AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study /training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer’s handbook You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis. LBP 140 Narbeth Drive aylesbury Bucks HP20 1QA UK Te: (+ 44) 01296 433871 Fax (+ 44) 01296 330697 Email: info@licencebypost.com - Website: licencebypost.comHOW TO TACKLE THESE BOOKS These books are written specifically for the B1 licensed engineer, but are also appropriate for the A line mechanic - although he/she need not go into each subject to the same depth For some of you propellers are an aircraft component that you work on almost every day, for others a propeller is something you have only seen, and have had very little experience on. For those of you who have worked on propellers - or are working on them then these books should be more straight forward. For those of you who have not worked on a propeller before then you will have to "gird your loins" and get stuck in ‘The subject is divided into 2 with a book for each. Book 1 - Propeller Systems - ‘Theory and Construction. Book 2 - Maintenance and Testing. Book 1 has a section relating to Newton’s laws ~ part of the module 2 syllabus really. But it is good revision, and you rhould have, at leat, a general unde~standing in this area. On propellers themselves. You should be able to describe the terms (to someone who is unfamiliar with propellers) relating to a propeller; the reasons for the use of a VP prop, and how it works. You should be able to describe its routine and non-routine maintenance and components/systems. Remember, if you are working on propellers then do relate what is in these books to your own aircraft / experience.CONTENTS Newton's laws Definitions Blade operation Blade stations Forces acting on a propeller Propeller balance Track Visibility Tip speed Blade materials Fixed pitch propellers Variable pitch propellers Automatic pitch propeller Electrically operated pitch change The McCauley propeller The Hartzell propeller Propeller control unit Operation of VP propeller Alpha & Beta ranges Pitch stops Unfeathering Electrical feathering Examples of feathering systems Typical multi stop propeller Pitch control unit ‘Typical turbo prop propeller The spinner Supersonic propellers —_____ Contra-rotating & co-axial propellers Synchronisation Synchrophasing De-icing/anti-icing PAGE W 14 15 20 21 21 21 22 26 29 32 34 35 36 37 39 42 44 46 47 50 51 67 68 70 72 72 76 78NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION It is important that we understand how a propeller produces thrust. It does this in accordance with Newton’s Laws of Motion. QUESTION: There are 3 of Newton’s laws that you should remember. Can you describe any of them? (15 mins). ANSWER: ‘A tricky question this one - and so early on in the book as well. The following paragraphs give the answer. 1s Law ‘An object will stay in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted on by an external force. Not particularly ~ relevant to propellers - but the next two are. 2nd Law This states that the force produced is proportional to the mass times the acceleration and can be written as Fo ma Using SI units it can be written F = ma where F = force in Newtons m= mass in kgs a = acceieration in m/s? es Note: To give you some idea of the actual values. If you held a small apple in your hand it would produce a downward force of 1 Newton (1N) - about. One kg is 2.2 Ibs - or about 10 small apples. So the Newton is not very big, is it? 3" Law To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. — (The school boys.—-or-school girls - favourite). Now how do these laws help us with the propeller? (Figure 1)As the propeller rotates, it’s aerofoil section causes the air in front of it to be drawn into the propeller which accelerates it rearwards. Thus we have a in Newton’s second law. The air has mass (1.2 kg per cubic metre at sea level) so we also have m in the equation F = ma. Thus we have force ~ BUT it is in the “wrong” direction — BACKWARDS. Newton’s 3° law comes into play here ~ for every action (the backwards force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (a forwards force acting on the propeller). So we have thrust. It is the same principle for jet engines and ship’s propellers. REACTION =——= ACTION = Ai wt tle oF Increased air velocty 0 ro vlocty ‘bine airs sccaterated (2) Fig 1 THRUST QUESTION: When the aircraft is stationary the air velocity in front of the propeller is zero - or nearly so. Can you see that a problem arises as the forward speed of the aircraft increases? Can you describe what it is? (10 mins) ANSWER: With an increase in forward speed of the aircraft the velocity of the air in front of the propeller gets greater, this means that the acceleration between v and V is less and the effectiveness of the propeller decreases. The propeller converts the rotary torque of the engine ~ piston or turboprop ~ into propulsive thrust by accelerating a large mass of air backwards = ____-comparatively slowly; compared to a jet engine which accelerates a small-mass of air backwards at a relatively high velocity. a ‘The propeller of a turbo-prop engine uses about 90% of the engines available power for propulsion, while 10% of the propulsive force comes from the residual energy in the exhaust gases. For a piston engine all the available power is used in the propeller.‘The blade has an aerofoil section similar to that of an aircraft's mainplane, but whereas the reaction on an aircraft's mainplane can be resolved into lift and drag, the reaction on the propeller blade is resolved into thrust and drag. ‘The airflow over each part of the blade varies with it's radius from the hub. For this reason the pitch angle, or twist of the blade, will be high at the root and low at the tip. The blade can also be thought of as a cantilever beam (a beam supported at one end only). The stresses in it are complex, but in general: «The centrifugal force produces a tensile stress. + The production of the thrust force produces a bending stress. + The above bending stress will produce tension in the rear of the blade and compression in the front. «Further bending moments will be applied to the blade due to it’s rotation, and it being opposed by the drag. For the above reasons the blade is made thick at the root and tapered off towards the tip, so that the thickness/chord ratio at the tip is considerably less even than the wing of the aircraft to which it is fitted. ‘The propeller normally consists of two or more blades each of which is a twisted aerofoil section of irregular planform. The blades are attached to a central hub, which is mounted onto a shaft driven by the engine. The engine driven shaft is directly connected to the crankshaft on low power engines, or indirectly connected through a reduction gearbox on engines of higher power rating. As each blade is of aerofoil cross section, and rotated at an angle of attack, thrust and torque forces are produced by each blade. REGULATIONS Propellers must meet the requirements as laid down by the CAA. These are published in BCARs section C now replaced by JAR-P for propellers and JAR-E for engines with some requirements for propellers stated in BCAR 23 - Light Aeroplanes. a DEFINITIONS. Various terms will be used throughout this book to describe the operation of both fixed pitch and variable pitch propellers. The terms described below should be understood and committed to memory, but at least this section can be used as reference when reading other parts of the book.Angle of Attack. The angle between the chordline of the propeller and the relative airflow (Figure 2). Angle of stack engi formed bw Pch o blade angle bythe relative alow and ‘the enor ine) | — propel Blade Relative airtow 0 ‘he Dine ‘Blade patn | Linear elt of the [A propeller in the plane Chord tne“ of Forware velocity the ereraf Fig 2 PROPELLER TERMS Aerodynamic Twisting This is a twisting moment caused by the centre of Moment (ATM) pressure being forward of the pitch change axis (usually) and this causes a moment (force times distance) which tends to turn the blade into coarse pitch. Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) and ATM act in the same direction when the propeller is windmilling. Aerofoil ‘The cross section of a wing or blade at right angles to chord and depth. Asymmetric Not symmetric. Auto Feathering ‘This system allows the propeller to be feathered System, should there be engine failure at high power settings - ie, during take-off. It is activated by a low torque signal front the engine torque meter system. See the — book in this series "Engine - Instrumentation".‘Beta’ or Blade Angle Control of Propellers Blade Blade Angle Blade Axis Blade Back Blade Cuff aS Blade Face Blade Pitch Blade Root On some gas turbine engines, a form of control known as ‘beta’ or blade angle control, is used for ground operations, and this may be applied to either single or double acting propellers. With this system, the throttles operate in a gated quadrant. During flight the throttles cannot be closed below the ‘flight idle’ gate, and the Propeller Control Unit (PCU) operates normally to maintain any pre-selected rpm. In the ground idling and reversing range, the throttles control propeller pitch directly to vary power at both positive and negative blade angles, at constant propeller speed, and the governor mechanism of the PCU is overridden. Aerofoil designed to rotate about an axis to create lift/ thrust The angle between the chord line, at a station, and the plane of rotation (Figure 2). ‘This is defined by the geometry of the root pitch change bearings. It is the axis about which the blade is moved. ‘The cambered side of the blade corresponding to the top side of an aircraft wing. Aerodynamic collar fitted to the blade shank to improve cooling air to a piston engine. ‘The opposite side to the blade back. The flat side of . the blade aerofoil. Sometimes called Thrust Face. The angle between the chord line of the blade and the plane of rotation. (Figure 2) ~~ “‘That part of the blade where it is faired smoothly into the propeller hub, Usually inside the spinner. Blank Shank ————Phe-area ofthe blade next to the root—It-is-thick,— strong, well rounded and produces virtually no thrust forces. Is outside of the spinner.Blade Station ‘The radial location of a blade element (thin cross sectional slice) usually expressed as a decimal fraction of the propeller radius. Sometimes expressed as a linear distance from a reference such as the spin axis. (Figure 3) 30inch 14 inch inch 10 inch Binch Hubcentreline + - Fig 3 BLADE STATIONS Blade Sweep ‘Tangential change in the centroids (centroid = centre of mass) of all the blade elements from the radial axis. ~— Some-propellers have trailing-sweep—Leading sweep is rare, Some modern propellers have a varying trailing sweep where the change increases from root to tip: Blade Tilt Change in the position of the centroids of each blade from the plane of rotation. When viewed from the side the blades appear to bend forward (forward tilt) or backwards (backward tilt). Blade tilt is rare.Blade Twist Blade Vector Diagram Blade Width Ratio Brake Horse Power Camber Centre of Pressure Blade mass acts io turn Blade mio five pitch (1) Unwanted variation in pitch from root to tip caused by ATM and CTM. (2) Natural twist in blade which reduces blade angle from root to tip. A vector diagram showing the forces acting on the blade. Ratio of mean chord to propeller diameter. ‘The power available at the output shaft of an engine. ‘The curvature of the back and face of a propeller. The greater the camber the greater the ability of the propeller to absorb power. This means a more powerful engine and more thrust. ‘The point on an aerofoil section of a blade where all the thrust forces are said to act. Blade mass acts to turn blade into fine pitch Pivot point (olade axis) / e Plane of rotationCentrifugal Twisting A moment set up by the centrifugal forces of the blade Moment (CTM) which tend to rotate the blade towards fine pitch (Figure 4) Chord Line ‘An imaginary straight line starting at the centre of curvature of the leading edge of the blade section and ending at the trailing edge Club Propeller Used for bench testing engines. Has short stubby coarse pitch blades to provide the necessary torque to the engine but with a reduced propeller area. Safer and takes up less space Disc Area The frontal area swept by the rotating propeller. Discing This is the condition when the blades are set ~ (temporarily) in a zero blade angle - ie, in the plane of rotation. It will occur during the transition from fine to reverse pitch, naturally it will be best if this transition can be achieved fairly rapidly, with only a low power selected to reduce the risk of engine overspeeding. Sometimes used to cause aerodynamic drag. Effective Pitch The distance the propeller actually moves through the air in one revolution. (Figure 5) SLIP THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTUAL ‘8 THEORETICAL PORWARD MOVEMENT EFFECTIVE PITCH IRCTUAL FORWARD MOVEMENT GEOMETRIC PITCH THEORETICAL FORWARD MOVEMENT Fig 5 SLIPEffective Propeller The net thrust from the propeller. Gross thrust Thrust minus increase in drag due to slipstream equals net thrust. Geometric Pitch ‘The theoretical distance a propeller moves forward in one revolution i.e. the amount it would move forward if it was cutting through a solid. (Figure 5) Helix Angle The angle between the resultant direction of the airflow and the plane of rotation. Sometimes called the Angle of Advance. Mach Crit (Mcprt) Parts of a propeller will reach Mach 1 before the rest - commonly the blade tips. When any part of the propeller reaches Mach 1 this is called Mcpar- A Mach Number Named after Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist and is the ratio of the blade linear speed to the local speed of sound (762 MPH. 340 m/s at sea level). Master Station Since the blade angle changes along its length from root to tip the angular setting of the blade must be measured from a particular station. This station is called the Master Station. Paddle Blade Has a wide chord maintained to the tip. Plane of Rotation ‘The plane in which the propeller rotates at right angles to the propeller shaft. ~ Power-off Drag ‘This condition will occur in the air when the engine power is reduced - propeller blades will go to a finer pitch in an effort to maintain rpm, producing higher drag levels due to the larger blade area facing the normal airflow. Propeller Efficiency This is a measure of how much of the available power (Brake Horse Power) the propeller converts to thrust (Thrust Horse Power). % Propeller Efficiency-= Thrust Horse Power x 100 Brake Horse Power It is usually at a maximum at about 350 knots airspeed.Propeller Slip Propeller Synchronising Propeller Synchrophasing slightly bias the propeller control units. Solidity Subsonic Supersonic Symmetric Thrust Face Thrust Horse Power Torque ‘Transonic The difference between Geometric and Effective Pitch (Figure 5) In order to reduce vibration on multi engined aircraft it is essential to have all engines running at the same rpm Synchronising is the process of achieving thi It can be aided by the use of a synchroscope on the flight deck which shows the speed of all engines related to a designated ‘master engine’ Propeller vibration can be further reduced on some aircraft if all the propellers can operate in some fixed geometric relation one to another. In other words each blade of all the propellers are at a different angle when viewed from the front. This can be achieved by using electrical signals from the rpm system to A measure of the capacity of the propeller to absorb power. It is the ratio between that part of the propeller disc viewed from the front which is solid and the part which is air. Where the relative airflow is below the local speed of sound. Where the relative airflow is above the local speed of sound (greater than Mach 1). A> object which has an exact mirror i age about a centre line. The Blade face. The actual thrust the propeller is producing. Not used a lot these days. Measured as force times distance with units of ft Ibs, or Nm, It is a measure of the amount of twist in a -—-shaft—-May be applied-to-e stationary or rotating shaft———— It is a good measure of the real power being transmitted to the propeller. Where some parts of the airflow over a blade is supersonic and others subsonic.Windmilling ‘The condition when airflow over the propeller blades tends to make the engine/ propeller rotate. This effectcan occur both on the ground and in the air due to high winds and/or a low power selection i: flight, usually when the aircraft is descending. BLADE OPERATION ‘The propeller blade is an aerofoil and when an aerofoil is placed in an airflow it produces lift and drag. The propeller is nothing more than two or more aerofoils rotated in the (usually) vertical plane. They still produce lift and drag but they are now called thrust and drag. The drag that is caused by the rotating blade produces Torque. The amount of thrust and torque produced by a propeller will depend on the engine power; the angle of attack of the propeller, and its speed of rotation which is directly related to the speed of the airflow over the blade. Consider any four points A to D along the propeller from hub to tip. Point A being at the hub and point D at the tip. Each point is rotating at the same rpm but each point has a different linear velocity. Point D has a significantly higher linear velocity (and hence airspeed) than point A. ‘The thrust of the propeller is directly related to the airflow velocity, so this would mean that the tip would produce the maximum thrust with the points towards the hub producing progressively less. This state of affairs would cause a significant bending moment on the blade and cause it to bend forward and eventually fail. To prevent this the thrust is distributed along the blade to progressively be reduced towards the tip. To achieve this the blade angle is decreased from root to tip (the blade is twisted). This causes a change in angle of attack and allows each part of the blade to produce the maximum amount to thrust consistent with its airspeed and structural strength. ‘The amount of thrust and torque along the blade varies considerable because of its shape. At the root the section is thick, slow moving, and affected by the air passing through or over the engineAt the blade tip the section will be thin and (usually) well rounded. There will be induced drag and vortices. There will also be high tip speeds which on some propellers will produce compressibility effects (Mcrit) For these reasons the most effective part of the blade is that section between 1/3 and 3/4 of the blade length from the hub. QUESTION: Can you describe what is meant by the term "Induced Drag"? (10 mins) ANSWER: It is where the air spills over the propeller tip from the high pressure side (the blade face) to the low pressure side (the blade back). It is the form of vortices which take some energy from the propeller and hence from the engine Vector Description of Propeller Operation (Figure 6) A vector is a line which represents magnitude and direction. The length of the line - drawn to some scale - represents the magnitude while the angle it is drawn represents the direction. On a moving aircraft the propeller blade is moving forwards and at the same time moving at right angles to the direction of the aircraft movement. Its ACTUAL movement is the RESULTANT of these two. These forward and sideways movements can be drawn as vectors on a Blade Vector Diagram - and from them the resultant can be obtained. It is usual for the aircraft velocity to be drawn horizontally and the propeller blade velocity to be drawn vertically. It is easier to consider the two variables in turn, holding the other quantity temporarily fixed. a ‘The propeller aerofoil will produce its maximum thrust with minimum torque when the angle of attack is at the optimum for that propeller. This will be the condition for MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY (a) WITH BLADE VELOCITY HELD CONSTANT. For any aircraft velocity this will give blade direction, thus a relative airflow direction and. angle of attack. —‘Blade valooty (eine ra) | ahaa bade eocty Monin ene De ‘Surely Reval ade vei, Socal eagaere omuedt oth Fig 6 VECTOR DIAGRAM OF BLADE OPERATION If an increased or reduced aircraft velocity is considered, this changes the relative airflow direction and thus the angle of attack. It can be seen —————that the angle of \SED-AIRCRART VELOCITY. This means that there will only-be one aircraft velocity and angle of attack that gives maximum efficiency. This is usually aircraft cruise velocity. Below this speed the angle of attack is too large, and above this speed the angle of attack is too small, and in each case the efficiency is reduced(b) WITH AIRCRAFT VELOCITY HELD CONSTANT. The blade velocity will now control the blade direction, relative airflow and angle of attack. If an increased or reduced blade velocity is considered, this changes the relative airflow direction and thus the angle of attack. The angle of attack INCREASES WITH A RISE IN BLADE VELOCITY. When considering both the propeller speed and the aircraft speed there will be only ONE COMBINATION of aircraft velocity and blade velocity which gives the maximum efficiency to both the vector components. Propeller in-efficiency is usually the result of "slip". Improving Propeller Efficiency Improvements have been achieved by improving the design of the blade aerofoil, but the improvements have been small The propeller has a high efficiency with small blade angles and low aircraft forward speeds - including take-off. This gives an optimum angle of attack Also if a large blade angle is used with high aircraft speeds then this will also give an optimum angle of attack and high efficiency. This shows the need for a VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLER if efficiency is to be maintained throughout the speed range. However, these are expensive and more difficult to maintain. BLADE STATIONS (Figure 7) Starting from the centreline of the hub of a propeller, each blade can be marked off in increments known as BLADE STATIONS. If the blade angle is ~ measured at each of these stations, the blade angle near the centre of the propeller will be highest, with a decrease in blade angle toward the tip. This decrease in blade angle from the hub to the tip is known as pitch distribution. A cross section of each blade station will show low-speed aerofoils near the hub and high-speed aerofoils towards the tip. ‘The pitch distribution and the change in aerofoil shape along the length of the blade is necessary because each section is moving at a different velocity with ———— the slowest speeds tiear the hub and the highest speeds near the tip. ‘The aerofoil sections at all the blade stations unite to form a blade that creates thrust when rotated about a central axis. Each section is so designed to operate at its own best angle of attack to create the maximum thrust when revolving at its best design rpm.‘VIEW FROM LEADING EDGE .. Fig 7 BLADE SECTIONS QUESTION: Can you think of any practical uses for blade stations? (5 mins) ANSWER: May be used for:~ (a) Location of measuring points to measuring blade angle. (b) The location of propeller markings. (c]__ The identification and classification of blade damage THE FIVE FORCES ON A PROPELLER ‘The following are the main forces to be experienced by a propeller: * Centrifugal. -— * Thrust. * Aerodynamic Twisting (producing ATM). ____+ Centrifugal Twisting (producing CTM). * Torque bending. (a) Centrifugal Force (Figure 8) This is due to the rotation of the propeller. The blade and hub must be strong enough to withstand this considerable tensile stress.ROTATIONAL SPEED CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Fig 8 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (b) Thrust Force (Figure 9) As the blade aerofoil produces thrust the blade tends to bent forward, causing tension, shear, and compressive stresses. This is minimised by blade twisting as described previously. <3 THRUST FORCE Fig 9 THRUST FORCE (c) Aerodynamic Twisting Force (Figure 10) This produces a moment because the aerofoil centre of pressure is ahead of the blade axis. This produces a moment which tends to turn the blade towards a LARGER blade angle i.e. towards COURSE PITCH. ———Fhismoment is calted Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM). This is true unless the angle of attack is negative when the blade is driven towards fine pitch(@) MOMENT / AXIS OF TWIST, CENTRE OF PRESSURE Fig 10 AERODYNAMIC TWISTING MOMENT Centrifugal Twisting Force (Figure 11) ‘This force is produced because of the unbalanced components of the centrifugal force. It produces a moment which will tend to turn the blade towards a smaller blade angle ie, turn the blade towards a FINE PITCH. The moment is called Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM). With reference to Figure 12. A and B represent equal masses of blade material. Propeller rotation about O produces centrifugal forces (OC and OD). These forces may be resolved into components parallel and perpendicular to the blade axis OX. ‘The forces parallel to the blade axis are resisted by the blade thrust bearings and their sum total constitutes the centrifugal pull on the blade reot--The perpendicular forces are not balanced and produce a twisting moment about the blade axis. The sum total of all such masses produces a considerable twisting moment which tends to turn the blade to-fine-pitch. ~ ——lo AXIS OF ROTATION PLANE OF ROTATION Fig 11 CENTRIFUGAL TWISTING MOMENT ~[e}—Torque Bending Force. _ - This is produced as the blades tend to. bend against the normal direction of rotation. Caused by the aerodynamic drag on the blade Also called ‘propeller torque’AERODYNAMIC DRAG ENGINE TORQUE AERODYNAMIC DRAG Fig 12 TORQUE BENDING FORCE VIBRATIONAL FORCES AND CRITICAL RANGE, When a propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical forces are present which cause the blades to vibrate. If not compensated for in the design, these vibrations may cause excessive flexing, work-hardening of the metal, and result in sections of the propeller blade breaking off during use. Aerodynamic forces have a vibration effect at the tip of a blade where the effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibration. These vibrations may be decreased by use of the proper aerofoils and tip design. Dynamic vibrations are generated by the power pulses in a piston engine and are considered to be more destructive in their effect than aerodynamic vibration. These engine power pulses cause a propeller blade to vibrate and set up standing wave patterns that cause metal fatigue and failure. Tne location and number of stress points changes with different rpm settings, but the most critical location for these stress concentrations is about six-inches (153mm) in from the tip of the blades. Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations have no problem in eliminating the detrimental effects of these vibrational stresses. However, some combinations are sensitive to-certain rpm ranges-and-have this CRITICAL RANGE indicated on the tachometer by a red arc. The engine should not be operated in the critical range except as necessary to pass through it to set a _<_higher or lower rpm. _ If the engine is operated in the critical range, there is a possibility of structural failure in the aircraft due to the vibrational stresses set up.PROPELLER BALANCE The propeller must be balanced when it is running to reduce vibration as much as possible. This will reduce fatigue stress and give a more comfortable flight. The propeller must be balanced: a) * Statically * Dynamically * Aerodynamically Static Balance. This is balance in one plane only - a condition where there is no persistent tendency for a free propeller to rotate from any position. It is mounted on an arbor, on a rigid knife edge balancing stand, in a room free of air currents. It is rotated several times and each ~ time any “out of balance’ is corrected for by the addition of small lead or steel weights to the hub or propeller. Alternatively an electronic balancing machine may be used. On some propellers solder is added to the tips - blended in to reduce the aerodynamic effect. Dynamic Balance. This is balance in two planes. When the propeller is rotated there are no “out of balance couples" produced. The propeller is best balanced on a special rig (this will tell you where on the circumference of the hub, its value, and its fore and aft position to place the weight). In general terms when any weight is attached to the hub for static balance purposes it ~ must be attached in such a position (in a fore and aft direction) so as not to produce a couple when the propeller is rotating. Aerodynamic Balance All the.blades must produce the-same thrust. This can be achieved by ‘having Correct aérofoil sections and correct blade angles. For VP propellers this means the correct fitting and alignment of each blade in the hub. Note: With all balancing procedures always refer to the propeller manual/aircraft manual.PROPELLER TRACK When the propeller is rotating each blade must have the same position in relation to the plane of rotation, ie the "track" must be correct. This is checked by turning the propeller by hand and checking that identical marks on the blade tip pass exactly over the same point - using a stand or bench placed close to the propeller. Alternatively the track may be checked with the propeller on a surface table using a height gauge. PROPELLER VISIBILITY When the propeller is rotating it can almost become invisible. To reduce this problem the blade tips are painted in a contrasting colour, or some blades are painted with coloured bands which may produce a “corkscrew” effect when ~ rotating. TIP SPEED Flutter or vibration may be caused by the tip of the propeller blade travelling at a speed approaching the speed of sound, thus causing stressing and fatigue to develop. This condition can be overcome by operating at a lower rpm or reducing the propeller diameter without changing the blade profile. Tip speed is actually the principle factor determining the efficiency of high- performance propellers of conventional two or three blade design. It is essential to keep the tip velocity below the speed of sound. At sea level the speed of sound is generally taken to be 340 m/s (1120 ft/s), but it decreases with altitude. ‘The efficiency of high-performance propellers of conventional two or three blade design may be expressed in terms of the ratio of the tip speed to the velocity of sound. For example, at sea level, when the tip speed is 900 ft/s, the maximum efficiency is about 80%. It is usually necessary to gear the drive shaft so that the propeller will turn at a lower rpm than the engine in order to obtain tip ratios below the speed of sound. For example, if the engine is geared in a 3:2 ratio, the propeller will ————urrrat two-thirds the speed of the engine-—————-— When the propeller turns at a lower rpm the aerofoil sections of the blades strike the air at a lower speed and they therefore do not do so much work in a geared propeller as they would do in one with a direct drive. It is necessary in this case to increase the blade area by using a larger diameter or more blades.BLADE MATERIALS Blades may be made from: Wood Older blades may be made of laminated woods such as lignum-vitae, a very dense wood, with leading edges protected with metal sheaths. Metal Such as solid duralumin. If they are to carry heater elements they are rebated along the leading edge (to about 2/3rds of the radius from the hub) to receive electrical heater elements. Composite Newer blades are being made from composite materials - carbon fibre or aluminium main spars with foam filler for the aerofoil shape covered with a strong composite outer layer. Wood In the early days of aviation, all propellers were made of wood, but the development of larger and higher horsepower aircraft engines made it necessary to adopt stronger and more durable materials; hence, metal is now extensively used in the construction of propellers for all types of aircraft. A weoden propeller is not cut from a solid block but is built up of a number of separate layers of carefully selected and well-seasoned hardwoods, as shown in figure 13 Y Ege | 1 BONDING OF WOOD LAMINATES. |3 PAINTING AND FOMSHING. Smulna @BORNO TS PBI OF EPAL PN — 2 SHAPING, DRILLING & BORING 7 Fig 13 CONSTRUCTION OF A WOODEN PROPELLERty) Types of wood include: * Lignum-vitae, * Yellow birch. * Sugar maple. * Black walnut. ‘As shown in figure 13 the laminations of wood are given a preliminary shaping and finishing and then are stacked together and glued with high-quality glue. Pressure and temperature are carefully controlled for the prescribed time. After the glue has set according to specification, the propeller is shaped to its final form using templates and protractors to ensure that it meets the design specifications. After the propeller is shaped, the tip of each blade is covered with fabric to protect the tip from moisture and reduce the tendency to crack or split. The fabric is thoroughly waterproofed. Finally, the leading edge and tip of each blade is provided with a sheet-brass shield to reduce damage due to small stones, sand and other materials encountered during takeoff and taxing. The shielding or erosion strips on the leading edge and the tips is vented by drilling holes about 2mm in diameter. These holes help to eliminate any moisture that might condense under the metal ‘The centre bore of the hub and the mounting-bolt holes are very carefully bored to exact dimensions. This is essential to good balance after installation. During the final production stages, the propeller is balanced, both horizontally and vertically (statically and dynamically), and aerodynamically. Finally it is given a coat of finishing varnish. Metal The majority of modern propellers are manufactured from light alloy forgings, accurately machined to give the precise aerofoil shape and blade angle. After forging a close tolerance centre bore is provided to receive a steel hub or adapter. Bolt holes are drilled to-allow the propeller to be attached to a —————-sramdard propeller shaft. ttis therr giver: an-anti-corresive treatment, QUESTION: Can you describe what is meant by "forging"? (5 mins)ANSWER: It is a form of stamping process where the propeller is stamped to shape using a hydraulic press. QUESTION: What is the standard anti-corrosive treatment for aluminium alloys? (2 mins) ANSWER: Anodising. This is usually employed on aluminium propellers. Composite Materials Composite blades have a greater strength/weight ratio than metal blades and do not suffer from corrosion; they are more popular for the larger turbo prop. aircraft. The composite material consists of various plastic resins reinforced with fibres made of glass, carbon (sometimes called graphite), Kevlar, or boron. These fibres have high tensile strength and without a bonding resin would be useless in compression (they would bend). The resin may be a two part epoxy resin or polyester, or polyamide. Glass fibres with epoxy resins have been used for many years to produce such things as radomes and radio transparent panels. Carbon fibre/epoxy resin components have been developed more recently to produce a structure with a higher strength/weight ratio than glass fibre composites. SOLID ALUMINIUM SPAR FIBREGLASS SHELL FOAM INFILL - ¥ig-14EXAMPLE OF A COMPOSITE PROPELLER {HAMILTON STANDARD) ~ Construction techniques vary but most manufacturers use a non monolithic design ie, the structure is not the same all the way though, and in many cases foam filling is used with a Kevlar or glass fibre shell. -24-Spar/Shell Composite Propeller Figure 14 shows a typical Spar/Shell designed propeller. ‘The spar consists of solid aluminium alloy (from which most of the strength is obtained), and the shell is made up of fibre glass. The gaps between the fibre glass shell and the spar are filled with plastic foam which give the structure the required amount of stiffness and compression strength without incurring a significant weight penalty. It would be considered a semi monocoque design as at least some of the load is taken by the outer skin of the propeller. (A monocoque structure is where the skin or shell takes all the load and there is no internal support) ), Shell Composite Propeller (Figure 15) This is also a semi monocoque structure where a Kevlar shell is supported internally by shear webs and the cavities in between are filled with a foam fill. soup umomécnonaL saan wee {2040 UNORRECTONAL Fig 15 SHELL COMPOSITE PROPELLER (HARTZELL) ‘The Kevlar shell is made up of unidirectional and multidirectional layers of material bonded together with an epoxy resin. ‘The leading and trailing edges, and the tip are locally reinforced with unidirectional Kevlar. = The leading edge is further protected by a metal cap. This cap is bonded onto ____= =the propeller to help reduce the erosive effect of rain, hail and-airborne-debris. The webs, also of unidirectional Kevlar, are constructed between the back and face sides of the propeller to resist shear, flexing and buckling.‘The Kevlar skin is bonded to an aluminium alloy shank and retained by a retention winding where the propeller is attached to the spider hub. The aluminium alloy shank is then attached to the spider hub by a blade clamp The primary retention winding holds the shell tightly against the aluminium alloy shank. The winding is made from a Kevlar roving impregnated with an epoxy resin. This arrangement ensures that the blade cannot separate from the propeller hub even under the most extreme centrifugal forces. Fig 16 BLADE RETENTION (HARTZELL PROPELLER) The end of the Kevlar shell i. flared to match tue contour of the the Hi rpm (low pitch) position, The same position is held for take-off and as cruise is approached so the switch is moved to the Lo rpm position (high pitch) and released when correct rpm is indicated. For approach and landing the propeller is set to the maximum low pitch, high rpm position. THE McCAULEY PROPELLER (Figure 23) This is an all metal constant speed propeller controlled by a single-acting governor. ‘The control of the pitch is via an oil fed single cylinder and piston. PROPELLER BLADE PISTON OIL IN/OUT CYLINDER OIL SUPPLY PIPE BLADE ASSEMBLY (ROTATES WITH RING: PITCH CHANGE) ee = Fig 23- McCAULEY CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER When the piston is moved it causes the actuating pins to move forwards or backwards, these are attached to the blades via the pitch link assembly which rotate in their bearing assemblies.When the piston is fully forward (assisted by the spring) the blades are in the low pitch position. If the engine overspeeds the governor will direct oil pressure through the centre of the crankshaft; through the centre of the piston rod to the piston head. This will cause the piston to move back coarsening the pitch and reducing the rpm. If engine rpm falls below the selected speed the governor will allow oil out of the cylinder and the return spring will move the piston forward twisting the blades to a finer position. This action is assisted by the centrifugal twisting moment of the rotating blades. THE HARTZELL CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER (Figure 24) This propeller may be non-feathering or may be capable of feathering or reversing, depending on the type. The metal blades are supported on a spider, and clamps connect the blade shanks to the spider with bearings. A hydraulic cylinder is mounted in front on the rotational axis and connected to the blade clamps (which have counterweights attached) for pitch change. When the propeller is running the centrifugal force on the counterweights, and the aerodynamic twisting moment tends to turn the blades into coarse pitch. Propeller governor oil pressure in the propeller cylinder and CTM tend to turn the blades into fine pitch. PROPELLER CYLINDER OPERATING LINK Fig 24 PITCH CHANGE MECHANISM FOR A COUNTERWEIGHT PROPELLER (HARTZELL)The feathering propeller uses a spring to assist the counterweights to increase the pitch. High pitch stops prevent the propeller feathering when the aircraft has landed and the engine is cut. The stops are spring loaded latches attached to the hub which engage high pitch stop plates bolted to removable blade clamps. At speeds in excess of 500 rpm the latches are disengaged from the stop plates by centrifugal force. Reversible pitch props have another oil system which is controlled by a valve operated by the pilot. When selected the oil pressure moves the blades from low to reverse pitch and the feathering spring tension returns the blades when the oil pressure is released. At this point it is worth having a look at a propeller control unit. There are several different types - a typical one is explained. PROPELLER CONTROL UNIT (PCU) (Figure 25) The PCU will be able to change the pitch of the propeller in response to pilot demand within the normal operating ranges to maintain a pre-selected rpm setting, by controlling the flow of pressure oil to or from the propeller pitch change unit. The PCU is driven by the engine and consists of the following assemblies: * Governor Oil Pump. A small spur gear pump which receives normal engine pressure lubricating oil and raises its pressure still further. This high pressure oil is used to move the piston in the pitch change assembly. A pressure relief valve (not shown for clarity) across the pump outlet controls the output pressure, surplus oil is dumped back to the pump inlet. * Oil Control Valve. This is a steel shaft with a number of ‘lands’. The valve controls the flow of oil, passing to or from the pitch change cylinder, thus controlling the propeller pitch. The valve is moved by either the pilot's control lever through a rack and pinion and spring assembly, or a pair of centrifugally operated bob weights. * Bob Weights. Thes@ are a pair of ‘L’ shaped weights rotated by the engine on a carrier plate. The centrifugal force created on the weights is opposed by a spring. The weights act directly onto the oil control valve to reposition it. * Rack and Pinion Assembly. Consists of a rack and pinion and a strong spring. The pilots propeller control lever is linked to move the pinion which in turn moves the rack. The control movement thus changes the load on the spring, which, with the bob weights, will reposition the oil control valve and change the propeller pitch.Max rpm (Fin Min rpm (coarse) Pilots lever “* Rack and pinion Oil control valve —> Governor oil pressure for pump mt Counterweight On { to coarse pitch ae Engine oil pressure Fig 25 SINGLE ACTING PROPELLER & CONTROL UNIT * Pilots Propeller Control Lever. Not strictly a part of the PCU but of course related to it: ‘The lever range is usually marked at one end MAX RPM which is FINE PITCH. This position creates the biggest load on the spring, and causes the oil control valve to be lowered. The other markings are usually a MIN RPM position which is COARSE PITCH. _This position creates only a small load.on the PCU spring. The a FEATHER POSITION, if included, is beyond the coarse pitch position and —~ ‘when selected POSITIVELY repositions the oil control valve. The reverse pitch is usually achieved through a separate electrical selection.When oil flows into the pitch change cylinder the cylinder is caused to move forward, compressing the return spring and moving the blades into the fine position via the pitch change links. When oil pressure is released the cylinder is allowed to move back under the influence of the return spring, counterweights, and ATM. DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION OF A VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLER ‘The engine is always started on the ground with the propeller control lever set to the MAX rpm or FINE PITCH position. Thus the controls load the PCU spring which depresses the oil control valve against a nil or low centrifugal load from the bob weights, which pushes them inwards. In this position the oil control valve directs governor pump oil to turn or maintain the propeller in the fine pitch position against a stop. As engine speed rises the centrifugal load on the bob weights also increases which tends to progressively return the oil control valve and bob weights to the neutral (upright) position. Only as max rpm is reached does the centrifugal load on the bob weights increase sufficiently to pull them outwards from the neutral position against spring load. This movement lifts the oil control valve and allows oil to drain from the propeller pitch change cylinder. The propeller pitch will now move slightly towards COARSE, under the action of the pitch change cylinder return spring, blade counterweights and ATM. The coarser pitch increases the load on the engine and the rpm stabilises. In this manner the rpm is maintained at the maximum value. In this position the propeller is CONSTANT SPEEDING. Although the propeller has slightly coarsened, the pilots control lever is still selected to the fully fine pitch or max. rpm position. If the rpm should fall for any reason while a max rpm selection is made, the PCU spring force overcomes the bob weight load and the oil control valve is depressed which in turn directs governor pump oil fo FINE off the propeller _ pitch slightly. A finer pitch will cause the engine/ propeller rpm to rise returning to the selected value. Again the pilots control has not moved in this change. This is the UNDERSPEED condition and its correction.Flight Operation During take-off the propeller should CONSTANT SPEED at MAX rpm. This comes about from the repeated situation of rising airspeed producing smaller blade angle of attack and an overspeed condition, which is continuously corrected as the blades move slightly towards coarse pitch. In cruising flight the engine power is reduced to the appropriate value by movement of the throttle. Engine rpm will fall in consequence, and the propeller will go into fine pitch in an attempt to maintain the selected rpm. The propeller control lever can then be moved towards coarse pitch to further reduce rpm to the correct cruise value In this position the propeller will assume an ON SPEED position CONSTANT SPEEDING at the new selected rpm value. Any rpm variation will be dealt with ~ as previously described. Speed Conditions On Speed Condition In this condition the propeller is running at the rpm selected by the pilots control. Thus centrifugal force on the bob weights balances the force of the governor control spring, the bob weights remain vertical. ‘The governor control valve is in a neutral position and traps oil in the pitch change cylinder. The propeller pitch and thus rpm remain constant. Underspeed Condition. In this condition the propeller is running at LESS than the selected rpm. Thus control spring force in the governor unit is GREATER _/ than the centrifugal force on the bob weights which move inwards. ‘The governor control valve is LOWERED, supplying high pressure oil to the pitch change cylinder. Blade angle decreases - propeller moves towards FINE pitch - engine speed rises until the rpm returns to the ON SPEED CONDITION again. A n. In this condition the propeller is-running-at MORE-than — the selected rpm. Thus governor contro! spring force is LESS than the centrifugal force of the bob weights, which fly outwards. ‘The governor control valve is raised, high pressure oil OR springs (as in this case) increase blade angle - propeller moves towards COARSE pitch. rpm reduces until the ON SPEED condition is restoredFeathering Operation In the event of engine malfunction or for training purposes (multi-engined aircraft only) if the engine is throttled baci and eventually stopped. The propeller control lever is moved to the feathering position and this positively lifts the oil control valve and allows oil to drain from the pitch change cylinder. The pitch change cylinder will push the blades to, and maintain them in, the feathered position. The engine/propeller will now remain stationary in flight. On some aircraft an automatic feathering facility is available. Figure 26 shows an example of a feathering propeller with latches built into the hub assembly. The propeller operating mechanism is sprung loaded and counterweighted so that the blades always try and go to the feather position all the time. If oil pressure is lost the blades will automatically feather. To prevent the blades from feathering when the engine is stopped on the ground the spring loaded latch mechanism engages at a designed low rpm. Movement of the blades to the feather position is therefore prevented. Three types of latching mechanism have been used for this function: the inertial; the pressure, and the centrifugal. The centrifugal is the most popular. Oil pressure + CTM to fine pitch Centrifugal latch disengaged h FF r . _ Cenirifugal latch Pp engaged — = Counterweight Spring + counterweights + ATM to coarse pitch foee tesserae crea Fig 26 FEATHERING PROPELLER WITH CENTRIFUGAL LATCHESBLADE ANGLE CONTROL ON THE GROUND On some gas turbine engines, a form of control known as “Beta” or blade angle control is used for ground operations. This may be applied to single or double acting propellers. With this system the throttles or power levers operate in a gated quadrant. During flight these levers cannot be closed below the “flight idle” gate, and the PCU operates normally to maintain the pre-selected rpm. In the ground idling and reversing range the power levers control the propeller pitch to vary power at both positive and negative blade angles, at constant propeller speed, and the governor mechanism is overridden. Figure 27 shows a typical single acting, moving cylinder, oil operated auto- feathering propeller system incorporating blade angle ground control. The cockpit controls consist of: * A power lever - connected to the FCU * A propeller control lever - connected to the governor PCU ‘The power lever controls power output in all modes and propeller blade angle in the Beta Mode. It is linked to a cam assembly on the side of the engine and from there to a system of linkages that go rearward to the FCU and forward to the Beta control valve. ‘The power lever adjusts both fuel flow and blade angle in the Beta or “ground” mode. In the Alpha or “flight” mode it controls the fuel flow only. ‘The propeller control lever is connected to the PCU which adjusts system rpm in the Alpha mode and a fuel cut-off lever (hp cock) connected to the FCU. Beta Mode operation is usually in the range of 50 to 85% rpm. In this range the power lever is used to control both fuel flow and propeller angle. When the power lever is moved forward, the cam assembly causes the fuel flow to the engine to increase. At the same time the linkage to the propeller governor moves the Beta control valve forward out of the governor body, and propeller oil pressure is released. As the oil is released so the propeller cylinder moves in; the slip ring of the cylinder moves in and the linkage returns the Beta control valve to the neutral position. This gives proportional movement to the propeller. (Negative feedback).AONVA VLE - IOULNOO HIONV Gavia LZ 314 yea say anqea madIf the power lever is moved rearward, the fuel flow is reduced, the Beta control valve is move in, and oil pressure is directed to the propeller to decrease propeller blade angle. As the cylinder moves out so the Beta control valve returns to the neutral position by the action of the slip ring and linkage. This again gives a proportional response. If the power lever is moved rearwards passed the zero thrust position the blade moves to a negative angle to provide reverse thrust, and fuel flow is increased. This allows for variable reverse thrust using the cam on the side of the engine. During the Beta Mode the propeller governor constant-speed mechanism is ‘underspeed’ with the pilot valve is lowered. The governor oil pump supplies oil for propeller operation in the Beta Mode In the Alpha Mode the system rpm is high enough for the propeller governor to operate, and the system is in a constant-speed mode. As the power lever is moved forward more fuel flows to the engine to increase power, and the propeller governor causes an increase in the propeller blade angle to absorb the extra power — thus selected system rpm is maintained. When the power lever is moved rearward the blade angle will be decreased by the governor to maintain the selected rpm. To feather the propeller, the propeller control lever is moved fully aft. The pilot valve in the governor is raised and all of the oil pressure in the propeller is released. The springs and the propeller counterweights will move the propeller to feather. To move to unfeather, the engine is started and the power turbine rotates. The _» governor or Beta control valve will take the propeller to the selected blade angle or governor rpm setting. The engine will be started before the propeller reaches it’s proportional rpm because of the free turbine nature of the engine. PROPELLER PITCH STOPS (LARGE PROPELLERS ONLY) ——————the following pitetr stops coutd-be used:—-— aes — () Ground Fine ‘These are used on certain types of turbo prop (i) Flight Fine engines only. (ii) Feathered (iv) Reverse (¥) Coarse Pitch StopGround Fine Pitch During starting and ground running at low power on certain direct coupled turbo propeller engines a very fine propeller pitch may be required, to minimise propeller load and thus reduce the risk of engine overheating. This pitch is TOO FINE and dangerous in flight due to the risk of engine overspeeding. The ground fine pitch stop is normally fixed - except in a propeller which is capable of reverse pitch, in which case it must be removable - by selection from the cockpit. Flight Fine A removable stop to limit the minimum pitch which can be obtained in flight. ‘This stop is in the form of a spring collet. When ground fine pitch is required, a solenoid in the propeller control unit is energised, normally by operation of the STOP WITHDRAWAL LEVER, THROTTLE AND WEIGHT SWITCHES. Feathered ‘The maximum pitch which can be achieved on multi engined aircraft only. This can be achieved manually by moving the propeller control lever to the feathered position which positively raises the governor control valve. The use of an additional electrically operated feathering pump may be necessary to move the blades fully to the feathered position. On some engines automatic feathering can be initiated by means of LOW TORQUE sensing switches on the engine, which when activated operate the valve lift solenoid of the PCU which causes the lifting of the governor control _ valve, and move the bob weights outwards. Electric power may also be supplied to the feathering pump, and the feathering operation commences, and continues until the blades reach the feathering stop. ‘The stop itself is fixed in the propeller casing, to limit the maximum blade angle Reverse Pitch In a reversing propeller, the mechanism includes a removable (ground) fine pitch stop, which enables the propeller to fine off to a negative blade angle This can only happen when certain actions and conditions are fulfilled.Reversible pitch propellers have another oil system which is controlled by a valve operated by the pilot. When selected, the oil pressure moves the blades from low to reverse pitch and the feathering spring tension returns the blades when the pressure is released. This allows a separate oil supply to move a pitch lock piston and lock support thus freeing the spring collet, (the stop) which retracts inwards. Electrical control is exercised by throttle switches, weight contact (weight switch on the landing gear called a ground/air sensor by Boeing - WOW Weight on Wheels switch by Airbus) and a master switch to arm the circuit. This condition is selected once the aircraft is on the ground after landing usually, to aid the aircraft wheel brakes, to shorten the landing run and reduce wear on the brake system. It is sometimes known as POWER ON BRAKING. The stop itself is fixed in the propeller casing to limit the maximum ~ negative blade angle. Other types of stop which can be used are centrifugal, manual or electrical. PROPELLER UN-FEATHERING On turbo-prop engines, when the HP fuel cock is open and the power lever closed the governor valve directs oil from the feathering pump to the rear of the pitch change piston. Selection of the feathering pump switch supplies oil to the PCU and to the propeller. When the blades have turned from the feathered position the airflow starts to. windmill the propeller and engine - the engine should start, and normal oil = pressure should build up to complete the un-feathering operation. In ~ summary: 1 Set controls for starting. 2. Set propeller control lever to fine pitch. _Operate feathering pump (electrical - or un-feathering accumulator. ~~ ~ 4. Switch off the relevant services after the engine has started.PISTON ENGINE CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLERS - ELECTRICAL FEATHERING ‘As we know the motive power for the operation of the pitch change mechanism is oil pressure derived from a pump The oil is supplied from the pump/control valve to a piston and cylinder arrangement in the hub of the propeller which is connected via suitable linkages to each blade. During normal operation the oil under pressure is admitted to one side or the other of the piston. This is controlled by the CSU. Movement of the piston will change the pitch of the blades. On single engined aircraft a feathering system is not usually employed and no electrical circuitry is not involved. On multi engined aircraft, however, an individual electrical system for each propeller provides feathering should any particular engine be shut down in flight. Feathering Should an engine be shut down then the normal source of oil pressure supply will not be available to operate the feathering mechanism, so an alternative supply must be provided. ‘This supply is provided by an electrically driven pump - known as the feathering pump. This draws oil from the engine oil supply and feeds it under pressure to the propeller pitch change mechanism. This high pressure oil, fed to the appropriate side of the piston of the pitch change mechanism, causes the propeller blades to be moved passed fully coarse so that they are positioned edge-on to the airflow, i.e. feathered. ‘The circuit - (Figure 28) While you are not expected to know the details of the circuit you should be able to understand how it works, the general principles, and what to look for should-«fauit occur) JAVAONIV GANIONG NOLSId ILTAW V dO GNIONG GNO AOd LINDUIO ONTAGHLVAA IVOIGAL 8% 31 yuppra ano) T3Nve YOLOW USLEVIS YOLON dnd HSHIvas eane ana ONISHIYS Nou} snd SNOLINA HSNe wSHIVSd SNIONS al HOLS W3H1O OL ei sunssaud 110 sNowine Hsnd +) ‘UBLNVIS BNIONS + I Ava HL OL BS t USINWIS BNI t Noung | F snd evs i + vanvd nounendsia | axn3e way °° wonove arp Zz sassna Aigans. \= The feathering pump is a high current consumer and (as in all these cases), requires a large diameter cable with the shortest possible cable run (reduces weight and the voltage drop which would occur on a long cable run). To be able to switch this supply a relay (or relays) must be fitted. This means that the cable can have the shortest possible run direct form supply to motor without having to go via the cockpit to be switched. ‘The same principle applies to starter motors. Operation Engine starting. Pressing the engine starter push causes: (a) A supply to be connected to the master and starter relays (the starter relay supply is via a fuel switch (not shown). (b) A heavy duty supply will then be completed to the series wound starter motor. Feathering. Pressing the feathering push will cause: (a) A supply to be completed to the master and feathering relays. (b) Aheavy duty supply to be completed to the compound wound feathering pump. () _A"lock on" solenoid circuit to be completed for the feather push via the oil pressure switch. (a) When sufficient ofl pressure has built up to feather the prop the oil pressure switch opens the circuit, de-energises the feather push relay, the feather push opens, the feather relay cuts out, “and the feather pump motor stops _Un-feathering, On starting the engine the engine should automatically start un-feathered. If it does not un-feather when the engine has reached steady speed then the feather push should be pushed in and released as soon as the propeller has started to move from the feathered position. (Remember we are talking about a piston engined aircraft here). Figure 29 shows another (typical) feathering installation. Hows con FEATHERING aUTTON i, PITCH CHANGE MECHANISM TANK. POWER SUPPLY woToR Pu PRESSURE RELAY CUT-OUT SWIToH 1 Foe, 6, POWER SUPT Fig 29 TYPICAL FEATHERING INSTALLATION THE HYDROMATIC VP PROPELLER (Figure 30) In this type of mechanism the piston is connected by pins and rollers to a fixed curved cam track and moveable cam/bevel gear. The bevel gear meshes with a similar beve! gear on the root of each blade. Axial movement of the piston causes rotation of the moveable cam/bevel gear and thus alteration of the blade angle. Operating oil is conveyed to the propeller mechanism through concentric tubes in the bore of the engine reduction gear shaft. The propeller consists of three main assemblies: aa 1. The hub and blade. == 2. Distributor valve. 3. Pitch change mechanism.~ Fig 30 THE HYDROMATIC PROPELLER TYPICAL MULTI STOP PROPELLER Figures 31 to 31g show a typical multi stop propeller system and its operation. You should not try and commit the details to memory but you should read and fally understand how it works; the functions of the components and the reason for the various operations We have already covered the principles of the operation of a simple propeller governor and the associated pitch change mechanism. The following description is of a typical electro-hydraulic, multi stop, three oil line system fitted to a turbo prop aircraft. On Speed Condition Figure 31 shows the system “on speed”. When the propeller has fully absorbed the engine power, the governor flyweight force equals the spring force. In this “on speed” condition the governor piston valve blanks-off the oil ports to the propeller pitch change piston, and high pressure oil from the governor is by- passed through the main relief valve to the inlet side of the pump. Overspeed Condition (figure 31a) If the rpm rises above the selected speed, the governor flyweight force, being greater than the spring force, raises the governor piston valve to a position where the operating oil is directed to the front of the propeller pitch change piston,NOILIGNOO GaadS NO - WALSAS AATIAdOUd dOLS ILINW TOLOA TE aed yur) wor) Aiddns 10 ureap OL i isa $) onten yaos gussuleey einsseid mon 4801 21MBsPAH——_yoisi Buevedo seHadoV4 | oddns 1207 | anh reueu nn nese Q) nun 5 iio , oulbua ; Ww) if uoisid | ye01 uous | i ! 109 Buds | tay sojoauuoo Sam] [ae pe] pou 1 anen i] piovsios Busosieod woud um@puiim dors Burore0 9010 EE *oueA sojoouvoo uid 2NOILIGNOO GaadS AAAO "TE “Bt : | ‘yesp OL duind 49.0] 9NEIPAH uoysid Qunesed dod me Crt ae ten ‘o (2198 juNED “ye Qa tL aulbus yeh nen reyeltert ‘eniosu Aq porjosiued funds | | | ei 201081 ‘aim [one umespyiim dog av vee mone soreuv0s az ~This moves it rearwards to increase the pitch angle of the blades and hence the load on the engine. At the same time, displaced oil from the rear of the piston is directed by the governor piston valve to the inlet side of the governor pump. ‘The increased pitch angle of the blades causes the rpm to fall until a state of balance is reached and the governor piston valve returns to the “on speed” condition. Underspeed Condition (figure 31b) If the rpm falls below the selected speed, the spring force, being in excess of the governor flyweight force, causes a downward movement of the governor piston valve. In this position, operating oil is directed to the rear of the propeller pitch change piston, moving it forward and increasing the pitch of the blades (and increasing the load on the engine). At the same time, the oil displaced from the front of the piston is returned to the governor pump. This condition will apply until the selected rpm is restored, ae In-flight Feathering (figure 31c) The blades may have to be set to “feather” because of engine or governor failuce in flight. In addition feathering the propeller may be part of a test flight program. Feathering the propeller prevents it windmilling in the airflow and also reduces the drag on the propeller and hence the total drag on the aircraft. The pilot first stops the engine by setting the throttle to idle and closing the HP cock. This is followed by selecting “feather” by moving the HP cock past the “OFF” position to the “feather” position. This moves the feathering lever on the governor which mechanically lifts the governor piston valve and opens the v coarse oil line. Remember the engine is stopped with the propeller in the windmilling condition, so that full system pressure is not available from the governor pump. The pilot has to operate a“Manual Feather. Switch” which activates the electric “idtor within the feathering unit. The reserve supply of “feathering vil*is ~~ sucked from the tank and high pressure oil is pumped to the pitch change mechanism via the governor. The pitch change piston is forced rearwards and the blades are thus set to the feather position. Displaced oil is returned to drain via the governor.NOILIGNOO Gaads AFANN ATE “Bed oot nepAH eat joer uw to eulbua ations Aq patiosuog ve—ID OHAy ) | LHOITd NI ONTAAHLVGA OTe “Bra yuey wos) dans 10 aia i dwnd i ‘¥90) yNeJPAH. uo}sid 6ujjesado satiadorg wuaulees peaig woddns 4207 ne att vise ? ia | ABN yout oti tl ; : Vv A earniouy WN os. ‘gureb ys 4 uaa MOIRA 10}9@UU09, uid 2 \Unfeathering in Flight (figure 314) After feathering, the engine may be restarted — if the flight crew feel it is OK to do so. Before the engine is restarted the blades need to be set to the “flight fine” position. If the blades were set to coarse during the restart of a turbo prop engine it would cause excessive turbine temperature due to insufficient airflow through the turbine. The high propeller torque would not allow the engine the run at a high enough rpm. The pilot selects the HP cock to the “OFF” position. This moves the feathering lever on the governor and the governor piston valve is pushed to the bottom of the unit under spring pressure. The “fine” oil line is now open allowing oil from the front of the pitch change mechanism to drain away as the pitch change piston moves forward. ‘The blades are moved towards fine pitch by operating the feather motor to supply oil pressure to the pitch change mechanism. This will cause the propeller to windmill and the engine can now be started in the normal way. ‘That is, selecting the HP cock “OPEN” and pressing the relight button. As the rpm increases the governor pump resumes operation and the selected “on speed” condition is again controlled by the propeller governor. ‘The turbo prop engine has to be started with the blades set to fine. On the ground when the start sequence is initiated the blades are at the “ground fine pitch” angle so the propeller torque is at a minimum. Movement of the throttle lever from the “ground idle” position (say 7000 rpm) causes the engine and propeller to accelerate to the “minimum cruise” condition by the addition of fuel to the engine. ‘The “minimum cruise” condition is the point at which the governor comes into effect, and is know as the “minimum constant speed” rpm. Before “minimum constant speed”, which is determined by the loading of the governor spring, the governor does not change the pitch of the blades. For the Rolls Royce Dart engine with the R250 propeller, for example, this is between 10400 and 11000 rpm. The “dead movement” is achieved by a sleeve fitted in the rack and pinion mechanism.-The first-35%-throttle lever- movement only moves-the-sleeve (via the rpm lever), thereafter the sleeve comes into contact with the governor = spring. Movement of the throttle lever beyond the 35% position increases the governor spring loading causing an increase in rpm with propeller pitch progressively coarsening from ground fine to flight fine.IHDITA NI ONTSHLVGANN PTE “Btd yuri wos) cor Aiddns 10 ° 1 i tsa duind yoo ayneupH | uoisid Gunesado sajledoxd UUEUIEES — Dogg uoddns 4907 aalen sue UNG evga 1 ee QOH i auibua mS + a aniea seuss Ue anioiut &q payjos1Ued co } tart wh, ae ore q av | sojauuoa uid 2 arama] 3 T8815 FHA MOUPANIM GNAOND SATIHOV OL TWMVAGHLIM dOLS oTe “BL yuei wos Aiddns 10 ee { duind WE®S—psaig onren 1108 juno i 90] 911NBPAH uojsid 6unesedo sajjadorg 0 eulbua a we Fo, oh cer b tonsa x ‘ ven ta < iti veubo Buds a [aT " 8815 eb | MONA,Flight Fine Pitch Stop (FFPS) (figure 31e) ‘The FFPS lever controls this stop. The lever is normally fitted to the throttle box on the flightdeck and is moved forward and rearwards. During flight the lever is always in the forward position - the stop is “armed” and the FFPS solenoid de-energised. In the rear position the stop is “disarmed” with the solenoid energised When the aircraft lands the pilot selects the “stop withdrawn” position (moves the FFPS lever rearwards). This energises the FFPS solenoid and illuminates the flightdeck FFPS withdrawal lamp. With the FFPS solenoid energised an oil line is opened which allows oil pressure to flow to the “lock operating valve”, sometimes known as the “third oil line valve”. A piston inside this valve opens another oil; line. Oil pressure fromthe PCU pump flows through this line and acts upon the Pitch Lock Piston forcing it rearwards. This means that the spring collets are no longer supported and can collapse. As the PCM piston is continually trying to move forwards (blades towards fine] the spring collets collapse and the PCM piston moves until it comes into contact with the fine pitch stop. Autofeather (figure 314) In the event of an engine failure the pilot will normally manually feather the propeller. If he/she delays, of if there is a governor failure that is not immediately apparent the propeller will “auto-feather’. As the engine loses power torque will decrease and this is sensed by the low ©. torque switch which closes at say 50 psi. This energises the auto-feather relay which in turn energises the feather relay and the valve lift solenoid. When the valve lift solenoid is energised an oil line is opened to allow oil pressure to flow to the underside of the valve piston. Consequently the feather motor supplies high pressure oil to raise the governor piston valve hydraulically without input from the pilot. ———"nuto-coarsening (figure’3 1) ene naan ann In some circumstances a fault in the propeller control system could result in the blades entering the ground range (ie, below say 19.5° blade angle) during flight.AGHLVAI-OLAV 3Te “Ba | viewer 4 Sear osnss yor DuNePAH ——_yotsid 6ulieFedo sa}iadorg fone oa 24 0 = ANI —— pd vig auibu3, _] rl ' :; ut me ae es te, sud9sr800 WOM ‘ yo Buueayap aq 0: wise an siete 133 7 iste THD TOUR sertdues {10 einssbud ‘ou Aa pay a 's] @A(eA VOISIA JOUJaNdB BY) PUE ado Si eu) 110 pioUe195 yu axleA i :SaLON1} wos, Agdns 00 oh k DNINASUVOO OLAV 31€ “Bra no auidu3 yoo} 4nePAH, uosid 6ungsado sayjadoug woddns 4907 ‘iiosut Ka pajiosiv09, woock la poreieko| ak ieseoe Buuasi209 Youd ‘iran [mI uoisid 490} Yd ae coon) mOuaA Prousios say [piousi0s, umespuine dors ours0 Ai aunssaid !@niea u oy dwing NOd eul ‘Aujeonewoine pavado 2 Buds i | feuroi-ap j vauulds 3 9peI8 soy 01 Gols 6a 1 pamoie s1 dnd ado yonis st enrenIt could enter the ground range, for example, if the third oil line valve stuck open ~ this would effectively dis-arm the FFPS. In this condition the oil pressure is free to flow to the pitch lock piston, forcing it rearwards. There is nothing to prevent the blades entering the ground range as the spring collets can now collapse and be overridden by the PCM piston. (Study the hydraulic system and check that this is so). This fault would not be apparent until the pilot throttled back as this is where the blades should stop (at the flight fine position). As this is likely to occur just before landing it is serious and could jeopardise the safety of the aircraft. To prevent the movement of the blades into the ground range in such circumstances a cam operated Hub Switch is fitted. ‘The hub switch is a micro-switch which makes at blade angle 17.5° and breaks at 19.5°, When the switch is made the valve lift solenoid is energised as the PCIS is already made in normal flight conditions. Additionally the switch allows current to the Below Stop Warning lamp, thus illuminating the lamp for this particular propeller (eg no 3). As before high pressure oil from the governor pump is directed to the underside of the governor piston valve. ‘The piston valve is raised against governor spring pressure which allows high pressure oil to flow to the pitch change mechanism. The pitch change piston is then forced rearwards so the blade pitch becomes coarse. However, the blades are unable to travel to the feather position because the valve lift solenoid is de- energised at 19.5°. This is because the hub switch is broken at this point. The governor piston valve is forced back down under spring pressure, opening the “fine” oil line again. Th: blades again tend towards ground ine (because the fault still exists) until the hub switch again comes into operation at 17.5°.. ‘This cycle is repeated continuously until the pilot selects manual feather. ‘The pilot is alerted to this condition - known as “blade hunting’, because the BSW flightdeck lamp for that propeller will flash HUB AND BLADE ASSEMBLY (Figure 32) Hollow shank duralumin blades are.carried on a spider which transmits the torque of the engine. The blades and spider are held together by the barrel which takes the centrifugal pull of the blades. Gear segments on the root faces of the blades mesh with the rotating cam of the pitch change mechanism. The hub is secured onto the propeller shaft by a split front cone and retaining nut.DISTRIBUTOR VALVE ASSEMBLY (Figure 33) This assembly consists of an aluminium housing containing a spring loaded valve which controls feathering and unfeathering. Passages within the housing allows oil to the pitch change mechanism. A tube at the inboard end of the housing runs down the propeller shaft. A sleeve fits round this tube to form a passage for the supply of oil to the propeller. 7) Fig 32 EXPLODED VIEW OF HYDROMATIC HUB AND BLADE COMPONENTS PITCH CHANGE MECHANISM : The dome is a duralumin forging and contains a piston having inner and outer skirts between which are four sets of rollers. Axial movement of the piston in the dome is converted into radial movement of the blade roots through a pair of concentric cylinder cams. One of these cams is fixed while the other moves and engages with its bevel gear with the blade gear segments. The piston rollers run in slots in these. cams, which are slopped in opposite directions. As the piston moves so the inner moving cam turns through twice the distance of the lead of the cam slots. ‘The first 60% of the cam slots have a gentle slope, the remainder of the slope is at a sharper angle which allows a much shorter feathering time.Fig 33 PITCH CHANGE AND DISTRIBUTOR VALVE GROUP BLADE AND PITCH ADJUSTMENT (Figure 34) 1. The blades are moved to the fine pitch stop. 2. The blade angles are then checked and the one that is nearest to the fine pitch setting (within a tolerance given in the manual) is used as the master blade. 3, The coarse and fine pitch stop rings are removed and the fine pitch stop ring is fitted at the correct angle as laid down in the manual. 4. The rest of the blades are checked against the master blade (to be an within a tolerance as laid down in the manual). 5. _ The stop rings are then reset to the correct setting. BUSH FLANGE GEARSEGMENT~INDEX'RING BLADE SHANEBLADE INDEXING (Figure 35) Individual blade indexing is the fine adjustment in minutes of arc of each propeller blade to bring them all to the same degree of similarity. It is carried out in accordance with the maintenance manual and requires the adjustment of the index ring, gear segment and bush flange. COARSE, FINE, © GEAR SEGMENT ae INDEX RING BUSH FLANGE Fig 35 INDEXING THE PROPELLER CONTROL UNIT (Figure 36) ‘The gear type pump of the controller unit receives and boosts the engine oil and delivers it to the VP prop mechanism via a speed governor assembly. A relief valve relieves excess pressure back to the inlet side of the pump The speed governor assembly comprises a piston valve having two lands and operating under the influence of spring loaded centrifugal governor weights. Outlet ducts from the top and bottom of the chamber connect with the front _» (coarse pitch) and rear (fine pitch) of the propeller piston. Constant speed rpm is selected by a control lever on the unit - interconnected with the engine throttle controls. This varies the loading on the governor spring. Manual feathering is selected by another lever on the unit - interconnected with the high pressure fuel cock controls. This raises the piston valve to a position where pressure oil is delivered to the coarse pitch side of the propeller operating piston.— a ——— The controller unit also incorporates solenoid operated valves for the control requirements of the turbo propeller. One solenoid operates the propeller auto-coarsening circuit. 66QL YZ N CONSTANT SPEED H.P. FUEL COCK FEATHER YUM IY i VALVE LIFT PISTON LHS N remy N ISN N ~ GOVERNOR SPRING GOVERNOR WEIGHTS GOVERNOR DRIVE GEARS VALVE LIFT SOLENOID GOVERNOR P.C.U, OIL PUMP. VALVE PITCH LOCK SOLENOID I pale | rt PITCH LOCK COARSE FINE ENGINE FEATHER/UNFEATHER, PITGH PITCH oiintsr OIL SUPPLY DRIVE SHAFT ———Fig 36 PITCH CONTROL UNIT This solenoid valve controls the flow of pressure to the underside of a small lift valve servo piston in the controller unit which lifts the landed piston valve to coarse pitch delivery position.Another solenoid operates in the propeller pitch lock withdrawal circuit and allows pressure oil to flow to a third oil line valve which opens to allow pressure oil direct into the lock withdrawal oil line (the third oil line, for the purpose of operating the propeller pitch lock. A pressure cut-out switch operates in the feathering pump circuit. This switch operates across the fine and coarse pitch oil lines and opens on the build up of coarse pitch oil pressure to automatically cut-out the feathering pump motor. TYPICAL TURBO PROP PROPELLER (Examples Figures 37 and 38) This is a four bladed, 20 root size, No 4 SBAC, shaft mounted, left hand tractor mounted turbo-propeller. For maximum efficiency of the jet engine the spinner frontal are has been kept to a minimum. The variable pitch mechanism consists of a front mounted cylinder, in which moves a hydraulically operated piston connected by linkage to pins on the blade roots. ‘The piston is caused to move by oil pressure in the fine or coarse pitch lines, which will be converted to rotary movement of the blades by the linkage. The turbo-propeller requires additional pitch controls for ground and flight modes. This mechanism takes the form of a hydraulically operated pitcl. lock unit housed within the propeller cylinder. The unit consists of a spring loaded piston which supports the front end ofa spring collet to form a mechanical stop in the forward end of the propeller operating piston at the flight fine pitch angle position. ‘The pitch lock may be operated by oil pressure in the lock withdrawal oil line, or by an increase in the fine pitch oil pressure. Fine and-coarse pitch oil is. conveyed to the propeller: mechanism through two “concentric off tubes Which screw into-a transfer plug at the rear of the engine = shaft bore. The inner tube conveys coarse pitch oil and the outer fine pitch oil. ‘The propeller may also be fitted with an electro-hydraulic safety device which comes into operation in the event of pitch lock failure.This device consists of a blade actuated hub mounted switch. If the pitch Jock was to fail, it closes onto the slip rings fitted in the engine mounted brush gear and initiates pitch coarsening. snc. Cou copcasnns Piston Fig 38 PROPELLER HUB wang | cae eee Bor - itnocs ~ ‘COARSE PITCH OIL GROUND FINE, FINE PITCH OL oo ron i0et om Fig 37 CYLINDER PITCH CHANGE MECHANISM aoe roma 40 FINE PITCH STOP- -REENING PLTE enw Is ——— seine wivess . CYUNDER COVER: fF fs DEACING SLIPRINGS: [ “~ . } fo et ft 7 “¢ a NL TRANSFER TUBES suse VE] Bene oe 7 ay ABET rad a COMPOSITE BLADE " \ 7 = spInes a a Sater eons erteou suetve DETAILon meer Fig 39 SECTIONED VIEW OF FEATHERING MOTOR THE SPINNER This is a stream lined fairing over the propeller operating mechanism. Usually made of aluminium alloy and attached to the propeller by quick release festeners attaching to a metal flange on the bulkhead attached directly to the propeller spider. The spinner may be strengthened internally by stringers and may be electrically de-iced/anti-iced. In this case the spinner will have electrical heater mats bonded to it’s outside surface (or internal heater elements) and connected via wiring to a contact terminal on the spinner bulkhead. When the spinner is fitted into place the spinner contact terminal will make contact with a similar contact terminal attached to the propeller bulkhead. ———This in turn is cormected to propeller slip rings at the rear of the bulkhead: oon ‘The bulkhead sliptings connect to the aircraft electrical supply via stationary brushes in a brush block assembly mounted on the engine structure. On some later propellers there are no electrical contacts. The power transfer is achieved by induction using an ac supply.ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS. Fig 40 FEATHERING UNIT SUPERSONIC PROPELLERS ‘These are inefficient at low speeds but offer prospects of high efficiency at aircraft Mach numbers of between 0.8 and 1.5 {blade- Mach numbers between 1.2 and 1.5). These propellers are solid steel or carbon fibre with thickness/chord ratios no more than 5%. They have a low aspect ratio and are ____“usuallly swept or of Sciniitar plan form, and-may have a double wedge aerofoil section.CONTRA-ROTATING PROPELLERS This system consists of a pair of propellers, mounted one in front of the other on concentric drives shafts with an idler gear in one of the gear trains, and rotating in opposite directions. The advantages are: (a) Absorb more power within the same disc area. (b) Impart little torque to the aircraft (high powered single engined aircraft have a considerable torque reaction problem at high throttle settings. (©) Reduced hub size. (@) Smaller diameter - shorter landing gear - reduced weight. ‘The disadvantages: (a) Expensive (b) Difficult to maintain () The airflow from the front blade affects the rear blade and a minimum gap must be provided - this increases hub size and weight. CO-AXIAL PROPELLERS These are very similar to the contra-rotating propellers but each propeller is driven by a separate engine, so either can be stopped individually. The are mounted on co-axial shafts and are contra-rotating. SYNCHRONISATION SYSTEM a ‘The propeller synchronisation system is used to set all governors at exactly the same rpm, thereby reducing noise and vibration. A synchronisation system may be used with mechanical or electrical governors. The synchronisation system is normally used for all flight operations except take-off and landing. A master engine is used to establish the rpm to which all other engines {slave engines) will_adjust. "PILOT’ SYSTEM On some aircraft the system comprises a "synchroscope" in the cockpit and the pilot has to adjust the controls manually. The synchroscope system compares electrically the speed of rotation of all the SLAVE engines and compares them “to the MASTER engine.It will then indicate this to the pilot by a rotating needle on an instrument (synchroscope) in the cockpit - one needle for each slave engine, eg four engined aircraft - three needles. The needle will rotate one way if the engine is running faster and the other if it is running slower. It is up to the pilot to "nudge" the offending engines throttle to get the needle to stop rotating - not easy but at least its rate of rotation can be reduced to be nearly stopped. AUTOMATIC SYSTEM It is designed to get all the engines to run at a common speed automatically. The system uses a MASTER engine and compares the alternator outputs from all the other engines to the master engine output. An "error" from any of the SLAVE engines is detected and a signal is sent to a "corrector motor” fitted to that slave engine. This alters the setting of the power controls to that engine. Voltage Signal ‘The signal may be generated by a tachometer-generator (driven by the engine) whose voltage is used to operate a differential motor. The voltage signal is used at the differential motor to compare the slave engine rpm to the master engine rpm. The engine which generates the higher voltage will determine the direction the motor rotates and this adjusts the governor setting of the slave engine. Frequency Signal ‘The signal may also be generated by a frequency generator. In this case it is the FREQUENCY that is monitored and not the voltage. QUESTION: Can you explain frequency? (10 mins) ANSWER: Frequency is the term used to indicate how often an alternating voltage output changes. For example on many —aircraft with a constant frequency ac-generating system — the frequency is 400 cycles per second (400 Hz). So as the frequency is monitored and not the voltage it is impossible to run a motor (as we did with the voltage signal) directly from the signal -73-A typical system consists of a master governor; a slave governor for each engine; a magnetic pulse pick up on each governor; a control panel in the cockpit; an electronic comparitor unit and an actuator for each slave engine. (Figure 41) The frequency from each engine governor (magnetic pick up) is sent to an electronic comparitor unit which sends a correcting signal to the appropriate slave engine governor control mechanism. Systems Operation On a four engined aircraft there are normally 2 master engines which the pilot can select. QUESTION: Can you think why there are two master engines available. | —~ (5 mins) ANSWER: An alternative engine is provided in case the (one) master engine fails. ‘The master engines are normally numbers 2 (port inner) and number 3 (starboard inner). On a twin engined aircraft the port engine is normally used. On some systems a “re-sync" button is provided in the cockpit to reset the "syne" system. Normally the sync system will not operate unless the engines are within 100 rpm of ea: other. When th_ re-sync button i- pushed it allows the slave engine to move a full 100 rpm towards the master engine. This button is used if one or more slave engines are more than 100 rpm out of _/ sync from the master engine. QUESTION: The sync system is used for all phases of flight except for take-off and landing. Can you think why it is not used on take-off and landing? (5 mins) ANSWER: Ifthe master engine fails with the sync system ON-then-ell—~ engines will try to follow with an immediate 100 rpmrloss of power on all slave engines. Not a good idea on take-off (or landing).During normal operation the sync system is switched on when all engines are within 100 rpm of each other. This will then cause all slave engines to adjust to the same rpm of the master engine through signals being sent to their respective governors. Ifa master control is incorporated in the cockpit it can be used to adjust the rpm of all engines simultaneously. When the master control lever is moved it may cause the sync system to be interrupted momentarily, but synchronisation should return as soon as the lever stops moving. GOVERNOR CONTROL CABLES RIGHT HAND LEFT HAND GOVERNOR : FLEXIBLE DRIVE ~ ‘GOVERNOR — (MASTER) ACTUATOR ‘TACHO GENERATOR ‘TACHO GENERATOR ELECTRICAL, ELECTRICAL, PULSE PULSE SIGNAL SIGNAL 'SYNCHRONISER. ‘CONTROL UNIT INcocKerT Fig 41 TYPICAL SYNCHRONISATION SYSTEM Maintenance Of course, all routine maintenance is carried out in accordance with the maintenance manual (AMM) and the maintenance schedule. It will involve checking for damage, security, moisture ingress, signs of —§ ——— burning, cleanliness, open circuits, correct lubrication and functional testing. = ___Nom routine maintenance-willinetude fault finding, component changes and functional testing. ——A Typical Test (but always refer to the AMM) Start all engines and set to within 100 rpm of each other. Select master engine - if not already selected automatically. Switch on sync system and ¢* :ck all engines synchronise. Change master control rpm and note that all slave engines follow. Test the re-syne system by changing the rpm of each slave engine by less than 100 rpm and noting that it returns to the master rpm setting once the switch is released. Moving it outside this range should cause the system to go out of sync. 6. Turn off sync system. gaeye 7. Set engines more than 100 rpm different from master and press re-sync button. 8. Each time re-sync button is pressed all slave engines should move closer to the master engine by 100 rpm until all engines are synchronised. SYNCHROPHASING ‘This is another way of reducing vibration. If all engines are running at the same rpm and all the propellers are at the same angle together (ie, all number one blades of all propellers vertical together) then this can lead to a set of sympathetic vibrations which increases the overall vibration level. If the angles can be set so that each blade of the propeller reaches “top dead centre" at a different time on each propeller then the overall vibration level can be reduced, but still keeping all engine rpms together. This reduction in vibration can also reduce the noise level. tpt epee ~ ‘SAME ANGLE - VIBRATION DIFFERENT ANGLES - LESS VIBRATION Fig 42 SYNCHROPHASING A Typical System This uses a pulse generator (a single tooth "phonic wheel" on the propeller hub and a coi] and magnet on the non rotating part of the engine). This generator is keyed to say number I blade of each propeller which sends a pulse each time number 1 blade passes the coil and magnet.The pulses from the slave engines are compared by an electronic comparitor to the pulse from the master engine, which, if necessary, will send a correcting signal to the governor of the appropriate eigine to establish its correct phase relationship. LEFT HAND ENGINE (MASTER) GOVERNOR SLAVE ENGINE GOVERNOR CORRECTING SIGNAL ACTUATOR FEED MASTER BACK SLAVE ENGINE FEEDBACK feicuat ENGINE , SPEED uni ‘SPEED PICK-OFF PICKOFF (PULSE GENERATOR) SYNCHROPHASER ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT ‘COCKPIT PHASE CONTROL PANEL Fig 43 SYNCHROPHASING SYSTEM The pilot can select synchronisation and synchrophasing, or turn both off. It also allows the pilot to adjust the phase relationship between the engines to A reduce the vibration under varying flight conditions. System Operation With the engines operating within 100 rpm of each other the system is turned on. The slaves will synchronise to the master. The phase electronic unit will adjust the governors of the slaves to set the ————propetiers at the phase-angle set on-the pilot's control Maintenance Carried out in accordance with the manual and is very similar to the maintenance of a synchronising system.DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING De-icing is the removal of ice after it has formed and anti-icing is the prevention of ice formation. Turbo prop propellers are only anti-iced - on de-icing we don't want pieces of ice breaking away and going down the engine intake. ‘There are two anti-icing systems that may be fitted to propellers - fluid and electrical. The fluid system is mainly de-icing while the electrical system can be designed to operate in either mode. On many small aircraft there are no anti- icing systems fitted. FLUID DE-ICING SYSTEM ‘The de-icing fluid mixes with the water or ice on the surfaces of the propeller = and reduces the freezing point of the mixture, it penetrates and loosens ice already formed which then disperses with centrifugal action. A typical system consists - in order: 1, A tank. 2. An electrically operated pump - may be manually selected or automatic. 3. A filter. 4. Low pressure warning transducer - red light in the cockpit. 5. Proportioning unit - gives the correct metered amount of fluid to each area - props, left wing, right wing etc. 6. Slinger ring. 7. Leading edge grooves in a rubber overshoe on the propeller. 8. Pipework - usually nylon with compression fittings, except for the ~ supply pipe to the slinger ring - this is metal - copper, stainless steel. aaarr PRESSURE GAUGE {LON PRESSURE WARNING SwrTCH °- nox manspucen ee = ~70_ DISTRIBUTION PANELS. \ fN-F (_-PROPORTYONING UNIT \/ \ ate FILTER (x0 PROPELLERS Fig 44 FLUID DE-ICING SYSTEMOperation Fluid is pumped to the slinger ring supply pipe and pumped into the slinger ring, When the engine is running centrifugal force will cause the fluid to be forced to the outside of the ring. At each blade position a pipe, leading from the "bottom" of the slinger ring will direct fluid to the front of the blade via a blade cup (The blade cup is designed to allow the blade to change pitch). Here centrifugal force and the airflow will cause it to be distributed to both sides of the blade and to flow towards the tip. Groves in a leading edge rubber overshoe are designed to assist this. Functional check The system can be checked for flow rate by operating the system and monitoring the amount of fluid delivered into a calibrated container. This is carried out over a timed period in accordance with the manual. A full functional check requires an engine run, the system to be operated and the blades checked for fluid distribution after the engine run. Fluid distribution can be checked by feel and visually. The visual check can be enhanced by the application of a “developer” applied to the front and back of all blades prior to engine start up. |____ SUPPLY PIPE TO THE FRONT OF EACH BLADE ROTATING SLINGER RING STATIONARY — SUPPLY PIPE \ System Cleaning and Inhibiting If the system is not to be used for any period of time then it should be cleaned and inhibited.To clean the system use a mixture of 95% methylated spirit in distilled water. Fill the tank and run the system until it is dry - with the engines running. Use the correct inhibiting fluid in the tank, cover the overshoes, and run the system. Fig 46 PROPELLER SHOWING THE SLINGER RING AND FLUID DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING SYSTEM The electrical anti-icing of the propeller and spinner is carried out on the cyclic principle. Current is fed to the propeller blades, spinner, leading edge, etc., alternately, controlled by an automatic time switch. Some elements may be continuously heated —---—._-‘The-eyelie methed-allows-e-thintayer of ice to form-en-the-spinner-nose-andon the leading edges of the blades. The layer of ice acts as a thermal barrier-so that when the current is switched on the temperature rises more rapidly than on an unprotected surface.The inner surface of the ice adhering to the propeller blades and spinner is melted, loosening the whole of the ice which is immediately broken up by centrifugal force and dispersed by the airflow. The current is then switched to other heater elements and the uncovered surfaces of the blades and spinner cool, allowing another thin layer of ice to form and be similarly dispersed when the heater elements are again switched on. The use of the cyclic principle also permits a smaller generator and thinner wires to be used. ‘A 200 volt, 3-phase generator supplies the current through an automatic time switch to the brush gear housing assembly. But remember on small aircraft the power supply is usually de. ae a nro se, | a a = + eats soon a : oe Fig 47 WIRING DIAGRAM Brush Gear Housing ‘This assembly incorporates a brush housing having three brushes which transmit the electrical current to the propeller slip rings. The propeller bulkhead incorporates 3 slip rings. Suppressers are fitted in each phase circuit between the plug connection and the brush housing. ‘The brush gear housing is suitably shaped to clear the engine shaft and is secured to the engine casing. Each brush assembly consists of a carbon graphite brush having a spring and a brass end cap soldered to a pig-tail lead.The brush housing assembly is readily detachable and is secured to the brush gear housing by two bolts, which pass through the assembly and screw into steel inserts in the housing. Slip Ring Assembly This assembly is secured on the rear of the propeller hub and transfers the electrical current from the brush gear housing assembly to the de-icing elements of the propeller blades and spinner. The slip ring housing is secured to studs on the hub driving centre flange and forms a mounting for the spinner backplate. The bolts which secure the backplate to the housing provide the means for balancing the slip ring housing assembly as alternative bolts with thicker heads may be fitted where necessary to achieve a satisfactory balance. vy Three elongated holes in the outer flange of the housing allow passage for the spinner de-icing cables from the slip ring terminals to the backplate electrical contacts. Each slip ring is connected to one of four (four bladed propeller) terminal studs by means of copper connecting strips. These studs pass through insulation bushed holes in the housing and screw into nuts brazed on the connecting strips Remember, on some modern propellers power transfer from the “stationary” part of the electrical system to the rotating part on the propeller is achieved by the use of ac induction coils ~ there being no actual contact between the stationary part and the moving part. Blade De-Icing A de-icing overshoe is fitted into a rebate which extends equally along both faces of the leading edge of each propeller blade, the external surface fitting flush with the blade face. Phe overshoe- houses- de-icing clement which-consists of resistance wire — interwoven in a cloth of woven glass threads. The whole heater element is cemented between sheets of polymer which provide the inner and intermediate insulation and a packing piece and wire gauze give protection.The element is wired in three phases and the wires are connected at the root end by crimped ends to an insulated cable assembly. The cable is brought out from the overshoe cuff through a rubber cable outlet and is long. enough to allow for the blade pitch range movement. The terminal ends of the leads are connected to the appropriate terminals of “he propeller de-icing slip ring group. Spinner Contacts ‘The plunger contact assembly consists of a moulded guide block which has an insert into which is fitted a tungsten tipped, sliding plunger. A moulded spring cap cover with a terminal bolt, to which the de-icing element cable is attached, is secured to the guide block by three bolts and nuts which also secure the asseinbly to the spinner. When the spinner is offered up to be attached to its mounting ring the 3 plungers make contact with the three fixed contacts and a good electrical contact is made. | ———1nner INSULATION PACKING ECE, {___sxeaenr ASSEMOLY (HEATER) INSTERMEDIATE, INSULATION. PROTECTIVE GAUZE COVER ‘OUTER INSULATIONSpinner De-icing Elements The de-icing elements are bonded in the nose of the spinner and comprise a circular nose element and radial double elements. The elements are wired electrically in three groups of three, each group forming one phase and the nose element is inter-connected into the element phases. Each element consists of glass threads woven to form a glass cloth base with strands of resistance wire woven through and bonded between layers of rubber sheet. A cable lead is soldered to each of the three phase connections. The cables are routed through the support ring and tubular channels of the spinner support brackets to terminate on their respective plunger contact terminals Electrical De-Icing System - Checking ‘The electrical heaters in the leading edges can be checked in the usual way, ive. same as any other electrical system. Besides a visual check for damage, security, open circuits, burning, ete, the following checks should be carried out in the correct order: (a) Continuity check (b) Insulation check () Functional check - Module 2. For (a) and (b) refer to the book in this series "Electric: For (c) refer to the manual - but in general: 1 Run the engine. 2. Switch on the anti-icing system. 3. Check the cockpit instrumentation noting: * The current demand. * The cyclic timing rate - operate the change switch (if fitted) and note the change. * The reduced supply as the aircraft is on the ground - if applicable. 3. Switch the system off, shut the engine down and feel the leading edges of the blade - CAREFULLY. All the elements should be hot. If not then there is an open circuit somewhere, or the Remember also to inspect the brushes and slip rings for security and wear and damage and correct seating. Ensure slip rings and brushes are clean. 7 fuse/-€/B has operated; . - - —Note Electric Element/Cable - Open Circuit This means that the heater element/cable is broken and will not conduct electricity. It can be verified by using a 2’ volt lamp and battery continuity tester (or a multimeter set to resistance). If the de-icer element/shoe is open circuit then it will have to be repaired. If facilities are available (with qualified personnel) locally then it may be repaired - usually by replacement but always in accordance with the propeller manual. If it cannot be repaired "on site" then the propeller will have to be returned to the manufacturer/supplier for repair.