded later on. Starter
Thus, we can take a soil that would not have been suitable for ordi- houses always include a bathroom, kitchen space, some storage,
nary adobe because the clay content was too high, and press it in a and a living area, convertible
machine with lime in order to make a serviceable block. for sleeping. They lower cost
by initially containing only the
This method of stabilization is not in U.S. codes, as of 2001. How- minimum needed to carry out a
ever, if you can pass the wet strength test, a lab can certify it. The normal living standard with sani-
British have had success with this method, using their manually tary facilities. Starter homes are
operated Brepak Pressing machine. It puts enough pressure into generally below 1000 sq. ft. in
the pressing chamber to cause a chemical reaction between the area, often as small as 500 to
clay and lime (see Pressed Block). 700 sq. ft.

Green Alternatives: Plant Latexes- Expansion pre-planning-

Petroleum is projected to decline rapidly sometime before 2007. The builder plans for later expan-
Research is needed about natural stabilizers, such as plant latexes sion before the first construction
and resins. These recipes exist as folk traditions and have not been begins. The plan may show wood
properly analyzed. One proposal is to grow plants in the milkweed or concrete lintels set into the
family, then cut and ferment them in water, harvesting the “skim” as adobe or rammed earth at pre-
a stabilizer (see Mosote). Chemistry and botany students attending planned locations. Later, a door
Agricultural colleges could work with local farmers to set up a small or window can be cut out below
experimental facility (see Plasters for information on stabilizers). them (see right).
243
The power panel installed can be larger than immediately neces- Plan of attack-
sary, to provide extra circuits for later additions. Circuits may also Starter builders often work for short periods on limited funds. Once
be run in the earthen walls to junction boxes close to where the plans are approved, they are encouraged to break the project down
addition will begin. into seven specific stages, each of which can be completed in a
work period. The work periods are an average of two to three weeks
It is considered a money saver to pour the footing, and sometimes long for a small home, excepting the finish work, which will take a
the stem as well, for the addition at the time the footing is poured few months. The stages are:
for the starter. A plumbing consideration is a “Y” fitting placed in the
main waste drain between the edge of the house and the cleanouts, 1. Site preparation and amassing of materials
so that an additional bathroom may be tied into the septic system. 2. Foundations
3. Adobe laying or wall ramming
Ties are structurally important between the starter unit and the 4. Bond beam
future addition. Dur-o-Wal™ and steel rebar may be left protruding 5. Roof framing and cover
from the starter, to later tie into the addition wall coursing. Another 6. Finish work.
“tie” solution are stair-stepped adobe walls that become part of the
addition walls. Recent history of starters-
In future times, starter units may be the only hope for many to obtain
well-built homes at a reasonable cost. The technique is time-hon-
ored; many old adobes began as a small core, which expanded
along with the family.

More recently, during the recession of 1981 and 1982, adobe starter
units became popular with couples who could not qualify for financ-
ing for larger houses. At the time, materials costs for starters ran
about $15-17 per sq. ft. Many families circumvented the loan pro-

Starter pitfalls-
There are common pitfalls to starter projects. Aesthet-
ically, how does one hide or disguise the steel ties?
They are often bent down against the wall, with a board
cover. Space is usually at a premium. Eager to take
up residence in their “charming little adobe”, owners
cram too many things into the available space. Sooner
or later, spill-over occurs. If the starter builder does not
carry out his project cleanly, he may mar the site and
make it hard to get past his own debris to begin the
addition. Junk reduces property value. A variation of the starter plan shown on page 245. Location: Las Vegas, New Mexico
244
 STEM See Foundation System.

STEPPED FOUNDATION The stem,

rising from the footing, may be stepped to
mark a change in floor level. Such stepped
“stems” are laid up in concrete block or
poured of concrete. A stepped stem is a
typical feature on sloping or hilly sites. The
footing itself is never stepped, but rests
horizontally at the same level around the
structure.

STICKER 1”x1” or 2”x2” spacers, set

between green lumber for proper air curing
(used by Griffin’s Wood Products, Reserve,
N.M.).
The floorplan above corresponds with the starter photo at the top of page 243.
STILE The vertical outside pieces that make up a door.
cess entirely, building their own at that price for materials. With
some sub-contracted tradework like electrical, roofing, and plumb- STONE STEM Stone stems are popular under earthen walls and
ing, and some paid labor, a tenacious family could take up resi- are the logical mate for them in areas where water splashback
dence within one to two years at a finish price of between $15 and could be a problem. A strong tradition of stone work under adobe
$30 per sq. ft. These prices did not include the cost of the land, structures is evident in the north of México, especially Chihuahua.
septic system or well.
In Las Cruces and El Paso, it is less expensive to have a stone
In 2001, owner-builders are still on record as bringing off substantial foundation and stem laid by local masons than it is to lay a standard
earth-wall projects at low cost. Current bottom line figures are $30 - poured concrete footing with C.M.U. stem blocks. Trenches are dug
$45 per square foot, following the early 1980’s approach. In almost in the usual manner, to below frostline, with adequate steel.
all cases, the starter builders did most of the labor themselves, only
farming out the most technical jobs. Stone wall contractors often disdain placing steel in the walls, as
it slows down the rock laying. Insist otherwise, while making sure
STEEL FRAME See Post Adobe. that the mortar the stone is laid in has sufficient Portland
cement. In laying the stone, a mix of one Portland to three 245
sand is sufficient; the lime is left out. Eliminating the lime means
the mix will set up faster, a trick masons use to “freeze” stones in a
certain position.

Note mason’s line to keep wall face vertical.

STOREY POLE See Speed Lead.

STRESS POINT (or Point Loading) In earthen construction, a spot

Generally, once above grade, strings are set out to define the wall where weight from above is concentrated upon the earth wall. The
face, with speedleads at the corners. Stones are laid with the flat- general idea is to spread out such weight, so that it bears
test side out, but occasionally, flat stones are keyed back into the broadly over the earth wall, acting as a distributed load.
mass. Codes allow a very
large safety factor
High stems, as in the photo above, should be reinforced with steel against stress actu-
rebar, both horizontally and vertically. Spacing is roughly every two ally becoming great
feet for the verticals, and every 18” to 24” for the horizontals. If enough to cause fail-
the stone stem represents the face of an embankment, weep holes ure, but when in
should be left at the base, with some sort of gravel pack around doubt, builders typ-
the interior of the drain, underlaid with a felt or plastic. In cases ically install a lintel
where the stem is withstanding hydrostatic pressures, or on steep of wood or concrete
hillsides, an engineer should be consulted. in the adobe or
rammed earth wall
New Mexico Energy Code will require perimeter insulation on the at the pre-planned
inside of the stem. height.
246
 SWEEPING (or Scanning) A term that describes the tamping
action or pattern in rammed earth work. It is the motion of the pneu-
matic tamper back and forth between the forms. In most rammed
earth work, the “ties” or steel straps are on 4 foot centers, and the
tamper must avoid hitting these ties. Therefore, the operator is
“scanning” or sweeping” an area four feet long, by as wide as the
wall width. The general technique is to travel around the perimeter
first, and then around the perimeter a second time. Then an “S”
motion is pattern is swept across the middle, again going over the
area two times. A lift of soil begins at about 8” thick and tamps down
to roughly 5” thick, via this sweeping action. The next lift will cover
the tie, and sweeping will take place over the tie area, making sure
it is well-tamped (use by Tom Schmidt,St. David, Az., see Rammed
Earth, illustrations pg 199).

T-BOLT An attachment device, developed by Robert Barnes,

Since the mid-1990’s wood costs have escalated, forcing designers architect at Old Pueblo Adobe Co. in Tucson, Az. T-Bolts are set into
to cut back on the long spans of timbers commonly stocked during the earthen wall as it goes up. The top of the T parallels the run of
more abundant times. the wall. The leg of the T is at 90º to the top and is threaded to take
a washer and nut. The leg is made to penetrate through the wall,
This has led to the use of carrier beams, set across a room near its as well as the piece it attaches to, such as a 2”x6” stud on a frame
center. The builder uses this as a carrier for smaller, more economi- wall beyond, or the timber for a gate post.
cal timbers. Point loading will be magnified at the ends of a carrier
beam, but lintels constructed into the wall can spread out the load.

STUB OUT Leaving a plumbing or electrical connection temporar-

ily capped for final fittings to be soldered or welded on.

STUCCO The three-coat, cement-based plaster that is applied to

unstabilized or semi-stabilized earth walls. Either stucco or some
other protective coating is required by code on earth walls that are
not stabilized. The original stucco was lime-based (see Plasters).

247
T-Bolts may be placed along a vertical line so that they can tie a
frame wall to an adobe wall along its full length. They may be set 2
or 3 feet apart, or as specified on a plan. For very large entrance
gates, T-bolts may be embedded in a concrete pour, hidden in the
adobe wall. these then bolt to steel posts or wood timbers. The
builder has a number of them made up at the local welding shop.
T-Bolts are typically of 1/2” or 5/8” steel stock.

T-SHAPED One of the worst possible open design shapes for an

earthen home in a heavy seismic zone. The T may be improved
with integrated cross walls (use in Perú, see L-shaped).

TABLA Today, a sawn board, such as a 2”x 8”. Traditionally, they

were hand-adzed boards, with only one side finished flat, the other
side often showing the rounded contour of the tree. The Las Tram-
pas church in Northern New Mexico has examples of tablas painted
with red and black dye before being put up in the ceilings (circa
1760’s, after Bainbridge Bunting). Today as then, a tabla only spans
from one viga or beam to the next.

TABLÓN A lintel (Costa Rica). tamper weighing around

7 pounds was effective
TAMBO A 55 gallon steel drum. along edges and cor-
ners. A larger rectan-
gular, block-like tamper
TAMPER The pneumatic “backfill tamper” used in rammed earth covered general areas
construction. They come in the larger “bigfoot” models with diam- (see Rammed Earth and
eters up to 5-3/4” and weighing 47 pounds by Ingersoll-Rand, to Sweeping).
lighter models, such as “Jet”, with heads 2 1/2” in diameter. All are
air powered. TANDA Spanish for a
course of adobe stacked
Originally, tampers were of wood or cast iron. According to early in a kiln for firing into
writers, at least three shapes were required, one a heart shape adobe quemado (see
which compressed the earth in four directions. It weighed from Ladrillera).
8 to 13 pounds, kneading the soil. A metal, flat-faced
248
TAPIA A low, mud wall. TERRITORIAL STYLE Derived from the Greek Revival style, the
Territorial Style did not arrive in the southwest until after the Civil
TAPIA (alternative) A form of adobe used in Trinidad and parts of War. Greek Revival had begun on the American eastern seaboard
Africa which uses a strong fibrous grass, often sprobolus indicus, as early as 1820, and the lag to New Mexico, via the Santa Fé trail,
cut into short lengths as a mechanical binder. was a good 40 years. Triangular-shaped wood trim, creating slightly
pedimented effects above door and
window openings, is typical, as are
TAQUEZAL A form of earthen wall construction found in Central fancy treatments in red brick on the
America, especially Nicaragua. Typically it consists of a double- parapets. Vertical posts that some-
wood frame, filled with a rubble consisting of earth, stone, clay tile what echo classical capitals and
pieces and organic materials. Where available, the owner may add columns are other giveaways. In
cement, lime or other materials. Unfortunately, unlike its cousin New Mexico, remodeling between
bahareque, taquezal has a poor performance record in seismic dis- Spanish Colonial and Greek Revival
turbances. It was a popular house form around Managua before styles created a “folk art” style in
both the 1931 and 1972 earthquakes (use documented by Carlos rural areas referred to by the late
Lola, see Bajareque and Fachwerk). architectural historian Bainbridge
Bunting as “Rio Grande Greek”.
TEJA MANI In the Dominican Republic, a horizontal wood-woven
wall, to which mud is applied, keyed to the wall by the spaces in TERRÓN An earth-sod brick used in various areas of central New
between. Similar to the jacál of the southwest, except that the log- Mexico along the Rio Grande. Terrón walls are locally famous for
ging is horizontal (see Jacál). their durability. Terrónes are more resilient than adobes - they just
bounce when thrown from a height.

TEJERALES A system of roof trusses, used in Perú as part of an

anti-seismic design. They tie to the viga collar that runs around the
tops of the walls.

TERRA COTTA Originally, Italian for “baked earth”. Since the

twenties in the U.S., the term has come to define a ceramic tile roof
in the Mission Revival style, with colors of all earth hues.

TERRAZZO FLOOR A masonry floor produced by embedding

chips of seashells, marble or colored stone in concrete, then grind-
ing and polishing the surface. Popular in México.
Terrones laid into the wall wet, without an adobe mortar.
249
The Isleta Indians, south of Albuquerque, still harvest the material
for their own use. In Argentina, terrónes are similiar, the tradition
having been introduced by the Spanish in Colonial times.

Bogs by the Rio Grande often contain a wet soil held together by
grass roots. Pressure from the river pushes the bog upwards and
new layers of grass and sediments bind together during the wet
cycle. Sediment from flooding adds to the buildup of a bog over
time.

Straight-cutting shovels are used to cut the sod bricks from the
bogs. They are stacked, then hauled to the building site after a
reasonable cure time. Sometimes, terrónes are laid in the wall still
damp, without mortar. The belief in some quarters is that the ter-
rónes will grow together because the grass in them is alive for a
time after cutting. Local Spanish plasterers often refer to them as
“hairy old men”, because of the grass root content.

It takes a lot of plaster to fill all the voids in a terrón wall, as it is

a rougher wall than adobe. The blocks are most often laid up in
a mud mortar like adobes, but without level coursing. Corners are
established to keep a vertical wall face, but the blocks are plopped
down to the string only as a rough check. Terrón sizes vary from
about 6”x 6”x12” to 6”x 8”x18”.

THREE-QUARTER MIX Sand and gravel, about 50/50 in measure,

that constitutes the base for concrete. No stones exceed 3/4” in
size. Portland cement is added to 3/4” mix to make concrete.

THROWING THE SHOVEL The art of loading a round-pointed

shovel with mud mortar, then tossing it up to an adobero on the
scaffold. Workers who haven’t performed the technique may con-
sider it folly until they have tried the alternative - bucketing the mud
up. They will soon find that the shovel toss is fluid, fairly fast, and
much less dangerous than other methods.

250
The trick is a sort of underslung pendulum arc, in which the thrower
does not shoot the shovel at the receiver, but gracefully swings it
skyward. The toss will hit the top of its arc in front of the receiver, at
about chest height. The catcher deftly plucks the shovel out of the
air and with a flip of the wrist, plops the mud onto the course. The
shovel is then swung out and dropped to the ground vertically, head
first. The thrower grabs it, and scoops another bite from the barrow.
Mud throwing from the ground to second floor is common.
TORCHIS A mixture consisting of clay soil and cow hair, used in
building daub walls in France.
TORNEADOS Spirally-carved vertical posts, sometimes carved in
rough-hewn fashion, sometimes in refined fashion, and acting as
structural supports under corbels and roof timbers.

Safety is a consideration with novices who try shovel tossing. All

hands on the crew should be alerted to beginning attempts. It is
best to practice off the job with different weights of mud. Trying
to throw cement-based mortars will not work the same way. The
cements have no clay content and may not stick to the shovel.

THRUSTER In Western Australia, a 1.8 meter piece of forming

used in rammed earth work.

TIE DOWN BRICKS In Australia, a term for pressed adobe or

hydraulically pressed block (used by Steve Burroughs, Earthbuild-
ers, Belconnen, Australia).

TIMBER A wooden structural piece that is 5” or larger in its small-

est dimension. A 4”x6” is not a timber, but a 6” by 8” is. Carving torneados at Groff Lumber, Albuquerque.

TOENAILED A nail driven in at a slant so as to get a good bite

into underlying wood, or so that the nail will be hidden from the eye.
Wood decks over round vigas are toenailed so that the nails will not
be visible from below.

TOP LOAD In pressed adobe machinery, top load describes

a machine that presses the moistened earth downward into the
chamber. The resulting blocks are always consistent in width and
length, but vary in depth. The amount of moisture in the mix deter-
mines this variation. To overcome slight differences in depth, such
blocks are always laid in thicker mortar joints (see Pressed Block).
251
 TROMBÉ WALL
A masonry radiant heater where air is superheated by the sun in a
glass enclosed box oriented within 15º of true south. This technique
for passive solar heating has five elements:

1. Glazing
2. Air space between the glazing and the mass wall
3. Mass wall - adobe, rammed earth, concrete, stone, brick
4. Vents, if a vented Trombé, as opposed to unvented
5. Solar overhang to cut out gain during the summer months

The Trombé was developed in the fifties by a French doctor of the

same name, but the technique became popular in the Southwestern
U.S. in the mid to late 1970’s, when a great deal of experimentation
was done. By the early 1980’s, they were integrated into standard
building practice in northern and central New Mexico, where adobe
A torreón at Castillo de San Marcos, St. Augustine, Florida. architecture and colder winters made them a desirable choice.
illustration: L. Kenneth Townsend, NPS
TORREÓN In colonial times, a round lookout structure. Often of In their simplest form, Trombés are little more than a glazed box or
adobe, they were deployed for defensive purposes, as in the corner frame set against a mass masonry wall, with 3” to 4” of air space
of a Spanish presidio wall. Near Taos, N.M., a torreón still survives between glazing and wall. In practice, they are often framed up
on the Talpa road, a relic of the Commanche raiding days when His-
panic settlers tried to protect themselves from fierce attacks. This
one originally had no windows and but one entry. It dated from
about 1776 (after Bunting, 1960’s).

TREE-RING DATING (Dendrochronology) An important tech-

nique in the dating of old sites. Tree-ring dating has helped to date
old adobe churches and homes by taking core samples of the origi-
nal vigas in the roof structure. Old beams can also be so dated, as
was the case at San Miguel church in Santa Fé, where a timber was
found to have been felled after 1690 in time for the rebuilding of the
church in 1710. Another example is the Gregorio Crespín adobe
of Santa Fé, built before 1747 and confirmed by tree-ring work to
date between 1720 and 1750, and the Las Trampas Church, also in
Trombé walls form a U-shape around smaller central direct gain windows.
N.M., which dates from 1760 to 1770 (after Bunting).
252 Solaradobe by Mark Chalom, architect, Santa Fé, N.M.
between vertical framing members, on a spacing that corresponds
with the owner’s choice of a fixed window unit. Because of the high
temperatures generated inside the glazing, wood will take a beat-
ing, and metal frames are a good choice. The metal systems can be
removed for cleaning the interior.

The wall is either naturally dark or can be painted a dark color. This
allows the wall to absorb as much solar energy as possible. Tem-
peratures in unvented Trombé walls can reach 200ºF, but the aver-
age maximums are 130º to 150ºF.

As the wall mass heats up, a conductive wave of energy is sent

through the wall to the interior. If the wall is of a thinner variety (8” to
12”), then the pulsation of warmth will be felt 9-12 hours later. When
bedrooms are placed on the south side of a home, Trombés may be
designed so that they generate the most heat around bedtime and
for some hours afterward.

This drawing of a vented Trombé is part of a set of working drawings for an

adobe development in North Albuquerque, New Mexico.

253
 The suggested combined lower and upper vent area
is 1% to 2% of the total Trombé collector area. Sev-
eral smaller vents placed evenly along the wall at top
and bottom are considered superior to a few larger
vents. Staggering the vents, so that the top vents are
not directly over the lower ones, will produce a more
even air mix, further into the room.

Trombés are less efficient than simple direct gain,

but they offer privacy and a way to delay the solar
effect through use of the mass wall. Their design
is described in many passive solar manuals, but the
classic work is Thermal Storage Wall Design Manual,
by Alex Wilson, NMSEA 1979.

The standard successful adobe Trombé in the north-

ern New Mexico area is a 10” thick adobe wall, painted
a dark brown, and framed up with a series of 34” x
To understand the thermal chart above, refer to drawing at bottom
right. This drawing from Thermal Storage Wall Manual, Alex Wilson
NMSEA, 1979
If the mass wall is very thick (18”-24”), then the mass
tends to moderate the conductive effect and the radiance
of energy is more even over time in the interior.

Trombés are of two types, vented and unvented. In the

non-vented type, all of the energy goes into the time lag of
the mass wall, as explained above, and dwellers must use
the benefits during the night hours. In the vented variety,
about 30% of the energy is used right away, through the
convective loop principle shown in the drawing. The mass
wall still works, but to a lesser degree.

Vented Trombés are less popular because their vents can

allow the entry of insects and dust into the space between
the glass and wall, requiring removal of the glazing for
cleaning (see detail previous page).
254
76” patio replacement units (fixed, tempered, double-
glazed), which are a good value for the area covered.
The solar overhang is essential to prevent summer over-
heating (see Solar Overhang). Trombés may also be
used as passive cooling devices to vent warm house air,
as in the sketch on pg 256.

The isometric below corresponds with the plans of

Trombé walls to the right. The top shows a metal
mount installation, the lower a wood stop installa-
tion.

Note that the advantage of a Trombé wall is that it

strengthens the corner, compared to a direct gain
unit, which provides no lateral support to a corner.

255
 gles, that provides rigid support over wide spans with a minimum
amount of material. In a typical truss, the rafters might be of 2”x6”
lumber, the chord, along the bottom, of 2”x4” material, and the truss
members joining the two, of 2”x4” or 2”x6” lumber. Stamped, engi-
neered drawings for trusses are available from truss houses. The
sketch below shows a truss that simulates a 4”x10” beam, using no
lumber bigger than a 1”x10” board (see Purlin).

TUBALI A West African term for hand-made, pear shaped “bricks”

made from a mix consisting of clay soil, water and short pieces of
dried grass. Tubalis are laid with their base downward in a bed of
mortar: 3, 4 or more abreast. The next course is laid with its bases
interlocking between the pointed tops of the lower course. Tubali
walls are built with a taper as they rise.

TROMBÉ WALL COOLING Trombé walls gain less solar

energy during the summer than clear glass windows. In
desert areas, “ground bounce” reflects solar energy off
light colored ground through clear glass to the interior.
Trombé walls moderate this effect with about 30% more
cooling ability.

Vented Trombés can be used as passive coolers as the

illustration above shows. An additional exterior top vent is
an added feature. To cool, the bottom intake flaps must be
closed, with the top vent open. As the Trombé heats the
cavity, it sucks hot air from the room and out the top vent,
pulling cool air from a patio or misted area.

TRONECAS The loophole or incisions in an adobe para-

pet for defense from the roof. Early colonial New Mexico
(after Bunting).

TRUSS A roof structural unit made up of rafters, chords

256 and other pieces, usually arranged to form trian-
TWIG A metal clip used to hold the mason’s line level on long building is underpinned. It is careful work that can be dangerous,
stretches, where the line might sag. and only experienced professionals should undertake it. Underpin-
nings, along with the addition of bond beams, have saved many old,
U.B.C. Uniform Building Code. Sets building codes for most areas pre-code adobes.
in the western United States. There are also the Standard Build-
ing Code and the National Building Code, which cover the South- The work is often done in conjunction with buttressing, where a wall
ern and Eastern U.S. In the U.B.C., the essentials of adobe con- may be leaning out. Steel reinforcement may be placed, so that as
struction are laid out in Section 2405, which is titled Unburned Clay one section is completed, steel is left extending left and right to tie
Units. The U.B.C. may be modified locally by city, county or state. into the next sections. The builder must be aware of wall conditions,
dead soils, salt erosion, depth to frostline and other related matters
Ue FACTOR A method of determining the thermal performance of before he begins the underpinning work.
a wall, based on climate zone, wall type, wall color and wall orienta-
tion (N,S,E,W). This method was conceived in New Mexico in 1976, UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (U.S.C.S.) A system
when thermal engineers from the University of New Mexico and commonly used in classifying samples of soils for engineering pur-
Los Alamos Laboratory advanced the technology. The work con- poses. Soils are classified according to particle size distribution,
cluded in 1985 with the SWTMS (S.W. Thermal Mass Study) at Tes- plasticity, liquid limit and organic matter content. Soils are grouped
uque Pueblo, N.M., where actual test buildings were constructed. into 15 classes under the system.
Over twenty wall types were studied, using thermocouples to moni-
tor energy flow through the walls. The research was the first of its UPLIFT Seismic or
kind in the U.S., and perhaps the world. It became part of the N.M. wind action that
Energy Code and set an accurate standard for measuring mass with sufficient force
wall performance, as compared to steady state R factors (see Fly- can lift or sepa-
wheel Effect). rate a roof from the
structure below.
UF CABLE A completely plastic enclosed electrical wire that is Strong uplift forces
designed for underground use. Not to be confused with Romex, can pull an unat-
which is illegal in earth walls. Some codes allow UF to be set into tached bond beam
the adobe or rammed earth wall during construction, instead of con- off the wall, expos-
duit or pipe (see Electrical Systems). ing the wall to fur-
ther damage from
UMBRAL A northern New Mexican term for lintel. the storm (see
Bond Beam).
UNDERPINNED A structure that has been beefed up in the foun-
dation area by one of various techniques. Typically, in adobe work,
an old structure may have had no foundation at all. The ground UPPERS The upper cabinets in a kitchen, usually attached to a
is carefully dug out in sections and concrete is poured to underpin beam or viga, or to a nailer in the adobe or rammed earth wall.
the structure. This may be done, section by section, until the entire
257
VALLEY The internal angle find an adobero who understands
formed by the two slopes of a the structural implications of a
roof. The angle is important veneer job, and who is capable
in ordering galvanizing flash- of attractive course work. Veneer
ing to underlie roof decks that
meet to form a valley. Below: Lee Ahlund holds up a fully
stabilized 4x4x16” veneer adobe next
to the Dur-o-Wal™ ladder steel rein-
VALLEY RAFTER A rafter that forms the intersection where two forcement. The Dur-o-Wal™ acts to
roof slopes come together. secure the veneer adobe to the exist-
ing frame wall.

VAMPIRE STAKE Also At the same time it eliminates any

possible cracking that might develop if
called “vamps” for short. settling occurs in the structure. Note
A slang term used around the ledge or stem top at the base of the
rammed earth sites in south- wall, which will give the veneers their
eastern Arizona. Vamps are support from below.
large, tapered stakes used
to shim, straighten or adjust adobes are never less
forming, lift forming, or other than 4 inches wide.
miscellaneous purposes. Most veneer walls
range from 5 to 6
inches in width.
VARA CEILING In México, a ceiling similar to the latilla ceiling
of the Southwest. However, different wood species allow a smaller Veneer courses are
diameter branch to be used, as indicated by “vara”, which means laid up in ordinary
“twig”. The term prevails in Sonora and Sinaloa. Good examples Portland based mortar
may be seen at Alamos, Sonora. cements when using
fired adobe, and in sta-
bilized mud mortars
VENEER ADOBE The building up of an adobe wall that is not when using asphalt-
structural. A veneer wall only supports its own weight, and would stabilized adobes.
not stand on its own without lateral ties or support. It also will need
foundation support via a ledge or stem top.

The technique is used wherever exposed work is popular, such as

around Phoenix and especially in Southern California. If a hom-
eowner plans to veneer an existing structure, it is wise to
258
VENT PORT A small type of vent
placed high in a wall or between two
beams or vigas. Its main purpose is to
help exhaust hot air on summer days.

They are often seen on the high side

of a shed roof, where hot air accumu-
lates. Usually, they are made up on the
job and installed with insulating doors
for winter.

These vent ports are usually installed

under overhanging roof eaves, or under
solar overhangs where they are not
exposed to direct sun and rain.

They can be used very effectively to

pull air through a space. If located on
the lee, or downwind, side of the space,
they are opened to twice the square
area of the windows on the windward
side.

The flow of air around the structure cre-

ates a suction, pulling air through “X” at

twice the normal velocity (cooling the occupants) and at the same
time expelling the warm air through the ports. The house should be
designed to take advantage of prevailing winds, especially during
the hot times of year.

VERTS California slang for the vertical steel rebar usually required
in some adobe wall designs (San Diego County).

259
 VIGA Woods and wood protection-
The common woods used for vigas in the Southwest are Ponder-
osa pine and Engleman spruce, both of which are about the same
This is the Spanish word for beam. However, in the Southwestern
strength. The stronger Douglas fir is superior, but in the inland
U.S., a viga is a round tree timber or pole. Builders use the word
Southwest is only seasonably available. Recently, truckers have
beam for squared or rectangular timbers. Vigas are the roof sup-
brought in other woods, such as Lodgepole pine. Woods of the
ports, spaced on varying centers all the way down a room or
populus family, such as cottonwood or aspen, are not considered
throughout a house. An 8” diameter viga is stronger than a 6”x8”
strong enough to do the job.
beam of the same wood. As a result, some viga suppliers may
advise you to drop one viga size from the equivalent beam size.
Poles which show excessive cracking or are so crooked as to make
decking over them difficult should be avoided. The buyer should
also look for dry rot, a fungus that eats at the heart of the wood
and will structurally compromise it. Any vigas left exposed to the
wetting/drying action of the seasons can suffer from dry rot. The
spores blow into cracks or crevices and the rot starts in the moist
core of the viga. Dry rot is easy to identify, as one can literally scoop
the rotten wood out of a diseased portion with little effort (see Wood
Preservative).

Designers often show vigas projecting from adobe walls like the
cannons on a Spanish galleon. This is permissible if they are cov-
ered by a deck of some sort, as with a solar overhang. Otherwise
weather will get into them and the dry rot process can travel through
the core of the viga to the home interior. In recent years, semi-
circular copper shields have become popular to cover projecting
Hand-peeled vigas under two-tone latilla ceiling. Note the recessed light fixture vigas. Any vigas exposed to the weather should be treated with a
in the center of the right-hand viga. Groff Lumber, Albuquerque, N.M. wood preservative on a regular maintenance schedule.
Viga appeal-
Viga history-
Earthbuilders tend to prefer vigas, rather than beams. They add
Vigas are an ancient technol-
to the air of substantial informality that underlies the adobe home
ogy, as any visitor to Mesa Verde
appeal. Their shape and texture, replete with twists and bumps,
or the Gila Cliff Dwellings can
makes them conversation pieces. In historic houses, where they
attest. Both Native Americans
have been protected, vigas have added to local history through den-
and early settlers used axes
drochronology, the science of tree-ring dating. Vigas are greener
to fell, de-bark and de-limb the
than square-cut beams, as they generally don’t use sawmill power,
poles. Originally, Native Ameri-
but rather the human touch of double-bitted axe and drawknife.
cans dragged them by foot many
260
miles from highland forest to building sites in
the desert below. After the arrival of the horse,
the job became a little easier. Whether dragged
by man or beast, the vigas arrived at their desti-
nation with a pointed end. Such poles were set
in the wall with the sharpened end out.

This has led to a style, begun long after the

arrival of the internal combustion engine, in
which the ends of the vigas are artificially
pointed to achieve this effect. The builder copy-
ing the style has no idea as to its origins.

Early Hispanic settlers were rationed a Spartan

collection of tools by the King. A number of
hand-wrought nails, an adz, an axe, perhaps a
saw. Because tools were scarce on the frontier,
the builder would use them sparingly. Vigas
required the least amount of tool use in ratio to
their serviceability. In public structures, such as
churches, vigas might be hewn into beams and
carved with the artisan’s or donor’s name and
a construction date. But in the common struc-
ture, such was not the case. Hand-peeled vigas under a sawn board deck, nailed up in herringbone fashion Adobe Building Supply,
Albuquerque, N.M.

A viga expedition in the early days was often an expedition into

The arrival of sawmills in the 1860’s gave builders an alternative
danger. Whole parties were lost to viga gathering due to hostilities
to the traditional viga approach, but also made possible the sawn
with surrounding tribes. In Southern Arizona, the tragedies are doc-
boards or decking above the vigas - the most popular covering
umented: many a viga-gathering party returned home with the cher-
today.
ished poles, but a man or two short from Apache arrows.
Prior to the mills, the deck was made up of smaller diameter poles
Thus, it is easy to understand why, in old Spanish wills, vigas were
or sticks called latillas (see Latillas). These were set at right angles
passed down to family members. You might be able to spare your
or in a decorative herringbone design across the vigas, then cross-
descendants some risk by making sure that the vigas in a declining
covered with layers of coarse grass or brush. Layers of adobe
structure went to the right hands. It was not uncommon for a later
material were then built up to a foot or more, forming a thick enough
generation to take the vigas from a room no longer used and set
layer so that the average rain would not penetrate before evapora-
them in a new dwelling.
tion was able to pull the moisture out of the roof. 261
Roof watersheds were carefully built up. In Sonora, México, the art
of creating such a roof involved different layers of clay and adobe
dirt so that most of the water drained through canales. But in most
areas, leaks did occur, and dry rot weakend the vigas below. With
the sawn board and later waterproofing materials, a more secure
roof system could be set up.
Contemporary choices-
Today, a popular approach is to vary the materials for artistic effect,
so that one room may have a viga ceiling with a latilla herringbone
deck, another might have a squared beam ceiling with a latilla
deck, and still another room might have a viga ceiling with a plank
deck. The variations are many, with choices in roughcut or surfaced
woods, stains and different patterns.
3. The machine peeled viga. The poles are fed through a machine
that reduces the natural taper and completely shaves the viga, leav-
ing a spiral rough texture from the machine. These vigas are more
consistent in diameter and are also ready for sanding or sandblast-
ing if desired. They are ideal for carports or external use, or in
more rustic cabins, where the spiral texture is not objectionable. At
some yards, crews hand-knife them after they have gone through
the peeler.
Sizing Ponderosa Pine Vigas

Builders can consider various styles of viga finishes. Three are

common in the mid and upper Rio Grande Valley, where the viga
industry is well established.

1. The white viga. These are peeled 100% by hand using a draw-
knife. The different planes give a slightly faceted look and reflect
more light. This is a very popular style in Santa Fé. There are no
knot bumps.

2. The traditional two-tone viga. In this finish, the drawknifer skips

in his shaving, so that some of the cambium or colored wood is left,
alternating with the
white wood. Often
the knot bumps or
raised areas are left
in, adding to a more
rustic and colorful Doing it yourself-
effect. This Today, vigas can be harvested and prepared by the owner-builder
approach also under a U.S. Forest Service permit. Permits are fairly inexpensive,
leaves the natural but caution is advised for those who have little experience in the
taper, about 2” in 16 woods, or who lack the proper equipment. Green vigas, even when
feet, intact. de-barked, are surprisingly heavy. An ordinary pickup is inadequate
262 for the job, unless a good hitch and “lowboy” trailer are at hand. Use
of the axe, chainsaw and the danger on back-country mud roads
makes safety a top priority. The owner-builder becomes a logger
rather than an adobero, complete with a new bag of equipment
costs.

Up on the roof-
Getting vigas up on the bond beam is a common challenge. Build-
ers with a front-end loader or “Bobcat” can easily lift timbers to
height. But the low-tech, time-honored and green technique is to
“rope” them up.

around each end of the viga. They are then passed up to each crew
member, positioned above on secure scaffolding. This arrangement
allows the crew to use mechanical advantage. By steadily pulling,
the crew can roll a heavy viga up to the bond beam. It can then be
rolled to its position and secured (see Bond Beam).

Safety is again
the most impor-
tant factor.
Always make
sure that you tell
A ramp is formed your fellow
by placing two builder what you
vigas at a 45º intend to do
angle against the before you do
end of the build- it, and make
ing. The viga to sure that they
be pulled up is see you doing
set crosswise at it. Heavy vigas
the base. Two are easily piv-
rope lengths are oted from balance points on a roof. Not telling your partner that
secured up on you’re about to swing a viga from here to there can result in an acci-
the bond beam, dent, especially on windy days. Be prepared with good scaffolding,
then passed hats and gloves.
down and 263
Curing-
Another aspect of viga work is curing time. Vigas will lose about
one-third of their weight in the first three weeks after cutting. Some
suppliers offer vigas partly or completely cured. If you have green
vigas at building time, keep in mind that wet Ponderosa pine weighs
about 4 pounds per board foot (12”x1”x12”). Curing can
reduce that weight to 2-1/2 pounds per board foot. Do your-
self and your crew a favor and obtain vigas early and air-dry
them, with a good cover over the top.

Curing time also relates to interior plastering. A green

10” diameter viga might shrink 1/8” away from the adobe
wall that is built around it. While it can be caulked later,
this becomes another time-consuming job at a time
when you are trying to finish the home.

Obtaining a level nailing surface-

Since vigas are of varying diameters, they must be
leveled in some fashion to even out the top surfaces
for decking. Sort them out on the ground, deciding
which sizes go over which rooms. Cull out the
truly wild viga, unless it’s to be a conversation
piece near the fireplace. Once they are up, a
leveled string may be stretched, revealing differ-
ent diameters in measurable fashion. Shim the
thinner vigas up to equal the fatter ones. Scrap
pieces of 1” or 2” lumber are handy. Once lev-
eled, wrap and secure the FHA straps or other ties
around them (see FHA Strap and Bond Beam).

Sometimes a crowned or curved viga must be used.

If the crown is 2” or less, turn the viga crown up and
drawknife off the extra material from the top side. If the
crown is greater than 2”, turn the viga so that the crown
is facing sideways. Usually, a viga is flat enough on at
least one of its sides for a deck to be easily nailed up.

264
Keeping that color- traditional choice in 16th and 17th century adobes. It is a type of
If you buy vigas prepared at the yard to a certain color of finish, ironwood, resistant to termites. In Honduras, four varieties of pine
keep in mind that the weather will transform their color as time provide vigas similar to the Southwestern U.S. However, cutting
passes. Rain can stain them. Vigas start as almost white when first and burning have depleted forests everywhere, and the trend is to
peeled. The sun will next produce a yellow hue, which then turns a reduce wood use in roof designs (see Stress Point).
light orange. Finally, they will gray. Different customers love each of
these colors. Recent experiments have used timber bamboo to replace traditional
vigas. Costa Rica has advanced this research, establishing two
Decide which finish you prefer, then plan to get the vigas up right varieties of Columbian timber bamboo throughout the country for
away, with the roofing crew coming in to deck immediately thereaf- home building. Bamboo might seem confined to the tropics, but it
ter. If you have unprepared vigas that have been curing, wait until grows well in the Gulf states, along the Pacific coast and in sub-
the last month to finish them with the drawknife. You’ll have white at tropical deserts. Cured and treated with boric acid, bamboo lends
first, and yellow a few days later. Roll them over and keep an eye on itself to attractive truss designs and is high in tensile strength.
the hue. Once sun-colored to taste, get them up and deck as soon
as possible. photo: Adobe Building Supply
VIGA CORONA The beam capping an adobe wall, as a bond
beam, in Costa Rica. Similar to the viga solera of Perú.

VIGA INFERIOR In Costa Rican usage, the beams that span a

room from side to side.

VIGA SOLERA In Costa Rica, the viga that tops vertical posts on
the street side of a corredor. In Honduras, it can be a bond beam.

VIGA SUPERIOR In Costa Rica, the ridge beam in roof

construction.

VOID RATIO A determination of the unfilled areas or voids

between particles in an adobe or rammed earth mix. If there is
an even gradation of particle sizes, from very small clays to very
large rough sands, then the void ratio will be low. Other mixes have
Other regions and the future- more voids. In commercial adobe making, a larger area of voids
Traveling out of the Southwest into México, the viga tradition can be will mean that the maker will have to use more asphalt emulsion to
observed, but the woods change. For example, at Alamos, Sonora, stabilize a particular soil, thus increasing his costs (used by Michael
in the sub-tropics, a local hardwood known as “Amapa” was the O’Leary, ELF Asphalt, Albuquerque, N.M., see Stabilization).
265
WAINSCOT A lower interior wall surface, usually 3 to 4 feet high, WALL SECTION On a drawing, a view in section of a wall, or a
that has a different surface than the rest of the wall above. The vertical cut through the wall, drawn to scale and detailed as to the
wainscot might be constructed of tongue and groove cedar with a materials used and how they are tied together. Wall sections are
plastered wall above it. required on working drawings for permitting as well as building.

WALL ANCHOR In rammed earth, a wall anchor is used to tie

two massive walls together in situations where the entire corner or
intersection of the walls was not rammed all at once.

A piece of looped rebar of 5/8” diameter Is placed at the desired

level in one wall, then rammed in (sketch below). Enough of the
rebar is left protruding to take in the wall to be rammed around it,
plus a threaded section welded to the end, which will accept a very
large plate washer and nut. After the forms are stripped and the
wall has had time to cure initially, the nut may be tightened down,
and then tightened again before plaster (use by Bill Knauss, Earth
N’ Sun Development, Benson, Az.).

In recent years, this technique has been replaced with keyways

rammed into the wall, using a half-diameter of water pipe. When
the forms are taken down, the semi-circular keyway is revealed. The
intersecting new wall is rammed into this keyway (see Rammed
Earth).

266
WARP Any variations from a true plane. Warping includes bow,
crook, cup and twist in wood members.
WASHED SAND Commercially sold plaster or masonry sand that
has been washed to reduce the salt content. Unwashed sand with
salts can cause streaking in masonry work, an effect most often
seen in concrete masonry.
WATER WALL A southern wall of water-filled containers which
receive direct sunlight and act both as collectors and thermal stor-
age devices. In solaradobe design they are now regarded as
unnecessary, as adobes have sufficient thermal mass in the walls
alone.

WATER POINT A micro-environment created in the harsh desert

for the cooling of humans and water. Usually consisting of a well,
trees, and a structure for water storage. In Egypt, they are usually
expressed in adobe (use by architect H. Fathy).

WEATHERED WALL A term for an earthen wall that has been

eroded by the action of the wind and rain over time. The wear can
be slight or extensive, even threatening the structure.

WEDGE PIN A critical item in

rammed earth work. Wedges are
metal objects of the type shown
below. They are used to tie
forms together. One wedge goes
through the form frame slots, and
is then pinned by another wedge
through a slot in the first wedge.

A bucket or two of wedge pins

are always found on the rammed
earth site, as forms cannot go up
without them.
267
Wedge pins can also be of an elongated style. They are used as a Bottom left:
spacer to create a gap between two forms, so that further down the Front end loader
wall, a corner may be closed. They stretch a form along the wall to dumps mixture
meet or close a corner (used by Tom Schmidt, St. David, Az.; see into forms at
New Mexico
Rammed Earth). Earth Adobe,
Alameda, N.M.
Mixture should
WEEPHOLE A drainhole, usually in a retaining wall, that relieves be consistency
hydrostatic pressure against the wall. of clam chowder.

Left: Crew
makes sure all
WELL TAILED An English term for a wood lintel that bridges an forms are filled,
opening and then is well-seated into the cob wall (see Cob). using screed
poles at Rio
Abajo Adobe,
Belén, N.M.
WET MUD METHOD A block-making system in which a slurry of
adobe mud is prepared, then dumped into multi-ladder forms, usu- Below: Four
ally made of wood. The mud is then pushed and screeded into the hours later
forms. Depending on the weather, the forms may be cracked away (depending on
weather) crew
from the blocks in four hours or so. The operation moves across lifts off forms at
the field as the forms are flipped back over to a new casting loca- New Mexico
tion. The curing blocks are stood on edge, scraped and then cured Earth Adobe.
further.

268
This system requires many wooden forms to work efficiently. Cus- WICHERT In Buckinghamshire, England, a mix of chalky soil and
tomers rarely appreciate the labor that goes into the maintenance straw mud used in earthbuilding. Also in reference to local homes
of forms: soaking them in oil, cleaning them and repairing cracked made of the material.
or warped wood cross pieces.
WIND CRACKING Surface cracking in adobe blocks that occurs
The system is different from the dry mud method, in which a more during the curing process as a result of dry, windy conditions. The
viscous mud is used, allowing the forms to be lifted immediately. edges of adobes are forced to dry out quickly, while the mass below
Both fully stabilized and non-stabilized adobes may be produced remains wet. The resulting cracks are “surface” cracks that do not
with the wet mud method. One Albuquerque yard, New Mexico render the adobes unusable. When conditions at the adobe yard
Earth, has produced 15,000 10”x4”x14” blocks in one day using the are severe, the manufacturer may cover the entire row of adobe
wet mud method. with plastic sheets to keep moisture around the block a little higher.
In super-severe locations in the Arizona desert, the adobe crews
make blocks at night when humidity is higher and thermal shock
WHALER In rammed earth, a horizontal member, often a 2”x4” or less.
other wood, set on the outside of the rammed form work, so as to
straighten and brace the forms (see Rammed Earth for photo and WIND MACHINE A term for the air compressor on rammed earth
drawing). sites, western Australia (used by Stabilized Earth Structures Pty.,
Margaret River, Western Australia).

WINDOW SILL The lowest member of a window. The sash in the

moveable part of a double-hung window closes to the sill, which is
sloped to shed water away from the rest of the frame, down to the
ground (see Sill).

WIRE MESH REINFORCEMENT A term used for the wire, usu-

ally a welded field wire or other type, that is wrapped around an
adobe test structure built on a seismic shake table. At the National
University of México, Meli, Hernández and Padilla used W.M.R. on
a shake table test. More recently, seismic engineer Fred Webster,
then of Jack R. Benjamin & Assoc., used the technique on a shake
table adobe test at Stanford University (see Bond Beam and Seis-
mic Zone).

The whaler in the photo is the long board turned sideways. As wedges are
tapped with a hammer, forming is pulled tightly against the whaler.
The wire is wrapped around the entire outside and inside walls and
attached with an air stapler (see sketch, page 270). Corners are
double lapped, so that the wire comes to, then goes around the
corner two feet in both directions. The same is done on
269
inside corners. In the California test, 3/4” staples were used. Dis-
cussion since the tests (1985-6), finds that most earthbuilders use a WOOD BOND BEAM
2” air-powered staple for better attachment. Staples are placed on This type of beam is popular in New Mexico and some adjacent
12” to 16” centers. states. Like concrete bond beams, they serve as a tie or bond
around the top of the walls. They are leveled by first placing a
In the California tests, it was found that the adobe test structure course of adobe mud on top of the wall, then the wood bond beam,
could not be destroyed or shaken down, even though the structure which is tapped into position until level.
was run through the simulation of the Kern County earthquake of
1952 more than once. Containing the earthen walls in a wire basket Solid timber or lapped boards-
rather than trying to run vertical steel rebar through the wall cen- Wood bond beams may be made up of one solid piece of timber,
ters, seems to be successful. Researchers speculate that ordinary as in a 6”x10”, or three 2” rough-cut pieces, overlapped and spiked
chicken wire, well-wrapped, may do the job effectively. Of course, together. Where beams come together, the timber variety are tied
such structures would have to be plastered for appearance. In Cal- in Z joints or dovetails. The board variety must overlap each other
ifornia, where exposed adobe is the fashion, such wire-wrapped by at least 12” at each juncture.
structures might not be popular, and yet California poses the great-
est seismic challenge. In New Mexico, the statewide code requires bond beams to be 6”
deep, and as wide as the wall up to 10” wide. Wall widths over 10”
At this time, the use of W.M.R. is confined to the research men- wide require a bond beam two-thirds as wide as the wall (see Bond
tioned. No proposal has Beam).
been made for its use
as an alternative in the
code of any city, county
or state. However, any
builder or contractor
wishing to use the tech-
nique may do so, as the
U.B.C. does not prohibit
it. In New Mexico, the
wiring of adobe exteriors
before Portland-based
stuccos are applied is a
common practice.

The reader should keep in mind that the wrap-around wire tech-
nique is really not needed in seismic zones 1 and 2, but should be
considered a very good idea for zones 3 and 4 in Western Arizona
and California.
270
Wall ties-
In New Mexico, wood bond beams are tied
to the wall mass via pieces of steel rebar,
usually on 36” to 48” centers. The wall
is first drilled, then the steel is pounded
in with a hand sledge. This takes care
of any lateral movement, but unless the

steel has an anchor on Such anchors represent stress points in the wall during an earth-
the bottom, uplift (wind quake. The more of them you have along a length of wall, the less
action) can still be a stress there is at each anchor.
problem on adobe
designs with overhang- If you are in seismic zone 2 or less, most codes allow you to tie
ing roofs. In seismic your wood bond beam by driving steel into the wall on 36” to 48”
zones, research indicates centers (see sketch above). If you are in seismic zones 3 or 4,
that anchors should be your requirements are greater, calling for anchors, and not just rods,
closer together; 12” to spaced more closely together. This rule applies equally to concrete
18”, depending on the bond beams in heavy seismic zones (see Bond Beam and Seismic
diameter of the steel. Zone). 271
In some wall designs, it is relatively easy to build such anchors into Where wood bond beams
the wall starting three or four courses below the bond beam loca- go around fireplace
tion. This is true in a 16” thick adobe wall using 8”x4”x16” block, corners, the fireplace
which can weave around the steel anchors. In rammed earth walls, masonry surrounding the
such anchors with wide feet can be easily placed, and the wall flue is generally 10” thick,
rammed around them. Consult your local codes or an engineer. followed by at least 2” of
air before wood can be
Engineer Fred Webster of Menlo Park, California feels that a bond placed. In this instance,
beam, whether concrete or wood, should be anchored to the wall as we see the advantage of
discussed above. It should also be able to flex, as a ribbon, with the a concrete bond beam.
wall during a seismic disturbance. The controversy over whether Not only can it touch the
wood or concrete bond beams are better can be addressed only flue, but it can also encircle the entire top of the fireplace mass,
after both systems meet the above criteria, at least within seismic tying it securely to the walls.
zones 3 and 4. In New Mexico, wood
bond beams must
Adobe builders often thicken concrete bond beams where they pass fully cover 10” wall
widths.
over door and window bucks, and some depths reach 12” to 18”
of concrete. This practice negates the flexible ribbon called for by In the case of 14”
Webster. On the other hand, concrete bond beams have strength walls, the wood bond
at the corners, including the required steel reinforcements within, beam is required to
that wood bond beams cover 10” of the wall
top.
cannot attain.
The builder may
The sketch shown of place a 4” wide
the City of Yuma’s lami- adobe veneer in the
nated bond beam (see resulting space.
sketch, page 271) is the WOOD LINTEL A structural wooden timber, usually about the
standard widely prac- same width of the earth wall above or below it, which spans across
ticed in Arizona and New a clear or unsupported space, such as a door or window.
Mexico. However, there
is nothing in the code Placement-
that prevents a builder Setting wood lintels in place simply requires a mud joint, as if one
from beefing up a wood were laying another course of adobe. The mud joint provides a bed
bond beam with a diag- for the lintel. The mason taps the lintel to a level seating, checking
onal corner brace, as in it with his bubble level. The mud will not have a corrosive effect on
the sketch to right. the wood. Wood encased in mud will be preserved as long as water
does not enter.
272
 Fear of fire-
Some adobe codes do not allow wood lintels, the fear being that a
fire in the structure could burn them out, collapsing the wall above.
However, fires in adobe structures indicate that only the first 1/8” to
1/4” of wood is charred. The harder the wood, the less damage.
One adobe fire in an old Tucson, Az. house charred just the surface
of the dense mesquite lintels. The carbon was scraped off and the
lintels were still good.

Spans-
As the span increases, so must the thickness of the lintel, so that
a small opening might be spanned by a 4”x10” lintel turned on its
flat side, and a wider window or door might require a 6”x10” lintel.
Wall widths up to 14” can use lintels of 12” width usually without
code restrictions. For very wide walls, wood lintels may be set
side-by-side, then fastened
together, to accommodate
the extra width. Check with
your local supplier and code
official as to allowed spans
in your area.

Wall bearing-
Traditionally, the bearing
rule is that the lintel should
go over the first adobe and lay about half way over the next adobe
beyond that. This bearing distance is about 18”. This distributes the
weight from above the opening adequately over the wall mass to the
sides of the opening. Ending a lintel too close to the opening could
set up shear forces on the earth wall at that point.

In the U.B.C., a minimum 12” of bearing is required. Rising wood

costs have forced many builders back to these minimums.
273
Two in one-
Wood lintels can double as bond beams in situations where bond
beams span openings as well as the wall tops. The builder simply
raises the window buck to the underside of the bond beam. Con-
crete bond beam may run over the wood lintel (page 273).
WOOD PRESERVATIVE - NON-TOXIC Earthbuilders tend to
avoid toxic preservatives or chemicals in their home building. At the
U.S. Forest Service research lab in Madison, Wisconsin, a relatively
non-toxic preservative was developed that is excellent for treating
vigas, beams and window or door bucks.

Avoiding cracks- The three ingredients are paraffin, paint thinner, and linseed oil.
In a quickly-laid adobe wall, the wood lintels should be placed so The following procedure will make up one gallon of the preservative.
that there is roughly 1/2” air clearance between the bottom of the This is enough to coat three or four 15’ vigas 9” to 10” in diameter in
lintel and the tops of any window or door frame (bucks). about 20 minutes with a medium brush and a pail of the solution. It
is suggested that the following be done outside with gloves and eye
That is because a protection.
green wall, and the
lintel enclosed in it, will 1. Heat up 1-1/2 cups of boiled linseed oil in a double-boiler over a
settle just a little. As fire.
the lintel settles onto
the frame or buck, it 2. Using a small scale, weigh out one ounce of paraffin. Add the
will stop, as the frame paraffin to the linseed oil, letting it melt into the oil. Be sure to keep
or rough buck is rigid, the paraffin away from direct flame.
sitting on top of the
foundation stem. 3. Remove the pan with the hot linseed oil and melted paraffin from
the fire and to a place at least ten feet from the fire. Fill a one gallon
But the green wall on container about one-third with paint thinner. Keep all ingredients
either side of the lintel away from excess flame or heat. Pour the oil/paraffin mix into the
and frame will continue one gallon container, then fill the one gallon container to the top with
to settle, just a fraction paint thinner. All three ingredients should blend. The preservative
of an inch. When is now ready to use. Paint it liberally into all cracks in your vigas and
it does, a crack will beams.
appear at both of the
ends of the lintel. One Forest Service tests showed that after six years there was no dif-
can see this situation ference in the deterioration of window units treated with the above
in old pre-code adobes and side-by-side with those treated with toxic preservatives, such
that were inadequately as penta or creosote solutions.
built, and in some new
work, where the 1/2” YESERIA The plasterwork.
was not left in the wall.
YESERO The plasterer.
274
YESO The historical whitewash made from
gypsum, used in interior work. Yeso also means
plaster, in general.

ZAGUÁN A covered entry, navigated through

double gates, and leading to an interior courtyard.
In colonial times, the entry was large enough to
pass a wagon and horses. A door might be located
within one of the outside gates, used for human
passage when the larger gates were bolted. The
zaguán itself would be the depth of the adobe
rooms on both sides, as much as 17’ to 20’.

ZAMBULLO A pintle door, hinging on wooden

pegs and typical in colonial New Mexico (after Bun-
ting).

ZAPATO The shoe or corbel, often carved. The

corbel block above a vertical post, taking the weight
from the roof structure above (see Corbel).

ZOQUETE A slang term in New Mexico for the

mud used to lay the adobe blocks.

In this renovated historic adobe at Alamos, Sonora

México, the original Zaguån doors have been
replaced with ornate carved doors. The portal with
vertical column was built later. Originally, horses
and carts could enter to the patio’s center, where the
house well is located.
Photo: Bill Sears

fin
275
 Access
to the Suppliers
and Builders
~

The following section highlights some

Companies and Individuals available as
Suppliers or Builders to the
Earthbuilding Industry.

Click on an ad to
View their Gallery Images.

While we have made every effort

to present only Qualified Companies,
we cannot Guarantee their Claims or be held
responsible for their
products or services.

Adobe Palace Door, Saudi Arabia

 Gallery
some Images
to Inspire & Instruct
~

The following section highlights the work of

those represented in the Access Section

Click on a name to
View their Access Advertisement.

Honduran Adobe Wall, Angela Stassano, architect

Todd Swanson
Custom Builder

Kitchen with Vigas

Arched Doorway with Nichos

Todd Swanson: further projects
 C.E. Laird
Designer Builder

Homes in Harmony
with
the Sandia Foothills
C.E. Laird:
further projects
 WM STODDARD
CONSTRUCTION INC.

Glass brick on a
northern facade
illuminates a living room
 WM Stoddard:
further projects
 ADOBE INTERNATIONAL
Pressed Adobe Machines

Pressed adobes employed in

a single wall construction
(right) and a double wall
house (above).
 GROFF LUMBER
WOOD PRODUCTS for the ADOBE STYLE

Groff’s products employed in their

ramada and design studio.
 NEW MEXICO EARTH
Quality Adobe Block Manufacturer

A bóveda de cañon, with exposed

adobe walls.

Lime plastered master suite.

 New Mexico Earth:
further projects using our
adobes

All projects by David Peterson, contractor

 ADOBE BUILDING SUPPLY
Custom Wood Products

Hand-carved doors, contemporary

and exquisite carving by Charlie Mallery
Adobe Building Supply:
further projects
 Classic Materials
Contemporary Design

Mark Chalom
Architect
 Mark Chalom:
further projects
SOL DYNAMICS
renewable energy products

A stand-alone PV cabin,
Cumbres Pass, Colorado
above: A
1.2KW
residential
array
SOL DYNAMICS:
further projects

right: industrial
installation at
Sandia National Labs

below: another stand-alone

Cumbres Pass, Colorado cabin
 Fred Webster, Ph.D., P.E.
Structural Design & Analysis

Sanford Winery-
Santa Bárbara County,
California

below: Rehabilitation &

Seismic Strengthening-
Russell Adobe
Menlo Pk., CA
 Sanford Winery-
Seismic Design by
Fred Webster, Ph.D, P.E.
Soledad Canyon Earth Builders
New Mexican Custom Homes

Corner kiva fireplace

&
Portal with banco
Soledad Canyon:
Further Projects

Post and Corbel

corner
Rammed Earth
Residence, Las
Cruces, NM
HUSTON RAMMED EARTH
Custom Rammed Earth Construction

Rammed Earth walls three feet thick

with Saltillo tile and vigas, Edgewood,
New Mexico.
Rammed earth walls contrast with
exposed adobe, Edgewood, NM

Architect David Day’s residence,

Albuquerque. A statement in
contemporary rammed earth.
 GRAND RIVER DOOR
Quality Southwestern Products

Custom Pine door

Rope Posts on a Portal

Latilla ceiling panels originated at
Grand River Door

Pueblo Style
Ceramic Lights
 OLD PUEBLO ADOBE Co.
Authentic Southwestern Building Materials

From The Adobe Yard to the Home-

Stabilized Adobe compliments the
Southwestern Style
Old Pueblo Adobe serves a variety
of architectural styles.