2005 Prasolov V.V., Eliemienty - (2005) (PDF) Russkii PDF

!"# "$%#&"'# "() $&%'%!*"") +!")"(
%),%&%- '.. "&"/!0%- %$%!%12 3 4"# # %$&"'"!"5
#)$!/!0(6 %)%!%- %%)%!%- 7 $& %'# )%%4#!"("
$&)"&( 6 (4#!" 6 $&!%*"-2 8") %,#9* '"# 9)%*""
:%!)%%&% ;<!"#'"& %%)%!%6 2 84"!0 4#0 $%5
# =" &>!4() $&!%*") ?#)$!/!0(6@ %)%!%- %%)%!%5
- 2 A%" > 6 # >( # "%&"- $&"$# - 2 3') > 6 $&5
)"&% #!9* 6&"&#4"#" !##( "%&(6 &##!%"- 2 B9!&5
(" %)%!% %%)%!% %$&"'"!C# % %&%- $%!% " 2 85
") &##)& "# "=D %' $%'6%' $%#&%"C "%& %%)%!%- E
%%)%!% F"6 "#% # >(" # ) %%)%!% '" G)2 :
> "&H "# &>!4() $&!%*") "%& %)%!%- %$%!% )%5
%%,&>-2 I " $& "'"% )%% >'4 ?# &"H")@ 9$&*"- '!
#)%#%"!0%% &"H" 2
J! #9'"% #&H6 9&#% #$&% )")4"#6 .>4"5
#6 #$"/!0%#"- 7 '! 94(6 &,%% 2
K LMN O O P

% % !"#
&'% % % ( &' ( $) $ %%

%% %% , +- ' ) ' ')*'') %%%
MNMNL

% 0% % 2. ) 31 . %/%
M
M ML L

%% , 4- ' ' 33 )) 55

11 %%6
NLLM
M

% , &% , % 4 3 1 5 3 ) 5 ' ( 1 1 ' 7,

M L NLLM
M L NLLM
M
%% ,, , ((8 1 1 9 : 1
L M L M NL M L
,,%
N

% 7 ;% 7 % ; < * * 1 = ) ><< . ,7,7

M NL M L L O ML
N ML N

% 7 4 ? ) ><<' . ? ( ' ? 1@ 7

N M N

%% 77 7, ABCG *DEF * 1 = ) ><< .

77
L

% H% )% G* ( 3 1 5 )

N ML N

N M

%% , ;0 ( )3 ' 3 5 ? < ? * )

L L LMM
I

%/

% 7 J ? . 5
= ) ) 3 ) = ) K <L .' =
M M L L
L L M LMMN N M
NL LL M L L L
/
/6

7
%% // % 4 K= <L) . ') ( 3)
NL LL M L
L L N
/67

%#" $ $) 5=
I
%% - 1 5. ' ) ) ' 5=) I%II
N
% &' ( *
L ML
% , ; 1. ) ( * ?= ' =
N
- ) 66%
L N N M
% @' ? (
L
; 1. ) ? 6/66
N
, '
L L
7 0? < ? K <L . %%7
NL L

' ? 1 2( ) 9(
L
/ 4
NMN M ML L
%%%
G '< ? 3 )L5 *? < ? *? 5)
N LMM
I - %%/%%
L M ML L L
6 K ?
L L L
, 4 ; %%

,% + ' ) ' )
L L
, 2 3 ' )5 5 ' ?; ( 5 %%7
M
,, -
∗ ×
L M L L L
,7 4 ; ) ( 5 ) 5= %%/I
N
,
L ) 3) ' ?(;
L L
,/ %,
N L L
O M N

, % -,

!"#' $ $ %,I
,, %%% ,% 444 5 ' -*'5'< :3 %,I%7,

L N L
MN
,, %% 7 2 3 ) 1 :9 ) 5
L L

%7%76
L M NL L
, %/ ; 5' '
MLMNL L L L

%
L N MLMNL L
%%6
, ,, % % ) ) 3 ) )9* 5

MLMNL L
LL M M LMM

%/%/
,, , ; ) 3 )) 1) ) ><<< . 5:
O LMM
M L L

%/% %
,7 ) < 5:
LL M M LMM
! NMNL LMMN

%

,, / 15) < 5:
LMMN %I,%I
,, I ) 1 ) 3 ) ) ? -
N ML LMM
5
! L L LMMLL %6%%6
, , ,, , 6% J5 '*''' .5 1 ( 5 5 %%,
LL M M LMM
LM L
MN
,, ,, , H)' ( 5 3) ' .' ( 1 5 '' )' ) . 5

! L MN
NNLLL M L L L ML %,%7
,, ,, 7 44 5<
N N M M
LM %%
, 7 ;, 7 %( () (
! L
(
NL L ! L
,7 )( (
M NL LN ! L
! NMNL NL LN ! L
7$% &
$' ($5

,,
7 % % 49 : 1 ? 3 5' ( 1 1
MN MNMNL
L N L L M NL M

,/
77 %% , 2)4

( ): *>
L L O ML
M

7
77
7 % 7 0? < ? 5 (* ' . 1
M L M *5@
L LL L L
7
77 %% / H 5 9

LN MNL ML

%
,

77 %% I 0 ' . 1 '< 8 -

NLL L

/
/
7 %6 ; ); *'
M LN ) ><< . @
! L L NL
L

/7
7 70? % G*< ? ( * )1 )K <L .

L NL L L
L L L

/6
/6
77 , 0?0? << ?? 4 * )

L L LMM
L

I
I,

77 7 0?& < ? K <L .
L L
L

6
6
7 , 7 , % ) 0? 3< ?) 4) ( 5 ' (

LL M M LMM

,,667%

77 ,, , G '5* 45 ) * 5
L LMM
L O
MN N

,6
/
%$; $
'*3)

,%%,%%
% % *3) ' ('*3)
N
% ;
5) = *) * = *'' ) * @ ,%

%, J
L
;
LMM M M L
( J ) - '3 )5
N L ,,%
% 4 1 ,,,,
LL
0? < ? * ) ( 5 ) ( J
L ! ML M L NLLM
, 4 ( J ,7,7
L L LL
,% ) ? 1
' . 1 5 (( JJ
L LL
, ,7
L L MN LL
! L L L LL
/ %
# 2 ) (
,,77
// %% % G ) 3 < . ) 3 ) )

ML L
L L
// %% 7, & 5 ' 2 ) (
M M L

,,/6
MNL L
// %% / ( ; ( <<5 . 1 3
! NMNL L ML L

,/%,/
N
/ 0/ % 0 2 < 2 < ) ( 3 <
! N L M M

,,I,
NLL L
// , 0 *? 21 < ?.' 5
NLL L NL L

,I,,I
/, /, % 5 1'5 * 5
L M N L L <
NLL L NL L

,II,6
O
/ , H 1 5 ' 1 ' * 5 5=

! L L N

77,67I
/ 7 ;/ 7 %' ) ' 3 ? 55

L L M
M L

77%%I
/ /-/ 7*''% -HK) @' ' ' =*'' K %
M

N M

MLMNL

7%77%7
// , ;9 ) 1 K
MNMNL
L

7%/7 %
// 7 J @'* 5 >
L ML
'<

MLMNL L L

77,%

#

)) 5 5 5 ( '<< ( . 1 ' '( 9) 9+H9& @

L L N M M MN
7 ) '* ( 5 53 ' . 15 ) ) 3 1 )
L L
P L MM L M L L LM
P
' (5 5= ( 53 3 ' 3 ( = 35 5 = '= )* =@

O LN M M L
N M M N M
5' 3 ) ' H '; ( = ) ) ''' . 3 1 ?*= 5= )(5) '5 *@

LM M M P L M N MN ML
L L M N P L LN P ML NN M M
M L
' =* (5 5 1 5 ') 5 5' . 5* 1 ) ) .*)5 > * '* 1@
M M MN P N M P L LN P
M L L M M L LM
?* ' 5 3L1) = ( (? 1 = ( ' ( ( 5
M N M M
M L P MN P NM
- 5 3 ? ) . ' )? ><<1 . ) ><< .' 1 <* )@@
M L
M N L NL
N ABC 'DEF> * ' (> = <* )* ( 51 ( 5
L M M L M
! NMNL N N M L NL
' 4(). = 1 =( ) ? 3 * )( )5? ( 35 1 ( ) *?( *5 5 =(1)5 ( 5@@

P M L M
L NMN M L L ML L L L NL M M
L L L MN M
*( ?5 = ''5 > ' =* (( )3 ? ) = 1 ' 1?* ? (* 5 ) * )*@@

L L N P L
L M L L
M P L L MN NMN M L L
5??() > ) ( ) ? 1 ' (8 1

M M M
O MN M L L L MN P N N LN P N M L

5= * ; 5 5 :2 ) 3 ( ) 5 & *) * ) @
O LN LMMLNL M NL L L L M L M L L
'* ? < ) . > 5=* 5? ( )8 ' *3 3 ) ? @
NL ML L M
L L N M L L !
? ) )< ' 3 5 * ?5
N MN L L M NLL
L P L L M ML L L
6
&(5= ? ? = ' (=; ( ) '
N N * ) 5 ) ' @@
M N
MLMNL
5 3 1? ) '
MNL L L P NL L
MLMN L L
- ) ' 5 9? 3 ? '> = ' 5 ' 5?. 1 = @
×
MLM
LNL
M
MN L L M L
'3 )'5= ) &( ) ? )= = ' & *' ( 5 =) ) ( * @

MN L
MN L M
M LL M

' (=1 ( ) ' ) = ) 3 ) 3' )(== () 3 ? * @@

M LMMN N LMM M L M L
M LL M M LMMN N
M 5 *'') 5 35 ) < '3 5 ' ( ) 1 1= ( * @
ML LMM P L ML M L LMMLNL
M MNMNL MLMN P L MN
.L * 5 '5' () 5 5 )5= (* 5 ) ( ' = (5' @@

M M LM L M NL M ! L L
N L M LNL M NL LN ! L P L
L N
5 ) = ) = ' 3 ) 5= ) 3 (( )) ?? 1 5 ) = 3 @
O LN M M N
M O LMM P L NL M
) **( ( ' 5 ( 1 <' * 1 1* (5 5 = )' . 1 = =) 5 @@
MNMNL LL M M LMMN L L MNL
M N M M P ML
N M NL M L
) ( J ) 5 ) 5 =(8 J( '( (=) 5??( ) ' 5 ) ( @@

O LN LMMLNL M M
L M MN L M
5. (1 5 ) ()*' = )) ? ) ' *). 5 (5 J ' ?? 31 1 '(8 @@

LL LL L NL M L N
MN M L L L M LL P L L NN
L L L P MM L N M
) 3 1 5 '' 5 ? 3 ? ' 3 '5 ( @@
L M
L L LNL MN L L
* .( ) 5'3 ) 2) ) 5 ( * ) ( 5 ) 5 ' 12 < @
P N MN N L ! L L L
M L M ML L P MM M
< 5 * () )( ?5 3 5 5)1 3 5 ) 5' *''='K 35=@' & *( ( 5@

M L M L M L NLL L
L L NL M M L L N N M
L N M LMMN M M L
) 5 1' ( L 5 ?( (3 3 L 5' *' ( 5@
M M MNMNL MLMN
O N L L M L
* &' ' ) ? ( 35 5*( ? 38 )*, 3 H ? ' 1?* ) ? ) @

MLM L L MMLN L L L M L
N M N ML LNM M NM
N M L P LN N N
= *5 . ) = 4 *3 5= ( 5 5 ) ) @
MN L LM M M
3
M P N M L L N MM L M
(* * ( 5
N MN ML LM ML MM
N
L

@@ )
) ><<) ><<. .
M L
B ? *'' ' ? ( < ? = *''

M L

ABCDEF 7,7,
L N

→
N L N
B C <*) (5( 1 <) ? ? 5

⊗
M M
M M
L M M
3> K <L= . ) ) 5
NL LL M L
L
L L LMM

@ ) * < 5: ? 5 5

M L L
ML L L

@@ )) 55 5 5
LMM LMM
LMM LMM
! ) (

(
LMM L LMM
NL L ! L

-1 *''? ' ' ' 383 >) '' ( 5 >) ' (1@@
M MLMNL
) ( 5 ( ' 3 = 5(L = '' ( ' .3) 1? = 5 5( H
L M M L P NNL
ML MLMN ! L M
* > 3 ' ( 5 5( ) 1? * 1 ( ) * ' @@
L M N M L
M M MN ML NLL
( 8< = 1* *'' ( 1< ?(= '1 ' ( ?* H 5 ? @@
P N P L L MN NLLM
M NLLM M L NL M
' .' (.1 1= = ' > *3L* 3 8 5 ' 5( 5 * * ( 5@

M
MLMN MN
NM N N M L N M
L P L M M
M L
!"#"$"%&" '!( ')*)$)'&+

* 1 ' ) ' . 1 ) ' () 5)9 (*( ' ' (') < )1 3 @
M M L M LL P
'' )5( ) ' ('L ) 5) ' ) L ,- ., ? ,=

NM M M NL P L M ML M
NL N L M LMNLM L L
M MN LL M ! M M N L P P P

. B!"'9" %)"0 / 4% ,%!0H# % $&%#&# / $% !C=6# %$%!%
> "%)"& / '%#%4% 6%&%H" / %!4" % $&%#&# / %%&(" $% !C#
> .9/%!0%% !>2
%
,-*), ? , ' ,5() - ,% *( , ? 33% 1 >,-5 , ( ' ),) 3 ' ) 5@

N L L L L
! M

M L M L N
' &' '(

P M P L M
NL P M M M L M
' ) (* ?
N NL −
% % !
M ML M L
( 1 < 1 * % %' ) 4( 3 1 3 5 @@

X

−

M L L LM
( 3) ' 5>)) ( 5 '(* ) ( L >) L ) =@

L
MLNL M −
M MN
N P L
MN M MN NN M M NNL M
L N NL M M M N L
)' '>) ; = ' ) ' 3 >* * (' *=@

M L M NNL P LMMLNL

MN L
LMMN NNL M P LL P M L N
' ' ) , *( ? 3 '1 ) ) 3 ? 3, 1 ) .
N NL M MN LNL
N NL M M L L
' ) ? ) = ? . %3 % >5= ' . ' * ) 5 % * 5( ' )( ) )@

−
! M L L M M L L
L L
L L M ML N L P L
L L L M N M LM M M N ML
N L
J %% - . ' ) M L L M ML
( L ? 3 (5
OL L M N (* * @

!! "# $ %& " # %%' # %"' ! (% "' (!
* ( 1 ( '= )( % ! 3 ?5 ) @
)

L

%! % ? ) %! >
!& * ' % +"' (!) M , - ! M

-

NM L M N N
NL N N
?)' @

M L
' ./ N
−

/

-

M L
−
−
. / − L N
−
%,
. >9 ) ><<) . < 1) 1)) 3 * ) *''( . ,! !' () ,@!
LMMLNL L M MN
') ><<) .?
*'' + ' ,! ! ' ?) '
@ ) ! ( 1
M L P M N L P P
MNL L N P M
M L M OL P L NL %$+ M
'3 > * ?*5 ) ) * > *''*

L L N
* - *''* 3
@ *(= . ' ? 3? 1@
L N M L NL P
*''*
L
& ( ' ' ( ( 5 ' )
L L M
L M

LM L L
@
' ( 1 ' ' *3 1

L M MN L
5 @ ) ' ) *( - ' ? 1 - -
M L
P L NL # !# !# ! *
'* +
@ '1 = . )( 5? ) ? 3 . ' + '1 ? C -- *'@*'@
# !# →
−
M ML LL
L NL & !# P M P
∈
∈ N L L L NL % P
'*
@ ' => * . ? 3 10? *''* (* 3 @
M . 0 0 .∈ P
.
>5 >) *'' * ) = >) ? 1 5 5 .5 ) .. ) )3 @

L L L ∈LN MNL ∈ M P
P LMM

L⊂
M L LMM NNL M N M
.) = ?
L M
- *''*
L NL !# ! ! #
) ' ) ? * *''*'
5@@
NNL P M L M N M L L
L NL
* 1 *''* ) ><< . ' 1?* ? 3

"# $ + !# ! ! ML M
N P M L

' %I % 3 )1 3 ' (' 5 1 ( =J* @@

LL %I O N M M L NM N L L
) 1 & ' ? ) )3 ' '3 () < .* ' *38' ) =*) *3 @

LN L L
L P M M
L M
' ) ( ?3 1 ?) ( *'' 5 = H8 %6)/ ><<( . 3 ) *3' 5 ( ) 1@

NL M L M P L M LM
NL L M L MNL M
M MN L L LN " %' ' M Z O
3
L N
1 ) ) *''
M L L NL L P
LMMLNL L
) H' '3) ( '( 1 ? *''' (' ) 5 (? ( 53 )

= ' '. .1 1@
M MN N P M M L
M M M MN L M P
=) ' )

O M M L
MN
. J! ,"#%"4(6 #9)) )( " #)%! ,( %$&"'"!0 %)%)%&.>) %) #!95

4" / %' %' % *" #)$!"# !"# &0C ,"#%"4%% )%*"# #)5
$!"#% 2
%7

%
" "!"' !' * * ! !( ' ! %& ' !

-

$
'
3 % - - - * . -
| ⊕ {z ⊕ } >
!& * ' % +"' (!) M P N LMMLNL M L

P P

⊕ ⊕
% -
>
"' + "# $ + & !# $ %& " $ % "' (

"! ! # % !! "# $ %& "

) !

? 1 * %@ * . '13 ' > * J '@

)

!& * ' % +"' (!) M P P LMM
,- % , , %
N
( ,- , , 4 (

∈
, , , ,- % ,- ,

L
∈
>J * , % ? . ', ( ,,% ,,% ,, %% , , %

− − −
MM N L P
. '1, , ' () ,? ( *3 3 1 ( . 5 @ 5

LN MNL ∈
L NL P M
M − L L L
, , , , ,- % ,- ,
−
N ! M P M
, ,- ,- , ' > * , , , 4 ) ? *''

- - - ? <
− − −

P
L L P L
−
L
J * ( 5' ) ' ? '1 1? 5? 1 ' ' .3 1

LMM P NM NLM N M
)')
-
P M L N MN M L
M

-
"' +

"(* "# $ + & !# $ %& ") !
%@ ' ) ? 1 L ' > * ( 1

)

!& * ' % +"' (!) N N M
, , , , ,
M ML P
P P P

? , 3 (3 3 ) 1 (5 < ) . 55 @ L 5 .& '1 8 5@

−
(
L L P M M L L L
' 1 3 . '1 , 5 5 5 . ,
N P
N P M
L MNLL N L ML M
N M L P
%
('
P 3
, , ,
, X -
!
X - X
)* ><<' ). ><<3 . '* ') ><<( . * * ; ( *1

−
O LN LM M L N LNL P M L

* ,
N P P LNL ! NL P
N 6 LNL P
!

%,
M L
C , % , C
% "' (#
& & "# $ %& " ) !&
' % ' !
"!"' !' * %$ % (
)

" % " )* $"

< ? '
? *( . ' 5) '= ) ?=L *''5 @

%$ # & !# $ %& "!# L NL M MN L N

N P N N M .
→ −
M
P M L NL %!'
2 * > *''* ? ) 3 >
' % + #
( 1@
? ( ' ( 5 5 ( ) 3 ? * 3 9
N L NL "(! ! ! P M N N L
MN N L P MN
? ( 5 ' > *'' > *''' 5 5 *) ) ' (

L MLN{ M }
N N M ∈

P NM P P L MN
∈Z
L NL * "!# NNL { }

) . '3 ) ' ) ) ?3 *''
MN L L NL L
M *'' (
L M L M MNL
M NM MN P
5 . 'C ) ' )
M L NL "(! ! Z #

1
ML LMM $$ !# !
!
∗
< ?

. ' = ) *(' ) 5 = ? L 5 @
.
%$ # !' ! % %#
∗
MN 0 L NL M
< +? ' > (*. * @

MN N
0 L →
0 P N N ∗ ∗ M
M
' . 1 ) ' ( 5 5 (*(*. * ?

→ 0
MN N
−
0
∗ →
! L ∗ L ∗ ∗ L∗∗
→
,- , ,- , ,! , '

P M M L
→

(
,! , ( 5 )
M

-

M 6 / 6 -
L' ) 5 ) L3 > 3,- ( , = . '*3 5=

) ( ' 1L? 5
5 % 1 ' @@@
/ 6
N L P L P N M M

0 P N L N M L P L L M M
ML M N L
−

LNL N
−
%/
'( )1 *3*3*3 ) (3 3) 5 * 1 J ? 3

M M L LM LN MNL L L M N LMM
M L P L ,- , P L ,

, L

, -

,
O L M L

,-

, , ,

, ,- ,

,
' 4) )1)* ? ' . 1
− −
(*. * (*.< ?* ( ' >< ? ( @

M ,- ,
L L P M L L
→
MN
( 5 '< .? 1 = *( * 5 * = @@

→
L ∗ MN
M M L L ∗ ∗ M ∗
M MN
L 5
MN N

P →
→ .

N N M
) ? 5?

. − −
L M MN L NL %$ ! !# !' !$ % P MN NL

"
! $ !

* 1 4 (
" "# $ + % !' !
% %$ ! !# !' !$ ' ! )
→ ∗ ∗

!& * ' % +"' (!) M L
∈
.) 3

− . − .

)*)$)'&& &* $" & "') '! %&

%

) ' * ( 1 ' 9,) ,,'! 1?*; ,! (5 * ( 3' ) *> ,! , ,! , '
$ )
>
!& * ' % +"' (!) NM M P
M L − L M M

' *3 < ? ? > @

M MLN M M

N

L

*( ? 3 1 K ) '
K * .'1'
% - -( - ( ? ,!' ( 1
M P
L

L L
−
−
P P
1 3
L
→ P
− N

' -( 3- '
4 %(( = *3 5= '
?% 3 (@
−
P
− −
MLN
> MN L
N N ∈
P −
P − L ∈ − ∈ − ,−

−

O −M − L −
−
P L L P
.)
%5 5 5 .

− −
P P N M L
∈ >
%

"' + "# $ + & !# $ %& " & !' ! "!
%
"# $ %& " ) !
−

"' !' * ("% "# $ %& "!( ( ! ( * "& % %# "# !!

$
>

$
) * ) ) * ? 3 ' ) ? C H* ' >' @@@

' 1 ( ? % *

)
−
P L
!& * ' % +"' (!) O L M
! MN L M −
L
P
>( 5 * C % ( ( << . .? '> ) ' )(

P L L P
P
−L N
M
,
0 P − 0
, ! - % !

M −

P 0 MM N N L

P

P
− ∈

3 ' '3 ? 5 ((()) ? ( 1 3 ' (1?** . '5. >)= 3 = 5 .5=?' )= *@5@

! L L L L L M P L
LM N L L P NL L
H. )5= '. (' 1) ? 1 1 ' 3 ) ( )

L NL NM M N L M
L
' 3 )* @
L L MN M NLLM
L P M L M
- *'' H ' ( ( 1 ) ><< .( 5 ' ' ? 1
NLLM
M L N N
*''( * *3) ) ( ) )*''1. ) (><< .. ' 5 5*'' 5 ((

L N P M M P M
NL M L P L L N N M L N
L M L P P P
<3 . *'') ) ><<> .* ( 1 L((() ?) )'1 5 *''( *(5 ) )' =(' *'') )1.1><@5
Z
L M M P NL MNMNL Z
Q

M L L L

N N L P L LN P LL M P
( .
L

N L NL L L M
& $& % " %) & "$&

' . ) 1 )) )'* )( ? 3) H ' ) * ( *''

! L M L NL & # P M

') ). 13 ) '' )) . ). )3 3 > ( %) %?7 5%/ 3' ( )@
L P L L P M L
M L M L L NL M L
) ? ' )1 >( ) * ' 1? 1 1) ' (
P L P M M L L L M
L L MN NL M MLN
. ' , ! *( ? 1 ' (@
M ML N N ML
)') ( ') !
!"' % %#

P L NL
M 0 ∈
P M L NM M M

⊂
%I
*( !1 3 . ' ( !
! "

N P L "! %' # %'
-
- P , P P P , P
-

P M

/ /

/
"' +
%$ % !' ! % "! % # %
)
' % $→ ' ! !# "# $ %& "
! ! # "!$ !"' ( %
& !# $ %& " ' & ' ! ( $ ! ' " " % ⊂ %"(! "' (
⊂
%" 0 ' ! 0
⊂

• ⊂

& !# $ %& " & %

•
& !# $ %& " ( %' " !"' % %# ! % %$ %

•
)

% $ ! ! # %% ' ! $$ & ! %' !( ( %' "
+ ' * ' *( 1 (*). '

' ( ! $$ ! %& !' ! !! & ! + " % % ) ! !' ! %
%$ ! !# !' !$ ( "' !"' )
J) ' ) ;3 ' )*3

- 5 5* 51 - ) . ' 5 - L - @
∗ ∗
!& * ' % +"' (!) M
LMM ML L L M L M L N
- - &- -5 (- - = 5. ) 3* ) .' ) ' > -*
L ML M N M M
L M L L L P
. '1- - ! , ! - ( !!- ,! -5 5( ! 5 - , - . )) 5 .%@ ' ' 5> . '1*

- - ,-

P P P O L M
−P P P P N M L P
- J - '

P L L
-, - - - - ,
> ' ) 51.1 5 ( .*( % 1 5(8 '%@. '1 5 - %) - @

− LN MN

M M
N M M N L L
' ? 3 1'- , - , - % - 3 (( 51 ' L? .1 '1 (*''% ) ><<*( @

N MNL P N N

P L
O L N L ·

. (' ) 3 ? 3 *
L L M
N L L
· P N ·
<.?' !- ! - * < '? @

M M L
' 38 ! 5 5 5
P
'( ) ( 1 '( 5 5

( 5
@ (
M P N M M

−
L L MN MNMN
' > * . ' 5 5 5 4 ) . ' '? ) ? 3 ( 15 .55' 5

M ML N N M LN MN . P
OM M M M LM N P
− N − M −M
P L L P N M

M L L P
M

−

− − −
− − − −

− −
.
− −
&%#6%*'"" %% > %, #"# #2
%6
9(* 3 *3
> % *0?* . ) *3 . '1) ' )
LMMLNL M L L M ML M @
( 5 )
P

P .

>

M MN M M
) )$)'& " &% !& % %) ')*)$)'&+

' .( 11 = () ) ' ) 3> ' 3(*. *38 ? < < ? 1@

M L P N L M
'*''( 1 < ? < = '' 1?*. 1 5 = ) ' ) ' . @

L MN
| | → | | P N M
→ ∗ ∗ L
M
1 '' ) .
∗ ∗
MN
P NM M M

L L ML ∗
% $ ! ! # ' ! $$ & ! %' !( (
%' " ' ( ! $$ ! %& !' ! !! & ! + " % % ) "' + 0

%' %"& !% $ ! * % % % "# $ + !! & !# $ %& " ) !

&' ( ? 3 ' . %1
' @
$$ !# ! ! 0 * !# ! )

→
L
(*
!& * ' % +"' (!) ML L L M L L
. L1 ' ) %
?' ( 8 5 ' L ) L5 5 5 @
- 0 M L M
L 0 L L M

M MLN
P M
N L
5 ) . ' '5 ') (8- ( %* ?K )L ' - 1 3 @

N
M L M

→
! MLN N 0 P L N
ML

P N
0

) (' 38
@ 1 > ?1 8'' )) 3) ' ) . ) ' ) ) ' 1)' @@

L M MLN N L M N
P N
M M ML 0 L
P M M NL L P L M M
L8 ). ( ) 3 ) . ?1 8
MN P N ML L L L LMM L P N
P L L N
L

J % H ' ) M L
5 '. 1 =)')
M L ( MN N L L

5& ' . '1 ((*.5 ''* 5 ). ' . 3 &( 3 5 5 5@

- M LL P N
M M→ L L ML MN L
0
&'(*.( ' 1' . .' 1

L - L -
L

0 →

' ( (? ' 1 . ) ' ) G 5

1@%
NL M L L → - P
0
- - P L M ML - L

' 1 3 '

−
(
. ' & 3 8 5
.
L ML L -
P L ML M

,

L − P M P
N P
>& * * ) 3 (
@ ' ) @
−

− − − − −
M
P

.= 3 ) ' ( . ?( 5 ' 1 )
@ 5' ) @@
− − − − − − − −
L - M L P M M L

−
M L M ML L L M L M M

5 ' ) ( ? 1L
0? > * (* (*3 @
L L P L NM ML M M L
L M L M M L M M P
.. ? 33 )) '' (( ?(.?(' '' ()) 5 5' )(5 ) * * (

L - MN P L L - M M
L M - 0 P 0 M M N 0 P M
L M L M ML N P M L 0
' > ' *. 1 . ) 3' )) 4' () ?( ? * ' ) . ) 3@
L M L M ML N
P L M L M ML
M M L
L
--' (
1 .L) *3 L * '1> * ) = 3 5 * @@
M L M L L P L -

M L M M L P L
.0 ) > (*.* .< '? ' ( ( *

- N N N N P M L L
0
L L - MN

5 > * *'' ? <
L P NL - - MN
3' )) & ) * .? ' 5 '' ) * .' '35 ) 5 '* (@@@

L

∗ ∗

∗ ∗

0
L M
M M M L N ∗ M → M 0 M MLN M M
) ?( ' ( & 1) *

M L N ∗
) 3@
L M MN P L L NL M L M
L L L - 0
→
L
. A( % %&) / 4% %%,&*""

/ "#! %% %$&"'"!"% "'# "5
() %,&>%) #!9 %#&9/ ! $% )5!,% '&9) $&4) 2 $&)"& /
!C,%- >%)%&.>) &9$$ Z → Z %4"#-2 C,%- >%)%&.>) %!"/ Z → Z
%*" %4"#- / % >%)%&.>) &9$$ Z → Z ,9'" %4"#) !H0 %)
#!94" / %' )( >") / 4% !")" $"&"6%' / " 2
I !"-%- !",&" *"-H) $&)"&%) "%4"#%%−>%)%&.>) !"5
# >%)%&.>) )"* '9 !"-() $&%#&# %) ' %-# "() $&%#&# %)
∗ 2 % >%)%&.>) > # % (,%& ,># 2
%
)3 3

= 45= * % ( 1 (H5( >) ? 1( . ?) 3 ' ' ). 1@
M L L L
M MN P ML N P
. 3 )) ><<' .( ?( ' 5> *' ) 3 ( = ( 15 (@
L - MN N NM M M
L M ∗ ∗ L M ML N M
(
P L L -
= *) 1' ?) &'* 1 ( ' @ < .? 3 ) ' ( ?(' . (*@1@

L MN
M N L M L
| | → | |
MN M
'( . 1 5 '' ) . 5 ) 3 )5 ? @@

L M

L ∗
→
M L
PL
M L L L ML L
< ? H* (' * 5 1 '3 . > 1 '5 ('' ) ) . 5)

→

P

L M
5

∗ ∗ N
P
→ P M

∗ ∗
J 3 *3

L M L L L ML L
→

P LMM ML L L M L
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
(
"' + "# $ + % $$ !& "#
) →! )
' .3 1 5 = (* @
!' ! %
| | → | |
) *( ' 1? 1 5 ? )
∗ ∗
!& * ' % +"' (!) MN MNMN M L L
) * ,-1 ,- ( ) ,,? 1 > ,-L ,) 5 5 5 ' L3)*) F4,'- ( ) ,3@

P NL M P L L M N M
M
N M ML N L

P N M N L M ML N
5 3)3) ) ( ? 3 5 ' 5 ( 58 ' ) '- ( '* . @@

L L MNMN P LMM

L M M ∈
N P N
11 '' ) . (* - 3 ' >) * ,?- ',. @

L N M ! LM M

L L ML M
,&- , ' 5 - ( - - - - = 5 * . @

L M L M ∈ P M

M

L L
5

> . *' ' . ) 3 = 5=

L M L L L

M LM L → M L

) ' 1
) 3 = ( ) (' 5 ) * 1 ( 5@

'(8

L LN MN M
M , O L MN ∗ M ∗

∗ ∗
ML6 N M

I %$%!% "%4"#" >%)%&.>)( 4#% %>C '! &##!%"- / $%5
%)9 4% #!% &##!%" %)"%)%&.( / % %)"%)%&.>)( " %4"#"7
%4%#0 %)"%)%&.>)% #!%D %>4" & !0%#0 &##!%" 2 % %5
)9 %)%%$4"#" &9$$( &9$$( %)%!%- &>(6 #!%D >%)%&.( / %

>%)%&.>)( " #"' )%*% (,&0 %4"#) >5> +#&94"%#1 $&%5

> "'" ,>( #!%- 2
. G>)"&%#0 %% #)$!"# )%*" ,(0 & 2

?5 1 1
( ( ) ? 4 (1 * % ' ' (
N
@ . 3 ) ' ( ?(

LMM L M L P
L LN MN N

-

−
5 5 5 H5 ' ' . 3 1 ) ' ''? . 5) '. . 1 ( =@
L L MN M ∗
P N M M L L ML
∗
L∗
3'' 51)* .( *5 5 '5 . I' /1 . 5 >''1 *)(''5 .) 5( . ) ' ? '. @

→
MN L L P M L
L ML N M M L L ML
LM P M MN MN L
> 5 ' . 15 '' )? . & 5 ' > * 5 5@

M MN M L L L ML -

→

-
N

L - N L L L
M M L ∗
L ∗ ML L P

- P ∗
3 ' . 1 * '' ) .
∗ ∗ ∗
"' + %$ % ( %
| | → | | | | → | |
!' ! % ) ! )
∗ ∗ ∗
5 * ? 1 ' . 1 * '' ) '. @
!& * ' % +"' (!) M ML L L M L L ML
5
. 5 1 ?* '' ) (* . * ) ( * *= ( *
0 L P L L M L L ML
0
→ L M -
→ 0
L L ML MN →
0 - 0
→
L @ M
L

L M LN LL

| | −−−−→ | | −−−−→ | |

x x
/ /
 
& 5 ' > * 5 5 5 ' . 1 '' ) . @

| 0 | −−−−→ | 0 | −−−−→ | |

L N M M L L ML L
P

& 5 ' > 5 *5 5 ' . 1 '' ) J . 5

- -
∗ ∗ ∗ − ∗ ∗ ∗
−

' 1 ) ' 5 5
L - N M M L L ML

L P - - − - − LN MN
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
N M
∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗
" "# $ + % & !# $ %& " !# %!# ! ' !

* 1 5 4 ( 5 ? ? @
$$ !# ! ! * !# ! )
'
M
!& * ' % +"' (!) N L L
| | → | |
N L L ||L
→| |
N L
'.* )(83 8 '( ( ) ? 5 1' 3 ) * L

L ∗ ∗
O L MN M NLLM

N L L MN L M LL L L

@
,

%

" %"' (%' %$ % ( !! !' ! %
(' 3 J '
& !' ! !! $ ("% − )
→ −
∈
( 5 ) P N
' > * ; ' ? . 5 5 5 5 ' ( % (( *

!& * ' % +"' (!)
→ −
L P LMM N
@

| −
− N M − MN L P
→ − − MN
? ' % 5 ' ) 1)* ' * - @

Z →
L ∗ ∗ −
−
Z ! M P
Z
L ZL→ Z⊕ Z → Z ⊕Z

− N
Z →
N P M ∗ −
−
Z

Z − Z > Z
Z
)*) ) & " &% !& % %) ')*)$)'&+

!# !' !$ % !' ! % "# $ + & !# $ %&
* ' 1 . 1 = ) ' ) ' ' ? . 3 1@

"!( ' ! & !( % !' ! % !# ! ! )
5
!& * ' % +"' (!)
3 * * '
M -
L M L | | → | |
M L
(5)@
MN L L P
5 '
- - |
|| |×{ }
NL N M || L
?
' 1 % *(*' . 1 ) ' ) ' 38 ( ' . ) 13 (
M MN N L
|×{ } MP
| × → | |
N
P
L L| P| ×
*) **( ' ()) ' ) ( 5 3 ' 1) %7/ J

| | × { } | | × { }
ML ML M L
M P L P M ML N MN
3 ?(5 1 ' 1?* 5 > 3 * ( 3 ' % 1 3 @

M N M LM P M LMM
N× - | | × → | | × { }⊂ | | × M
P - - ML N P -
→ | | × { } ⊂ | | ×

*1 1 ' ) 1 .+ )' 3 ' ) 1)*
∗ M M M
< @
M P - -
∗ ∗
M N -
∗

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
M M L P M

. .
×

≈
" "# $ + % & !# $ %& " !# !' !$ %"&
& ( ( %' ' ! $$ !# ! ! * !# ! )

' )(83 8 '( ( ) ? 5 1 ' 3 )

?
O L MN M NLLM
N L L MN NLLM L M

# ! )
"
' ! $ !"' "' (
6 R

R
% !# %!
7
(' * 31 ( '5 ' ( 8 % 3 < 4 @

M M , N LMM P
( ' ? 3 ' 3 ) >) ( 1 <@
!& * ' % +"' (!)
P MLMNL
>

>L MLMNL − R
R −
( ) ' 3 % > * ' = @

P L L P R
\{ }∼
M RNNL
\{ }∼
! NL P
− − , Z
Z Z −
− N −

''* ) * 4 1 ( ' . '1> > )* '> ) *''
M M L MP 1 < ) ' () *'@@
( 5? ) @
M L ⊂
P LMM L
(*. ' * 5
5 < ? - > *< ?

⊂
L NL !' !
# # % # %$#

→ −
"' % +
1 =< ?5) 1 *''*''*

P
C ) * ? *''
@
N M MNMN → MNL
−
N

LMM L

P L NL . !' !"' % +
! !
!#

$ %& "
" & & !# $ ! %' % ! "(* !"' & !#
"! % ' !' ! ' ! & $ ! & !# $ %& " ' !
- )
( L 4* ( (* ' '> 8@*

)
!& * ' % +"' (!)
L
! N L P
∈L
-! -

L P M N P
∈

− ∼

⊃
-
!& ' % ' !

%"' (! & !# $ ! %' % ! "(* !"' & !# $ %& "

|
⊕

{z
⊕

}
%

& !
% "! %
0? < ? ? 5

' ! %& & !# $ %& " )

N L

"' + "# $

+ & !# $ %& " %! $ ! & !# $ %& " ∪
$ ! & !# $ %& " )
!& ' % ' ! ("% )
& < ? ' . 11 == ' (*. *@

∪ ∪
∼
3 ' @
L M L L 0
(* ? ? 3 ' 1?*5?1 18
M →
0
∗ → ∗
) 3 )* ' ).
0 0
M L ! L L L N L ∗

0
P L L P M P P →
0

→
L M ⊂

0 → 0 0 ∼ 0 0

& ?* (*.1 *' *3 . '< ?

O L L

∗ →

∗ 0 0

) % ')*)$)'& " ) $"#) "$ %)

!
; ) 13 ' > * ? (*.) * . ) < ?< ? 1 ) ) @

O
P →L

M LMMLNL

→ L

*' ( 1 '1 1 1 <. ?) *

∗
M P N L

M "(* ( ∗ →
M M P ∗ L→
M −
G * ? (' 8 ) ) 1)* ) ' ( 8 @
∈

MLN P
∈ L

L L
MN P

L∈ −

−
→
7→
P M M
∈
P

∗
∼
!
!" % !(' % + !"' + !# !# ! *# !(

∗
−→ −→ ∗
−→ −→ ∗
− −→
C % **1 * C *.K ) 1* * . ) * . ) *@*

( %' " ' ! ! )
!& * ' % +"' (!) L M
MN MN ∗ N
⊂
M
. ) * 3 * 1 . )> 4* .( ) 3(
∗
∈ M L M MN MN
∗ ⊂ ∗ M ∈ L

0 00 P
0 00 . P . .
7, C C * *1 1 4 ( ) 34 (
∈ 0 ∈
∈ M L
⊂ ∈
' ( 5 1 . ) ?5 1
∗ ∗
.)
7→
M L N L MN
MLN
∗⊂
M L
N L M
C * 1 4 ( . ) @
∗

3
* M L
4 /( C * 1 (
∗ ⊂ N ∗ − ∈ − −

M P
L ∗ ⊂ ∗ − ∈ − ∈
& '
1 ? 13 ?
−
− ∗
M NL L M P L

P
>

∼ ∪ ∼ ∪
/
( 1) =* . ' ( ? ? < <? ? 3) ( ?* 3 *' @

M L N N L N
( 1 '
O N L M
M
!
NL M L
'0? 5* ( ' 3) )* >) (*? 3< ? & 13 )) '' ))

∗
−
→ ∪ −→ ∪ −→ −
∗ ∗
M NL M ML M P PL
M L P − M
5 '> *
M NNL
MN P M
∪M NL P

%

∪ ∼ ∪ ≈

"' + ) !
>
( $
−

4 3 5 ' ( 1 1
$
6

!& * ' % +"' (!) L M NL M
'* ) ? * 3 ( (* ? ' % ,% '
% ?
) ( @

→ −
→
→ − − −
L NL P − ∼ −
3 = ' ( 1

N M L
−
> N L NL

NLLL M NL M

− → → → >

→
-
( 1 5( ( , 5 ,5 5 5 ?( '?<> ? ( ,5 ,*@

→ → ⊕ → →
M L N M P L L
N → N L
'> * ? <
⊕ →
N P L N L 7→
MM N N L
−
P

4 *( 1 ' ? (8)L ' ? ) *3 5
' % ( 35 ? @@

M P N L M L P M L
5 ,

P M LMMLNL N P
& 5 33 ) 5) *).3 ) 5 '* 1?( ( )1 ) 55 53 55

M L M
(*
M M NL M N M
' ( 1 1. ' =
M L L L M L M M L LL L L
!
M NL M L
'' ( 1 < ? 4 ( 2@
−→
0 ∗
−→

∗
∗
−→
00
−→
∗ ∗
L P P P
L

'* 1 4 ( ( 5 )
0 "(* (

00
00
P M 00 00 00 00 L ∗00 ∗ →
∈

∗0
−

> ;* ) 1>
00 00 0 ( 5' )( 5@
*
∈0
3 1' ( 1
0 00 0 M
−

−
! !
∈
L N
−
− M −M NL M
∗
()? 5 3 ) )) (5 3 ' ( 1 '@

∗

∗0 −→ ∗ −→ ∗00 −→ − ∗0 −→
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
−→
L NL M L P L M NL M L

"' + "# $ + & !# $ %& "
&! !' & ' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
0
→ 00 →
→ % %( → $$ ) ! (!* & %' & ! !' & ' ! $ !" % !(' % +

!"' + %$ & !# $ %& "!(
→

→ 00 → →

< ? )L
0

(* ( !# !# ! *#
00 → −
* ( '
3H ' ( 1 ' < ? )L (

L ) ∗
L M N L L
M NL M
<?

) ' ( 5 ×
→ Z −→ Z → Z → →Z → →Z →Z

5 < ? ' ( 1 BC

→ − Z Z

→ − L Z

Z & ! !
→ 0

0

& !# # ' ' ( # # " ' ! # "' !& #

−−−−→
−−−−→

−−−−→ −−−−→
  
  

y y y
0
C C C BC BC BC

0 0
−−−−→ −−−−→ −−−−→ −−−−→
!& ' % ' ! " %"' (%' ' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
51 3 )* ' . 1 = ) ' ) '@

→ → → → → → →
M L MN

M !# ! ! %"& $ !" % !(' %+⊂ + ⊂'! &
!
!"'
(* ? 0? < ?

−→ −→ −→ − →
∗ ∗ ∗
→
M L
∗

∼

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
I
')? 3 ) )5 3 5' ( 1 1
!
L NL P M L L M NL M

* )*) ? ) 5* 3 335*' ' '( ( ( 1 1 1 1 .1 '5 =3 ) ' ) ' (*.? @

∗
→ ∗ −

→ ∗ ∗ −

→ ∗ ∗ →

L L L M NL M MN

L L M NL M
(* * (
L M M NL M LM NL

M N
"' + * & !# # ' ' (
# # % %( $$ " ' ! # "' !& #

−→ −→ −→ −→

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

−→

−→
−→

−→

% $ ! ! # ' !
* !# ! *# ) ! * !
J 5 3 *'' ) ? 1 ( 5 ) C
# ! *# )
' * . ' ( 5
!& * ' % +"' (!) LMM 0

0

0 0 M LL L L MN MN M
M M L

→

0
−→

0
−→
0
0
→

0

0
↓ ↓ ↓
0
( 1 ? <? 3 →

0
−→ 0
−→ 0
→

C C C C
M MNL M P
0
0
'; > * C C C ( >' < ? < ?? @

⊂ 0 0 0 0 0
< ? > * >' < ? C H

∼ 0

0 0
P

P 0 0 0 P 0 0

C
0
0

' > * >' < ?

0
0
0 0

0⊂
P

) 1 *@ ( ) ? 831 5 '1*3 (( ? * ) 1) *3*'' ) (C ((@

L ML M M LN N N M L P L L

LL LNL M M L L P

) ? 5 5' ? <?
MN P N L L MN LMN ±
M L L L
P
' 1 @ ) ( ) ? 5 (* * (
! L NL M M N
−
6

% $ ! ! # ' ! !' ! % % $
' & !(! ' ! !( % # !' ! %
J (* * ) * * ( *
→ 0 0 ( ' " !# !' !$ %"&# & ( ( %' !"'# )
! → 0

!→ !'
0
% % * !# ! *# )
→ 0 0
3 )
∗
!& * ' % +"' (!) LMM M LN LL
! !
M M L

∗
−−−∗−→ −−−−→ −−−∗−→ − −−−∗−→ −
0? @ ! (* 3 ( 55 ) 1 5 ) ! 5 5 5
    
    
∗y ∗y ∗y ∗y ∗y

0 0 −−−−→ 0 0 −−−−→ − 0 −−−−→ − 0
? <?
∗
−−−∗−→ ∗ ∗
M P M N L L M L N M

& !# # ' ' ( # # % %( $$

−−−−→ −−−−→ −−−−→ −−−−→
  

  
y y y

−→ −→

−−−−→ −−− −−− −−−−→
" ' ! # "' !& # )
!& ' % ' ! %"
# ! !# ! *# ' ! # ! !
# ! *# )

!& ' % ' ! %"
$# ! *# ' ! $# !

*# )
& !# # ' ' ( # #


−−−−→




−−−−→




y y y

−→ −→
C C C
−−− −−−
" ' ! # "' !& # ) !& ' % ' !
%' * !# ! *#

→ ∩
"' + (% & !# # ' ' ( % # #
*
%# # ' ! ( & !' ! "!!' (%' "' ( % !# !# ! *#

! & !( % & !# % * !# ! *# !( 0 00
) !& ' % ' !
' !

−

−

,
!!
∈ )
% $ ! ! # ' ! % # # ( ' " # # #
& ! % !# !# ! *# !() !& ' % ' ! ( ' # # * !

# ! *#
# !' ' + * # ' ! ' ! +& ! ' ! & !

" %"' (%' %' ( + ' ( !# !# ! *#
& !' ! !!
→ ("%

)
(∈ (% ' % $ # % ( # # * " * # !# !# !

*# #
)
!& "# %% " ')*)$)'&&

G * *'') ( ) ? 1 = 1 *''*' 5 @

N L L MNL L M P M
' ) ' ( 1 (* >) @

N M LMMLNL $ (%
M NNL
P

!

M M L

%!

→∗

!' !
! !# !# ! *#
% %

( ! !' ! % !% $∗ !"'

→(!) ∗
"'

% -

%
%
- -

!' ! % %
# %#
! (%
→
!' ! %

) "
' ! →Z
$ ! ' !# !(!! %$ !! & !# $ %& " ' ! % # !
∈
!
F B & * 3 ?5? 3 * 4 )3 ? . ' ) ' F) @

!$ % % ' + $$ !# ! ! )

L L NL # %' % L L NL
N MN L M P N NL M

-
? 55 . ' ) ' )

→ −→ →
L L M
-
( )

−→ −→
− →
'
% 1 ' ( % - - (* ?- 3 ' (
→

Z
−NNL M M P
P L L L M
MN L
- C - ' > *

> → ∗ Z

M L P P
∗→
4 )4 3 5 '? ( - 1 - 1 '
∗

⊕ Z
( 5 ' (8 =
∗⊕ ∗
L L P
L M NL ∼ M ∗L
M N

,%
9 * %' ,) ?' ) ?3 3 '
' 0 ' = 1?*5
L NL P − ∼ NM
''
(8 %
L L P
')? 13

∼
M
L L P ∪
N P

>

∼
∪
!

! !
"' + "# $ + & !# $ %& "

% ! * ' % + !

"(* ( ! % ( ) !& ' % ' ! $
R ∼
-

R

) ! %% ' !! $' + R&
!
∼
& !' −
! !! % '> (
$ % "' ( %' %(! %# %' ' ! ' ! +& ! ' !

& ! ' & ! % ' ( ! ! & !# $ !R%' % "(* !"' )

) $"#) "$ %) +"! " )!&
4 3 5( ' 5( ( *= )1 ' 1) 9 :' 1. 1 = 5? = ' @@

L M NL M L L O ML MN NL
?* 3 ) )51)3 == 3 )= ) '3 'L 1? *31 5 )= ( L (? )< 5 @@

N MN M L - P
M ML O M M L P L - MM
M P NM NL M N M
3) 3 3 ) 3 ) H 5? )) 33 = ' 3 () 1 > *
N M -
MN - -
L M NL
P MNL −

- - P -
P

< ** ?' 1 )
MN ∪ -
∩
L ML L
M
- - - - - - -
( * > ' *3 *) '* * -3 '.('*=( ' 1. 1 ?=) ) '< ?()@

→ ∩ → ⊕ → ∪ →
M M NL M L N L
L L N M L
< ? - 5 5' 5
' 5% ; * 5(5( 3 3 = @@
MN O M L L N

∨
M
P L
) < ?3 >) = '? - < ? ? >) * -*1 (' 5 ('

3% 5
∼ LN ⊕ N M > M L

N N N M
L M >
3 5' ( 1 1

M N N ⊕
P
∼
- - -
M L M NL M
H ' ' 3 ( ) 1 ) =* 1 ? )( )*= 3( ) ' ( *=

(*% )-

→ ∩ → ⊕ → ∪ →
M MLN M L N
3 ' ( 1- ' * ( * ( 5 )1 ?
@
P M MM N P L
M NL M M MN O MN M L
1)
@ 0 ' 1 5 3 -5 ' ( - 1 1?='
% @ 5 @

∪
M MN N L NL
P P
(* ?
LN L L ∩ M NL
L
−
M L MNL M M
,

- #

$ + & !# $ %& "
"' + "#
' & % %! $ ! & !# $ %& " ' !
- ) ! ! #

-
) ! # %%' " ' ! $ !" % !(

∪
' % + !"' + ∩
-
⊕ → → − →
? 3 ' ( 1( 1 1 9 : 1 ?)

→ →
!& * ' % +"' (!) M NL M L L O ML N L
!
!
M NL M

-

%

) *''* - 3 ' L 3; ' ) < -? 8 ' 5 5 * ?@

/ −/
→ ∗ −−−−−→ ∗ ⊕ ∗ −−−−→ ∗ →
M LM M MM

3 = < ? - ) 3- 5 & 5
⊕

L L N P
L ∗ ⊕ ∗
N

L M
L
-
5
N
→
3 1 ' ( 1 % 9 5 <- 1 (*@@

- 3 ( ' < 1
→
N
M MN

M M NL M M
- ? * 3 = - = ( 5 ) 1 = '* 1 - 4 ,(! !
L - - N L M L M
−
MN P M P
. '& 8- 5 '* 1 3- 1- (- 3- ! &- ? 5
P
∪
M L M LL P ∈
L M
⊂
M
5 - ) 3 ? . '? . ' ( . '( ) ( ' ( ). '1. '1- (- ? @@

−
ML M N M N M
−
− L L
-
- - MM N L
− MM N L−
P N L
P N
< -

M L P ML − ∩
∗ ⊕ ∗
1 5- '1 9 (8 : =1 - (* ? '3 3*35 ') '(* @@@

∗ ⊕ ∗
N M L M NL
M L L O ML M P M
*( * 3 )
- -
N −LL

−
M
P L
- - - !
! -
M L
-

/ −/

−−−−→ −−−−−→ ⊕ −−−−→ −−−−→
!
!
  
  ⊕ 
y y y

/ −/

(8 ' = 1 3 ') (3 5 1 5 *''9 : 1 ( ( 5 ' ) @

−−−−→ Z −−−−−→ Z⊕Z

−−−−→ Z −−−−→
! M NL M L L O ML

N N M M L M

+ & !# $ %& "
# %%' " & ! %"&

"' ! &
* !# ! *#

% "' +

"# $
!!
) !
) >
∼ −
,,
( ' 38
!& * ' % +"' (!)( ' L( ' ( ( 1
MLN N N -
1 - ( 5' (8 = -
M L P - ∪
P -
L M NL M

19 ) *@:

L L
' ( @
N
O ML ∩
- 5 ' > * ) 3

⊕ → → − → − ⊕ −

<? 1
MLMNL
* ? 3 (
M NL P L M
P L L P M L
NL M LN ? @
'

9 3' =1?* ' (8' = ( 5 ( '1 * ?3 ' 1

1?
*3
%
M N P
M NL M L L

M L

" ' % !# ! ! ' !
)

%

!& ' % ' ! ∼
.
× ∨

("% )
>

" ' % !# ! ! $ !"' "' ( )
×
" ' % !# ! ! !$ ! % * ( !' (%'
% * ( "' !' ( ! * )
""# !' # ( * %$ % % "!"' ! %% * "(* & !# $ !
% !' (%' *
%' ) " ' % !# ! ! !$ ! % ' !! * %$
F %

( "' ' ! +& ! !' )

"' + & !% # !!! * %) !& ' % ' !

∼
$
' %) 6 6 −
) %"+ "$ !
! % \ ( %& !' ! ! &

"' + "# $ + & !# $ %& "

' & !% "%#% "' (! %! $ ! & !# $ %& "!( ' ! ("% L$ %
{ }
%"% % & ! $ !& ( ' ) !& ' % ' ! $$ !

9 :1 1 )
# ! ! * !# ! $$ # !# ! ! % ( $ !& ' )
L
L L O ML M L !' !"' % +

- -
$ !" % !(' % + !"' + % +%' ! "

"' + $ ! & !# $ %& " "# $
+ !! & !# $ %& " ) !⊂ ⊂# %"' ! ' ! $ !" % !(' % +
# %%'

- - - - --
!"' +

∩ ∩ → ⊕ →

→

→

∪
- -
∪ → − ∩ ∩ →
. 3$&"'"!"" "& $%&( $& "'"% 4# #2 2
,7
1 ? ) & ? ) 1 ) 5 3 ' '( ( 1 1 1 9 :

!& * ' % +"' (!) M L M NL M L L
!!
O ML N L M NL M
→ ∗ -- ∩ −−/ −
−−−/ → ∗ -- ⊕ ∗ −−−
−→ ∗ -- ∪ →

) *'' 5 * (* ( ? 5 ) ( ' 3 ( 8 ) ) %3%=@

∗ ∩ ∗ ∗
L M L M L L N L N
∗ ∪

) ) 3 )< ) *'' 5 ) ( & 5

M L

P
⊂ ⊂

P
L ⊂

N L
⊂

P L

L - - -

> *

< ? 3
- L M L L →
M - P - - - -
∈ ∗ ∩
∈ ∗ ∩ ∗
>' < ? * 1
−
! ! 4' ( . '11 > ( *'' > ? *' ' ( 1 =@

* = = ( 5 )
-
P,

!N P
-
-

P - M L M LL P
∈ ∗L ∪ - N L -
M
-
B& % % 8 &5 ' ? > 1> 3 '1 ( 3 & ? ' ( @

⊂ − ∗ −
M MLN M M NL
M L L L - MN L L M

-
M N M L L
5B ? (1 = ?.. ''1 ( 1 = .(B' ( 5B B @
ML∗ M ∪ N
- - - MM M N L - −
− P - - - ∗ MM
∗
N L
L∩ -
( > 5( * 1 3 * ?= ( =5 . '5( J ) @@
M

-
-
N
∈ ∗ ∪

∗
-
M P L M M N LMM
L M - M L M LL - P

∗
P
) 3 ?5 1 4 ( '> *

L N - P - - L P
- - ∈ ∗
N L MN ∗ N
−
−

)')*)$)'&&
* 1 ) ><< . -' . <1 ? )? '3 ) 5 ?- *''*
@@*'' =
M M L MP

L NL L
) .4') ) ? 3 ' ( 5 B ) L <

L NL
& ! M Z L M L
%$+
→
N
) '3 '* 1' . 1 ) ' ) ' 3 5 )

L L

M P N M
P MM
M M L ML N
M

{ } !"#$%& '%$$%
,
⊕
!"#$ !"
Q

⊕
6 Q
!

" #$ %

& ' % ⊕ ∼ ( & ' %
Q
∼

'
) *

+
, $
!

- . $
$
*

"
/ , '
$
#$ , ∗ $
'
'
0 , # $
" ' # $ * $
* 1 *( ? 3 1 4 3) ' < '? ? 5 > @@

P , ∗ ∈

M L L L
'' 1 3 * ' * ' ( ' ( 1 < *@
∈ L∈ L L M LNL N M
MLN L L

h i
. P
.

→ M
NMN

L N

&'
→
3 ' ' L ? 1 '

. i
L NL P L
h

h

.i

N L L M P L L
!

L
-
!& ' % ' ! & ! %$+ $ # %' "# $ %& "%
-

* % %

.
!'
.
X
!

-
' ( 5
.
'

0 (
h

1< *
L L

→
.

%
M
49 )) ? ') 5 5 ((*
L? ' (

. i − − h . i
h
L N L L L MNL L M M L P
L M MLN M NL MN L L M P

,/
* 5 ? ? ) % % % '9 > > L 55 ' (' ' @@

NN M L L MNL
5 '' 1?*( * '5 33 1 3 @'' > = *( ( 1 ( 5 1> (
M L M − M L NL
M N L −
O N P NMN M L
( '5 ? ) ' 1 ' ? ) *() ) ) =@ @ = '( 3 ) )( ? 5@@
M M LM P NN NMN M
L O N P N M P L
;= ( ( ' ? 5? 1 *( 5 )
M L MLN L MNN P ML M L
L L MN L M NL LMM P
( 0?1 *'' (* - > - * ' @

N M
LN MNL M LN MN
& !!# ! !
(*'' 5(? ? < ?

-

. L L .
L NL & !& # & ! # →
"' + "(* "# $ + & !# $ %& ") !
*- - ? 3 - 3* ) 1.-'1 - '- - 4- ( 4( )) ?? 3 - 5 > @@
)

!& * ' % +"' (!) M L
L L − P LN MN
= () *=' )L => ?( 38 =3 ) . '1 -5 ' 5? (' .) 1@

h i h
L L P
i h i−h
L i L N L N
N N L P M MN M L
?3 5 = L = > *-
ML L L P
L N NM N L
L L N

"

' ( $$ $ ! ' !

'( 5 & (' ' 38 ( 5 *5 ' '55 ( @

- *''
(! "' (% !% $ !"' "' (! )

!& * ' % +"' (!) N M
MLMNL L P NMN MLMN
> * * 5 ( (5 )) ? 1 =3 C ( @
L L M N

MN L L P M

' ( 5
L P
MN MLMN C

K <*3 ). 1 ( <*C ). > ( <*<*).). ( @
P

→
∗

∗
→
N

L L P LMML
><* ). ( 5 )<* ). = C ( 5 ?*) ' = (C5 =

?* ' K <* ). C
N L

NL M M N L
L MLMN L

∗
L P NM
P
P L MLMN
∗

" ' ( $$ $ ! ! ! *
% $ !"' "' ( & ! % !# % ! ' !
∼
' !' * !# ! *# % & ! %"& )

,

' . 1 1 ) .( ' * ' (*. *' * ) <.' ?'1@

! L L
( 5*'') ) ' ( 5 5 ' ( ? @

→
∗ P MN N N L L
N MN
→ P MN MN
P ∈
- *''*- . ( - -) . '- ' (( 5 5 (* ?

(%
∈
% M M MN L
L L NMN L
P → Z
B

→ !' !"'
% +

M M L

- *''= ) . ' & 1 =) . '? ) 5. '5 5' ( *'' = 5 *''* 1 @

L M N M N L M
H *''' 3 *''= . ' (1 = . ' 5 5 < )5 < ) *'' *'' @
L MM P L L M N L
L P L M N M L

* ' ( 1*'' *3 ) 3
L M NMN M L M
5 ) )' ( ( 5 5 3 * ? < ? *'' ') ( 5@@

N MN L
O M M L L
M L NMN L ' !"' % + %
M M MN L
!

!& ' % ' ! %" & & !# $ ! %' "(* !"'

$ !"' "' (
-"! % ' !' ! & !# $ ! %' "(* !"'
$ !"' "' ( | | ' ! )
; ) 5 3 5' ( 1 1 | |
!
L L M NL M
%
(*. * ( * ' ( 1 1

−→ −→ →
→
!
NMN M NL M

( ' 5' ( (* '1 1( 18 = * 3' 51?* ( )( ? '( 1.) ? 1 > 1 * 3@@

←− ←− ←
←
L M NL M L P L L MN N
M P L L MN
' (1 1 1 %
M M NL M
8 ? ' 1 4 3 * ' (( 5@
M M L MNMN
P LM M M
M NL M P L
8 =' 5 5% 7 % ? 8= >) =* < * @

NL M L NL " %$# ! P M
N M→
−→ −→ →
NNL MN P M
NL N

"' +
→ −→ −→ →
' ! $ !" % !(
' % + !"' +) ! " % % " !( & ( ( %'
,I

! ,
' $ !" % !(' % + !"' + # %%' (
→ −→ ⊕

−→

→

% %"' %"' (% !% (& % % %"' %"' (% $ !%&

!# !# ! *# # %%' %( ! ' ' )%) " %"' (%' !# !

# ! *# & !' ! !!
3 ( 5 ' ( 1 ( , ' 5@
→
( !# !# ! *# # %%' $ ( ! ' ' )%) " %"' (%' !

# !# ! *# & !' ! !! )
5 > * 8 5 ' 1 1 3 ' 1' , , @

→
!& * ' % +"' (!) M P M NL M N L N
M MNMNL N MN P

('

3 ' ( 1 ) 1 3 ( , ) *3
ML M N P M N
N P M NL M N
MN
C K (> ' ( C 1 ; ( @
MN
P L P N L M L
MLN N N
C , , '> *

⊕
P ∈

P M − ,
P ∈ − ∈
P
C (' K 3 (> ) C 3 ' ( ) 1 ;*3 ( @

∈ ∩
P L P N L M L
MLN N N
C '> *

⊕ ∈
P
−
P M −
P ∈
P ∈
∈ ∩

!& ' % %# # ) ) " $ !# ! +
%# # )

! "" !% % "! " !%# )

→
!& ' % ' ! %" " %"' (%' "% % % ' )%)
→ ◦
' ! %"' (% !% !' ! % % ' ! ∼
)

!& ' % ' ! %" " %"' (%' %' ⊕ '!
&
→
∼ )
. / /

( !& ' % ' ! %" " ! "' (%# ( $ !"' "' (% ' !
⊕
)
⊕ −
∼
'! %%&%% %))9 #!"'9C= '&))

/
% %& .%&)!0% % %>4" 4% #9="# 9" >%)%&.>)
→
⊕

< EE
yy EE
y
yy EE
yy EE
/
yy E"

/
/
⊕ /
. 3$&"'"!"" &##!%" '% 4# #2 2
,6

K ) ' 1 3
( 1 1 ' 1 (* ' ? 1 @ *'' ( 5
N P M L MN L P L M 3 5 ' @

NL M LM L MN P
' - ?*''1 > ( ?( 5 ' >> * 3 '5 ' ( 1 ( 1 %

? ( 5 ) → −→ −→ →
L M M L O N
L M L→ L M L P
N MNL −
'
L
LM L

MN L P L M NL M

" $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
−→ −→

→
' !
B B B
' ! (! "' (% $ !" % !(' % + !"' +

←− ←− ←

' ! % ' ! )
" $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
→ −→ −→ →
' ! "
B B B
%$# ' ! (! "' (% $ !" % !(' % + !"' +

← ←− ←− ←
) ? 3 3 3 3 C ( 5 * =1 C
' ! % ' ! " %$# )
(*@
!& * ' % +"' (!) L L ML L L P M P
* ) >'' 1 <3 ? ' > *C 0?

MN
◦
P
L L P

NM
∈
∈

' > * C * 1 ( ' > * C @

L P LN MNL M
?
LN MN P
3 3
◦
M P L P P
(*. '* ( B?1 < ? < ?3 J - < ? < ? @

◦ ⊂
L L P

P ∈
◦
0

0
→LMM
→
M P

0

0 −

∈
' ) 1)* (
M LLL
0 0 − 0 0 −

w GGG
ww

w GG
ww GG
) * * 1 < ? (5) { w 0
0 G#
ww GG
4(
w
o /
) '?.5
LNL
M P L
L→
B B B
−→

−→

7
1( 1 3 > * ) >'3 < ? < ?( 8 5 '' 5 ( @

MN L P NMN L M NL
!

M L M L P LM
!& ' %
' ! ' ! ! $ !" % !(
B B

' % + !"' (! "' (% $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
L = % ? *3)B5=3 3 ' ) 1)**'' B < ? ) =' ' 1 @

×
→ Z −→ Z% ' !
)
← Z Z ← Z Z
O L N M N M
M L
' ( 5B 5 > ' )% 1)* ) 1 ' ? < ?1

P M
MZ
∼
M
P Z → N
%, B ? 3 % ( H&

P M
∈ M P
<( ? *( 5' 1 1 L ' ( 5 % 5 > B 1 % ) % @

Z Z
P L L P
Z →Z

P MN P

Z Z Z
M M P
B 4 ) ? Z →Z
N N M

L L P
%
≡

P
≡

%

−
2 3 , ( ) ? 5 3 B C

∈

!

L L NL M P
Z ∼ −→
×
$ !# ! + ' %! %# ) ) $ ! ' % ' ! $ !" % !
B , ,B
(' % + !"' + % +%' ! " & !!# ! ! )
B
"' + $ ! $$ % %(! $$
{ | ∈ }
) !& ' % ' ! )
Z ∼ Z
!& ' % ' ! $$
%" ' ) %"+
Q Q Z
$$ ! + "% !' !"' % + ! " ! % )
Q
"% )!%)" !)& "#"%&" & ')*)$)'&&
!)
- '*''( ) = (5 ? *'' . '' ? ) 1><< . ) ><< . 2 @

& )$ % *& ) & &"% *&

M N L
1 3 = (5 ? ? *'' *''. ' ) ><< . > '*''( @

M M L L
L Z
B = ?*'' )5 5 ' ( 5 (5 (* ? * 1
M

M
L M L
L
P

'Z%* ! !% $ !* (% %
' ) '* (8*''> 5 > ( ( ,5 , , *''' ( , *'@? @

% L N ⊗ ⊗
P M M L M
L N P MN L L NL L P L
M M L MNL

LN P L L N L × 0
− − 0
7%

) , ( ,' (> , 1 ) 4), (*''* ?' 3 (8 , * 9> < , 1
0
− L
LMM P M −
0
L

L L
!
L
5?, , L 5 , , , , ,
P ⊗
L P ⊗ L P
⊗ ⊗
MN L M 0 0 0
⊗ ⊗
,

) - *'' 1?5 ' ( 1( ( 1,> ,
⊗ ⊗
0
⊗ ⊗
L M L
K ) ' 1 3 1 % ? < ? % ? ( 8 %5 < * @

⊗
P ⊗ MLN N N
⊗ ⊗
N P L L M
>> ** 1 > ) ) =*'' * (L 5 ' ) ? (3% (* >

∼
MN ZP ⊗

⊗ 7→
⊗ ∼ ⊗
N
⊗
⊗
Z⊗ ⊗
L L M
% 1 3 > *'' ( H& ( %; ' 38

M LMM L NL P

NZ ⊗ P
∼
MN P
O LMM P P Z ⊗ ⊗ P
(5H% '5 ((* ( ? ' ( 5 ? ' ? ( 5, ,) @

⊗

Z ⊗Z ∼Z
Z ⊗Q
M MN N N
, ,
N M M NL MNMNL
< ? 5 = ( *=( 5 ) < ? , , , * * @

M L % ! P 0
,
,
0

0

× →

0 P M MN

P
1 ( 5 )

* ,* , < ?
⊗ →

M MN
N N ⊗
→ 0
0P → 0
, , ,, ,, ,
0
⊗
MN ⊗ P→ ⊗
⊗ ⊗ ⊗

⊗−
,
0 0
⊗− ⊗

( 5 ?5 ' % 7 ? ( 5 ' ( (* 5
⊗

0
⊗ − ⊗ − 0 ⊗
N M LN NL M L L P
NMN L

" $ !" % !(' % + !"' + ' !

−→ −→ →
' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
% ⊗
⊗
−→ ⊗

−→
⊗
⊗ →

% ' ! % ' ! )
" $ !" % !(' % + !"' + ' ! "

%$# ' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' + → −→ −→ →
⊗
⊗
→ ⊗ −→ ⊗ −→ ⊗ →
' ! % ' ! " %$# )
7
5(< ? ' ( C ) - 3 < 3? %% (*.>' * < ? @

!& * ' % +"' (!) L
MN L L M
L ML L L P
⊗

% C

⊗ ⊗

3 ' 1 3 C% ? (*< ? &' (? ' @@

^ ⊗ ⊗ → ⊗ ⊗

ML N P ^
) 'C ) &1)* C ( ' > * ' (*.( * ) ( @@

⊗
L
M L

× → ⊗
P ⊗

P M ⊗
M 0 P
⊗
P
? 4 )< ? ? C % CC & 5 %% ' @

L ⊗P − − 0 ⊗
0 ⊗
− 0 ∈

L ^
⊗ → ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
N L L
> ( * 1 ( , (* ? < 3? ( 5*'') % ' 4 ( (

L L P
⊗ ⊗ ⊗
M LN MN M P L ⊗ L
⊗
% % %
L N L
M ⊗
P L
→
'*> ' * ( % 1 1 < ?? = ' ? ( % ' 5 3@

⊗ ◦ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
L LM
!

M ⊗ NL M N ⊗
!& ' % ' ! ' ! ! $ !" % !(' % + !"'

!( $ !" % !(' % + !"' +

%→'Z! →
)Q →Z⊗Z →Q⊗Z
&

- *'' 5 3 ? )*'' ' ?) ><<1 . ) ><< . > @

M N L
*'' 5 = (5 ' *''. ABCABC DEF 'DEF 5 & ' 3 ( =5

NL L M M L O
) ) = 3 ( 3 ? 1 ABC DEF ( 5
NL N L P M MLN L LZ N
L N P
N M ML L
2 &' * . *''*' ( 5 ?5 ABC( 1 ?*DEF (* L 5 ?

P P
L
? 3 3 * * 3 5 ' ( 1 1
Z Z Q R
M M L
N L L L
M
! %
L L P M MN L M NL M
( ( L 5 *''*'' *''( '' ) 1)*( 5 ?*@5@

→
→

−→

−→

MN L N L L L
5 ' ( *'' ( *'' 4 3 * ' ( 1 1 % L P M
P M L MN
M MN M NL M

L N

7,

( ? 1 1 % (*. * 3 ' ( *'' 1 4 3 5 ' @

L NL "(! ! ! %* ! +(%' ! L N L M
!
NL M M NL M

B B B

⊗ −−→
⊗
⊗
⊗
−−→ ⊗ →
ABC 3C % =DEF' ( 5=BC ' 1?*B 5 1)

← − ←− ←

(' ' ( 5 1 4 ) 3 ? ' *''( ABC1 ( DEF 3 =

P N⊗
L NL M M

L L L P

→
LMMLNL M NL M
ABC !
M NL M
→
DEF B B B
⊗
→ ⊗ −−→ ⊗ −−→ ⊗ →
⊗
ABC ( DEF * ? ' 5 1 3 ) (' ( 8? 1 *''%

← ← ← − ← − ←
NM N P L

LNM N L MN N

!! !# !# ! *# 0 $ !* (! + %
"(! ! % %* ! +(%' % %( $$ # !→
! !$ ! ' + !
! -
0
& !# # ' ' ( ! # #

!

→ −→ −→ →

↓ ↓ ↓
→
0 0
−→
0 0
−→ 0
→

-
" % ! $ !# !# ! *# !( !$ !
"(! ! % %* ! +(%' ! & !# # ' ' ( ! # # ' ! " %"' (
%' !# !# ! *#
→ 0
- & !' ! !! 0 - - - -
−
? * > & ( 5 ) = ( >' = < ? =' 5> *''? *= = > *@@
−
)
!& * ' % +"' (!) L O N MN L N L

L 0

L M P N 0 M
'
MN { }
?
{ }
*'' * 4 ( ' > * ' (

0 P
( <?
0 0 L M
N - 0 P L L - L
C (* 3 * 4 * ( > 0?( 5 )
L 0 -

MN P 0 -
→ 0
LN MNL
M P N M
MN P
>? * * * * > 4 ( ( 5) @

0 0 - 0 L 0 -
0 0 0 0
N L M MN

0 - -
O

N 0 M MN
{ } − P
0 0 − - - - 0 L 0 - - -
{ 0}
− −
77
( < ? 1' > *

P - −

−
& @
! NL P 0 - - - 0 L
45 * 5' < . * 5?) ) % 7 3( )'* ) 1 J @@

−
N ML N L M L N M L M
( 5> ' ( 1 1 < ?
MN L L M L LMM
!
M NL M N

K)*) .. '%' 7 )* ' )( 3?( 1 - ) <( ? ' 3
(*.1% @

→ → → −→
L M M P ,
L N L ∗P
( .' ' ) *3 ( ? 3 ' ( (*.( @@
L → 0
0 P MN M M
O L ∗→ M ∗ L L
? 3 B' ( B 5 H * > @
NL L
L L ∗ ∗ →
0 P
∗ ∗

DEF- < B? & ' ) 1)*B ) 3 - ABC B

0 LM M
∗ ∗ ⊗ → ∗ ∗0 ⊗

∗
→
∗P M ∗ ∗
⊗ ∗
L P ∗

;3 ) 1 ' ( 5 *''5 DEFABC ( ) (*? 1' 1 ? @@

∗⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ∼ ⊗
∗
M
∼
3 3 1) >*'' ABC*3 DEF ) = ' L =

M
P L L MN LL
∗ N M∗ L ∗ ∗

P
ABC DEF 3 ABC *'' DEF( 5

*3 5= ( 3
O M ∗ ∗ ∗ N M
M L NM P M L MN L P
O LMM P
5 *'' 1 (* ? 1 *

Z Z

LMM MN N
Z

'5 % 3( 1 3 %( ABC% H 3K * > 3 ?1*''>5( % @@
×
→ Z −→ Z → Z →
O M ML L L
MLN N N Z L N M Z
⊗
L
( 5C ) = 3 4 ) ABC ? *''ABC ABC ? <

⊗ 7→ ⊗

⊗
⊗
M P MM N P
3 ' 1 DEF* < ?3 B ' )

* ' @@
L L P L ⊗L
O LMM P
Z

−→ Z Z
×
M P
Z Z Z
= DEF( > *
DEF 3 DEF
O M
Z PZ ∼
N L MN MN
N
Z

→
O LMM P
DEF
Z Z Z Z

Z Z Z

"' + % & ! % % %( $$ )
Z ⊕
!& ' % ' ! )
Z ∼
7

C
ABC
"' + % %( $$ ' & !( ' !

!! ) !
−→
×
! $$ ∈N
DEF

)
"' + % %( $$ ' & !( ' ! !! )
∈N
' ( (*''* ? 4 1 ( ( '5 ? 1 **'') '3 > ' *( 5(8 *

! ! $$ )

!& * ' % +"' (!) L O N N
MN L L NL L P
0 L 0
!
MN N

' *3 ) * * ( *

→ −→ −→ →
!! %
L LN LL
0 0
⊗ 0
⊗ −→ ⊗
< % )1 ) > ↓
⊗
↓

'( ' ( ?) ? 1 1 > < < ' )1, 1)* 5 ,% (- *''* *'@
⊗ −→ ⊗
M L 0 O L M N
LL P M⊗ MN
) * 1 )( 3 % ( > < , , 4 %( ?
L L M L P LMM
⊗
N N
0
⊗ N L L P L M L⊗L ⊗

L
' 5 )( 1 ? 1 ) (* 3 %
LNM LL

M L 0
LN N L M M P

⊗ 6

⊗
!
MN N

' *3>' < 1 < *? 1 B B) * <5 ?( ) ? 1@

→

−→

−→ →
*''* ' (8 *
L M L L
? '( (* @

M M →
O
→
L P P M
∈ \
(5 = '
L
M
P
( (5 ) > 1 (3 @
NM
• 6 ∈ ∈N
•
M
> *'' ( 5 )
M

∈N
∈

P L '
∈N
P N L
L MNMN
P
P P

. 5 ( *'' ) *''*3 ' ' (81 5 ' (*). 1'5 (*)@< @

L NM M
M L
L P LM
L

7/

ABC
"' + ' $ ! * %"+ ""# ' ( ' "
DEF
' ! +& ! & & $$ !' Q R
!"' % +C
) ><< . @
! " ! % ) !

3 *'' )
% %( $$ )

5ABC *'' ' ABC 1 (* < ?DEF* * 3 ABC1 = ) ><<ABC . ( 5 3= @@

N M M L
M N ML N NM L

M M P P LN MN
= *''
M

H ' DEF DEF

N &

P 3 DEF
P
) ∼
Q R

(
C

L
L MNMN L L
ABC ABC

L P
Z Z Z Z Z
!& ' % ' ! ' !' * !# !
∼
* 2 * * *''** 1 ?3 ( 5 ) (5
*# & ! %"& )
N L NL $ % ! %"& ! P M

DEF
∈
M MN L L M P

!& ' % ' ! %" $ % ! %
Z

"& $$ ' ! )

!& ' % ' ! %" $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
' ! ' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
B B B

→ −
→ −
→

→ −→ −→
2 * *''* ? ? ( < * ( 5 5 5 5*>' 1 @@

' ! % ' ! ! % %(! $$ )
N L NL % # ! P M L L
<?
L

P L L
7→
P N M

→

' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' +
→
)
−
→ −
!& →' %→
' ! ! "(! ! ! % %(! $$ $ !" %
B B B
!(' % + !"' +

−→

−→

→

→
' ! )
!& ' % ' ! ! % # ! $$ $ !" % !(' % +
B B B
!"' +

← ←− ←− ←
' ! )
7

( * ? 1 * 5? *''3 3 1 ( ? ' 5@
! N N L N LM L NL $ !%&

) 5 ?( 1 2 ( 3 * ' *''( ?1 1
' ( ! %* ! +(%' ! MN L M P M

NL N L P M NL M
NMN
0 ) 15 <? )1 *''* ( * *''( 5*'' ( 5 *''*''

P L N P L NL
→ %&' → →
( ! %*→! +(%' ! L N
> * ( ( 3 ( 15 *'') - *''* ( 5 * 5 5*''*' 5 ** 1@

NL N L M MN L N
MN P L L L L
' 5 ) * 3 *'' 3 *'' *''* *'') 55 15' (@5

ML N N M

P MN L L L N M M
M L O N P L N M
*'' * 5 G ) *'' ( ' ( *''*
M ML Z
M L O M
- *''*DEF
L P MN MN L L L Q
M

? 1 *'' ' ( ' 1 1 1) ) ' 1 ?' 1 ) @

M N
? 11 1 *'' B 1 B?( 3 % 7 I B(*. 3 5) ' >(5 *@@

*'' 2 '*
P M N N

N
P M NL
8 ( ' 1 ( 3 ' ( 1
N L ! LM →L L → → → NLL M NL
M L
→ M → M
B B B DEF
→ NL
DEF DEF

→ → → → g →

!& ' % ' ! g )
∼

' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' + % %( $$

) !& ' % ' ! ! % %(! $$
B B B
"→
%"'→( '→ (%→' ! % $ !" % !(' % + !"'
DEF DEF DEF

→

DEF DEF DEF

→

→

→

→

→ →
B B B
→

← ← ← ←

← ← ← ←
)!*($ (%& "! $ % ) & &"% )
- *'' 5 3 ? )*'' ' ) ?><<1 . ) ><< 2. @@

M N L

' ( (* * (
NL L M M L

# "

Z
P M LN N M N

ABC
! % %(! $$ # % ' # %"' ! ' ! % $ !" % !(' % + !"'

→ ⊗ → → − →
7I
B DEF
% ←

! ' !# #

← ← − ←
) ' ' ! % $ !" % !(' % + !"' " %$
%Z' # %"' ! % & ! %"& % * !# ! *#
B ABCDEF
' " $

∼ ⊗ ⊕ −
)') J 3* ' ( 1 1 .' =

∼ ⊕ −
!& * ' % +"' (!) LMM M NL M
MN
!
↓

↓
↓
!

→ −→ −→ − →

↓ ↓ ↓

( -1 *'' 5 (* (3 5 ' > * ' '? * 5

→ − −→ − −→ − →
↓ ↓ ↓
' *3 3 * ' ( 1 1

M M N N P
Z
L MN L P M L
!
MNL L
−
M NL M
; 3 * ) '5 3( 5 ' 1 ( 1 1 1 . '3 = ) 5 '3 ) *'' (*. * @

⊗ ⊗
→ ⊗
⊗ −→ − ⊗ → −→
L L M NL M MN
' (. ' )*'' ' ). ' *' *3 3 3* ' ( <1 ? 1 @

M NL M NL P
ML M N L L M
N L L M L P L M NL M
→
H ' ' ( ( 1? ' ( 5 5? ( 3 ?( 1 < ? 3@
⊗ →

⊗ →

∗⊗ → − ⊗ → − ⊗ →

M MN MN NL L N
*3 3 * ' ((*. 1 1 > * ' @

M NL M N P M L
NL N -
C
⊗ →
L ⊗ M NL M →
→
M

⊗

⊗ →

( 1C ABC ' ) 1)*; 3 5@

∗ ⊗ → − ⊗ −→

⊗
− ⊗ →

/
' ( 1 1

⊗ ⊗
/
⊗ ∗⊗
P ⊗ P M L
− ⊗ −→ − ⊗
M NL M
−
5 5 5 5) ( ? 1 3 '( *35 *'' 3 * ' ( 1 1

→ − → − → − →
N M MN N
DEF

Z M
B
LL L − M −NL

← ← ← − ←
76
'&5 8 5 5 ' 3 1 ' 3 (* > 1. 3) *' ( (*1
ML M N P M NL M LM
< ? @@
? ! ! !( 5 !) 4 * 5 ' 4 31 5 '
M O M NL M

P
L N N M M L
⊗ → P M M <( ? @
1 1

M →
⊗
⊗

P L M NL
!

'' 55 5 ' ) 1)* *'' ( ) * '1 ? . @

→ −→ −→ − →
LM M P M L MN L M
LM L P − M →
L

3(*. 1 * . ) ) < '? ) ' *3 ' ) 1)*@

⊗
⊗ −→ ⊗ → ⊗
L L ML P L
'3 %
∗ ⊗
! . ) . ' =
(
L L →N L
.*
P M
⊗ M L P
! ! )

! ! !
L
!) !
M P ⊗ N P P P
? % 7 ' 1 3 ' ( 1 (*
5
P ⊗

LM M M NL M M
⊗

B

"

Q R
' !
C

∼ ⊗

( 3 3 3 ( *''?ABC <DEF? ' 1? 1 5 (*

∼ )

N M NL M M
DEF DEF DEF

ML N L
ABC ABC ABC

∼ ⊕
⊕
(*

? 5 < ?) 3 = = *''

⊕ ∼ ⊕
M M MN L N M
DEF DEF DEF DEF

M
Y Y Y
ABC ABC ABC ABC
⊕

⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕
!& ' % ' ! %"
%
Z ∼ Z ⊕
! !
& ! % $$ ' ! ∼ )
! !
Z Z

! ! "' +
& ! % % $$ ) Z!& Z' ⊕ ! ! !
% ' !

!
%
Z Z ⊕
∼

−
)

% ' % * ) ) " ! %$ !" % "' (% ! *

!$ % % % $$ !# ! ! & !!# ! ! % ! "+ & ! #

% (% " + & ! %' !()

"' + & ! % % "# $ + % & !#
$ %& " %$ % ( !% !' ! % %) !& ' % ' !
%%

%" !' ! → %(!% ' ! !' ! % %
'∗
! % %(!%)
→
∗
→

(%# *"% $ % + $
( 59? ) *1 ' 3 ( ) * ( ) ? 5 ? (5?*''5' ? 13 @
M MNMNL L MN L M P
L L L
? ) )* ><< . ? 5 4 ) 3 * ( 3 ) ( 5 @
NL L L LMM N
L L LL N N
Z
( ' (
M
? 5
L
L M MNMNL

L L M N Z L

"' + $ "%( !# !!! * % $ !* (! +
% %( $$ )
" & % $"' ' ! )

C
" * # &' ! ' !
( %" ! %' %# !

-= *'' (' 3 ? . '' ) ,! !

∼

%" %! %' %# !)
−→
×
,! ( 5 )

! 1
!& * ' % +"' (!) L MM P P
* 1
P
* ? 8
P M M
( 5 5 )5><< .1 ) ><<1) .,>! =,( *= ,'! ), . ' > ' * ) = !@@
∈

L − ! LM MN L N N M L
/
− N M L N M MN P L N

N M M L M MN
*5? L1 (* 3 *3,! ,) (; ><<,! . , >,! , *, ? (* * 5 1 1

± /
M LMNL P ± LN P L M M LM
± − /
NL/ P LN
/ LN
± /
!
N ± M L P L / ± MN M
(8. 5 ' @ ')
MN M M P M P ± P P M NL
N M NM M ML

±
3$&"'"!"" $#" '%)%%%,&> '% 4# #2 2 $%)) / 4% !C,%"

!'%" )%%%,&>" )%*% &9!&% 0 / &9!&% %" )%%%,&>"

!"# $#" '%)%%%,&>") 2 % %)9 #" $& %')(" *" "%&")( % $#" '%5

)%%%,&>6 "&( '! !'6 )%%%,&>- 2

%
) ><< . ' ) ,( 5 > ' * (? *'' )) ><< . (*= ( 3 ,

M M M −

L L P N N M
LN MNL M P P
0? 3 '1 3 = ( , ' .( ) ? = '? )) *@
± N
N M L M MN P
( ! 1) , ( ) ( >' ) * !

M L P P M M N L L
,
P L L P L NM M M
* C
6
NL
*
M LMNL M P M
5 ' ? 1 ? ) * ' ( ? 5 @
P ∼ P L M P

∼
−→ ×

3 ) ) . ) < !1 > . ) (? ? ' 1 ) )
N L M N L
M LMM L P N

L NL # %' +
? 5%=! '% ) 3 5) ? )) * . ) ! . ' ( ? . @

# & ""!# L Z M NL L ML L
P P
L NL M N L
∈Z
!
·
M LMM L P N L
? 5 ?3 ?3 (G*5 )( ><< . 1 ) ' (( ' 1?* @

Z
NM M MN M LMNL M L L NL
# %' + # & ""!# L L LMM M N L
L L N
L M

Z
L

!& ' % ' ! %" * # &' !% ! %' %# !%
5 '
( % ? )

# !!! * % ' ! ' (% % % * ) ) ") !"' ' " (%
# $ ) %"' (% * %"+ * # &' !"' + # !!! *
%! ! %' %# !"' +
(
−
()? 13
M N L M L ML L
C * *
L L P
( M
∼
1 ' *) . '1 G*' ( ( 1 ) ( 8 *@@

M
−→
×
) (
1 == *'' = 1
MN P M M M − L P L
' ( 5 5 3 ) )) @
N N L N M L L LMM N M
L M L P L N L M
?5 *& 1 ) > ? ) * *'' ' ( <* ( ' (> 1 )> @

M L NL M N L
L N L L LMM
( *'' ? 5 (
? ?
) * + 3 5? 1 5( 5 ) ' * @@
N → P L
Z
M
N P P
∈Z
P L NL "' %$ %+ L M M N
3 '( 1

L ∗
L P L
P LL "' %$ %+ $ ! # !

' 3

) ) 3 %' ' (? 3) '*38 >) ? ) ) ' (' ( 1@
M NNL M
L M L L N M L L P N M
' (
5( 1 ) *'' ? 5 ) ( 15 ? <**'' @@
N LM L M

M

M N L M L P L
LMM L

' ( 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' (*

L L LMML → N N

M M Z

Z
"' + .

. !# !# ! *#
!( %"' %"' (%
∗ →
# (& % %# ) ! %" $ "%( !# !!
! * % . ! %' %# ! %! &
. "(* % ' !
& ! %' !(
%" ! ! %! %' %# ! ' ! ∗ & !

Z) Z
' . )1 3 - *''. ) <* ( 3 . )51 35 .) 5)5 ' > . *<*(5 ( 5 3@5@

%' !(
∗
Z
L . M L P ML
!& * ' % +"' (!)
N P N
. L L N M
1 .<*) ( 1 .' ) ( ' ( 8 ? 1) ( 5) ><< . * @
.
L L M P N M L L

L L . M M N L .

P L L N

Z
"

. ! % % %& !' ! !! %
$ % ( !! !' ! % → . $ # $ "%( !# !!! * %

5 5 ( ) -' ? . < ? ' > * ' ( @

→ "(* % ' !
. ! %' %# ! %! & . )

!& * ' % +"' (!) . ML
N M N N ∗ P
→

∗

∗ ∗
∗

!$ !"' (# !' ! % !' ! % %

→
!' ! %% ( $ !" % "' (!#
("% → ) !& ' % ' ! × { } "$ ! +*
× { } !# !
* *#
"' ! & )
$" ) % " ')*)$)'&&

)') ' ) '38><<.). 1( )
M L M L M ' )5 5 ?5'( () ' *)) * @
L LL M L
( 5 *''3 1
@ ?*' 1?*5)). ' ) @
ML P L MN N M M N P
) = '(5 ) 5 ?* ) ( ? 33
M L N M P M

M P N Z
MN L L P L
L M N ∗
3
N L L MN MN M L
M MN L N M P M ' ) 1)*
,
) 3 ' )) ) H ' 1 1 5 ? *1L5. 35 <)
MN N L P 3 @
(3 ? % ' ) ?=( *=? ) ) @ @1
MN M MN L P L L L M
M . M MN NM L M P L L )@

!

L −
MM NM N

− $ − "(! ! %

%( $$ ! * % & !' ! !6 ! ' " (! (* #
! ! !* !#
K 5 . '1
5( 5
(@ ) 3 ) )* . ' > ! ! ! (! ? 3 !( ' (1 @
"!!' (%' "' ( " # % # & %' & # )
!& * ' % +"' (!) L ! ! − L ML
N M N N M ∈ ∼
! 4 3 5 ' (' 5 51 * 1 ' *'' !

− P

∈ P ! NL P
{ }
− L M L −

! !
L M NL M L .
! !

' ) ? 3 ! ! '

% > *
. . .
. → → →

L NL P ∼ .

∼

. ∼

' (* ? ' ?L ' 13( ' )( 1 1 @

.

6
− − − −
−

∼ ∼ L
M L L M NL
M L→ − − − −
L N L

↓

→ → → − −
→ − →

↓

−
) 1 )' (- *''*

&1 5 5 ) ) ) ' ? . 5 ? @@
↓

−
−
1C ) ') ') (1)**''* (> < ? ( 5 C 5

L M L
→ −
L N L M LMML
N MN M M
C & C( 3 C ' *3
NL L
P M M 0 P
P

0 MNN LL − M P
&?* * * ) ) J(*

? **1

∼
− −
−
. '1 H' *( 5 * 1 <* ( 1 )

L
−
M M L M
→ −
L MN MN L LMM L M
) *3
P ∈MLN M L L LMM

L N
P − O L M L − P

M
− @
− LN MN

LN M
7
' 3 ) 5 ) ) (*.

= )@

L −
− − P NL LL
J- (* ? 3 5 3 >
→ −
M M L
) ><< . 3
LN MN M P
5
*3 ) 3 ' ' 38 5 ' 1 ' ?(* ) * = ( * = ' @
M

L
N M M LL N
M L N M M M M Z
3 = - *'' - * 3 ' > *? 8 5 @

O L MN L N M L N
N M
N M P L M N

M

' 3 =1 7 @* 1 ) ' 1?*() 5 *3 ( ) ' )' ( (5 3 5 ) @

Z Z Z
!& * ' % +"' (!) OM M ML L MLN
M
L O L M L M N M

N

( 1 .* @ ' ) 1)*) @) ) 5)( 5 %@) 5 )( ) = ( ' ( ) 1)*(

Z −→ Z −→ Z →
M P M L L N L P
P M
' 38 5 '*'' ) '><< .
N L L L
M N L
N
N 3. 5 5 3
L L N NL P

5 < *3) 1 ). )) ) ' ') ? ( = % ,*''* %@ ( ) =@

M LL
Z
M M L N P L
? 1 7> @* * 1 )' ? ) 1 3 *)) ? 5. <) *3) 3 J @@
N L L P L L L L M L
P
L P N P L L M
5 ? 3 83 . ) ( * ?*3)*% 8>? ) . ) %? , (3 ) *% 7 .4 ') 1@

L L P M NL M M L M L LMM
ML L L P N L M M

M P L P L L M P MN MN P
* 1)
L L M ML
L
J %, ? . )
M L M

J %7 ? . ) ( *3)
M L M L
J % ? . ) * 1)
M L M L

)
; ' ) ( 5 3
5) 3 =

Z − ⊕ Z Z Z
(
!& * ' % +"' (!) M N M

N

) ( )1 = ( . .*- *''*% ) )' () 1)*( )' (385 %@ ( 5

@
Z −→ Z −→ Z →
M MNL P
P M L L L
*'' ' (8 % > % % * 4 (' * <1 ) ?% 1 ' ' (@

L N N L NL P M

L L NL
P Z

M
P P

L

, , , , , , ,
, , >) *3 , ,
−

− − −
, , , B > *< ) *'' ? @
MN
NNL P P P
< * ?* * ?*@

∈ L L −

L M L

Z P L L

−
− L
≡
Z − ⊕Z

M Z − −
Z
/
5 *'' ) ><< .

)) ' ( (* '
N
P L N P

Z
) ><<5 *. ) ;' ) ?1)*. ) . '

M
L P L
%98(/ * > ? *''*

L P L L M L N
L *= @
%/
P MZ
3
L L ML
L M L P L

ML P L NL
J %/ ? . ) * ) ;
M L M L L

" ' % $$ !# ! ! * # &' (# %

$ !(% !"' % " & ! %' # )
Z 6
" ' % $$ & !!# ! ! * # &' (# %

$ !(% !"' % " & ! %' # )
Z
"' + ' % ! " & # ' )%) # % !% ' % ! !
% !% "' ' ! ( ! % ! ( " % ! " & # ) & ! ( !
R
# ( ""# !' # ) !& ' % ' ! ∼
!$ ' % %!# %' %"& ! * \% ' ! $$ )

Z

7

C

(
Z

$

( !"' + "

)) ) ) ( H 3 1 ? ( %,/1 5 4*)5 * *5 * 5.'@) . ' 1) ( 5

L
!& * ' % +"' (!)
L C
M
L L M
LM P M L
ML M
P
' () ' 1 ) * 5. '5 1 ? 5 ) ' ) ) 3
LC \C −
MN .
N M M CL
M P M C ML M M P L N LM
MNL
+ ' ) ' )( ( 5 3 5 ) 3 =
M LM L L M L
M N M ML
N
' @
C
.- '*'' ) . ' ) ' ) ' ( *''

Z→ →Z→ →

→ →Z→ →Z→

L ML MN L L M L

6

−

( (
*) * * @) ' ) ) @

R

$

$ ,
.
R

Z

$
)+ 1 5 5 3 < 1 %, = 4 5( '. '

38 @

)
R Z Z 6 6
!& * ' % +"' (!) L L L M ML M
L M LM R
P M L
R

< ?? 5 . ' ' ( 38% %
% >' *38 3

L\ RM M − M L L
Z 6
−
L 6
L L
−
% % ' 38' 38
+ ' ) ' ( ) ( 5 3 5 ) 3 =

→ −
N N
M N M
N
N

R

-
-

' 38 - (
L
×
Z −→ Z −→ Z −→ Z →

N
-
×
×
→ Z −→ Z −→ Z →
( 1 Z −→ Z −→ Z →
×
×
→ Z −→ Z −→ Z →

! NL P
( 5

( 5 381 = =
*3 (5=

( 38
P

P

Z

R Z
5 ) ><< . 3 <? *
N ML M L



N
NM L N
Z
" ' % $$ !# ! ! # % !! ' ! " & !

%' #

Z
)
" ' % $$ & !!# ! ! " & ! %'

R
# )
Z
(% ' % $ # % %"' (%# !! & !!
# % !!

& !# $ %& " " # % # !"' !(!# )
∨
I
%#" "!" " "%& & & )*)! & * ( %

!"
(' 3 ? ) *
( * 5
@ ? ') ) ?( ?) ) 5 ) 3) (* )
@@ ?
P L NL L
N L M M L L L L P
) ) ( * ? ) 5 ) 5) ? *( (? ?3 31 !
L L
L L M N L L−
! ! (' 1 ' ( ) 3 5 ! ( 3)' *( )) )' ('! @

MN MN ! N MN L L
∗ P L P - P L
1 3 ') ) ! 1 ! )? 3 ( 5 ! ( 5

∩ /∗ ∅ 6
LMN ML M L M N L
!
∗
LL P ∗ NL L P M

−

L

H ) *''. ' )(' * 3 *''. ) ><< . ) 1. 5 5 ( 5 ((. 5@

'
1
NL L
? (
M
NL L M
P − P L N N M L
P
∗
) *3 ( 5 . ' ! ! !! ' ( 1 =

N LN LMM LN L M
O L M L P , P ∗ %& "

,!! !!
$ % %"% %
! ,! ,! !
'4 ** 5.* (*' * ) ?3 ?5 = ?)* 3 1 ?1 .8 ' 3' ?) 1' *(@1
X X X X
hh ∗ ii / /
L L ∗ M P
L P M L O L MN N N
. 3 ' . *= 0= ' )( ? ' '( )5 * 5@=@

?( > *
L L
5. 5 ) ( ' )
M 0 L M
L L L M ML L
?? ) * *
@ * ) )* 4 ) ) ) ?*
LMM MN NM M MN 0 P M L
N M L MLN M
L L L
' 1 () ' 3 5 ' 1

L ∗ − ∗
! ML M M @
L

2 ) 3 ? 5 . ) ,!?*! ) !

× − →
'* ( ' 1 )3 ) > ( ) '( ) '3 5 3> =5. ' ? . ) 4 ' ! 1

P LMM L ∗ P L LMM
L P P ∗
∈ ∈ −
L M M N
.) ' ( 5 = 3 ) )
N P M M LNM N L

!
%
N P MLN M LMM

! % !
hh

"' + / "# $ %& " *# % !"' %
∗
/ ii − hh ∗/ ii

−
) !
. J! #)$!"# ' $%!%*"!0% %&"&% ,># . − / 2 2 2 / ' − 2

6
5= 1 ! > 3 ( ! * 5 ( 3 1) % ( 5)! ( = 3 @
!& * ' % +"' (!) NM P NL N L
M LN MNL L L P L /

!! ! ! % & 8 5 5 1 ) ) ? ) = (5
L ∗
∗ / N
hhML M

ii hh± / ∗/ ii ±

M P M L L
∗
hh / ii
N / N
.. * 1? ! ) - ) L - ?= () ) ! L = (* ! - @
hh ±
∗ N ∗ ii ±
/
M

N / P .

N ∗ P
- -! - -
L L P M / N N P MN MN
L L ML
* . ?
P L L P M ∗ N N ∗ P
?5L 1 ? - )( - .. .5 ?> ' ? ( 5 ? ) 3- @@

MN MN L − L− ML
- − 0
P P
− 0
P
− 0
P .
− 0
/
P
P P L / O M L M N M
%
0 0 0
N − L M M L P
L N L L MN

P P P P
P P LN − − −
0? (* ) )
−
1 ' ( 5 ) ) )
. − −
0 ' 1?*5 ) 3 ? 5 . ' ,!! ' @

M M P L L M
0

P

1. '1 ' ,! ! *H3 . '3) ? 5 ) ? '= ' @
hh ii hh 0 ii ±hh 0
M L ∗ P Pii M
MLN P ∗ M
L M MLN
= .
' ,!! '
% 1) . '1 ( 5
) % @
M P ∗ ∗ L N L ML

P ∗ P L
! ,!
MNL M ∗
M MN P M MLN − P − −
−
! ! ,! ! ! !
− ∗ P
h i
∗
'0 3 5 ? )3 5 ) .) '1. ' * * ( ( . ' 4 8 ( ( ) *

X X X
∗
h − i hh ii
MNL P L − L L LN M
M M L L M MN
%
MN L L

3. 1' . )? * ' '< ? '5 5 5 5) ). .'1)

@ = .. ' 3) .' ? 3( @@@

h −
− . i h − − . i hh − . ii − hh − . ii
M MLN M − P N LMM P L L
P M MLN M ±P L L L L !
5 *''
@ )*''*><<= ).. ' (*. *. 5= ?? < 1? 5 *''* @
NL P MLMNL N L ML
MN N ∗

− L −
'? >5 * ( 5 ?' )( * 1 ( ) ' 5? 3 1 5 ' (* * ' *3 1@

N

L L M
? 9 <( ?) ? (* * (
Z
P L P L
L M M

∼ −

L L M Z N
Z

/

"' +

* # &' !% ! %' %# !% # !!! * % ' ( $
$ & !# # ' ' ( !! ""! ' ( !! & ! + " % % ) !

∼ )

−
"' + * # &' !% # !!! * %) !

∼ −
)
Z Z

" * # &' !% ! %' %# !% # !
!! * % ' ( $$ %& !' ! !! $ ! ' !

∼ )
( *''* ? * >

" − * # &' !% # !!! * % '!
? ) 3 ' 5()

∼ )

Z Z

−
P L NL L L N

N
Z
1 * )

P L NL & % %#
Z
, ,
NMN M L L "' + *
# &' !% ! %' %# !% # !!! * %
1?*5 ? < ? * ) < * * 1 = ) ><@

% & ) ∼!&Z '
% ⊕
% ' !

∼ Z ⊕
<) . 0 '
M
−
( ) ?? 1 (*
−

*''
∼ .
− −
L L N ML
N P L L M MNMNL
)∼ −

L
" * # &' !% "(* !% # !!! * %
' ( $$ & !# # ' ' ( !! ""! ' ( !! & ! + "

% % ' !
∼
( ! %' %# !!

%! %' %# !!

−
%#

"
!% "(*

% # %%' & % %"
Z !%

* # &' !% ! %' %# !% # !!! * % ' ! $$
* # &' !% %! %'
# !!! * % ' ! $ ! $$ & % (
Z
- *'' '@ ( ) .' '5) ( @

−
* !# !
)
( )
Z
!& * ' % +"' (!) L L P NMN
> ' ( ) ) . ' ( % @ ( ) 1 3 5 ) @ .*
L N NL M ML
N P NMN L N NL

> * *( 5 * ? 5 ? 5 ' ) 1)* ( 5 @@

M ML M
−
L P L M L L
L ∼ P L
*L *3 ( 5 ) . ' (
L
' )* ? )
M L P NMN
M
∼

P M N
M M P N L
/%
5 *(5 *?5
L M LM ? ? 5< ? * * ? )( @@
L L
3 % 7 %,

−

∼

∼
P L L M LM L L
!

− Z

"' + * # &' !% ! %' %# !% # !!!
* %) !& ' % ' ! %" $$ % # %%' & % ' ! ("%
' ! % % # % ' & % )

!"' + % $$

"' + * # &' !% ! %' %# !% # !!!
@

* % $ # %! "' ! & !# %!# ! %& !' ! !# * # &' !
3 )5 <
# ! %' %# !# # !!! * ) !& ' % ' !
H

-? 53 ) 5 < 3 ) 5 <5? 1 < 5 << @@
M L M L ' )%) ("% )
∼

<
M L M L L L M
' 8= 5 <, 0 * )5 )8 3? 3 '' ' 5 @@
L N ML M L M L P L M
P L M L L L L ML L
5 << ( = < 8=) ( (= ( 8=3 ) = < 0 3 ) <3 ( *) @@

P L P N M M L
M M M P N L
L L M L L M M
' ( 1 ( ) ' 3 5 ( (* ' @

L M NL M

L P M
M ML M P × →
L L − M Z
MNMN

N M

"' +

* # &' !% ! %' !( !% # !!!
* %) ! ! !# !# ! *# # ! ! $ % "' (' +
( ( % % ) → Z%# %' !$ % % %'
" !# !# ! *# !# ! !* ∈! " '−! !"'
+ ! %# %' & ! % !!
4 3 5 ' ( 1 1
$ ! & )
DEF B
!& * ' % +"' (!) L M NL M
'' ) ? 3 ' ( 8 < ? * 3 1 ( * > > *''*'@

→ Z →
− Z → Z →
L NL P MN MN
DEF ' ' ( 555 5 *''( 5 ) = 3 ( 1)) 3 ( ) ( @

P M M L
Z
M L L M L P LN
)) . '1 ) * ) 5 ' ( )5
MN − Z N M NM L L P L
L MLN LMML P N
P MN MN
& 3 '> *
LMM P L L M N

P M P P

/
< . *3 5 ? )5 )( 5* (( ? * *'' ) ?* ' 5*'' ) ><@@

M L L L
N N M L N M
3
Z
L

N M L P L L

−

(
P
N N

× →
M M

!% % !% !' ! % %
K

# ! ! $ % "' (' + ( ( % % →%'
%#

!$ % % ! !* !)
5> 5 5 > ' ( @

∈
) '
−
' = ( ) ? < > ? < ?

L N M N
!& * ' % +"' (!)
MN MLMNL P MLMNL

P

N
−

' + * "

$ !"' "' (
? * ' ? * 1 ) 3 @

!

hh / ii !
# ! ! (

' & ' !
)
/
−
8 >
!& * ' % +"' (!) L M
!! 4 ( ! ! ! !

MN / P MN MN
P L
N L N P L N L
L
/
2 * 3 ?( ) ? 1 3 ( = *'' =? ) * @

/ / hh / ii / /
L L L P M L

? ( )' 3( *'' ! ) *3 ! 5
L P N MN L

P
L −M

−

− L P

/
hh / ii
1
P N L

"
"
!

'*( * 1 ?1 3%@ 1 ? ). *) * 1 ) ><< @ . 5 .)'1 () 5 ) 0

M
L NL N N
M MLN M L P
) 0 ( =) ' 3 ?5 3 ? K ) ' 1 3 ( )

L L
M M

M L ZP

L NL & ! %' !# * %$
%
' 3 (5 * 5 . '1 (? 5 )
N
M
hh ii

L L
. ' .1 ) @

N P M

LNM N L MN P M
? 3 ,@ 5 .. '1' () 5 1)*) @ 4 ( * * 1

0 hh ii
L P 0 P
L P L L M

0
− N

P L
M

L P 0

L

H5 >)*( * ( 1( 5* 3 * ') ( ' ( ' ) (8><< .* ' ? . '@
ii
0

− hh −

hh ii hh ii
M P L L L
NNL P N P L P
/,
N , H ' = ) 3 = ) ><<' ( . 5 5? . )' J 5 ? ) * ( = @@
L P L L L
(' *( *3 4 ) 1' 1)) 8 ? .) '' ) 58 )( *=? ) ' => ) % )5 '5 )= ((*@@

NL N M L LMM LL
NL L P L NL N
NL M P L NL
3? '. ' ) 8!5 ?) *3) ?1* 8= ?* 1 * 3 = )? 3? = @

L M NL N N M L
! ) ><<% . L

LMMLNL
M L N MN MN
M NM M L N L M L NL

± L L NL N

J % ' ' )8 )
M NL L M N
) * ( 1 5 >)) 3 = >( = ( ?'*= ' ) ( ( ' @

M N NNL M N P LM
L11 ) 3 = ) 5= ' ' ) 8 ) ( ' )= 1 1 ( ? @
N
L P N M M LL
N L MM M N N M N
*) )) 3? 1) ' )*= 8 ) ) 3) ') ' 3 = ))58) )5 ' ='% (I H= ( 1 0@

L L P L L LM L L M M LL L
M L MM M N M LM
M M P L NL
L
'3 ? ') 1' ( 8 '( )5()' H' ' 31?* 5 5> ) ) % I? ?? 3 5*

L L MN MN M N
M N M
! L L NM N L P L M L M P
P
NL M L P
' ; ><< 1. * ? '*. '' ) 5 8 ) ) =
ML M L L MN MN
' '( 1
M L

( * (* ' ?
L N
M M L M P L P L

× →

M L

−

5 ( )) )* )) @
k − k

N LMMLNL L M L
L
→R
/7
J %I = 1
M N M

!& ' % ' ! ) & ' % & &

! ( ' + ! %' ' ! ±" %
' ! ( $ !
×
!"+ (% "' (! )
$$ !

$ $

5 ) ( ' )) ) = < ? * ? < ? ( * *) @

L L L L L
'? 5 ? 5 41 ( ( 5 ? ) ' 5) ' > @
N N P L L L M NLL P N L N
'
L L P L
5 '
L MR
L M M MLN 1. '
(3 1 ' = ( ' ' (1 5 > *( '3 1 ' ( .1 '1?
' ' 1 ) . '1 ) . '
NMN L M
− PL
M LM P M MN P L L L P M L
−
3) .H'1' 3 3 *3'' )' ) ( '' >) * ) 5( . '1 ?5' 5 5* 55 '* .*3' )@@
P M P L M M LN
L P L N M M
M L M MN P L M MLN
5* 1 ) .' ' ) = L1 ) .= ' ) )( 5 ? ) ) ' =) 5 @
− P N M
M NM P L
L L L LM L
P L L L L M N
43 ) ' ) . ' ? ' ) ) . ' ) ' )
L M ML P L N L
@@
MNL L L NL & ! %$# " & !# $ &' # !"' %#
( 8 ) . '1 ) ' )
M P LL
' ) ') 5 ' 1 *'' ( @ > * ' 1 ) .

M L M
L M L M M
M L M M & !!# ! !
< ? ? 5 * ? < ? ? 5 ' *3* *? @

" & !# $ &' # !"' %# M
L NMN
L P ∗ L
M L N
∼ − ∗
/
) . '' 5 ' 1 ' 1 ) . ' . '1 ; ( @

' 5 = .) '. ') . 4'1' * 1 ' *3 ' 1*3 3 5 3 1L 1L3 3 @
L M M MLN
MLN P LM M P
− L M
' ) ) ( ,! =! .' '') 2?= ( 1 ''* (*38

@ 5 ))=><<3 '. ) * ) @@@
MN NM L M P
MN NM P LM M M
MN P P P L N M M MN P N
= ') 1 ) 3' * 3 4 ) (. ' ? = @
L M M N M P ML
M MN M L L NL
' ) ? )= *(5 = . '1 ?* ) ><<) ' .) ' ( 5
%$# " * # &' # !"' %# P NM M
MN P N N M N P MLN
' &? 11 3=3 '') .(' 5 (1 3)= )' . '' () ? )* * L1( )' 3 5*1 3 (' *5@
M L MN N P L
P M L M
') ) ' )= (55 5 = 5 * *1 ,!) ! 30 3 3 )' ? ) 1 5 3= @

N M L MN
NL P L L L L L L M
(5H ( =5 * ** ,! ! '= > * . '1? ) ,! ( ! 1?5' )' 5 ( 5 15

M MN P N N M P L L L M P
M M N M L M M L M MN P N
N M P P P
1 L1 ) 3 3 ' ) ' > * * 5 >) @
L NL L L M M N M
L M L M MN P L MN N
'( ' 1 . ?' ? 5 ) * * 5 ? '5 1 ' *'@ *@

NL
! M L M M
3* ?* < ?) . ' ? < ?

!# ! ! " * # &' # !"' %# M
NMN L L P ∗
L ∼ − M
L N ∗
3' 3

&= *'' ) 3 *'' 5 5 5 @@

) 3

L NL P ∗
' H'
P
P N

N ∗ M

M NLLL MLMNL L P
∼
R Z Z

R Z ∼ Z
" $& & ')*)$)'& " & $ ) ) "!

%) "+
K 5 () 5 ) *(5 1 3

)(*.3 5*3 ( 3 < ? @
( '* 3 1) )' ) 5 )
L L L NL

→
→
N P NL % * %'
? ? 5 1 @

M LMM
ML N P M
> ' * ? )3 8) 5 ) '5 ) ? ) * 9 ? (. * 3

∗
M ML M L ∈ M N P L NL
5 3 ) = ) 1) @
∗
M LMM L N L

L M N M L L M LMMN ML
M L M N L M LMM
//
*( * ?= 1 ? 3 ) ) (
L
( & ( 3 % ) % ' > 3 )* > )
L NL M LMM L
P P, P Z
$ # ' ( # P M
M LMM
) 3 ' 5() 1'
L6 ∈P N M P

Z L N
P

% $ ! ! # ' ! * # &' %"# !$ % %"%&
" & ( % * %' !# ! ! %"& & ""

%

* # &' !% ! %' %# !% # !!! * %) ! ! !
∈
) 5 ) ? ) 5 ?@
$ # ' ( !# ! ! %"& & "")
1
!& * ' % +"' (!)
?1 8 ( * ? 3 NL L NL
P
M

5 5 5 )' ( 5 ? 3 ) *) * ? ) * 5 . ' @
' ( 8 ( @ . ' - . >

MN P N LM P L NL L
NL
P MLN N N L L
'( )3) 5 5 ) ' 5 1 )* ) 1 *' * ) ?55 1 1@

N M MLN M LMML
M NL L NL
P M MN ± L L ML
M L L M NL P LMN ML M L L N N
)) ?) % 6 1 *' 1 ) 3 ) ( ) 1 ) ?. @
M L N P N L

P LMN ML M L P M
)
N N

NL N

\
4 ( % (*
M M M LMMP L
L ! M P M P
hh ii ±
hh ii hh ii
J %6 )
M M N

3 &' ( *1 . 1 3 ? 5 & '?* 1? 5 1*''( 5
M L NLM
' ) 5 )' ?* 5 ? ) * @

P M L L
hh ii

NL P L L
M L ML
R L Z M N
M
/

! $ # ' ( !# ! ! %"& & "" *
# &' !! ! %' %# !! # !!! *
% *%' " * # &' !
) * *3)' ( ) *' 1 3 )? 3) 5 (*( ) ?H 3 <)1@

%"# !$ % %"%& % " & (! )
!& * ' % +"' (!) M L P L L
N MLN M LMM L N L M
) )' ) ? 5 5 5 % %?*( 5 7%@ - *''3 )
M L N N
L L L L M

) - @
P

L P
M LMM −

P

3 ) ) , , (
, , ) '

M LMM

N M L

*(1) ( ? )3 (1

L L
H& , , %

LMM N L L P L

J % % ; < *3)
M N L M M L
5 ) ( * ? )' * = ' ) ' (5 ) 1 ( *< ? @
L L ML M L M N L N
? * ) 1 ) ( 1 ) ( * ?2 ( *= 3 @
N M

P L NL "& ( %# % N N P
L = )* 3 (1 8 ) ? ? ? ( 1 )) 3 % %% 3)*( (L< 5 3 1?. 1@

→
LMM L MM N N N L
M P L L NL L M M NL N LL LM L
NLL ! L L N N NL
' ?* 1 1 ,/'' (*3 3) 5 ? ? 3)<? )? ( 5 ) 1?) =*3( ' 5

N L LM MM L P N L
MLNL M N P L N M M
NL L ◦ L L N NL L M L M ML
* ( ) 5 5 , % 1 ' ) ) * ( 3)
N L L M M NL L
M L M N N
3 ) *3 ? ) K' )( (5 ) 15) ' '1 '3 ( 5 3 3) 5 )') )) *@

M NL LMN ML M L N N P
M NL L N N N M LMM
N L M N L LN NL M
±
NL L L N P M LMM

/I
J % %% ) *3
M ! NL L
J % % - 3 1 . )
M M N
LN ? ( * % % 3> ) * )) *3 5 (* @

. M M M NL L M
L − MN

± L M LMM

→
− ± −−→ ±
0 '> *1?*51> , , )' ( )' 1 >, ) *3 , *'' ( (1

. .

−→ ± − . −→ ± − .
M

M L N L P M M NL N
H& , 2
( 3 '
N M N
*3
H&
L > '

P
N M
N

&' . ' ? 5 ' 1 ) ( )

,
±
P
±
L
3 > * ' ( 1 ' *3 1 >
−→ −→ . −→
± . ± N L N L
H& H&
−→
M L . M NL

= ( > , , '

± ±
M M
N P

/6

H& ? 3 % ' 3>

P MLN ** ' *3* > < '? ( ) @
(5) > ' ( ' ') ( 5 >)
N L± L P M MN

P
±
L

→
N
& ?> ) ' <? ' ( 5 >

,

N P MLN
∗ ML
→ L M N
M
L N − MLN
,

+$"!) ! "!& &

* 1 ) 3 ' ?. 1 3 ) ' ) ?
M M L M L M

% !(! &' % "' & !
% ,
L NL M
,- , ,
( ,! ) 3 @ = ' ) − −

−

MN M MN N

"' + % ' ( $$
0? 3 - ' ( 1 %
%& !' ! !! $ ! ) !

− − −

!& * ' % +"' (!)
!
M M NL M
(* 3 , > *

→ −→ −→ − →
% %
M P
−
%
X X
− − −
%
X
− −
X
−
' ) 1)*

M

% !( &' % "' & !# !' !$ %"& & ( ( %'

%
"# $ + & !# $ %& "!( ! & !( )
)

% %

( $ % ' !#

− $ ' !#

%
( $

% ' !#

%

R $ ' !#
!

)
C
"' + & ! % "# $ + & !# $ %& " $ !

& ' (# $ ! & !# $ %& "#
) !& ' % ' !

− ∩

(# "$ !"! # %$ !" % "' (% # $ ! " ' !# & ! %"' ( "# $ %&
"!( ( ' & !# $ %& " " $ !# ! + $ !" % !(' % + !"' %
+%' ! ")
"' + & ! % "# $ + & !# $ %& " $ !& ' $ ! & !#

! ! ! ! !

$ %& "#
) ) ) ) !& ' % ' !

X X X
− ∩ / −

∩ / ∩
/ /

→

"' +

"' +

& ! % % "# $ + % & !# $ %& "
"' !% & ' %) !& ' % ' !

)

& ! % % "# $ + % & !# $ %& " )

!& ' % ' ! )
×

"' +
& ! % "# $ + & !# $ %& "

%$ % (!% !' ! % % & !' ! !! !' ! %
B 5 ? ) *
% →

' ! %"' (% !) !& ' % ' ! %"
6≡
? 5 > = ) ) ' @
◦ ◦
| {z }
' ! !' ! % % # %%' %$ ! ( ' ! &)

( )5 1 3' 5 ) ?) * ( ) = 3)3 ) ( * () @

L L NL LL M L
LM N LM L M L MN M L
)*
P *3 ' *. 1 1 ) '3 ) 1 )> * = )1> =@
N M NL M L ! M
' L NL N M N LL
( *= ' (
M
) ? (* * ( 5
M L ML NNL M

N N L M N
% $ ! ! # ' ! * # &' !% # !!! * % '
%
!( !) ! " %"' (%' & !% (%&' ! !% $ ! % !"!
# ' ! & # & !' ! !! " ' %' "# $ %& "!( '
) 1 ' (*).1 ' ) ? '* ' = (

> % @ ? ( '@
$ # %' # % !! "# $ %& " # %%' %& " )
−
M L L NL L
!& * ' % +"' (!)
N L M MNL
L L
−
%
J % %, ) '5
M M N
? )
@ 3)1L* (
*(*5 = .(5 ('3)5 ) *(*. ? = (5 '
) @@
MNL L N M MN L M
N M N P L L N M MN

? ) > ) % %,. ' 5 ( '5 ) ' )? ?

' % ,
L M M L M N
M N M MN L M P
L L M
) ' ( (
O MM L L M ML L M M
% %% %
N N P

3) %
− −
0 () )
| {z }

M L M LN

.
"
.
−
* # &' !% # !!! * % ' !
( < ?3 *&( ( () )? ? 1 1 > ' *3 1* ' 1 1''* ? 1@@

)

!& * ' % +"' (!) L L MN N
N LM L L MN M
4 ( '> *
L

.

Z ∼ . −

.
MN P M
P Z
- % - % %
.
L
.
Z −

.

.
.
X X
%

− − − −
. −

- X

− − .

−

B

"

)
* # &' !% # !!! * % '!
≡ Z

*
!& * ' % +"' (!)* 1 4 ( '> @
M

L

P
- % - % %
Z
−
X X

- % B
− − − −
−

−
X

− − ≡

" * # &' !% # !!! * % ( %' " & %#
H* * * 1 L1 ?*3 ' *3
& !# $ &' !! # !!! * . '! ' !% " !)

L 3
L
4
!& * ' % +"' (!)

LMM M L P
?' 5 ) * ) )? = ) 8 ) &(' *3 5 ? ( *= >)?5 5@@
L L
L . P L M N

. LMM

5 ' ' ) . 1 ) ' ) '? () ' )' ( >1
N
. M L N
N
. N
M M L M M M

B H
NM M M P L N
P L L L ! NL P

.

.

≡
!!! *

% ( ' " & # & !#
R C
) 1' 5)) (*= 3 * ? ( ? 55 > ' 5 5 5 ') 1?5 @

$ &' # !!! * )
L P L
.
. N M L
R C
L L P L P NM

NL M M N
* # &' !% # !!! * %

"' +

& (! %* %$ ! ( ' ! %& ' )%)
("%
) 6 ∈
) !
→
& & !# $ &' !! #

!!!
J <) '
*
%
!& * ' % +"' (!) LMM L MLMN
0 1 . 5 3) ' ( <= L3 )* ') > * ) ?) ( *=@

.

× ∼
N N P N . M
' *L % ( 1
. .
? )@
M L L P M N
LN . . ! NL P . L M L
×{ }
,
(*0 .- ? ? ' ( = 3 ) -
N N L
.
. M M 55
- -
R C
M L

. − − .
!

.

− − .

!& ' % ' ! ! %' & ( *

# &' !! # !!! * ( %' " & %# & !# $ &' !! # !!! * )

( %' "

" * # &' !% # !!! * %
& %# & !# $ &' !! # !!! * ' ! *# % !"' + $ !"' "' (
% / 3 % / 7 38

' )

B
Z

!& * ' % +"' (!) ! LM

Z

≡
P L M LM M

& ! % ' ! $ !" % !(' % + !"' + (%&' !
! ! ! !
$ !"' "' (
% !

→ . −−−→ −→ →

−
!& ' % ' ! P )
−
!& ' % ' ! % !( &' % "' & !$ ! %

'(* ) ?) '3 ( 1 ' . 1 ) ' ) '() @@

!! * %$ % ( ( )
M M L MP L
M P % !( &' % "' & $ M
L

( * 5 ) ><< . ! ) '

% ! X
−

M M L N

∗ "' +

!& ' % ' !

−
%(& !( & %' ! & !# $ %& "
)
& !' ! !! % * # &' !% # !!! * %) ""# !' #
% ! !
| ≈ "# #
+' % |!(
! ! - -

XX
/−
./
! ! !
/
% / & ! %"' (! $ ! ! % $ %$ % %"%& " * # &

' % *# % !"' % - ) ' # %' # ' !
!% & ! %"' (! %$ ! ! % $ %$ % /%"%& / "

' ! (!%
% *# % !"' ) !& ' % ' !

%
% !( &' % "' & # !!! * ) −

7

)&') >

L *= M
)
( ?? )( ' ( 3 %
N LL M )*? ?? (? 3 % / ) ( ' ? 5 1
L L NL
N L NL LL L
> H 1*()= ) 53 )*) &( B%* ?5 ))*= ' ? 5? (55* 5 5 @@

N L NL LL N N LM L M

M MN N L L MN L
?3) 3 (*3) 3 1

N LL M L N N M LM
? 1 ' ('
L N M O L
NL ' " ! # + # P M P L
N L
R N
' ('= * 3) = ( ' ( 5 1@
L MLMN N
∈
∈
P M P
MLMNL N L MN L L L LML
L

N M L ML L N N
R R
!& ' % ' ! " ! ' ! %& $ % %"% % ' "
! # + ! ( ! % !! "(* !! # !!! * " ! # + # $ !
1 @
$ !"' "' (!# % * ( "' !' ( ! ! # + !! $ ! $ !"'
"' () " ' ! " ! ( ! ' ! ( ! % % * ( '

LML )
!& ' % ' ! %" * # &' !! # !!! * "

%"' (%' ' " ! # + !% ( ! % % ' ! " ! ' !)

!& ' % ' ! %" * # &' !! # !!! *

" %"' (%' ' " ! # + !% ( ! % % ' ! )

!
"' + * # &' !% # !!! * % & !' !
!! " %"' (%' ' " ! # + !% ( ! % %) !& ' % ' ! %"
'! ("% % ' )
6
")!"* " " ) %" )# & %)+ ) "
* '1 ) 3 ' 5 . 50 1(*.5 ) ' ) '

| | |
)FC 3 '

| →

∗

| | R ' > *5 ? 3 1 (

| | R
- ) % ' FC ) 5? - (
→

" !# % %

P∗

' > * FC - %

> − ∗

∗ R → R

%

∗

" & !# $ %& " & % !' !"' % + ! & !
%' !( '! !! %$ % ( !! !' ! %
R
)
| | → | |
)

"
!

(' 3
"' + & ! % "# $ + & !# $ %& ") " ' !
% % 6
( = ' 3( ) ?(4 ( ?) ' )( )(* ' ) (* (3 5 ') @@

!' ! # %%' %$ ! ( ' ! &)
→
!& * ' % +"' (!)

L 3) ( ' ( ?( '5 ) (*0? > '3 ?. (1 1L1 5(* '' 3 )@1@

0

∈ | |
0

. 5 ' 5) 5( 45 ) ? ' 3) ( ) ? 1 *
00

0 00

→ 0

00 00
K <L . ( ( 35 (= 1 ')*) ' . 3 3

00 00
⊂
00 00

00 00
∩ ∅ ⊂

"' + & ! % "# $ + & !#
$ %& "

R →
X

−
R

%$ !% !' ! % %) !
X
−

∗

> >

"' + & ! % "# $ + & !# $ %& " 0

%! & ! % !% $ ! * % % % 0 "# $ + !% !' ! %
→
%) !
X

−
>
% & ! %"' (! # % "# $ %& "!( & !' !
" %' !# * & ) ⊂

⊂

!& * ' % +"' (!)

| ! ∗ ! | −

−
" #
$
⊕
% " $"& " ' %

→

" | ! ( $ ∼ ) ' *
) ' $"⊕&
R $ *
R ∗
% "
| | ! ∗
. + ,- . ,./ 0-12,3 4 ' . 5 64 ' 7 8 9 .: ;2 8<8 8= .1:>. = 8< ;:3 ? > 8 @ 1 = A >,B C: ;2 0- D , ?
; 1,- . 8 :. 0 = 8 >. <8 0 8 - 8E : 8 8= .1:>. = 8< ;:3 ? > 8 @ 1 = A >,B C: ;2 /.:F, G

$"& "

→ →
−
% − *
$ −

& −
0 $" & " &
→

0 ' ' & *
R →
' 0 ' R "

"R →

R

" "
⊂ ! !
& %
& ' *
$
$
& $ $
$ & ' ' *
R → R
" " "

! % "
!

X
X '
− − ∗
> >
$
" $ ) 0 '
R
) ' $
$"*
R
& &

∗ $
∗
( # & $" " $

" *
0 0 $ 0 0 $
∩ ∅ ⊂
!' ! % ! ! ( $ ! %' " (% "' (!
"
→
! # $ ! ' !# %" #
! . ' ! !' ! % %
# %%' ! %$−!
( ' ! &) 6 −
$% &' ( ) * % % !

% *+ % * ' ( + %' %$ % ( !! (%&' ! !!
$ ! %* ! * ! ' ! %& )
!& * ' % + * ' (!) "
! ,
,
%
!
, ! "
∈
$"- &
& /
.
% " #0 !2 3 $
*
∼ 6 − − 1
$ "4 " ' %

5 6 7 6 8 9 :

$

%
$ ; !
1
"- "

< = >? @A +B B C D EF G G H I H JK L EM BA E *LA NK *L ME !
R R 1
NI H D> H O K EP B EF L EQ + > R SE J EL ESA NT JK H J ! ! HQ JJL K JU
R 1 →R 1
B E VMH T K +R L EO D + W

.
5 6 &67 6 + *L D EK JO K C *HQ B> H I H N> K C D EQ B> JD *P

K JBA JA C MK E J EL ESA NT JK H JP BA E *L EJ O H *> EP
→
W = ED NT H L JP O L E " " W
◦ ◦ ≡
| {z }

+.*$ !"#$%$%" &'&#&(&'") $+. %$*&.&(#%&'&#+.!+* . ,%-!, + .$#/-/ %&.& "%,+.!#%& . $
!,* &+($
&( %$$

,/ ,*!$#,*,$#,
) ∗
⊕
)

0 &
" " "'!
12
*
/ $!,&.&!&$"
" "*

*& $!*-$
& $
& - %& %, -*, . 345
+Q K ET JK H JQ E>Q E@ EA EM N
**$(".&)97 & 7 $!,&(#&'&!&* 6 7 8.

> JD *NK VJA N
&
:= > ; 7 :?,.$#
"" +&*$!: &$%+.*&*,("
;< : & ; " 9($ @$ +,%
:AB ; "$!C".%"
$
4 UBA EH MJVJK H JQ " & 4

!$ $($%"$ 8

$ :
D E ;7
& * &(#&'&!&*, " #%&'&&
9($ +,%!, $!,") -(,$!$+$" *$+.%, & (&*$!, 7 "F &#&! #%&
$ % & " #
.

$%"

"&(#&'&!&*,'&#&(&'"
# ,% ,!$9($!$*!,
$
,$. .&&%$ #%&

$%"$
$%"$".$(* '&#&(&'"
&

"
& "
*

#%&
*
*
$%"$

#%&
"
$%" * +,% $ $!,7

%
%&/
%, %,
< &'&#&(&'" +* ,%, "#$%%& + ."# ,+.,*%& " *$+.%-#
- " "

!"(& $%")
"
" #%& $%"$#/

#%&'&&

!, " #7%& $+. " ! '"$ !"(& $%" / &.&!-$ &.%&+ .+ %$

$ "

% $

@.& - &,%!$#$!&*,.
$(". GHI$'&!&"*$! *$"%-7 $%"$8.&( &+"#!$ $($%"$
(" ",( %$"%*,!",%.%&
%&'& &# ($

+,/ %
%,, ,.$( %&

$
!&*%$+.*,& $"%*,!",%.%&+."
*
$)/ %& &%& "%*,!",%.%&

$ $
%, $.+

!&*%$*+ &'&#&(&'")7
& *
( & J&
" " $

"
,
&
$ . .&.,( %-) $ %&) &# ($ +7

&
%,#
&.!$

"

" &#&',.$(

%-)
$ *

*
KLMLML NOPOQORSS TOTUQVWORO XYZWORO [OPZQY[\U

!, ]" %$*$!&.&!-
&

"% +"#+( ($, +,7 -*,$.

"
], %$) & "$%& !"#$!-

"$

!$ &(,',.& & / %-.& +"., ,%,, %")#$

$
$

$
" &
"
,
*

&+."!$+"%'
$ $($%"$( !%-#%&" $%"
"
+"# * &'&#&(&'"
("
",(

%-
" & , ,.$(
'&#&(&'")7
( +.*& "$($)&#&!& !&%&
."
$ *
%$' $#$&!"$%."!&*,%%-)
& !$ $(". '&#&(&'"" +"#+-/(", ",(&! %&'& &# ($%, +,/&!-!,++#,.!"*, /
" & % & *

" $
+"#
& ,!%& ($
!,-*,$./

&
&
(" %-$.& *$!., "%-
" $%%-$
$

%$ &.&!&'&
+"#$)+.*"
($ +,7

!&+.$)
$
") !"#$!
,

.$(&!&%&/ $%,!" .,($#$%.&# & ,
&
-. , %$

, %,7
&# & & $ ( : / , ; &( ,$#/7 .& '! ,
% "$ *

$ $ $ " " #
3 3

!"*- "%, .&) %$ , " &+.,.& %& &%+,/.%, #- , %&'& ." $+ "! ,%%&
$ % 9
3 ! 3
("+

"+($%"$#
+." !"+7 7 7 C "*".$( %-# & !, &# &(& $%"$ & $% ($' & "+& !,*(
%
'&#&(&'")
"$ $
&#
($
* '&#$&#&!
1 *
" *
$
*

"+7 7 7 &# ($ +/ '&#$&#&! %-) & ! %&+."

* "
$.+.& *$!&+.,.&
$
"%- %& &. , ,.&( + %-&./ -., ,(&+& ,!%&-/!,$+.$+.*$%%&'&

(" %-7 8.&

+(&*" /
$)+.*" "
.$(

%& %$& " : ,%%&$ "+*($%"$/
#&(&'")

$

&(

$.+&.&#$+ &%$.& .$%-)$! $ %&)

$

" ( *-&#"+($%"

($
+/

'&
"#$

$
$

*
*
")
& !,

; " !, #$!%&+." ( *+$
2 3
" 4 -
3
"

& ,.&
& *
.$&)/$! ,/ %& !,)%$)

4-
#$!$/
%&7/ $)+.*".$( #$!%,
%&/ '!
, '&#&(&'") &
$
,
$%, -*,$.+ .,
8

'! , &!& ($#$%.,#"

* " *

!
"
3
/7

3

" / %&" *+$ &%" * & . *

3 3
" #

3

$
$
9

%

1

3 3 3 3 3 3 ! 3 3 !
$ %&) / '&#$ ($ + / *$!&!& "%-%%-) & $%%-#"

&!" .&'& %,($&!,#"

!

+!$ " %"

#&' . -. +&*

"$& /

%&'&$#
$
%, -*,. $ +"#
" $
+, */

"(" & !$ $( $.+ / .&$ %-#

"
,
$ ∗ ,
, $
%& ., &# $/($ ,+&#7" (!,%" %-)7 '&#&#&! " # (

$ $ 4-
" $ L EL N> K CQ

+B EA ? VEO JK K CQ & $
$ $
∗ ∗
6 + *L *HQ B> H I H N> K C D EQ B> JD *P MJA H K C D EU

6 6
L EA E@ E NK +Q JA EM NK C3 W E@ V N @A +B B C @ EQ E> E@H I JB K C D EQ B> JD *E M
H D NK EK H O J*D H H EQ EA G K C W
6 ,++#&.!"# '&#&#&! " # / !"

∗ ∗

&.&!&#
= ED N NL J> *L M EW
!,*$!".(" %-/

" * / $+("

$!$
+!$ &
"
$ ".
." * :
.& $ $+. /
$+(" *+$

∗
.&→ "
; +&* , , "$7 & %& !&

∗

!" / .& $
, "! $.& , $,.$(%&$ &.& !, $%"$ ("
, & %&$
+.*$ &.&
$ %
.&'&/ !,
.&

$%"$
+"# .&",(
' % $(,$.+
$
%&$ !"#$!%&
$ 4-
!,

$%"$
&.& % %& &. $(→%&., $/ *

"%!,++#&.!$.

$" &
$
" &
+(

,)/ &'

, +!$

" .&

$ →
&

+%&*,
$+. !&*%&

*$"%+&* ",
"

$

, "$7 ,++#&.!"# ., $ '&#&#&! " # /

∗
" $ $ ∗ $ *

!&*,%%-)
$ 4
.&
-
&!"$%., % "#$!,
" +"#
& "$) ($*$!
+, "%
, , &#.+
($ +,7
&! 9 &"#$%%&/
$%%-#
∗
#-%, &!&#
→
!$ &(,',$#/

∗ $

*$! +"#"%/
$" & *
%&#$!,

&.&!-&
" .

* &! $ *& !,+.,%"
$ " $
&!"$%."!&*,%%&#

!,($ +.&$%"$+&!,&+.,*(
.&$%"$$ $.+$ %&$7"#$%%& .&. &!.& & $+.*$%%&7 $%%-) %, &! *$! "%7 .&
$" $ ' " *
" % " $
*
%$, .&,. $+.*$%%&/

&
%& &%&

$
%&
→
'&#&.&

%& .&$
$+.*$%%&#.& !,7 @.&$%"$- &

&+7 , 7,.$(&.&/*#$+.&
+.*$#- .$&!$#-
*&+ &( &$#+, ".,(""#"%- $%&+".$( !,++ $%".$&!$#, #"/ , 7 "7 !"%,
∗ ∗
$ & $ "
$ *
% " " $
%-) & &# ($/ +*(.&'&//"#-.&+ +&-*$!+&&+.,*"# &+.,*( .&! +"#& $%%&# ($ + %,⊂ &! , *$!" (""%
$
&

8
"
& *

$

"%,#" +"# ($ +, ⊂ / $ %&) &
" $ "
"
&# ($ + 7 !" .&# *- &(% .+ +($ "$ +*&)+.*,

4 -
& $*

% 4 $" 4 -
$+(" ⊂ / .& ⊂
∗ ⊂ ∗

0

0
'
$ %&) 7 &# ($ + *( $.+ %&+".$($# $ $) "

• ∗ ∗
&
&
• ∗

+(" *$! "%,/ .& 7 & .&# &+.,.+ !&

*$!". / .& $+(" " ( * / > / .& / ' $ ∈ 7

,
% " *

,!" &).&# $ " ∈ #& %&* +&+( &+.,*". $ +(" $ ∈ " (/ .&7
, &
$

23
$

%
&

/ &+ &( − 7

"

"

,$
&

, &
>
2
7

3
#&! " #&$ +"# (" ",( %&$ &.&/ , !,,%%-) $%"$ &!# (&)→ "% "! $. '&#&

#4
&
$"& " *

$ "
→

- . ;,>.: 8 F0 8= B 98 1:3 >;2 ? > 8 - D @ 8 1 2 8 :1: 8 1 /: 8E 1 ,> <8 < 1 = .: - .:1: 8
F0 8= B 98 1: 8 G

,$'&.".
#
#
& !&*$!".
+ & / .&.& - .& $ "%&$ &.& "!, $%"$-("!"!, !&*$!
.&#/
$' & ., $ !&*$!". / .& ",'!,##,

(" %-

$ 7%$ % %&
, &

$

"
)

∗ )
∗ −→ ∗

↓ ∗
↓ ∗
) )
&## .,."*%,7 $)+.*".$( %&/ $ %, !&*%$ $ $) *- &(% $.+ !,

∗
−→
*$%+.*&
"
7 F !,*$%+.*, +($ $. !,*$%+.*&
" " & *
!&*%$ / $&+$)&(7 %& .&( & %, !&*%$ '&#&(&'")/ , %$ %,

$"

" −3 ∗ ∗
∗ ∗
" ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗
" & ∗

KLMLKL Z Y YQYWSY PWO YWS [OROPOQORS

%&) &.,(
&# %-)+7 $&'&#&(&'""
($ %&) &# ($.&.,(
+ $+.$+.*$%%-#
%&'&

$ & !,&#&#($ ,+,, .&. &$ $ ,

%&'&

%&%"
.&'&/ $+.&" "$ %&&#&!'&#&.&

%- +"#%-$("$ ",(%-$ %-#

&.&
&'&#&(&'"
!, $%" "% #7 "!8.& +($. %$ .&(
$. "

%"&$ &%&$"%, &*-$ &.&@.&!, -$%" & '&#&(&'")/ %&!$ " &$ "%, &.& !, .&$
&*-$&.#$."#/

4

&'&#&(&'")7

, ,. .&/

*+$'&

&.& !, $%"$ "% "!" $. & $ $%&$%& &.&'&#&.&

!, $%"$

$ %-$ &.& !, $%"

0

→ "
→
7 +.
7 &' , $+(" " (/ .& %-$

,

,

0

−
! " ! ! 1 !
3 3 3 3
+%&/!$ .& $+(""#/ .& & " (/ .& &+($" %$$"$%.&*

h
1
i h
1
i
*-!, $%"$*( $.+
h
1
i
!,*%& % "."*%&)
h #
(7
1
i$
&(& '! , & ,

/ 3 , 4
'!( &&)$ $)&## .,."*%&'& ,++&

",."*%&'& #&&( %&, &+ !$$ "%"$(".$)7" &'345,

%

"

6 +($ "# & !, &#

% ' ' % ( U
∈ ∈ & &
BA EH MJVJK H J ) ' 2' % 4- * +
∈ &
' , 2 ' , '

2 3 $ $ $ 2 '
$+h "#$$.+ * ,i*" h($#$%.&*!&" &(*$ i$%"$ "
)
$ $ $ ·h i $ $ $ &
+
h
(

'
& !$ $( %%&'&
-
,7 h i
., "# &, !, %,&# $%"$#%& $%" %, & ,$ $)&) $*$!"%" "%$$)
2 3 $ $ $ 2 '
i

+

,
$ $ $

*(7 &$.+$ & $ *( $.+/ !"%"#,

. . .
/ - * + ( -
& " (&#7 $)+.*".$( %&/ $+(" P : ; /

. .
- - - , 4- - + 0 % ( 1
∈
.& P − P / & .&#
. .
2 , - - - / 3
3
. . 3
3
3 3
1
3
1
, ,
X3 X3
h# 3i h 3i − $

BHI
& $) +". , ""7 !&"+. *$ ∈$%"$ #& %& "& !$ ∈$(".
5 6 7 6

" * %$+7 &'&( , & & &($$

$ + ( *
.+
, , &!# (&)
. .
*- ' ' 0
& & .
) ' 2 ' 0 + -
∈ ⊗ &
' , , '
] .&# +(+ $ "%"

,$/ &' , , "."*%, '! , &## .,."*%&'&
) 2 ' 2 3 $ $ $ 2 '
h i h i⊗h $ $ $ i $ $ $ $
"&(#- , !" & "# $)/ !$#%&- $%"$$#* &&(!$ $$($%" , , .7 &.& !, $%"$ ⊗ → /
0 % , -
. .
( + * ( % % %
. .
- 4
+%&/.& $'&.& #&GHI %&!&"$!$%$+."

*$ $%"$ * "("%$)%& " ,++&(,'&",."*%&7 , -*,

.
$.+ / /
+*&)+.* 7
-

&'&#&(&'"" ( ,!
+($ $#
+ *
.
*

-

.
4-
+

6
"
' ' ' W
6 ?%, $%" & $ $) " %,

) ) 0 )
# # − #
= ED N NL J> *L M EW
2 '2 3 !,*%- -
.

#

) '
−

0

)
#
'

"
,
$ $ $

X 0 , 2 3 ' 2 3
− $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ 2 '2 3
6 6 2 3
,
0 X 0
− , '
2 ' 2 3
− − $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
##-/&%"),$ +" ##,

+%"&+($ ($% *+$$!*&)&+.,(+ ##- +&($%&*
!, ,$.+ + ##$!*-# ($%&# *.&!&)
6 6 2 ' 2 3
4

%, %-

."
7
+
, !, !,*%,
'
%, $

.
-

-

. .

+ +
)
, 2 '2 3
.&!&"]-!, $%"$.&( $ & " (7 !&#$ & , -*,$./ .& $+(" " & " (-/

. # $ $ $
.&'&/ &'&#&(&'"
*$ $%" * & " (&* ,*"+". .&( & &. " &'&#&(&'" $+ "
) '

( $+
-
") (,++ GHI

#

) '

2

.
+

' ,
.

.

(,++&*/ &+ &(

# . . . . .
+ - +
. . . . .

. . .
" "
− 3 ) ' ) ' − 3 ) '
# #
" "
−3 '−3
, "#$ &+!$
& !, +.*$%%&
&#/ GHI "!&"& !$*$ $%"$ & !$*" $($%& ($+("&'&#&(&'")7 +"#
) ' ' ) ' 0 )
# −
# $

",( %&$ !,
*
$%"$/ .&$($%") +
%&/ .& →/ ' $

+ -
(" &.&
. .
8 + ,

"%($ +,7"!&*,%%&$ &.& !, $%"$ &'&#&(&'") .&.,( %&'& $ %&'& &#

* (
* (
∗

) '

∗

)

∗ '

∗ ,

F &#&! " # & *&(9$."#$%%&/

$!$%$+."$+("GHI /
. .

!&" *$ $%"$/ .& *#-+"#& !$(" $("#
",( %-$ &'&#&(&'""7
.
+ + ∗ ∗ ∗ + -
→
7 , !&*%$, ($#$%. / ( *$ &.&!&

∗
+
'&∈ & " (&* GHI !&" $%"$ *

.
∗ ) ∗ -
. . .
)
∗ ∗

∗ ) 8 +
. .
:
+"# ",( %-(,++$&'&#&(&'"

.&# ("$ +,#&# (

&'&#&(&'")/+.!&$%&

.& " .,& " ( & /" ,( ,%%-) &!#

.
($ ".(&)* -

.

.

.
+
) '

(
: ;i h : ;i · h :
. . . .
, 2 '
;i , ' 2 ' 0
$+ !$ &(,',$.+
?% #$!&*,%- / .& *$! "%- +"# (" ",( %&'& &# ($ +, +,,*
h $ $ $

$ $ $

23 $ $ $

$
&!

$ *&

" #-
!,+.,%", "+-*,$#
"

*$!
%&#$!&*7 "%-
F%, $ &!"$%."!&*,%%&'&
&!# (,
+
%$
-
, +"#
,

. ($ , &
%"
1
1

.

.

+
'&,+.& "" #$%(, /$.+&.&#%$ !$.&+ ,!" $#-# $!$+.,%&*

& !, &#7$ *$! "% !,*,
.
- + - 0 +
. . .
1
, 2 ' -
&.,($ $!%-) ( $ +"#

%&) ("&# ",(($ +%-%,# &'&#&(&'")
-( % $% GHI( "+.& .$ $%"$
%" $+#& "
. . . $ $ $
+ - - + * +
$($)7 !&" *$
.
* ( -
%&&(&& !$"# $(". +($ "# & !, &#7 " +"! $# % #$!, " *$! "% "
. . .
- + (
.
4- * + 4 1
.
(
: )
;i h :
'
;i · h :
;i '
'& $!$ $( %%&$ #%& $%"$7 ,(,++&* &$ #%&&'&#&(&'")/

$%"$ & $ &.&!&$$) , ,%$. ,*"+".&!!$ .%&&.

h $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
, 2 ' ( +
3
*-, ,.$(
&!, %+.*,#$!, .&'&
""7 &.,( %-) $ %&) &# ($+.*,+ % $+.$+.*$%%&+."
$% .&( & ( GHI&
$ $ $ . . . .
( +
, ., " ( & , ,.$(

. . .
* ( -
!,!&" $%"$/
*$ $%".& * .&# +#-+($/ .& $+(" 7| | → | | %$ !$!-*%&$ &.&
. . .
+ - +
. . .
+ - ,

C#%& $%"$ * &'&#&(&'" & (, ,$. +($ "# +*&)+.*&#

* ( ∗ ) ∗ ) ∗
7

( - * 4- D E*EU
.
D EQ Q +L NL H MK E *L H
6

> H H ' P LE )
∈ ∈
0 '

) W
6 +.&( " & % % #$!,

& " (-/" *$!!$ +.,*( "$ " 7
−

]- "+("# / "+
= ED N NL J> L M EW
"%
"+ &( ! ' / , "#$%%&/ !&."*& &(& % 7 ] !$ ( .,.$ &( "#
) ' / ,

+ -
' ,

.

.
4

1

- 4-
' )

,
+- 4 ( 4 +
:
; : ; : ;i ,
: ;i h : ;i · h :
' , '
$ $ $ 2 '
)
2'
;i
h i h i·h $ $ $ $ $ $
' '
2 ' $ $ $ , 2 ' $ $ $ $ $ $ ,
)
+%& ., $/ .& : : ;"

h $
; 7− 2 3 " " "

/
"$ $ $ , ,
( 0
" . " 1 $ $ $
0 0 0
− −
$/ / .&, %-" ( &'&#&(&'")

.&" %&( .,&.%&+".$( 7 !"!&"7 .&#$)+.*".$(
, +&( .%- GHI *$ $+("
$%"$ & !$ $( $.+

/ - + - -
%&/+"# ($+. + *
.
( - * 4
3

∈
" & " (-/ !$ +.,*( "$ " / :
. . .
' ) 2' /

;

∈ ∈ ∪
3
' 1 -4- 1 , 2 '
. . $ $ $ .

.
&# ($7 "#".+( *($,$ +: "("

("*& *.&!&# : * 7 ] ; / $!*&#
, " +(( &),$ +"#
,
: ($ + "($ ".∪ * / / $,
2 ' 4*
; ($ ". * 7 ($ &*,.$( ;%&/

+
3

∪ . $ $ $ . . . 3
1 ( , ( 1
3

. $ $ $ 3
1 2 '
(

: ;i h : ;i · h :
$ $ $
1
h
) ' , 2 '
;i , '
2 '
& .&# & " ( ($ ". * 7

$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
) ' ( 2'
. . ∪ 3
1
5 6 67 6

L

QJ ∗
) P @VJ
|
∗ W

∈ ∗

6
W = ED NT H L JP O L E
|
L N BA H J L J L M JK K EQ @EQ EQ
E SA N F> JQ JK
)
EA G H U 6

→
5 6 67 6

N L S
3 P @ V J L ? @H MN JQ C J B EVD EQ U
V>? > R SC F> JQ JK L EM
6
B> JD C W = ED NT H L JP O L E
BA EH MJVJK H J
3
) )
A NMK E K > R W
∈
P P
S = ED NT H L JP O L E D E@ EQ E> E@H O J D EJ Q K ET JK H J M
345 6 6
$ $ $
LA H MH N> K EP
L WJW UBA EH MJVJK H J > R SC VM D E@ EQ E> E@H O J D H D> N E M B E> ET H U
L J> K E A N Q JA K E L H A NMK E K > R W
6 6
5 6 67 6

L Q K E@ EESA N H J M> ET JK E M ; W = ED NT H L JP O L E
M D E> I J ∗ ; BA EH MJVJK H J > R SC VM D> N EM B E> ET H L J> K E
6
A N Q JA K E L H A NMK E K > R W
5 6 67 6

L B EVD EQ B> JD P ? M>? R H ? A JLA ND L EQ W
⊂
N = ED NT H L JP O L E 9 H ∗ 9 ∗ P

∗
⊕
@VJ J L J L M∗JK K E J MD> R∗O JK H JP ∗ A JLA ND⊕I H? W
→ →
S > O NJ D E@ EQ E> E@H V ED NT H L JP O L E ∗ H VJN> P N 9 ∗
B E VD E> I E W
5 6 67 6

B H H L J Q K ET JK H J M D E> I J ∗
K C Q K ET JK H? M D E> I N ∗ H ∗ W ∨
P J > H H MJ L U 6

5 6 67 6

L
;
× { } ∪ { } ×
; ; ' W
, ,

>
0W = ED NT H L JP O L E ;
∨
;'
; ' K J ? M>? JL ? A JLA ND L EQ BA EH MJVJK H? 6
×
5 6 67 6

N = ED NT H L JP O L E BA H L NK VNA L K E M> ET JK K EJ
K J ? M>? JL ? A JLA ND L EQ W
R ⊂ R
S = ED NT H L JP O L E BA H L NK V NA L K E M> ET JK K EJ
C ⊂ C
K J ? M>? JL ? A JLA ND L EQ W

KLML L OQVXU [OROPOQORS PY W ZO Y WO

\TY

*$! ]-%&+.$)
"+("#"+ .$ $!%$ &( +.*$%%& , &'&#&(&'") " !$ ,# % .-GHI #%&
$($%" * #$!%-$%" .&
& &+!$ & 7
+
#$."#/ .& #%&

$+(" *&+ &*,. + " &#&!* "#$!%&)
&(* &'&#&(&'" #&# ,% ,!$%&+." " "%.$! !$$
. . .
- + - ( -
."!&*,.
!$+$ $%"$

$%"$
*&)+.*$%%- " .& .!$ $#-)

!$ &*$! +
.,. #& %& , &( - + +
(&*/ (
.
( -
". $ .! , +#7 § 7 7 7
. . .
* + (
(*$ $%"$* #$!%- &*$! %&+.$) % %& *- !&""+(".*$ $%"$.&( & GHI
.
* +
!&" ($#$%.&* '! - /

7 & !$" &+(&*$&("$#&'!,%" ($#$%.&*

/ - (
" ($ $+". ")* +#-+(

'!& + "# '$&#$.!" ,% . +7 *- "+($%" #"/
.
+ 3 +
3 ( (
.

.
+ - - -
1
, &# &#($ +,&!"$%."!&*,%%&# #$!%&# $#+"# #$!%, ($ + +"#& $(" /",(!"

*
%&'& +&&.*$.+.* $. *&)+.*$%%,

. . . .
2 (

%"#, , %, % # %, $%"$ " & !, , , + * % ( %, *+$ &+.,( %-
.
- -
#$!%- +"# ($ +, 7 - $# !,++#,.!"*,. .&( & & $ "/ *(

. . .
4 - + 0 * 4 - -
"$+ + ##,#" & $ $)/ *&)+.*$%%- !, (" %-# +"# ($ +,#7 & $ "
* - -4
.,+&*7&'& *" , &.& $+.*( .+ + %, &!,#" &!"$%."!&*,%%- +"# ($

. . .
- + 2
. .
( - 4 - *
&!#*"(,,h *( $.+i h & " (&#i &.&', -*,$./ .&& .&'#$!%,,/ &'& ,$ ( ( &,
. .
+ ,%%&'&
'&'!,%"#$!%&'&

#
-
3
,
- " .&(
+"#& ".($* +,/("(" && %"* & *"%& " ..!!&*%& #$!%-
1

-
3
+"# +"#($ +&*($ $'&

1

.
+

0

-
.

3
- 4*

.

- %$ * *, " .! +&*
. . . .
* + 0
'!,%" -/ !" # ( & " "$%.&* &%" &( %- * & ". * + !,

. .
3 * 3 - +
%-#" &!"$%., " #" & &.%& $%" &!"$%., ""%, !"+7
'!,%" 7 - , #$!%&'&
.
- ( 3 +
Z
+"#& " ($( *#$+.$
+,7 !"#$! & " (, %, .&!$ " & !, % !& '&)
.
- 1 4
+ *&)+.*$%%-# $# %, !&*%$ '&#&(&'") " (&# " !,

.
+ * (
%, "+%,'&#&(&'")
!"+7 7 .&!,/ 7 8." &*,.&#& "&%"(, &*&)+.*$%%- " (,#/ & !, "#
. . . &
+ *
( & " "$%.&* Z / ., " ( & !," "$%.&*

. , "+ 7 &'&#&(&'") ,
. . .
( * * + 4
. . .
* + * + 4 * +
9%,(&'" %-# & !, &# +.!&".+ , "+ &'&#&(&'") ( "+ (-$!-( + (&.
. . .
- -
Z
-# "+(&# ! $ 7 , !"+7 7 " & !, $%- , "+%-$ &
. . .
* + - * + 1 - 4
$( %&)(&#,%&)7
! "7 , .&# $ !"+ % $ + !,*, & , ,%&/ , &!"$%."!&*,%-
.
* 8 : + * ( * + -
*$%
. . .
8 ( +
$& "%,/, "+&*& #$!%- &'&#&(&'") + $!- +7 ! +(",#"+"#& ($!, +-$. ( / 777/, &
. . . . .
+ -
*&)+.*$%%,
+
#$!%&#

+"# ($ + * + 4* -
& .&'& ,/"%,&'&*&,.&P&!"$%."!&*,%%-#

" .&(&!"$%."!&*,%-/ & $ P7 8.& +($ $.*( "$.+.&'&/& !,.& & $)$
. . .
-

13 1
.&'"/ ,*&)+.*$%%-$
. .
3
∗ - - - * + 4
1
&'&#&(&'" %-7 , !"#$!/ !, %&+. * & $ $)/#$!%-# +"# ($ &+,#/"

. .
3 0 +
±
*&)+.*$%%-
. . .

. .
8 +
. .

"+7 7 7 , "+%-$ & " (- %, .&!$

+
.

.
"+7 7 7 , "+%-$ & " (- %, ! $

: +
.

.

.
%,*( &*&$.+ &!"$%."!&*,%%-#

&'!,%" $) & $ "/#$!%-# +"# ($ +,#7 + & "# !$ !&# /
*&)+.*$%%&) * *
3
&!# (, h % :%& ;!,++#,.!"*,.: ;i · h (": ;i .$& , -*,$./ .&+"# !"($ *-+-/

. .
- - -
3
"+($%"" #$!%-$
. .
) +
i h
&.&!-$ "#$ .& &" (&* *'!,%"#$!%- , &'&#&(&'"
+ / ., " + .&!, 7 ( .,*-" !,%%-#$!%-!,
.
) ( 1
%$$ , "+%-
.
4 * 4 / - *
+"# ($ +&* *, %, !"+7 7 &%" , .!" &*,%- 7 !" .&#

. . . .
* + 0 -
. . . .

: ;i · h : ;i h : ;i · h : ;i
+ 1
.
0 :
&+ &( &'&#&(&'"): ;i .&!,77 , "# & !, &#/ , "+%-) ($#$%.

0 0
h
#$!%-
: * + ) * +
h
($./ &.& " "$%.&* Z( "( &'& &+&+"##$.!" %&+." GHI %$!&".%&)*$ $%"
. . .

+($ (,++, &'&#&(&'") !,

.
/ - + + -
#$!%&+."7 & ( & " "$%.&* -*, . #$!%-$ (,++- &'&#&

. .
) - 4* +
. .
8 - * 4 0
. Z . .
1

"+7 7 7 ]- "+($%"$ ( .&!, ) -
(&'")/
*$%+.* ( &.&!-" -
6
7( &*-.&#!,%%-!"*$!,%$$# &, "+%-
) , ,.$( +.*&
&
" !,
(&* +
" * #$!%-
/Z ., " &'&#&(&'" .&!,/ &.&!&$ '& ".+ , ( & "
. .
) ) - * * +
"$%.&* ( & " "$%.&* 7

. .
0 - - -
. . . . .
-
. Z .
1
"+7 7 7 &'&#&(&'" %-$ & " (- %, .&!$

2
,&!#,.& (,/"*-( +%"#/&'&#&(&'"

$% & &'!,%"
" ( , +#7& $!"+7"/ *&)+.*$%%&)
7 7 @.& - .&.& &$7
. .
, +.!&$%,
2 *
0
. . . .
+ -
. . . . . .

: ;i h : ;i h i − h i

, , , , , ,
*(& $., -*,$./

+& &) + .&## &'!,%" $ "/ *&)+.*$%%&)
& $ $)/, &*&)+.*$%%- +"# ($.& +,#$ *"/ , !$: +.,; /
3

, 3
3
h #
+ ,
. . . .
- * 0 ,
. .

*-!$.7$ 7 $+.(&.!$.,.$&'!,%"

,#/ %, !,*($%%-#
+
+ ##-
&( ".+ & " ( 7
.
& *$ .&$)/ *&)+.*$%%-

7 & .&# .&$+(",#" / &" " /(,.& *

.

,

+

.
0

.
!&*%$
%"+ &","%+ " 7 &#$!%- &'&#&(&'") *-+&*&(%%$ "#$$.
$.+ !,*$%+.*& 7 &
. . .
+ -
0
+"# ($ & $) '!,%" - & %&*!$#$%%&

. .
8 - - ) )
0 8
.&# 7
.
+ *
9%,(&'" %-$ .&!,++ $ $%"/ *&)+.*$%%,#& %& !"#$%". &.#$!%&# $( %-#+"#! ,#/
.
0 )
0
&( + .$#/
+ &(/ *(,$#$.++($& !, $$ .*$! &

$) #$!%&) - ( (
&# ] !$
-
($
.,.$
(
'! &'&#&(&'")7 (
. .
+ - - 4*
$%"$7
. .
- - - * + 4 +
.
4 (

6

F G G H I H JK L NQ H H> H
UQ JA K C D E@ EQ E> E@H? G JA C
Z Z

Q ET K E MC SA NL SN H
3 $ $ $
6
A O D NQ H D EU
P
3 $$$

6
L NDP O L E ) P 1 ) V>? M J P ) BA H H

6
) P @ V J ESA N R N? UQ JA K C D E@ EQ E> E@H W
,#/ !"!,*%&.&#% (GHI !&"$ %,*$ !&*%$

$%"$ && "$ (&*/
4

( $) &&.%&+ & $*" %-#

+

" + !"!,"%,#7 %-# ! .

.

-

-

.

+
!,."#+] .$&.("$! "$ &.&'&#&(&'" # %$&!"$%."! $#- * #$!%- &

. .
*$!&'&#&(&'""
*
%&+.$)7 + & "
-
'&#&(&'")
"$%.,#"

+
,# &

% .&)
. .
" "$%.,#"
%$&!"$%."! Z
#$!%-$
$#&) &
-

*$!+.!&$%,%&+.".,%$.!"*",( %-7 !, , '! - #$!%- &'&#&(&'")

.
+
Z
, #%&'&
7 &*$! '&(/ *+$%"+"#$/ "($ +-&.&!&'&/ 777/+ ($$%,#&%$&!"$%."! $
. . .
* + 41 -
#,!&*,. #$!%, %&+. %& &!"$%."

.
8 +
+&'(,+&*,%%-# !, &#7 &'%-7, & & $* "%$&!"$%."!

& &'&#&(&'" " $#&#/ ,+( " ,$*
. . . .
- -

(
13 1
&!"$%."! $#&# +( ,$/

.
* +

∗
1 ∗ 1
%,) .+ *,!&."*&+"# ($ +, %&7" .&# / &.&!-$ %, +,#&) &*$! %&+."*- &!"$%

. . .
8
."!&*,%- &(& & %, !&*%$ &'&#&(&'") &(% 7

.
-

1 1
.+ !,*$%+.*, " / , %, "./

. .
( -
]&'&#&(&'")
".&'$ &( .&',$#/, ".&.&(& $& .&'P ,/ &' ,−*("+(&$.+P& !,%$ .%& $) '! -$
.
4 -

∗

∗ +

1 ∗ 1 1 ∗ 1 1 ∗
$+("

3
∗ - - - * + 4
1
"+(& .%&/ .& ., & $ !$ +.,*( $. % ($*&) (,++ &'&#&(&

.
3 (
'")7
. . .
P 3 -
&

]-, "+("# &( & &'&#&(&'") &*$! %&+." + & " &"$%.,#"
. . .
Z
7
#&$ "+(,',$#&$
2

( &# ("+. * & " +,/

%&#$!%-
.
* ($$%%&#

'&#&(&'"
*
*
"
.
/ +&&.*$.+.*

&'&#&(&'"
$.7 ( %&("+.,
!
;
1
1 .

-
+,/ * %" , *!"+7

($$%%&'& + $! 7 / 7, "+%-) "7 ( , !$"+%-) +.,*(" $.+( " &",'&%,
.
1 - - / -
Z
( % ."!&# ! #& '&(*&)+.*$%%-) , !"+7 !, % %$
.
* 1 * + - -
$# & " ( " & !, % %, .&# $ !"+

. .
4 - 8 * + + * (
(&#,%&)7
. .
+ * ( (
. & . . .

"+7 7 7 , "+%-) " ( %, ("+.$ " +,

+
.
*
"+7 7 7 , "+%-) & " ( %, ("+.$ " +,

+
.

.
*
"/ !"$ 7 *-,#$%".

.7 "+($%""%, & "#&( %&/ &+. ". ., $/ ," " * +( ,$ !
&.&!-) &(.& ,$.+ & ,*($%"$#
) ( (
%$$#&#&.&!- &'!,%" & $ $)/ *&)+.*$%%- ,#7 & * %$&!"$%."!

. . .
+ - + *
0
+( .&,$ &(%&+. !, *$+." & " .&(-&* %,!, "%-$., +.&!&%- %$ & , ,*"#
.+ /
. . . .
8
&.&#&'!,%" "- & $%,$)/!"+7 7 , $ .& ,7

. . . .
4 + + -
*&)+.*$%%- .&%, ,#!"+7 7 7 & 7 ]" !$(,#"(

. .
( / *
.,.$ &( "# & " ( / " & !, %%-)

.

+
3
", .!" "#$ &*,%-7

. & ?,%'!,%" .!" #$!%- +"#( .,($ &)+, %%,#$!,
!"+7 ""/7 , &%"%,
. . . . $ $ $

0 + * ( 1*
#$! $# " *$! "%-7

. . . .
0 4 * 4 *
!"+7 7 / &( "#

.
+ 1 1 / -
&

. . .
: ;i
*

: ;i &+ &( h : ;i
)
0 0 0
h &
: ;i &+ &( h : ;i
)
0 0 :
0 :
h . . &
)
0 0 :
0 :
h . . $

"+7 7 7 , "+%-) & " ( %, ("+.$ " +,

+
.

.
0 *
& .&# & " (- & , ,("!$+($+.,*( $$$. &.*$!!, $%"$7

&'&#&(&'")7

.

.

) #$!%&) '! -
+
0
4
-

* +
(
4 4
. .
6

UQ JA K C D E@ EQ E> E@H? D EF G G H I H JK L NQ H
MD> JJK K CQ H > H L NQ H
L NDP O L E ) BA H H )

SH N Q ET K E MC SA NL SN H
Z
1
G JA C
3 $$$
P @ V J ESA N R N?
6 6

6
UQ JA K C D E@ EQ E> E@H W
5 6 67 6

<
L H NQ D K L C J EA H JK L HA JQ C J VM Q JA U
31
K C J B EM JA K E L HP EL > H O K C J EL
1
6
1 G JA C ; W
N L K JBA JA C MK 1E J EL ESA NT JK H JW = ED NT H L JP
Q EQ EA G H Q EQ ∗ 13
31 →
O L E @ EQ EQ EA G H Q ∗ 1
6
1
6
1 1 → 1 31
B E> K E L R EBA JVJ>? JL ? @ EU
1 3 W

S
3
3
= ED NT H L JP 1 →
1 OL E
31
J L M JL @ EQ EQ EA G H Q
3 P D EL EA C K J Q ET JL SC L H K V I HA EM NK K H U
6
1 → 31
1 JA C MK CQ EL ESA NT JK H JQ
D ND HQ K JBA W

31 → 1
1

& !&"!,],")*$%$)"'!,$.
*
$%"$7
+
(
B"!&(&#&! !"" #" $%""

1 4
,% +
'&#&(&'")
,!$/ &.&!-)
"*-!,&'&#&(&'")

I !&" *$ $%"$ & !$ $( $.+ ( !&" *&( %- +"#
+ ,$.+
+ #%&'&
$!$ G
I

.
( - +

(" !,",(" %-#"7 &#( ($#%&'&&+&*/ %&!, &+%&*%-$ $'& !"#$%$%" +* ,%- + #%&
. .
+ + - - - +
'&&

-

* +

-

/ ") G

-
I !&" *$ $%"$ &+($ &.& $+.*($
%" &'&#&(&'") + '&#&(&'" #" &+!$ +.*&# " &#&! " #, ,% ,!$
. .
* +
-
+

-

-+
(

+ +
. .
0
!$*!,+&,$.+&+.,*(* &.&$. !,,!$ $%"$" (&* " $!$+$

.&!&$ -
×
$%"$7

F+.&!"
→
*
$+ " / &
G
I
(
2−

!&"+-*$ $!$+$
$%"$ $%" & *"(&+" "#$%%& , & & $%"$ %, !&" *&( %-$ &#
.
-

($ (&* * #%&'&& !, ""7

. .
+ - * * +
. . .
- * +
. .
KLKLML Z OS Y YWSY

B
I !&" *$ $%"$ .& "("%$)%&$ &.& !, $%"$
+ * * (

'$ "%"$ $)7, B "."*%, '! , &## .,."*%&'& ,++& ",."*%&'& &( , +
% % %
& × 2 ' & → '
&

I !&" *$ $%"$ #& %& &!!$ .%& & !$ $(". ( .&.,(
% -
%&'&" $ %&'& &# ($ +,/#-, %$,.$# $#$!$%$+." *. +"#. ("!&",($ %-$! / '&#&(&
. .
+ ( -
'""" +"! &'&#&(&'""7 & *$! "% &# ($&*.&! , +!,("

. .
+
$# % #$!, " +, " $# !, &.,. + +"#

. .
8 * - +
& ",(!$ -$($%")

%-#" $%, #"!&*%$ " &'&#&(&'")
$ #"/ %$" &*.&! !&*$! &!!$ .%&+."
.
4 1 * *
&'&#&(&'") 7
. . .
- - --
+* $%7 ( $# ∈!$ &(,',. &(& / .&"#+"# (" ",( %-) &# ($ + ("%$)%&
. . . .

.
*
. .

: : :
-+ / - % (
; ; ; . * &! $
&
, 2 ' , '
$+ !$ &(,',$.+ / .& %&#$!, *$! "% "

h $ $ $ 2'i ' $ $ $

$ $ $

&
*& !,+.,%" 7 !" &(,',$#

+

-

1
,
$ $ $
2 ' -
.
: :
+ -
;
,
; ,
!,!& $%"$
&( , .& &.& !, $%"$ & ("%$)%&+."/ &( ,$# "("%$)%&$ &.&
% %
i∈ ∼
,
h $ $ $ $ $ $ & $
( - * ( *
* (

!, $%"$ "% "! $.

!, $%"$

8.& &.& &.& ( & '&#&(&'") (,'& ,

% % %
× → &
2 ' &
'
& $
! +($ $# +*&)+.* 7
-
*
4
(

* ( -
.
*

6
"
0 ' W
2' 2' 2'
6: 7; !$&'(,+%&
$#&$ &!,*$%+.*&
!$ $($%" &+.,.& %& !&*$!". (
− #
= ED N NL J> L M EW * -

, 4
2' 2'
: ; X − h : ;i :
$ $ $
;
"
, 2 ' 0 2 3 , '
$ $ $ ' $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $

:
6 6'− 3
;i :
,
;
"
X
0
2 ' , ' 3
−3 $ $ $

− h
' $ $ $ $ $ $ − &
'
6 6 2 '

, :
; ;

:
2 ' i , $ $ $ '−3 ;:
: :
0 ' 0 '
− 2 ' − h# '
−3 $ $ $

; ;
# $ $ $
X
23
2 ' i , $ $ $ '
0
−3 $ $ $

− h ' $ $ $ $
+(" *.&!.& *+$+ +(,',$#-$/

## ( $!*&'& *-!, $%" +(&+ "./ *+&,"#%&
*.&!-#+& !,*-!, ,
− 36 6 2 '
'

$%"$#/
!&#$
4
+(,',$#&'&
- ( - (

&.+,*".
7 +%&.&.,+(,',$#&$/.&
$/ .& $+(" , !,$!*&)&( + ##$
".+ ( $!*&'&: *-!, ;$%"7
( +
. .
4 - ( - ( -
. .

* + - ,
2 '
$($%&&!#( (, &('&#&(&'")7 & , -*,$./ .& G

I !&" *$ $%"$ & !$
. . $ $ $

- + +

2' .
-
5 6
.
6

UBA EH M JV JK H J J L J L MJK K E M L EQ Q C > JP O L E

J > H K JBA JA C MK E J EL ESA NT JK H JP L E ∗
| | → | | ∗
W

& 6$ $) !$ $#&$ !,*$%+.*& *- &(% $.+ $ %, !&*%$

∗
= ED N NL J> L M EW * - - (
: : :

; ; ;
.
: :
∗ , ∗ 2 ' ,
2'
;i : ;
∗ $ $ $ h i ∗ ' $ $ $ $ $ $ '

∗
:

2 ' ∗ , $ $ $ '

;i ;
h ' $ $ $
:

2 ' ∗ , $ $ $ '

;
h ∗ ' $$$

'
∗ 2' $ $ $ $
6

5 6 345 6
UBA EH M JV JK H J VME L MJK K E UBA EH MJVJK H R M
L EQ Q C > JP O L E
' ' )
2'i 2 'i$
& 6$ $) !$ $#&$ !,*$%+.*& *- &(% $.+ $ %, !&*%$

h h
= ED N NL J> L M EW * - - (
: ;i h h: : ;: i :

;i
.
' , '
2 ' , $ $ $ '

2'
: ;ih ;i ;i
h $ $ $ ' $ $ $
' ,
h $ $ $ ' ' $ $ $ 2'
' ) ,
h 2'$ $ $ $
6

UBA EH M JV JK H J H
> E
5 6
UBA EH M JV JK H J M? NK C G EA Q U 345 6 6
' ) '
2 '2 2 '2 $

:
& 6$ $)7 +(" !$ $#&$

: !,*$%+.*&; / .&*- & &(%, *-!,
= ED N NL J> L M EW *
2 '2

,
2 '2
$.+ $%" $ !,*%-
%, !&*%$
*
- -
(
(
-

: ;ih : ;i :
. $ $ $
h

; $ $ $
2 '
2 $ $ $ 2 ' 2 ,
$ $ $

$
] &.%&+".$(
!, $%"$%&# +( ,$ ,%,(&'" %&$ & !$ $($%"$ G
I !&" *$ $%"
, . &.&
+ -
* (

3 ×

2 ' 3 ∪

$)+.*".$( %&/ +. "("+"# * ($ + : +(" ; ".($ *". */ .& ∪ 7 &' ,$&%

→ ' $
1
1
/
$(" &# ($ ".

", $+(" &% ($ ".!"%"#,$. *
% 7 %, &%$%"$($ %, +"# ($ +$ (: , & /

($*&$

.
,

$ $ $

2'
(
3
4 1*

-

;
( (
3 3
* / .& +"# ($ + : +&&.*$.+.* $. % ($*&#

. .
1 ' 2 '
;
+ +
3

($#$%. '! - 7
. $ $ $
(
, '
. $ $ $
1
+* ],,%& %&$+ .$#/%, $%"$ G

!$I $(!&"%%-)*$ $%"%, +7* .& "&(&'"" #%&'&& !, ,!$")
'

1
(
.& & +
&#&! "

# ,%+ - * +
/ ' $ ,# % .&$ #%&'&& !, "$

-+ + +

/ $+(" →%$&!"$%."! $#& / + &#& G
I !&" *$ $%" & "+-
.
− % % + * + %
*,$.+ +($ "# & !, &#7

& & .
4 + -
Z
1 - 4 * +

: 6 6
:

6 EQ EA G H Q
6
NK D NA J HQ JJL MH V
; ;
−
7→
− P @ VJ G K VNQ JK L N> K C D> N Q K E@ EESA N H?
7→
W
* ,!"6 $%.!""$$+%&#$!,
$ - %,"#$%
= ED N NL J> L M EW
&$ +.& "#$("
!, $($%"$7

.!",%'?,%( #$!" #%&'&&
*$!,!" "%-

$#
/ #$!%-

*$! !,"%-" ., / / .&

, %"#" +"#(" ($,!"+&*$%.!-

+
-

-
1
* + -
0

0

#$!%- +"# ($ +&* / ,.$# $%.!- " .7 7

. .
* 1 1 + 1 *
]# P, $+.*$ !$ +.,*".$( '&#&(&'" $+ &'& (,++, : *- $!$# + #

0
; ($ +,# /
+ *
: / ' $ + ##"!&*,%"$ *$ .+ & *+$# +"#

. .
-
;
*
*$! "%- &.&!- , "+,%- * &! $ *& !,+.,%" " %&#$!&* %, +&
. . .
,
-
0
±
&.*$.+.* $. +&'(,+&*,%%&+." &!"$%., ") +"# ($ +, " #%&'&& !, " 7
$ $ $ .
1 + - + - +

#$!, " *$! "% *- !,%, ., / .& ( &) +"# ($ + :

. . & .
* + -
+&%, $!& ".+ * & %&# " #$!%- +"# ($ +&* / * & " * 7 ]$! " ;
.
8 4*
- 1
0 *

,
%& %, %& , , . #$!%-) +"# ($ + 7 !" .&# − #$!%,

. . $ $ $
( - + - 1

, * !$&!+.,*($ *&$.+!,+.,%"
,($."+,%- * *" $ %&#$!&*7
P :
; $+ *$! "%- +%&*,
.
+ + -
.
±
- - + 1
∗
. . $ $ $ &
+ - + -
.

, !&*%$$.+ && $$ $) !" / "( &#&!&.&!&)

+& &+.,*( 8 " #$ ,% ,!$ $7 " & .&#P
+ + 3
- -
.
− - −
.
3
X : X :
;i :
∗
h .i .
; ;
− −
± , ,

± h $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
− ∗ X3

.& " .!$ &*,(&+ 7

h i
*
" " *($$ $! "#& .&'&

+
%& & *,J$ %-$

"%".+($ ."+.*"*, & & , " &#&! " # ,% ,!$
+
( *
(

-

.
+ +
.
•
&.& !, $%"$ %, 7→ : ; *( $.+ " &#&! " #&#
* (
− − - - - + +

−
% %
•
+&& &+.,*($%"$ $ " %,& $ !&*%$
$ $)/ "%*,!",%.%&

" / &%$'&#&(&'")7
&
"%*,!",%.%&$ %, !&*%$

&
.

&

−
,. F%*,!",%.%&$
"%*,!",%.%&$
.
& &!$!$$($%"$

$($%"$ ""%&#&!
$ +, " #,$!$+$ $%",% ,!$" (&*/& *&(!$$.
+
.
+ + -
+.,*( " '&#&(&'"7 9 $+"#$%%&/ "$ (,++-+. " (&* ∈: " "
.
-
. .
4
;
- %
∈:
7 &' ,

%

. .

.

&

;

−
−

− & −
: ; h : ;i

hh ii
, %&/ +. %, !&*%$ $ $) " 7

&'$)+.*".$(

− )

− )
$
0
−
/ P
P 3
∗
−
: ; : ;

− )
−
−
−
− X ∗
X − ∗
X 3
( $!$#& "%%& $ $!$+ $!$+$

"+,. $%"& 7! 9'&#"#$%%&/
/ .& -+.*-!, ". .,GHI&)

&!#
h i h i $
!&" *$ $%"$

+

($#$%. / .& : ; ∈ ∼ 7 &' ,

0

%
+
(

.

0

,

%
*

+
.

%
& &

hh ii
F &!# (- " &+& &## .,."*%&+." GHI !&" *$ $%" +($ $./
)
− − $
.& +

0
. .

−
+ -
− ii
− ii :
(, & "$*" %, *-%, !,%-

&!#(,++&* !&*%$ $ $" $)/" $+("$ %-* , &#$+.*$($ +&*!$ +.,*"
0
hh − hh
.$($)
""%*,!",%.%&+." .

7 & &.&#!$ $($%"

:
&!# (,"% $ +,+($ $!$+$

$. .,$%" $7 %$ &+!$ +.*$%%& "

−

*

:

+
.

.

.

( +
∗
− .
- -
.

F *$+.%, " ("%$)%&)& ,('$

+ -
, !- &!#
-*,$./ +
.& (,
$+(" / *
"

"
" !&+.!,%+.*, " !,+ &(& $%- * #$!%&# !&+.!,%+.*$/ .&

"
+

− ∩
7 +(" / .& '&*&! ./ .&
.
(
&%&(&'"$)!&+.!,%+.*, " 7 ] +&&.*$.+.*"" + *.&) #$!%&#

.$!#"
" "
-
∩ > − ∩ −
$# '&*&!". / .& #$!%-) " #$!%-) " (-
LA NK MJA N> K C

#%&'&& !, "" *
/ $+(" ( , &) ,!- +"# ($ +&*/ * &
" * !, %-$ " (-/ " $!$+$ $%"$ (" & +.&/ (" & "#$$. !,
* + LA NK M JA N> K C

-

(

.

#$!%&+. 7 ] ,+.%&+."/ " (- & &(%".$( %&) !, #$!%&+."

. .
- + * * +
.!,%+*$!+,( %-−.&' , " .&( & .&' ,/ &' , " $!$+$ $%"$ +&+.&". "
" .
+
&%$ %&'& "+(, .& $ 7

.
+
%,+&!#$+.(,.& *,"#$$. +($ %- '$&#$.!" $+ "%.$! !$., %&)" !,$+

. .

("#$!%&+."/ .!,%+*$!+,( " (, "

& &(%".$(
. .
0
&'&#&(&'" $+ ") (,++/ *&)+.*$%%-) " $!$+$" $%"7 ]/

.

+
.& GHI !&" *$ $%"$ (,++&* " / *&)+.*$%%-

. −

.,+,( &)%- &!#" (&*/ ("!&*, %$$ .&(.*$! & $%"$
*$!%& ( !&" *&( %- .!,%+*$!
. . .

+
−
&" , 7$# &'.&7, +. $+. " (-( "" (&* "#& &(%".$( *&)+.*$%%-%&) !,& "#$!%&+."7
. −
( - +
(-
. .
- +
. . .
/ (
−

−.

. & . .
: −
;i

: ;i · h :
− ) ,
h
;i
$ $ $ − −

− , −
+. P " P 7 &' , P "

h $ $ $ − − $ $ $ − − $

P 7 ,($$/ ( .!,%+*$!+,( %- " (&* ∩

−
∗ −

/ & .&# 7 , "# & !, &#/

/ -
∗

. −
% %& / !&*$!". / .& $+(" : " :

P P * +
; ;
− − ∗
∩ ∩
.& : ; ∩ 7 ] ,!" $%.!" $+ " &&! "
.

(

,
−

∗
%,., , , #", .+ !,*%$%" #" 7 & .&# / ($., , ,.+

, .+ ($.#"!,*%$%"
$ $ $ − $ $ $

∗ ,
∗

* − −

,!,*%$%"
$ $ $ − − . .
+ -

-

,
− .
7 $ $! $ +%&/ .& : ∩ ;
. . $ $ $ .

+ - - + -
∩
.& +"# ($ + 7
− $ $ $ − −

- ( -
,
$ $ $ − −
∗

.
,
$ $ $

− −
7

N C O H > H L J D E> I E D E@ EQ E> E@H ; ; D EF G G H I H U
×
JK L NQ H W
Z
S N VH L J H K V JD NQ EB JA J JO JK H? VH N@ EK N> H M ; ; W
×

= ED NT H L JP O L E BA H > R S EJ EL E SA NT JU
KHJ ; H K V I HA JL
→; × ; W
; ; LA H MH N> K E J EL ESA NT JK H J
∗ ;
× →

KLKLKL OQVXU [OROPOQORS PWOROO U S

F &#&! " # ,% ,!$ " &!# (,

+ +
.

− )
− ii 0
+") $+.*$%%& & ($' , . *- "+($%"$ &($( &'&#&(&'") (:#%&'&&/ .7!,$ 7

hh
: $+ 7 , !"#$!/

.$ *-($#$%./
*
"+($%"

/ &.&!&'&

&.&!-$ #-

;
!&*$(" ( %-,

.

-
.

-
0
*
h# % .-; i * #$!%-
+ +
∈ R

&*$! %&+.$)/ .$ $! +.,%&* .+ & ." & $*"
& .
0 8 - - +
#"/
+.*$%%-&+ &( " (&*7% %& (" &+#&.!$. %, * ,"#&!,+ &(& $%"$ *&)
.

- -
.
( 1 + (
($%-+ %,$!-!"+7+ !7 ,,#"7 & , ,!%&

"+%-$$!$+$
" (-, .+ .&( "& " (- + &" "&
. .

!,
.
/ - * + +

%," &*-#" %&#$!,#"7 & !"+7 7 $% " +& %"#, -*,$./
%$ $!$+$.& ,$.+
( "7 (, $+.
. . $ $ $ $ $ $
* ( -
( / &.&!-) $# '&#&(&'"
. . .
8 * + -
. . .
-
0
. . .
"+7 7 7 , "+%-$ " (- %, + $!$ + ! ,#"

+
.

.
$.+( ("+.,
*(.!,%+*$!+,(
",'&%,( " +,/!"+7* ($$%%&'& * + '&#&(&'"
# $! / , "+%-)
$% " "( ( / &.&!-)
!$ +.,
7 7
/ - * * +
(&+ &+." "%& +&&.*$.+.*

$!$+$ ,$. !&*%& . * #* &!&$%&)."*%-#
.& $7 !( #-#7!&$ ."*%&)
. .
- - 0
0
. .
/ -
], %!, ""% ,&!#, " & +.!&$%"" &($%"$/, &.&!&$

&'&#&(&'") ,#$ % ,.&'&
. . .

0 -
#%&'&& . +($ $$ .*$! %,#" ."

. .
( +
$+ " -(& & , ,%&7

. . .
* + - ( (
. .
* +
6 6
. .

L NQ D K L EJ Q K E@ EESA N H JP K JD EL EU
Z
P J > H
6 K JEA H JK L HA JQ E W E@ VN M BA E LA NK U
A E J B E> JP BA H O Q
L MN − H Q ET K E MC SA NL SN H C

&
& $ $ $

"+7 7 7 , "+%-) " ( %, ("+.$ " +,

0 +
.
*
H
$$$

L NDP O L E 6 )

P @ VJ SN H K C F> JQ JK L U

#
Q JA K E@ E BA E LA NK L MN W
.&
= ED N NL J> L M EW &#&! "$%"$# .,,%&*&,!$ ]" !&+.!,%+.*,
6 *"*,($%.%&$F .*$! &!# (, & , -*,
+

+ ./ &
0 +
" .& #& %& *-.*$! !,. , "+- "

., /
. .

(

7 8.& $%"$ +&* , ,$. +& +($ +.*"$# .$&!$

. .
( * * +
∗ ∗
∗ ∗ &

#- hh7 7 %, ii+7 7
− $ $ $ $ $ $ .

∗
∗ &

(
#
0
*, 9%,(&'"
. +($ %-$$$ !,++
.*$! $%"
$%"$7 + "+ &( &*,%"$# .$&!$#- 7 7 & , -

(
(
- + 0
.
+

6

6

L NQ D K L EJ EA H JK L HA JQ EJ Q K E@ EU
ESA N H JW E@ V N Z
M M ES EVK C NS J> JMC @A B B N −
− H

6

P @ VJ − H B EV@A B B C DA O JK H? P Q ET &K E MC SA NL
Z
6 Z
SN H C &
$$$
R N? @A B B C

H
$$$

W
L NDP O L E )

#

P @ VJ E SA NU
'") &#& .$&!$# " 7 7 " 77 7 #& %& *- "+(". &( , &'&#&(&
&
(

. .
∗ ∗
R & Z
C & Z

A H @A B B N E VJA T H L JVH K U
66 R & Z
L MJK K C K JK > JME F> JQ JK L P BA H O Q

( BA H
"

) 6

" &
BA H

& .&#6 - $ %,$#/ .& R7 +.,Z .+∼ Z !&*$!".

!" 6 / 6.& /
$

!" 7 F !"
= ED N NL J> L M EW ( +
.$&!$#-
∼
) R & Z" Z +

66
7 7 +($ %$% $./ ($*-$
.& ($#$%.-

&

-

!" / &+ &( " $ "%+.*$%%-$

6 " 6

.

.

6

)

'!!$ +.,*".$($)

R Z
" 7 +(" $ / .& * , $+.*$
" #&R %& Z*- !,. & " (-/ *&)+.*$%%-$ " (,#

(
"

* R ⊂ R 7 & .&# 6 7
& & .
( *
. . .
)

<
BA H P P P W W W P P N BA H M J
C Z

@A B B N D E@ EQ& E> E@H K > JMN? W A H F L EQ Q ET K E MC SA NL

Z
6
E L N> K C
ESA N R H J P

P W W W P L NDP O L E ) BA H

"
W
6 + &#& ! &!# - &'&#&(&'") ($' %-& *- &"+( ".+"$%.&*7& '! ! ,#

6
'&#&(&'")
= ED N NL J> L M EW
(- %"*$!+,( - -
#$%- $.+
&'&#&(&'") %$ "#$ . ! $%" / & .&# .$&!$#, 7 7 !"
. .

+,#"# '! ,# &'&#&(&'")7 +. / / 777/ & !,

.

C
-

"$7 '!!" &'&#&(&'")7 &'(,+%& .$&!$#$ 7 7 " ,%,
. .
- - *
−
#& %& !,++#&.!$. " (- %,
+
.
.
)

(&'" %&

& , ,. / .& 7 $ $! & !, "$ + !,
"
.

C
(
±

*"( %-#" %, ,#" #& %&/ 777*- !,. ., / /
.

±
+ ) * +
+
.
( *
)
)
.
)
± .
±

N = ED NT H L JP O L E J > H P L E > R S EJ K JBA JA C MU
K EJ EL ESA NT JK H J H K V I HA JL K > JME J EL ESA NT JK H J
R → R
∗ V>? M J 0W
R &Z → R & Z
>
S = ED NT H L JP O L E J > H P L E > R SEJ K JBA JA C MK E J EL EU
SA NT JK H J
R → R
H K V I HA JL K > JM EJ EL ESA NT JK H J

R Z → R Z V>? M J 0W
∗ & & >

= ED NT H L JP O L E J > H 0 P L E K J J L M JL
>
K JBA JA C MK E@ E EL ESA NT JK H?
V>? M J ;
∈
.$&!$#, &!+ ,< C(,#, ;

→
; P V>? D EL EA E@ E
W −

−
6
.

N = ED NT H L JP O L E H C K J> ? BA JV L NMH L M
R
MH V J E S JVH K JK H? L ? @H M NJQ C B EVD EQ B> JD E MW
S A JV L NML J H M MH VJ ES JVH K JK H? 0 L ? @H MN JQ C
"
R C
B E VD EQ B> JD E MW

L K JBA JA C MK EJ EL ESA NT JK H JW
C " → "

C
P @ VJ
" "
= ED NT H L JP O L E 0 W
$ $ $ ∈Z

= ED NT H L JP O L E J > H
O L K EP L E > R SE J K JBA JA C MK EJ
EL ESA NT JK H J HQ JJL K JB EV MH T K R L EO D W
C → C

<
= ED NT H L JP O L E L JB JK EL E SA NT JK H?
C → C

HQ JJL MH V P @ VJ ∈Z
W

N = ED NT H L JP O L E BA H O L K EQ K J J L M JL VH G U
6 P ESA N NR J@ E EA H JK L NI H R W
6
G JEQ EA G H Q N
C → C
S E LA E L J VH G G JEQ EA G H Q P ESA N NR H
C → C
EA H JK L NI H R W

= ED NT H L JP O L E BA E LA NK L MN H ; ; @ EQ EU
C ∨
L EB H O J D H K J F D MH M N> JK L K C P H MC MJVH L J H F L E@ EP O L E A N > E JK H J
EB G N ; ; K J @ EQ EL EB K E B E L E? K K EQ EL ESA NT JK H R W

6
→
KLKL L U Z SPY U

(&'")? $+%$ &#-!$ !"*$

$( # .$#"
.+ *, !"#$!,/
,%%-#"/
-*, "$/&(%&+.
& , &.&!-#"
.& , &'&#&
, .+($ + D E> I N
&'&#&(&'")7 ]& $!*- / &# ($ +- + " &#&! %-#"

. .
- - + -

.& %-#" $ %-#" +,#" #&'
&# ,%,($ %$& . "#$.& !,%$" ,.&#&!+ %$%-$&+!$&(+.*$%%&
,&
.
@A B B C +
'&#&(&'")7 ."# +* & "#&+.

. . . .
+
+"# ",(%&)%&)+.!+.! . !-. !$ !" ."& !$ $($) $($%""%$ #%& $%"%&7 *]&&'&#&(&
'"&( & ("($.&
. . . .
-+ * * -
+

" (
"$%.,#" %$ !$ &+.,.&
$(

$. *.&!- /
( -
&'&#&(&'") & & &($ &'&#&(&

. . .
- -
'") + ! '"#" & " "$%.,#" !&+.!,%+.*, + " %$"

&#&!&#&!%-#"%-$&( &( ,
& . .
-
Z
#", &'&#&(&'")
&'&#&(&'") ++ && "" "$%.,#" #&' . "#$.
. . . . .
+
"$%.,#" ZZ 7
. .
+
.&* - ∨$# &( &*,. + .$#/ !".& ( /( !"&'&# &( , & " "$%
. . .

. .
* + - - *
( ⊕&'&#&(&'" $+ " (,++&* &(& ".$( %&) !,

. " . "

)
0 0
#$!%&+." , , , 7 7 7
"

) ) - ( +
0 0
. . .
+ 0
0

> JL EO K C J I JB K C J D EQ B> JD C V>? L EA N H V>? BA EU

6 ∨ 6
LA NK L MN ; ; ; H EQ EA G K C P K E D E> I N D E@ EQ E> E@H F L H BA EU
∨
LA NK L M K J H EQ EA G K C W
+.!,%+.*6 "#$ . *" ($.& %-$ $ %-$ &# ($ +- ( & &" !&
= ED N NL J> L M EW

2

.

.
- *
*+$ '!,%" %-$ '&#&#&! " #- % ($*-$7

Z→Z⊕Z→Z→ &
+

!

" # $
%

0

( !&+.!,%+.*,
/
/ &+ &(
-
∨ ∨
7 #$!%-$
& .&# &'&#&(&'""
!&" *$ " (&#&!- %-
$%"$ ; ; ; 0
;
+
#$!%- " ∨ (,++&* %$& !,*%&

" (&*%!,*%& % ( 7 9 ( .&!, !&" *$ $%"$ & !,
.
; ; + * 0
(7
. .

- + *

. . .
+

×

= ED NT H L JP O L E BA E LA NK L MN ; ; H
HQ JR L E VH K ND E MC J @A B B C D E@ EQ E> E@H P K E D E> I N
;
∨
;
∨
;
6
D E@ EQ E> E@H K H A N K C JW

D EF G G H I H JK L NQ H
0 6
E> I N D E@ EQ E> E@H BA E LA NK L M
H EQ EA G K C P N D EF G G H I H JK L NQ H
R

6
R ∨
H ;
K J H EQ EA G K C W
6 ( & &" !&+.!,%+.* #$!%-$ '! - &'&#&(&
Z Z
'") + & " "$%.,#"

= ED N NL J> L M EW
.!"*",( %&$7 ] $ % ($*-$/ & .&# /
#%& $%"$
-
* &'&#&(&'"
* 0
&( &'&#&(&'") + & " "$%.,#" Z7 9 !&+.!,%

.
( -
Z
+.*, $+. ($#$%. / ( &.&!&'& * &( $
. .

&'&#&(&'") + & " "$%.,#" !&+.!,%+.*, ., &'& ($

. . .

R
- ) )
6
#$%., %$.7 $)+.*".$( %&/ .,# $+. .&( & ., "$ %$% ($*-$ ($#$%.-
. .
;
R ∨

Z
/ " 7
. . .
/
.

.
;
0
∈ R Z ∈ R Z ∈ 0 )
Z 0
KLKL L OPO S P Y YXU

& & &

&#F ,&#&!
.%- + "&!"$%."!
# $ $$#-, & &#%&'&&
+ ,$. " &#&! " #
!, ") + 1
!,$#7 %, +( ,)
,%%,,!$+.,%,*("*, * * + +
'!$.%&)"" &#&! " # #$ '! " ,#" 7 , " "&#&! " #, , , " .+#$ &
.
* +

,#"
. . .
+ + ( − (

.&) $
&!#
(&)
: ; / 'G
I$ :#%& ; ∈ $%"$ %
-

− * + + +

,#$%.,( %-) (,++7 $(& 7→*.&#/ .&

(

/ (
.
−
→
']&$ $!*- / #&" %&∪ &(& ". /#& %& ", ,. *# / !,, *&%-#" + &+&/ #&,#"7%&

× ∪

&(& !"". & , ,.$( +.*$" .$&!$#-

*.&!-
( +

- + *
7 &∅ " &#&! " #$ $ $ , %,# &%,

( (
(

(
∅

".+ + +($#%&'&& !,$$ ".*$!

!,& &.$ * -
#" + $%"$/

!,$#7 &.&!&$ ,+.& -*,$. &($ %& !"

.

+

-
(
*
.
+

+
*
1
+

* * +
.

:
6

@ E ESA N H J DA N JQ

0

L
W E@ VN
D EQ B ND L K E J Q K EU
J L M JL @> NVD E J M> ET JK H J

P V>? D EL EA E@ E BA H W
∈

$!$#6 +!$ " %" &%$,++#&.!"# &! "%,.%-$

%-) %, &&! / 777/ & /!$+.%&+."
& !-*, *") " *- 7
× →
= ED N NL J> L M EW

. .
* *

.
.
0 0
+. { } 7 %&'(,$+.*&&$ !,#&"$%"$

%& $ "%"$+.*".
&.&
-/ &+ "%& #%&%%&$$+.*&#
& !-."* +*
.,-(/ %,.&!,*($%

-} *% ,.!,*,(&+

!,*%$%"$# " *$ .&!
. .
( ( ( (
{ ∩ R
7 ,++#&.!"# %, #%& $+.*$ *$ .&!%&$ &
* + 0

($%& *$ .&!%&$ &($ P .& *$7 .&!%&$ , #%& $+.*$ S & !$ $($
. . $ $ $
* (

&($ %"' $ %$ & !,.& ,$.+" *,

.
$ $ $

(
*

%*!$#( " %, & .!,$ %,.&!""

!,*($%&.&'&*% *$.! .&!%&'&
7 +. + *"'
$ $ $

-
&( 7 F &# , .%&+."

. .

&
+

+($( *+$$./ .& #& %&" *+$*- !,. : 7 .,.& /!,.& $%"$+ *"' $. & !$*( $.+ $( %
.
- - +
. . . .

.!$ $#-# ∈'(, "# *(& ∈$%"$#; × : → 7

( * *

.

- * ( - - -

* (
# % !,.&$+." #%&'&& &#!, "$, .%&$ #%&'&& !, "$ + !,$# 7 $#,++#&.!"# ,

.

/ &.&!&$ &( $%& " * !&* #%&

'&&$# ( !- &.&$# & $+.*($%"$#

*

+&&.*$.+.* " .& $ " !, * ."

.
+ ( .

*

+

.
+

+ -
+
& %, ,. " 7 F .$&!$#- & *&!&.%" $ +($

. . .
* + - (
$./ .& * $.#& &%&#%&*- $+.* !,. &#%&'&& .,!, "$/ .& ≈,#- ,%"$ : +&
. . &
× − ;
+ - * * + +
0
+&&.*$.+.*
. .
( * * + 0 0

+.&". " * %$ $!$+$

+ , " + ×&{ #%&

} $+.*
!"+7 7 7 %&'&& !, "$ #& %& .!",%' ("!&*,. ., / .& -

"

/ '&#$&#&! \ %-
(

-

(
.

+
0
.

$'& & #%&'&& !, " / " -(" & &# ($ +,#"7

.
00 * + ( *
.
* + - *
0 . .
"+7 7 7 %&'&& !, "$ 00 * +
?, " $# &.%&+".$( % &+($ &*,.$( %&+. ,)$!,< ] $.&!"+,

1

→ → ⊕ →
] .&)7 @.&&+($- &*,.$( %&+." / &+ &(

∩ ∪ → 0 0 0

∅
!$& !, &*,. &+.,(

* %-$∩ '! ∼ - '&#&(&'") #- *&+∩ &(

*

+

0

.

.

0

0

("
+ $#+",(" %-)
&#&! &#" #&#
-
($ +/ "
+
∼
$'&
& ∪
&# ($
∪
+-/
/ ' $ ∪& &# +"#
+
($ +
7 8.&. " &#&! " # & $*" $% $ %, !&*%$ &.%&+".$( %- $ $)7

∗ ∗

+%&/ .& ,!- " / & .&#'&#&.& " $+ " *"*,($%.%-

. . . . . .
+ + (
" !&#$

.&'&/ ∪ ∪ ∪ ∪ ∪ ∪ ∪ ∼ / & .&# 7
0

0

0

0

0

0
.

.

& , $#/ *,.& $# ( !, ∼&% +&* %,

!" / .& ∪ 7 ∼+("".+ +"# 7!" ($".

2
0 0 0
(
0 −
&( (" ",( %-) &# ($ +/ / ''&#$&#&! %-)

.

0

+

-

7 & .&# $
. . . .
-

7 & %, &+($ &*,.$(∼ %&+. ,!- &
. .

∪

≈

0

0

, -*,$./ .& !" 7 !&#$ .&'&/

-
0
∪

7

+
∼ 0 2

] %&*&) .& %&) &+($ &*,.$( %&+."

.

∼

−

→ → ⊕ → →
'&#&#&! " # !$ +.,*( $. +& &) &# & "
0 0
→ − −

" '&#&#&! " #&* →

+

+

−
- *
.
+

−
& .&# &%%&#+&* ", (,$.$'&+ '&#&#&! " #&# / 7&.&!-) +& &+.,*( $. &.

0 ∗
→ → ∪ −→

%&+".$(

" #, ""% $# "!&*,%-

, +&(
* ( $%" #"7
.% '!,%" +.,(

%-$ *, '&#&#&!

*

+
∗

.

-
?, $ & % &+($ &*,.$( %&+. ,)$!,< ] $.&!"+,/ %, .&.

.
+ -
!, , +&( .%
.
1
+ *

− − − −
8.&+($.&&*,.$(
% %&+. &+($ &*,.$( %&+. #& %& &.& !, ". * $!* .& %
0
→ → ⊕ → →

+($ "# & !, &#

*
(
+
* +

− − − 0 − −
−
→ −
→ ⊕ −
→ −
→ −
→
   
  0  
y y ⊕ y y

0 0 −
− −
−
] &( $%%&) ",'!,##$ ($*-) *, !,. &## .,."*$%/ &.&# .&

−
→ −
→ −
→ ⊕ → →
*+$
" :*+.!$"% "$+ .,#* &( $!,$%"""#"* ".&#&'!,%"
, "!&*,%-

"+($$%"" $!$#"7 & &. : ; : ;

.

.

; %") *, !,. .& $ &## .,."*$%/ &.&# .& $+("

-
!$
.
0 -

-
& " (/ .&: 7 : ; − : ; : ;

.

( −

. . "
− 0 − −
;

. . #
−
0
] !,*&#
+.!&$%& +($ *,!,.$
"# *$!!, &#7
%$$ ]&&.& #!,# $%"$ "

∈ 7 #
→
#& %&+&*+& &+.,*".

& $

& ( * ( − −

& ∈ / &'!,%" $%"$ &.&!&) %,

.
* + + −

−

, ,$. + + 7 ,++#&.!"# * &$ / &

. .
( −
−
.
.&!,

+&* , ,$. %, " !,*%, % ( *%$ .& #&
.
−

−

−
%&#&$ + $(,.!,/ $%"$ .& !, * % "( %$$%, !,7 F+$%"$&

&.& &.&#"#$$.*" * : .&#& ; 7→*,:,$.+
- −
.

.
(
7"% "!&*,%&
&.& * ( $
#
− -
;
*

!,.$
# .
* ( − − ( *

(

%"$#7 +%&/ .&→: : ; : : ; :" 7 , &%$ :/ !,*$%

∗

−

−

.
# −

∗ −
.

;
; ;

;

−
+.*&
∗ −
: ;

:

: & , -*,$./

− −
− : " :; &.(" , .+ ; %, '!,%" /

∗
.& $ "
" .
− 0 −∗ −
; '&#&(&'")7 , ; "# & !, &#/ !,*-) *,

+

.7!,.
$ 7 &%"&##($ −.,."*$%
,. * & %&#+ .& (,++$
# .

0 − − -
%&+./ &.&!, & %, ,7&## .,."*%, + .& %&+. &

#
( * +
- &+.!&"(" ",'!,##
. . .
+
#&!%, ,7" #,#".& !,* +"($%" .$&!$#-: ; " & : "&#&!; * .&)" #$",'!,##$
,% ,!$7*( & .&#
.+ " "&
. .
-
. .
+ * ( -
- - - +
.

+ ($##- &#&!+($" %&#&#7

$./ .& &.& !, $%"$ −−−−→ *( $.
+ * + + +
.

"9%,(&'"

* ( − - -
#& %& &+.!&". ",'!,##

- + +
(

− − −
−→ −→ ⊕ − 0 −→ −→
  
  0 
y y ⊕ y

⊕ 0

"#&!& ", ,.#&#7/ ].&!$&.&( !,.,.$$%"$&( ,$# +($ $$ .*$! $%"$7*( $.+ " &
−→ −→ −→ −→

−

−−−−→
+ * ( - - - +
.
+ +

(

ND

N 6

L
N
B L K E J EA H JK L HA JQ E J Q K E@ EESA H J DA JQ

D EQ U
W E@ V EL E SA NT JU
N
6 6 −−−−→ −−−−→

K H? − H − ? M>? R L U
? H EQ EA G H Q NQ H W
, "$ $/ "' &#&!

"$%.,#"
$ (" ,#- "."*%,

"#$ . #$+.&
'!
+ ", (& & "'&#&(&'")
"$%.&* %$
+ &.&!&'&
+& " -
&( (,7 %$&!"$%."! $#&'& #%&'&& !, " ., "$ " &#&! " #- "#$ .
. . .
% % -
. .

#$+.& * +( ,$ & " "$%.&* Z 7

.
/ - * + - + +
.

.

6

L D EQ B ND L K EJ EA H JK L HA JQ EJ Q K EU

@ E ESA N H J K JB L CQ DA N JQ W = ED NT H L JP O L E V>? @ EQ E> EU
0

@H D EF G G H I H JK L NQ H M B E> J

6 6
A N Q JA K E L E SA N N EL ESA NT JK H?
A N MKQN B E> EMH K J A N Q JA K E L H W
6
→
KLKL L O \T YWWO\TV QY[\UW Y U

.$&!$#-*&)+.*$%%&+."7
% F.$&!$#

$ $ , & " &#&! " #$ #& %& *-*$+." $ & % *,
+

1 * + + ( (

6 6

L NQ D K L E J B EVQ K E@ EE SA N H JW E@ VN
$

∼
− −
\ H

∼ − −

\
BA H
0W

6
66 −
= ED N NL J> L M EW
∼
, % # 7+ ]-.&'&/&(&* " .& .&& , $# " &#&! /
&.& " $# ( + +
+.*"# \ { } + R " !"#$%"#

.$&!$# 6∈ & .! ,.&)
.

\ + (
& &'!$+.%&+."7 +. &. !-., .! ,., & !$+.%&+. 7

− . .
*

⊂R
'&#&.& " $+ " *"*,($%.%, / , !&

, ,!,
.
- * -
+.!,%+.*&
\ '&#&.& " $+ "

*"*,($%.%& \ 7 &'(,+
. . .

%&!&#$" &#&!.&'&/" # $ $ ,
\ ∼
\ "7
. .

+ +

1
. .

\ 7
2 ∼
∼

−

@.& - ". $!*-)%&+." " ,!-.!$ $#- " &#&! " #&*/ !,++#&.!"#

&(

\ ∼
\
.& % &+($ &*,.$(
− −

*

+

* + +

∗
#&!+("$+ "&.(" &. − %&// .&

#7 ($%& &*,.$( / & .&# " &

→ −→
→

$
0
∗ +

/ & .&# 7 .& %, &+($ &*,.$( ∼ ∼

− −
\
#
+

] +( ,$/ &' , / !,++#,.!"*,$#,

&

+
−− 6
0
− − ∼ − −

%&+. !"%"#,$. *" −

.

0 - -
− ∗ ∼
? $+ '&#&#&! "7 #,++#&.!"# "%., $"!&*,% * ( $%"$# ,!"
∗
→ −→

−→
Z
$

"%#-
"!&*,%%-)
∅ →

"# '&#&#&!

" # *
#$!%-( $%"$
'&#&(&'")7
→
"

\&#&#&!

+

∗
(
.

" * & . * ",'!,##

. .
+

+
∗ -
∗
∗

−−−−→

 
∼ ∼
y y
,
,

\ −−−−→
∗

0
* ,%&.&!&)
,!$7 *$!." ",'!,##,
8., ,( %-$ +.!$(&##" .,."*%," &#&!+ .&" %&+.
#- $ &$ , %,"
+ + 1
%& !$ "+.,*".
' ,/$ ∗& .&# .& ,
∼ \ / 7#& &#&#&!
# *
*" \$ → " ∗""/
. . .
+
&# &
. .
∗ + , ,
. ∗ ∗

/ & .&#
\ 7 7
( +
. .
] ".&'$

\ &( −→,$#
−→ ∗

, ∗ , ∼ , ,

].&!&) " .!$ $#- " &#&! " #&* & ∼, -*,$.+ ,%,(&'" %&7
∗ ∗

−

∗ ∗

,
∼
\ # ∗
+ * + + + -
.

6 6 6 6

> H ESA N BA H M> ET JK H H M K J M? K E@ E Q K E@ EU

ESA N H? P E L E? J@ E H EDA T K E L JP L E

\ ∼
∼ Z
H ,
∼ Z −

\ ∼

L −
6 ⊂
6 6
M? K EJ NQ D K L E J B EVQ K EU
6
@ E ESA N H JW E@ V N − EA H JK L HA JQ E H − E L EH L H V M
6
M? K C D EQ B EK JK L W

\
6
= ED N NL J> L M EW &'(,+%& 7 +("*&)+.*$%%&+."
+* %&$9($,#+,%% .&$$!,
%$&!"$%."!

$#&$ #%&'&&

\ !, "$/ .&

∼ Z .$&!$#, 7 7
.
− − ∼ , − − -+ +
%,%, +7, $($*,77 &!.&#'&) #%&'&&

+.&!&%-/!, '!"$ , &!"$%."!

+*&%, &"./
.
* + − − 0

$#&/ ,

, − *

\
∼ Z7 ,*$%+.*& ∼ Z & %, ,$./ .&
- *

* +
−

+
+&+.&". " * ("%$)%&

+* \%- &# &%$%.7
− − , − +

−

+
-+

\ .

#%&'&&7 !,7 7 "*&)+.*$%%&+.
&.$&!$#

/ %& " ( !&"9($ *&(+,% %&'&
*
0
/
+ -
$!, "#$$.
& &##$+.&
($ +,%$ .&($
& +#7(
-

+
.

.

.

.

-

A JVB E> ET HQ P O L E M G JA P P M> ET JK E B EU
B NA K E K JB JA J JD NR H ? G JA − W L

H>VEB E> K JK H JW C O H U
> H L J @ EQ E> E@H H W

G JA N BA EH M E> K E M> ET JK N M G JA W = ED NU

6
T H L JP O L E BA E LA NK L M E
HQ JJL L ND H J T J
@ EQ E> E@H HP

D ND G JA N − W

\

G JA C H ' BA EH ME> K E M> ET JK C M G JA W

6
= ED NT H L JP O L E BA E LA NK L ME \
t
' HQ JJL L ND H
J T J
@ EQ E> E@H HP D ND −

−' W
0

%&+.$)/ & *(&" "$%.

2
$%%-
, * $ ($%" #& %& & !$ $(". %$ .&( & ( & !
/ %& " ( +* %- ,# % .- &!"$%."!&*,%
+ - ( - (
%-.&'&#%&'&& !, ")
" / *(& $%%- * / ' $ 7 (
. .
( - -+ +

% %& & ." &+(&*%& &*.&!". & !$

$($%"$/ !"*$ %%&$ %,
. " "

* +
' ( 0 / -
+7" (-7 9* "#$%%&/

7 !,++#&.!"#
!"*",(
(
%&+. % ,#$%.,( *%-$!, #$!%&+."

'&#&(&'")

" (- : ; *($" : ./; .&,

'
+ $+.*6
$. $ > / ( &.&!&)

: ; 7$%" !$ $("# : 7
. . .
+

-
, "% $ + $!$+$

.
D EF G G H U
;ii-

NI JB> JK H?
8.&. "% $ + $!$+$ $%" %$ ,*"+". &. *- &!, $ " .& & ,
I H JK L .'

-
'

hh
*,$.+
*&$!$+$# #.&$%"$%& .,: $// (, "&.&!&) ( & ! %&+.$)/:*(&/ "$%%- *
7 +(" #-+
. . .
- + * +
&
!,++#&.!"# "% $
. .
- -
; %, , &( "# .& $

( ( (

/ .& + .& %&+.

' -
& '
. . . .

'
;
+
+,#&$ "+(& .& +($*&)+.*$%%&+."

$. " ($##- %,9($+7 +,%7 $!, & " "$%. , $
' .
.

hh
-
ii + (
&#&
.
+
($%"7 8.&#& $(,$.+%& "%.$!+($ !$."!&*,.

$!$ #%& $%"$ *!,. &'&#&(&'"
&
+
"# & !, &#7 ]*$ # ( &+."+,% &$!,&

. .
- ( + (
%, $%"$ t 7 $+ &'(,+%& *&)+.*$%%&+." 9($

.
- - * + - *
#-$+. *&+(,++/ &*,("+ .$#/ .&") % ,

&( +&&.*$.+.*
. .

+
'

\7 & ∼.&# *

'−
+ +
.

"
"
#$%.,( %&# (,++ :
/ , \*

\ $+. (,++/ +&&.*$.+.* ")
"
0

' &

; : ; 7
!&"

%(,++&*,#$%.,( %&# (,++ *$ $%"$/ .7$."7 *(&'&#&(&'" $+ ""

.

($ ". * $.+ $(-#
. .

' +
+(&#7 8.& "+(& " $+.

& \ " ∼"$%. , ∼

$ ($%" + .& %&+.9($ +,%& $!, %,
. . .
( ' , - - -
Z
7 @.& -, & &#, ,.& " ".&/" ,#$."#/
,+.!&".+ .& *&)+.*$%%&+.
.

+

- +
&#&! " #&*

.
* + +
. . .
- + - + +
. . .
' ,
](,++&*
+&&.*$.+.* !&" *$ $%" !,++#,.!"*,$#-
&'&#&(&'" $+ "
\ →
−

→ $

$. $!$+$ $%"$ $ $) " !$ &(,',

t

' +
$.+
9($ /+,%.&$!,."+.!&".+
$ " .!,%+*$!+,(
, &# & %-" "7 "$)+.*".$(
&#&! " #&*%&/ *&)+.*$%%&+.
'
. .

.
- /

- + - + +
. . . .
'
& .&# *
% ,#$%.,( %&# (,++ : ; +&&.*$.+.* $.
\→ −

→

'&#&(&'" $+ ") $%"(,++/ !$ +.,*($%%-)+&+.&$ $'& " 7 ' &'!"*-, #- / $!&( #

'!,%" $!$+$
.
2

*
+
,$.+ & J$ "%$%"$ * $!$+$ $%") : !"*$
; " : %%-# 7 & '
. .
- -
#-

%$ .&( & $! -
# '!,%" *
∩
/ %& " $!$ &

"#∩ ; ∩ '&#&(&

'
.

'
'" #/ , &.&# &+., .+ .&( & & %& " ." $!$+$ $%") %, !"#$!/
-

.
*

-

.

+
.

0
$!*&$
,. %, $)+.*".$(
7& %&# #%&'&& %&/!, ""'"" "(" ∩/ , ./ %& ($*&)
/ , &% *, (,&.&!-
7

$% ($($ +

' *
*&)! * (, %,, . .&(@.& &-.$ $+.'"/ .,& "%"$ *&%$ -/&.&!- ($ %&".* %,. /%&,
. .

( * +

'
" '&) 7 (, &+.,.& &

.
(

* $!$+$ $%")7
. . . .
' * +-
. .
+
KLKL L O WOY Z OS Y YWSY U\\S

:: ; ∈ +.: &'&#&(&'"

$+ "$ & "(,++-
!$" :+.,*($%-

(,#" : ;/ ∈ " 7 / !$: ; &(&∈ "#/ .&"

' '
; : ;& $ $)7 &' , " 7 !, $#" & $

. . .

; ; ( %$ &.&!-
' (
) '

' )
. . ) ' ' − ' )

#
' ' − '

− -
− * +
# . . .
"
' − ) 0 ) ' −
$' & !&*$!". / .& ., & $ *( $.+ & " (&#7 $)+.*".$( %&/

− $
#
.
" / & .&#

#

.
- - -
.

.

/
' − )
"
0 − 0 ) ' −
# #
− −

#

& " ((,++ +&&.*$.+.* $.%$ &'&#&(&'" $+ ") "(,++ : ; ∈/ " #- #& 7
) ' ) ) ' )
− $
' −
8.&.
2
$#

!" ,*(
.
:
!$ $(
% & %& %, %&
;. &'!,%" -/, !&#$ .&'&/ & & $ (,## " #-
&

.
+

.

.
'

#&: / $#&( !", ,*( . & " (-7 %& $+.*& *+$ &'&#&(&'"6 $+ " (,++&*
. . . .
( * - - ' − '
−
" + !" .&#/ %, -*, .

. . . .
-
; : ; / : ; " : ; " & & %, , . h : ; : ; : ;i 7

( * (
(,++&*
. . . . .
- + LA E K CQ BA EH M JV JK H JQ N H
' '
6
* +
.

:: ; : ; : ;

A E K EJ BA EH M JV JK H J
:
N H D E@ EQ E> E@H O J D H D> N U

E M P ' H ? M>? JL ? F> JQ JK L EQ G ND L EA @A B B C ' −

;6
B E ) ' − W
;
"
'−
]-/ " $!$#

&$#$ +" " &#&" & .," (-/ .& " 7 &

)

= ED N NL J> L M EW
' ", (/ −& .&# : −:

#
'
− '
−&*
!,
*
.
+

' − )
'−

' −
7 ? $+: 7 9%,(&'"
.

&

) '

'−
%& &
'−
, -
' −
# . .

; − *-; ∈$!$# !, %-$ & $ ;"

−
*,$.+ / .& $+(" #- " / .&
.
' − ) +
.
: ; − :+. ; ∈.$: $!; 7

'
' −
.
−

- * +

7 &' , $+(" / .&
.
) ' −

/ &+ &(
" 3 ) ' '−

−
) ' '− " 3 ) − ) '
#
] ., &#7 +(, "#,$ & !, &#/ #& %& &(& ". 7

−
#
' '
−
"
3
# #
'− '−
# " . .
' * + ( (

3
− ) '
# .

.

−
"
3 − ) ' ) 0 3 − ) '
− − #

3 − ) '
"
0 3 − ) '
0 3 − ) ' −
− −
# − # − #
0

$.+& .&#& ": (; :7 %,; 7 9%,(&'"/ +( %& !,++#,.!"*,$.+ +( ,)/ ] &'.&#, " +(#$%

- + -
,++#&.!"#/ &%$ ,)/ " &' , 7 7 ($ ,$&

.
-
. . "

' ' '
−
' #
*,.$( %&/ − − −
' − '−
7
'
" . . "
0 ) '−

− − '
− )
) '− )

0
!&)%&$ !&" *$ $%"$ ,++" #& %& !"+7!"#$%". ( .&'&/ .& - &

,#$.".,. / , .&$ ($%%&+. 7 7 ($ $./ !,* ,/ &.

+ ( - *
+ +
( & - %-
+ #%&'&#$!%&'& &($
&!!&#$& .& #& %& + $(,. +&*+$#

D E> JI EA A EQ JE 0
+7($#$%.,!%& &#& !,+ !,+& ",'!,##- , $ ($%" +#7 : %&; /

.
- *

(
7 & ( & & $%" &($ &!!&#$& $ %

.
+ - 0
!"#$%". .!&)%&$ !&" *$ $%"$ ,++"7

. .
- * * - ( (
.
+
"+7 7 7 &( , &!!&#$& 0 2
/ ( *- "+($%") %,# & %& , ,. &( , &!!&#$& !,*%$%" #"

- * +
.
-
"

0
&

"

0
&

"

0
"+7 7 & , -*,$./ .& ." !,*%$%" $)+.*".$( %& , , . &( ,

$

&!!&#$&7 0
]#$+.&%,# !&+.!,%+.*,
+
/ * &.&!&$ *(& $%- ,%%-$ & !

.
- +
.

%&+."/ $. &R%$$ !,++#&.!$.

&# , ." " , "

7 &'(,+%& *&)+.*$%%&+." $'& & 9($
* %&.&+,%$ %$!, *
.

(

.

(

.

& ,!%& %$ ,
.
$ ($%-/
\
t
t
∼
&

t
t
7
.&# &
.
,!%-$

! *$%&+."
!&"

$%" /
"

&'&#&(&

(
.

'"
$+ " (,++&* / " / +&&.*$.+.* " !" *&)+.*$%%&+."
− .
+ + -
.

. .
0
"+7 7 7 !$& !, &*,%"$ ",'!,##-

0 * +
9($
+". ,+,%"" $!,#& %&% & ,#$%.,(
!$ $(". %-#.!&)%&$ (,++,#!&"
*$/
$%"$
"
/ % ($*-$7 ] ., &)
7

& , $#/ .& ( & " "$%.&* .& .!&)%&$ !&" *$ ($$
. . .
( +
h i
%"$". * ,++" &.("

.
(

%& &. % (
7 !$
$ *+$'&

Z
-
,#$."#/ .&
/ &+ &( '! ,
.

&%&

-

(

+
+

\
t
t /'
$∼
t
t
/% ($*, 7 $)+.*"
( ,

"%&+."/ %& "/ !&"" *$ %$$%", ($%-/ ,/ &.&# " #& %& $%"#,(-#
.$( %&/ !,*%- % %$ .&( & & ,!%-$ !&"
*$
( / &+ (,++&* & !/
" . .

t

) ) - /

\
t

&( $*$($%"$#

+ -
. .
+ - ) ) ) (
$!$*$+."

*
., / .& - "+ " "
/ %,. % .-$ %, "
/ %$
. . .
+ + ( 1
$!$+$ ,("+ 7
! !
* -

0

0 0
+.* +."$ "+/ ,#/ "%,. % .-# $ %," &.%&+".$( %-$7 !"" (-" &#&!
/ +&&.*$.
. .

/ " " #$
.

'&#&(&'" $+ "$ (,++-
.

- + +

."&(
&.%&+".$(

t
t %-
∼" (&*
\$!$
&t
. *t
/ " $ 7 $) "#$
+. . "#$+.&
.

"+ "/ ( &.&!- * '! , &.%&+".$( %-

. .

-

!,*$%+.*, " ∩* !"+7 7 7 &'+&&.*$.+.* , .!&)%&# $. !&&.

.
-

"%&+".$(
*$ $%" %-) ,++"
. .
0
∩
" (

%,

!"+7

t 7
t.&.
" ( *- $($%7 !"
"

+
h i
" &#&! " #$ ∩

∩ . &
0
.

+ +
,

t
t
−
t
t

%& ("% / &%$&+ $+&(($")".$'&(,++

'&#&(&'" .&'&- ($" ,.(, *$!$!, &%-". *&#($#$%./ &.("+* %-) &.
→

-

.

&%
*
/ , ! '&) *
7
.

.
(

.
&%$%.,
.

%&+."

.
(

+

.

-+

.
00

"+7 7 7 $!$+$ $%"$ $ $) 0
.7$ 7/ * ! ,+.%&+."/
'&) +.&!&%-// $+("" ,#&$ ($%"$

%& ,
( t ". ⊂
.!"*",( %&

t*
.!" & ,!%&&%$,!%&$ +

!$+$ , " +
%$ $!$+$ ,!,*%&

,!,
/ .&

"+
"
/- "
1
#& %&
*- !,.
"#"+ / , * ., &# +( ,$ .!&)%&$ !&" *$ $%"$ ,++"

(

+
.

(

*

, $ %($%"$7
( 7 , "# & !, &#/ &( , &!!&#$& & !, . %$
. .

- +
h.!"*",( %&$
. .

* + * +
i . .
9%,(&'" &%&& #&$%"%& &($& , ,. &!!&#$&7

%$.!"*",( +.%&+. +($ $'& / #%&
+
'&#$!%&'& /

"
(
*
+

7 ,++#&.!"# .!"
. " "
* * -
+ $!-/ , ,%%-$ !,*%$%" #"

.

$ $ $

R
$ $ $

'

$ $ $

+

-

"
k k ' −
k k
0
&

k k
"

−
0
k k &

"
k k '−
k k
0

( , &)7 ,!- ." + $! + $+.* $. !, $( , " + $!, !, #$!
$
%&+."
/ -
−
, !"#$!/
.
$+("
(
#- *& # # + $!
0

+

+

- - +

k k k k
" "
k k 0
0
.&&#/!,++#,.!"*,$#-$
+
+ $!,
($ ".+ *%$$!-$ / &, +,!%&$!,%$
, $ ($%-7*% .!"7
'

− (
& .&# , "#& ,!%-$

& !,

+

'−

.

*
000
!&"
!" *$*&)+.*$%%&+."
$%" &'&#&(&'"
+
9($
$+ "$!,(,++&*% ,#$%.,(
+,% - / " %-#/ +&&.*$.+.*
(,++,# "
// '
−

" / % ($*-$7 ,*%- % ( ., $ !&" *$ $%"

. . .
'

)

" 7 & , $#/ .& ( & " "$%.&* Z .!&)%&$ !&%$
'− .

.
-

( +

−
"!,*%&
*$ $%"$
' '
.
) ) ( -

'
% ( 7 ( .&'& !,++#&.!"# "+

∼
" / " / %,. % .-$ %,
. .
− ,

t
t

+
h i∈ \ t t
/ "

/ - -
.

"
k k
| k k
0
6

k k
"

|
0
k k 6

"
k k

|

k k 6
0
$
+%&/ .&

{ |
0
∩ k k6 }

∩ { | k k 6 } $
0
+.

"

| >
0
$ $ $ k k 6

"

| > k k
0
$ $ $ ' 6 $
&' , ( &.%&+".$(
.&# %-.!&)%&#
$ $) "#$!&".*$#$+.&
$%" !,*$%+.*, +&&."
7 & ,++"
-
∩
'
*$.+.*

∩
$.
!". / .& #$!%-)
&.%&+".$(

%-) " (0

∩ ∩
h
7 $' & i !&*$

+
.

"

.

∩ { | 6 6 $ $ $
0
}

{ | 6 6 $ $ $ '
0
∩ }$
%, & !.&#
-

'&)

,%%-) &.%&+".$( %-) " ( !$ +.,*( $. +& &) . / +&$ " /
") !, %-$ &# &%$%.- +* %&+." & "% $'& &%$ ($ ". *
* 7

, &) " ( *( $.++
!$ +.,*".$($# %$%
($*&'&

-+

.

-

*
(

'

−

(,++, '&#&(&'")7 . ' − - - -

.

. .
.
00

KLKL L O PU ZY Y\Y YWS S \SRWUT U PWOROO U

S

%&) !,+.#$!%&+."/ ,# % !&".&$ *&(&!"$%."!&*,%%&$ #%&'&& !, "$ .

%&$
&($7 &!#&' , +
%, !&+.!,%+.*$ * +
#& %& & !$ $(". "("%$)%

+
.
+

:
( *
;i "
&
)
'%""$ :&!"$%., % %-) #%&'&&

; "" % ,#$%.,( %-) (,++ " #$% $. %, / 7& .&#
,#$%.,( (,++ !, !" " #$%$

h

%$)%,

.& $ " #$%

$. %, / .7$

/ $ "(" * + - +
&!#, 7 ' &!#, (

.
+ - + *
#%&'&& !, " + " #$% %%&) &!"$%., "$)7 −

. .
- ( + - + -
&!#,, *&)+.*$%%&# !&+.!,%+.*$ "#$$.+ *&)+.*$%%,

. − −
* + - +
- -
&
∗
hh ii
.& * & !$!, $($%"" "%!" "$ #$%$%""

,&!"$%.,
&#%"#/" #%&'&& +, $!$+$&!"$%.,$%" hh "" "% ii$ + ,+.*$!$+$$.

$

$%" " #$% $. %, 7 " / -"
*

+ -

.
+
-

"("%$)%-$ &!#- "

7 &!# $!$+$ $%" #& %& &#-!$ $(".$# %,%$ -*,.
.
- + - +
.
∗ * + G EA Q NQ H B JA J JO JU
K H?
%,& % &( , &#$($*Z7 '!( .&'& *#$+.& - .&( & +($%, $.&($#* . / %&+*&"

'!
- (
.
*
&+

&(

%,
.

($#$%.,

&%$

%&'&
/
&!
' /
$ ,

-
&!#,
& '!$!$+$ , $%"! &$%"!, /

+-

-

,$.+ * % ( 7
.
- - *
,+ (-. "%.$!$+&*,.
%"*$!+,( %- .&(& & " &!#- +($ $./$%" .&%, R " %, Z7
"$%.&* $!$+$
. . . .
-
F &!#
+

*

.

.

-

R ∼ ⊗ R ∼

!&#$ .&'&/ ($#$%.- &%$ %&'& &! , %$ *(" . %, "% $%"$ + *"$!$+$%&/

⊗R & $

$%" / " %$ &+!$ +.*$%%& " & !$ $($%"
"%
.& $+(" ∈ " ∈ R / .&
-

$ +, $!$+$

.

+

-
.
-

.
-

.
-

&

hh

&#,.!".&#$)7 &!#- $!$+$ $%" %, " %, ,.&,* .+ & %&) " .&) $

hh ii ii $
F .&'&/
*

,+.%&+."/

R
+($ $./
Z
*- !,. , "+ ., / .& &!#, $!$+$ $%" "#$$. $(-$ & R" "$%.-7
+

#& %&

-

+

-
(
(
&## .,."*%&+."
F $%"&+&+"##$.!" GHI !&" *$ $%" +($ $./ .& &!#, $
* * + -

&
!$+$ %, !" .%&# " &+&+"##$.!" %, !" %$ .

. .
+ + -
%&#7
. .
-
.
00
$&!$# +. 7 7 #&#,.!"%& ,$!$&!#-

&!# $!$+$ $%".,%, + Z/ $+.* . *, !,.%-$
("!&*,. R7 -
#,.!" -,7 ($" &*,.$( %, Z %&/&! , / ( 7 &.&!- $ "%" %, &

(
#,.!"
. .
- - -
&!# ("! $# & , ,%%-$ +*&)+.*, &!#- $!$+$ $%" * *" $ &.
. .
0
±
$( %&) .$&!$#-7

.
+ -

N
Q N J J JO JK H 6
NV N L K JM T VJK K I JU

6 6 6

O H JK K Q NL H I J W

6 6
S QK S N H N Q J K L H G Q N J J JO JK H N VN L

HQ Q JL H O J Q NL H I JP N V Q K

S N H
N Q J K L H
"

6 6

HQ Q JL H O J W

6
M H H Q JK JK H H H JK L NI H H Q K S N H G Q N J J JO JK H Q JU
K JL K N W
#.$(% %&.&/ .&$.$ ]%$*-!&

#&+( %&,$/& $%%&)7

(
, #%&'&&&!#!, "$$!$+$
!$&' $(". !&#$
(

.&'&/
%$&!"$%."!
$%" /
** .&#&'&#&(&'"

.
%& $#&&%, "("%$ &%$ ,,

+( ,$ & !$" $($%"

*

+
-

*-+
+
&!#- $!$+$ $%" + &#& #%& $%" &+!$

.
* ( 2 -

+.*&#
$("# $!$+$
&!#

$%"$!$+$ " $%"(&* %$

( *"*,($%.%-7
"("%
-
!,

, !"#$!/
" $+("
#-

&" !$+,
( - -
( ("+.,
.
-

$!$ #%& $%"$ * &'&#&(&'" / .& * & &" ×+(
, $!$+$&( $%""# % &+!$ ($*

. .
- - - *
*,
+.*&# !,."+
% &!# (
7 +(" $ & !$ $(". &!# - * -
.""("%% !$$!$+$
&!#" (-$%"/ , ( " ("+.,(&*/ .& (" +,"("%%$%!, ($*&( "#7 $)+.*".$( % ($* *,%&/!,%,
.
( -
.
- -
" {/ "}&× !,
/ '%%-$ $ 6 %, !"+/ %$ 7$!$+$/ $!$+$, .+ ,/ ,.+%,
. .
- * /
("+.$

* & %&) .& $7 "
+,
* "
(-
{ }×

.
"

.

0

+ *

(

0
.

.
-
-
F +*&)+.*
+($ &!#- ") *-*&$!$+$7 $%" / , ,%%- * .$&!$#$ 7 7 / #& %&
.
+ $(,.

+

-
.
+ 0 (
6

H

6 NQ K L J

H JK L H JQ J Q K U
S N H JP L
R
O L K J OH W
6
,.!" , &!#- $!$+$ $%" #%&'&& !, "
&

, %$*-!& %,/$%%,& /.&#& .&#$ !,%'

.!"&+&+"##$.!" $ !,%'.$%!,*$%+#7 : ; / +7 7 & .,7 #,
N NL J L M W - * + -
0

.

( -
R
6 6
&

H NQ K L J H JK L H JQ J Q K S N H JP
L J
J MN N N L J H L H N O L K N W

00

N 6 NL J
L M W / ( ,# % .&'& &!"$%."! $#&'& #%&'&& !, "
- +
.
* + -

R
8.&
$#&'& , -*,$.+!, ".&!,++%& ., $%"$/ +, !,*$" .$&!$#,
&#%&'&&
+ -

("*- %$ 7.&(7 (& (&!"$%."!

≡
& " (
&
0
$
-
"$%.&* Z / %& " ( & " "$%.&* R 7

. . . .
* + - ( - -
. .

-
#%&'&& !, " %, -*, . +"'%,. ! "% $ + $'&

.
&!#-
H
$!$+$ $%"%, 7 , &&#%"#/

K NL
!$ $(

.& +"'%,.
$.+ +($ !, +"##$.!" $+ &) +"
*
"# & !, &#7 &(

+ - +
("%$)%&) &!#-
.
- *
+"##$.!" %&+. / *- R$!$# "+/ (#$ &.&!&'& $+.*&#

, %&+.
.
- - * + + -
7 "'%,. !, .& !,
&(" &(& ".$(
* P P * + -

%-+". "+$( " &(" $+.*&# &.!" ,.$( %- 7 "'%,. !, &!#- %$ ,*"
.
P + (

(

%,.&#&., *-. &!, , "+,/"%*,!",%.

& .&# +"'%,. !, #%&'&& !,#%&'&& " / &.&! & !"&
.
+
/ &!"$%."!&*,%%&'& !, " 7
.
* * + * + - *
/ ' $ #%&'&& !, "$ + !&."*&

.
+ * + -

&(& %&)− &!"$%., "$)7 & .&#− + !,*$ ("*& +($ $$ .*$! $%"$7

* +
−
(

(

6
6

H P L KJ J L M JL Q J Q GH Q N
6

: ; − : ; NR J
P S N H JK L NI H R L WJW Q J Q G H Q NP V

L
→
W
F .$&!$#-/ & !,7 7 , +($ $'&$./&!"$%., .& %$" +/ &+$+.*&( $. '&#$&#&! " #,7
∗
+ 0 +

C → C
!"'&$ & , ,.$( +.*& .&'& .*$! $%" !"*$ $%& * C!$ $%"" ±,
* 0
, , #%&'&&7 7 7 !, "" "#$$.+ *- $($%%, &!"$%., " / &.&# .&

. .
/ + ( - 1 +
.

/ , * &# ($ +%&# !&+.!,%+.*$ $+. *- $($%%,

C
* + - - -
C \ C " *+$ C +%-$ !$& !, / !,++#,.!"*,$#-$

&!"$%.,
!$& !, &*,%"
%, &# ($/ "#$ . &(& ".$(&*,%"

-
−
%-) & !$

$(".$( 7
.
- ,%&

.
*

+ -
-
!$ &(,', ./ .& +%, &!"$%.,

$%& "#$%%&" / ,.&),*,$#,&!"$%.,,!&) "$)7.!,%+*$!
] ., &#
. . . .
* +

- ( *
R
+(+,( %&,$ $!$+$ / &+
&(

C
*(

, " + "$) #$!%-7 &# ($ +%- & !&+.!,%+.* * C /
.
C
0 - + -

+&'(,+&*,%, + &!"$%.,
. .

-
.

. .
1
6
C

6

MH M H K L H NQ K U
OL
L J

H JK L H JQ J Q K

S N H W NT H L JP

"
W

]&+ &( &*,* "+ " &#&! " #&# $ $ ,/ #& %& & , ,. +($

$$ +*&)+.*& +"'%,. !- #%&'&& !, " / &.&!&$ *( $.+ !,$# !

+ 1 + + 1 ( +
'&'& #%&'&& !, " 7

.
* + - - - -
. .
* + -
00

L NQ K L J H JK L H JU
66
Q J Q K S N H JP L J M
JL N JQ Q N L K H JK L H U
6
JQ Q K S N H W VN W
6 ,++#&.!"# &'&#&(&'" $+ " '&#&(&'" $+

N
&+($ &*,.$(

%&+." ,!-

" &.& !, "# $!*
.$( %&+. *& *.&! &+!$ +.*&# " &#&! " #&* ,% ,!$ " &+($
NL J L M W

$ &*,
$,

.

+

+
*
.

+

1

.

.
∗ ∗
−−−−→ −−−−→
  
  
y y y

−−−∗−→
!" & , &## +.*$ " &#&! " #, $ & $%,, #- !&*$! ("/ ".& &##
., ",.,

'!,##, ,.$(.,."*%,

+
+ .& %&+.
,7 F .&

%&+."
+
−−−∗−→
+

1

-

."*%&+." +($ $./ /.&.& ∼ : 7 ]7 +,#&# $($/ $+("

.
+ +

+("
. . .
∗
;i

" / .&∈
∗
∗ ) ∗ ∗ 3
h
∗
: ;i h : ;i

∗
: ;i
) 3 )
h ∗
∗ ∗
&+ &(($ ") ,'7 !,++ $%") & %& !&*& ". / " ,*"* "+ &.
3 )
h #

∗ ∗
! $%" / .7$ 7 !,++#,.!"*, & '&#&(&'"" +.+& ("%$)%-#"

" "$%.,#"!&+.!,%
7 ] .,
. . #
1 ( * +* 1
&# +(

+.*,#"/ ,$ "
-
*( R

-
.&# &.& *&)+.*$%%-#"

!, $%" " !&+.!,%+.*,# *&)+.*$%%- ! ' ! ' 7" 7 !"
. . .
- - -
.

* ( - ∗

∗

L L S NT JK H J ∗ ∗ VM L MJK K L S NT JU
→ ∗
KHR W VN ∗ ∼ W
6 "%$)%-$ % "" %, .&")/("%$)%-$ %

∗ ∗
→
N
"" %, /

!,++#,.!"*,$#-$
NL J L M W
* % .&( %,% ""7 %,,*$%+.*& + .& %&+. & % & !, , " +

/ & !,h , "$+i *h% ( %,i & , -*,$./ .&

. .
* -
7
.
∗ + ∗
.
*

-

]&+ &( &*,* "+ 7 +(".&) $+.($##&)/ &( ,$# / .& " .&'&∼
.

∼
+($ &!#, R

$./ .&$!$+$
+

/ .&
1
∼

7

∗

∗
+

$%" %$*-!& $%%, / & .&# !, #$!%&+. & !&

∗∗
& ∗

R

+.!,%+.*,/ %, &.&!&# &!#, & !, ,$.+ * % ( / %$ !$*&+ & ". &(&

∗
- ( -

&
+

*"%-
* .&# !,+( #$!%&+." !&+.!,%+.*,/
,$/ &' , +"'%,.
+
!, !,*%,!"% (# !,*$%+.*&
.
7

&+."',$.+ ("

*

-

-

1

.
00

KLKL L NOPOPO S P O[ TY WU S S OPO S P

UW[U Y

+%&*%,$ .$&!$#, .&'& " ,!,'!,

"" +, .& %&+. $. !"#$%$%, * +($ " $+ $#
,!,'!, ( (,++" , ("% & '&#&.& &)
- *
*"*,($%.%&+."7 - +
.&&+($%, +.&*,.$( +"# ",( %-) &# ($ +/ → →*& %"→ →.& %,

&*,.$( ("$%&+.%- ,&#$($*-
. . .

&+($ %&+. ($ +&*'! 7 &' , ,$.

.
0 00
. .
- * + -
.

. .

, #- → $ '&*&!"("/ →
+*
→
-*, ") '&#&#&! "#
0 00
& → & & $

/
∗

-

&

00

%, -*, (
.
( & $ %- →&# ($ +&* .& $ *& %" ,$. .& %, &+($ &*,.$( %&+.
.

'&#&#&!
−
" #&# &

0 &
(
.$)%,7 +
+

-+

-
+

.
1

+

. . . .

' $ → 7 * -*, ") '&#&#&! " # (

&'&#&(&'")
0 00
→ → →

∗
L J K N 7 →

&

00 .&

$ %, -*,
. 6
-+
&
0

( +
+
Q Q
-
.
GH Q Q U

6 6
6 6 6

NQ K L H JK L H JQ QK S N H

6
Q Q GH Q L J K N Q Q L H JL H Q G H Q Q NK N J

L O K L R V K N NP L WJW J H

00 P L
: ; ∈± : ; ∗
&
:

; ∈
∗

VJ

0
G K VNQ JK L N K N W V J JV N NU
JL P O L P P
&
N VVH L H MK J JI JVH K H I J W
'&#&#&! (", #-!&*%$ & " (&* '&#&(&'" $+ ")"#"& !,&'&#&(&

6
0 00

'"+( $+,$ ")'&#&(&'")

N NL J L M W
"
& .$)%, +.!&$%- +($
(, + & " "$%.,#"
+

*- &#7"!,]
1
.

.

. .
* +

$.+ !$ +.,*( , $'& $ + & " "$%.,#" " $)&'&#&(&'")

+& &+.,
. .
- 00 00
0 *
*(( $.+& " (, " +&( + %,& $%" "#""$%.,#" 7 ] +( ,$

. .
- - -

&%" $#" * +& %,7 $%" #" * " $) +& &+.,*( $.+ &!$" +.,*(
* *- "!,$.+ ( +& ,%,$'&$
.
- - 0
. ⊂ . .
- 00 + - 00 * - - -
. .
+ - - - +
!&*%$ "$ $) $.+" &#&!*&)+.*$%%-$

" # ,% !,,!$"$%"+.!&$% 7+($&' , "#$
& "!, &#7 +.+& &&+.,*(
,
. . . #
- 0
⊂
+ +
& $ 7 !"

.&##- *&+$ "
. .
* +

∗ +* -

+& &+.,*(

$.+ & $ .&
%$$/
7 +("

−

∈
∈
- -
− ∗

&( $#+ !" *- "+($%"" '&#&(&'"

$+ &'& '&#&#&!
"'&#&#&!
#, & ".$)#,
.
− −

±
- -
−
0
%, & !, .$)%,

"$%"$# !,/ ,"$%"$# !" *- "+($%"" &'&#&(&'" $+ &'&
. # #
+ - + 1
/ .& ($' & &( "# .!$ $#&$7

. .
+* +
. .
1
+*
∗ *
. .
00

L 3 00 H ' ' 00 W NT H L JP
OL
∈ & ∈ &
"
∗ 3 ) ' ∗ 3 ) ' 0 3 ) ∗ '
− $
KLKL L SW
$ "%" -+.%&) ++" $!$!,*

,"#%& !&+.-$"#%,.$)+.*"$
!,( %-$$ "+(,/ !" %-# >.& 7 $ ,

'! Z & ⊂ $)C / &(& "*

, ,

*
%$ & *"+
+

+

(

*

+

(

.

& ,!,].&!"$# !&+.!,%+.*& & .&#6 "$)+.*" *(. $.+ .!7 #$!%-# #%&'&
$
: $'& %,
!& -*,

%& . & & %, ,

+%$%&/($..&&)("%* , &) " #&!, #$!%&+.$)

%& !$ +.,*"./ / */
- - -

& & J
.
* + HK
; &# ($ +, + & %&)

+ * +

*"7 9$ "#$%%&/
&
* * - + (

*& .&# #" %",! %$) / !,&( $("# $'&+ .& *,.&! %, %$)
!,*%-&( +,+.$)

( + + 0
"+($&.& $+.*"# + $!- ,#" *$! $!-/

. . ! . . .
+ 1 +
"# & !, &# %" % &( + $! &*&!, "*,$# %, '&(

.
( (

, .&,.$#$ &.!, $ +"##$.!"
,$# *,.&!, %&.+ &.%&+".$( %& *,.&!,7 !"&.&!-$

.&#
. .
* + (
+
+
$($%" .

+("*, (
!,#$!%$( % ($.*,.&!/" .&#$!%$ &.& ($.$+.*(* ,.+$+.*$

-* & %
.&
.

7 ] !$ #$!%&) (
'/ %,
( .,.$ ($.&( " ,$#$! #/ (

-
-

-

. &
.
+

.

%,* !"#$!/ %" % + $!!&."*&

7 ] '!,%" " "#$!%,
&$ %&)". *,&# ($-/+ !"( &(*-# + "+($%" ($.&!"$%., ($..&# ,
.
0 *
&(& %-#" #"7 &

. . . . . ! . .
(
&
-
($.& %- '&#&(&'") "#$$.

. . . .
( ( -

+($ ") *"

.

.

- -
.

×
, ,

−→ −→ −→ →
' $ ∼ Z 7 & .&# '&#&(&'"" + & " "$%.,#" Z ., &*-

,

. .
,

( '&#&(&'"" " &'&#&(&'"" + & " "$%.,#"&.&# ($'.&&

Z

Z Z $

*-$ %&)

"+( &#.+ ($ $+ + &!#& (-" "$%.,#"

/ -
-

%"*$!+,( %-"#$$.& & $%" "$%.&*/

- * +
Z
!&+.&) *"

.

.
.

.

. Z . .
, , ,
−→ −→ −→ , →
'/ $ 7 7 & .&#

∼ Z Z ∼

Z ∼Z
!" / /

0
! " - '&#&(&'") " &'&#&(&'")

" # & %$ .$)%,
& *&( / +*. !,,%%-)
(" ".+ .&("%%&)-
& &

7 & '&#&#&!

.
+
.
1
+

-
∗

-+
+

+
00

&+($ &*,.$( %&+.

×
→ Z −→ Z → Z →
* %$ &.&!- +( , & *&( $. .& + $(,. 7
.
- + -

J Q T K M S NL
JQ JK L 3
Z
L N P OL

3
&
3 0 W
hh ii ± ∈ Z
6 +,
/ +. #$!%, & "+,%%, *-, $+.*$
$ #$!%,*- $!$# ($. '&#&(&
,
∗
N
&# ($
NL J L M W

'" $+ ") (,++/ !$ +.,*($%%-)+.!&".+ ($. ,7 ]
" (&# +($& #& ("# !,· / ' $ ∈ Z 7

0

-
- 1

3
-
*
. .

8($#$%. &$ 7 &#7 ,++#& /

. . . . .

0 0

.!"# " ( , $ + & " "$%.,#" " / .7 $# + ".,.

. . .
3

-

* +
∈ Z
.& #& %& ,#$%". %, ( &) ($#$%. *"/ ', $ & '! 7 &, +(&*
∗
0

&
+ *
· Z
*" +&+.&". " ( + & " "$%.,#" "

. . . . "
0 0 ( + * 0
∈ Z

" ($#$%.&*

*" , / 7 $)+.*".$( %&/
7

0 +
· Z ⊂Z Z
8($#$%. !$ +.,*($% " (&# / &.&!-) #- !,++#,.!"*,$#

. .

+ / 0
Z ∈Z · ·
,,#$%"." ( %,+ & "7 ]"$%.,#" * ( · .&'&

($#$%. ∈ !$Z +.,*($% % %&
3
".&'$ &( ,$#/ .& ($#$%.

. .

∗
- (
Z &
" (&# · 7 ∈ Z
. . . .
+ 3

]- .&"+("." %$ &+!$ +.*$%%& "% $ +%-7$!$+$.&#$%" *#$+.& %$(" (, / #-&

∗
0

.&# (- " %$ .!,%+*$!+,( &

.
- +-
hh ii
!,++#&.!"#
.!,%+*$!+,( !%&7'&) " (/ &.&!-) '&#&(&'" $% " ( " $!$+$ ,$.
.

. .

+. "
.& +$*$!%-) " %-)$%%,&( "+/ %$ &.&!, %,.& ,
. . . .

*,.&!,/

!"+7

7 7

,
!,%"

,*,.&!,/
#$!%&)
&( $ "/ , .!" &*,%%&)

&*&!&.&#

%, !"+ '&(
7 /
(

-

+

.
-

.
+&+.&".

" &.!$ , " ' / " 7 ] '" "
. . .
0 + 1 0

&.&.& .&$+.*(" .+" / &.& !"
#$+.*(" &!"$%., "" !&."*& &(& %- +%&

., $/

+ +

.+ 7" (&*& .&#7 " "( ( .!,%+*$!+,( '&#&(&'" %&$%

.
( - -

( - (
"$!$+$
( ,$.7 &" ("
(*& %&) +&+.&". "
.
( - - &

.& $/ & .&#

. .
+

.

.

.

.
. . .

0

ii
*+$ !,*$%+.*, $+ & #& ( 7
hh ii hh ii hh ±
+

J

Q T K M S NL
JQ JK L L N P
& Z
OL

JQ JK L P V
L U

)
∗

±
:P
0W
VJ
∈

;

&Z
00
"+7 7 7 #$!%, $ 0 -
6
%&'&& !, "$ &!"$%."! $#&/ $+ ")&+ &(
#&!

"

#- 7 &
N NL J L M W

.&# '&#&(&'" $+ ") "
&Z .$)%, &## ."! . + " &#&! " #&#
&'&#&(&'" ,% '&#&+
,!$
* +

.

.

.& %&+. & %, ,7

. . .
+ 1 + +
. . .
+
.
(
F .$&!$#- 7 7 " $ +($ +.*" ($' & *-*& ".+ +($ $$ .*$!
$%"$7 + 0 -
.
-

JV T HQ P O L
6 HK H

Q L U

HO J H

MH MN JK L K W V N 3

W

#$%.- " ., ]- / .&$!$# * "*

6
($
≡±

N NL J L M W *
Z Z & &

.

∗ )
) ∗ ± $
±
+. '&#&.& " $+* *", $ *"*,($%.%&+.
/ 7 &'7 &', ,

∗

±

→
1

7 ?, " $# ($#$%.

∗

.
-

.
3 3
∈ Z

) )
± ± ∗ ±
3
&&( .&#&*,("+ /($' & !&*$! 7$.+,*$%+.*&

%, !&*%$ & $ $)7 / &.&!-# #- *&+
∗ ∗

3 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

≡± .

+ - -
. .
] ,+." § 7 & /,.&,%&("%.*$! $%"$/" & !,.%&$'&#&.&

.$&!$

#$" $+7 7 " $+("

*"*,($%.%-7
0
≡±

-

3

0
.

+
+
(

*

. .
0

$&!$#," C %%$., %$ $+. *&( $. *-!,%& ".!&+.,
& +!,*%".$( '&#&(&'"" / +* $!$+ *-!,
'&#&
(&'"" 7
,+. ,%%,
2 + - + +
×
$%"$#/" %$+$ %&'& &#&($$($ +,+(& %, ×,('$ !," $!$ $+$ ,%-$,+.&#/+*($ +-,%%, + *-"

- -+ -

&( &

( +

!, $%"$#" '&#&(&'") 7 &# ($ +, × $!$ '&#&(&'"" &# ($ +&*

. . ∗ . . ∗
* ( - * - -+ -
∗ . .

.
( +
. . ∗ . .

∗ ∗
KL LML YZWO [OPZQY[\ ×
+(" " *$+.%-

&+.!&".
$ %&) $&#%-$($ +&# ($ +- ( *-" "+($%"/ .& ($.&
+ & %"#%-#& '&%&
∗

∗
(
#&(&'") 7 ($.& %-$ '&#&(&'"" *-!-.-"+( .($.& & %$$/ $#

. . ∗
- -
×
+"# (" ",( %-$/ &.&# .& !&" *$ $%"$ &. *( $.+
. . ∗ .
2 - *
× ×
&. !-.&) ($. &)/ , !&" *$ $%"$ +"# ($ +&* .& %$ +"# ($ +7

+ - - -
- .&$# ( !$$+ &(,',. / .& &#" ($ +&*&%$.& &(&'" %-$ ! &##&'&($ +-/
. . .
+
" *$ $%"+,7 × #& $. %$ +&* , ,. + .& &(&'"$) × , !&

&.&# &%$ %-
. . . . .
*
. . .
- *
- -
&# ($
. . .
+ - (

$%". !-.-#" #$!%-#" ($./ ,#"" × &. *(!-.-$.+ ($. ! #-$" !&"" 7
. .

*$+%&*%, /' $
. .
- - - - +

.! %&+. +*
* × $!$ '!,%" %-$ '&#&#&! " #-'!,%" ,%, + *-!, $%"$#
* %&'&" '&#&#&!* 7 " #,
. " . .

×
- ' '
. . .
- -+ ( +
+%&/ .& "

+ +
! ! ∗ !
$+ '$&#$.!" $
∗ ! ! ! ∗
' ' '
! × × ! ∪ ×
+!,, #$!%&+."
'!,%" ,7∩ !" *-× "+($%""
×/ ×
& .&#%,+ %$ "%.$!$+ . ($. "
! !
' '

−
'
− +

×

-

'
&

. " . .
+ 0 0
− − −

× × ±
' ' '
+., .+ *- +%". %, "7 ± × $
"., "%" !$#%&'&&

"!$ *+$'& % %& **$+." +&'(, $%"$ & .&#/&($$, &&!"$%., " ($.
- - +
$.!,&!"$%., " $ '!,%" - "("/ &/ , &!"$%

.
( ( 1 -
" "%" '!,%"

"! $. -&!"$%., " $'&&!# !,(&) 7 :( +"# ($
. . .
* *
+, P: :; &!"$%., , , .+
. . .
- - - / -
;
* +

;7 - $# + ".,. / .& &!"$%., " +"#

. .
, - + - ,
($ +, : &(& ".$( ; , , .+ .$#/ .& , "+ / +"#

777/ ($ +,
$ $ $ $ $ $

− ,
0
, * -
%& &!"$%."!&*,%7 !" .&# &!"$%., "

$ $ $ $ $ $

, + - * +
,
−
: − /; 777/ /($ , $'& %, $'& '!,%"&(&$/ ".$(
, , .+%& &!"$%."!&*,%/
.$#/ .& , "+.7$ 7− , "+
. $ $ $

,
( -
.

$$$
( + - * +

−
( * +
− −
0 0
/ 777/
&(& ".$( %&""
"!&*,%%&) &!"$%., &!"$%."!&*,%7
($'

& ] ., &#%, *"!&"$ +&'(,

$!$%&+".+ (
*&( $%"$&!"$%."
%&$ & "% 1 *
!&*,%%&$ #%&'&& !, "$ + !,$# 7 9 "#$%%&/ +. &!"$%., "

.
- +

#%&'&& !, " , , .+ , "+&# / 777/ ,+,.$( %&'& !&+.!,%

.
* + -
!+.*, / ,*$ *.&!-

%$ &.&!&) .& $ ∈ * / !" %&# # *$ !&+.!,%+.*$
.&! %, !,*($%!,%,
.
* + - + - * +

/ 777/ ($ ,. ,+,.$( 7
.

&' , +.&!"$%., "".$(!, %-$, , .+ , """+&# / 777/ "7
. . .
( (
&(& " &!"$%., ($.&" ($. " , , .+ , ,,

. . . .
- - + - * +
"+,#" 7 !"$%.,
.
( ' + - *
"# , "+&# +#7/ !"+7 7 !"$%., " , , .+ , "+&#,

. .

×
+ ' +

.
!"$%., " .+
'
7 7 , ,
$ $ $ $ $ $ .
* + - + - * +

$ $ $ $ $ $ '

×
0 - ' + - *
− −

$ $ $

"+7 7 7 !"$%., " '!,%" - ($. "

0 -
"+&#
. .
0
., &!"$%.,, , ".+ +&*, "+&#

, ,$. + &!"$%., "$) 7 !"$%., "
− − −

$ $ $

$ $ $

' − &

- ' -
×

' + - * +
×
− $ $ $ − − $ $ $ ' −
$!$+.,*"#
.!" , $!$
&* , ,&."+$ &( $%%&'&

*$ .&! , "+,− %,, "+$!*&$ #$+.&7
"#$$.*
*", +

0

&
.
*

+

* +

.
 0  0 0 0

− − − $ $ $ −

77 7 & .&# %, &!"$%., "" , "+, &.

0

77 77 77 7 7 7
$ $ $
 0 
 $ $ $  + * +
  .
 
 
%&+".$( %&

* , "+,

+
$ $ $
0

!,*$% − 7
0

0

0

] ".&'$ &( ,$#

"

× ×
' ' '
" $ $+$!&)7, , , *- "+($%" '&#&(&'") +.,%&*".+ "+.& ,('$ !,

0
− × $
+ - - *

×
.
KL LKL QRY US Y\[U TYO YPU WWYTU

+. "" #,#" %$&.!"

#"$ %&) " ,.$( %-$6 $ %-$ &#6 ($ +- + '!,%"
%, %-.
-*,
'&#&#&! 7 F

0 00
&# ($ + / ' $ L "

. .
∗ +
∗
0 00 L JK K Q H MJVJK H JQ +
'

. . ∗ 0 ⊗ 00
'
"
0 0 0 00 0
?%, 7− *& *.&!&# +(,',$#&# & $+ $ "*,$. *- &(%$%"$ !,*$%+.*,

0
⊗ 00' ⊗ ' −
⊗ 00 00' $
0 *

&%-& %,$, %&) &##- ($ +$# "+#-&( &*,.

$# & &( %, !&"
,. *&(⊗%- 7 '!,9%,(&'" %&$
.

$%"$

+

$($*- L'! ⊕7 9%,(&'"

*

" %&⊕ & /!$.7$$("#

.
"!&*,%
7 $# + ".,. / .&
.
*

∗

*
+
*

+

-

+

0
∗
*

00
∗

'
7
∗ ∗
⊗

L⊗

∗ ∗ ' '
∗ ∗

'
'

L 0 H 00 M S VK J K J L H I NL J
K J I J U
K J Q
J W VN HQ JJL
∗ Q ∗J L L O K N
JV MNL J
K L
00 0 00

→

→ 0
∗ ∗⊗ ∗ ∗
0 00
∗ ⊗ ∗ → − →
L N L O K N
JV MNL J
K L N J
JL P K K J NK K H O J H W
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ $
N 6 NL J
L M W ,++#&.!"# .& % &+($ &*,.$( %&+.

0 0
%&+. +&!,+!,%".+
$ ( $.+ / &+ &(

8.,
%,! 7#,&+($
& .&#&*,.$(
.&

%&+.
&+($ .$% &!%&'& '! #%&, $%" +*&%, & 7

→ 0 −
→ 0 −→ 0 − →
- -
$

0 −
*
*,.$( %&+.+ ##,/ .&& .&#

%- &+($ &*,.$(.& %%&+.$)&+($*( &*,.$(
$.+ .&%&+.%&) &+($ &
. .
- - + ( -
00
&( ,$#
'
- - - - -

M 0 M 0 M

→ 0 ⊗
00 ⊗
−−−→
⊗
0 ⊗ '00 −−−→

0 ⊗ '00 → $
'
'
' ' −
'!,%" %-)$ %-$

($ +,,++#&.!"# '&#&#&!&#/ ($&+" #+-&("#$$.
⊗ *" " ⊗ 7 $)+.*".$(
* ." &#%&/
0

0
00 0
00

7 .& !, $%" ⊗ "

. . .
+
∗ ∗ 0
∗
00
∗&
/
. ± ⊗
0 00 0 0 00 00
0 0 * ( - 0 0
⊗ − ⊗ ' ' . .
0
%&+."
⊗ 0 *( &(.+ ,$#$ %-#"/
0 -
0
.&# " $+&!&. &)&+($.& &*,.$(
.& % &'&#&(&'" -

%&) &+($%&+.&*,.$(

-

+

.

.

.
→

0
∗ ⊗

00
∗

−−→

∗0 ⊗
00
∗ →

0
∗ ⊗

00
∗ →

− −−−→

− ∗0 ⊗
, $#/" .&.& %- &+($

&& .&# 7 ! , 0 +*& & %, /
0 00 − 00
→ ∗ ⊗ ∗ ∗ →

.
(

⊗
&*,.$(
∼ ⊗
+%&+.$)

0
∗

00
∗

0
∗
00
∗ ∗
* -
00

→ 00 → 00 −−→ 00− →
'

' '

− → − →
00
&( ,$# .& %-$ &+($ &*,.$( %&+."

00 00 00
→ '
− ∗ → ' '

00

→ 0 ⊗ 00 → 0 ⊗ 00 −−⊗−→ 0 ⊗ 00− →
'

' '

F .& %&) →&+($ &*,.$( − → ⊗ − → ⊗

00
%&+." &( ,$#

⊗ 0 00
'
0 00 0
−
00
∗ → ' ' $
+

± ⊗
0

00
'

0
⊗

00
'

0 ⊗ 00 '

0 ⊗
& .&# .& %, &+($ &*,.$( %&+. "#$$. *"
0 0
00 00 00
± ⊗ ' ⊗ ' '
− $
-

($ &*,.$( %&/ ± ⊗ ± ⊗ ± ⊗ → ∼⊗ ⊗ → / , %,
0
00 0
00 00
→ ± ⊗ → ' '
− 0 '
00
− ∗ $

"./ ⊗ ∼ ⊗ 7
0
00
0
00 00 +
' ' 0 '
00
− ∗
9%,(&'" %& &( 7 $ &+!$

,$#

− 00
0 00 0
+.*$%%& " & !$ $($%" +* -*, $'& '&#&#&! " #, &( ,$#/ .&
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

⊗ ∼
⊗

0

00
0 00

!" ., " &.& $+.*($%" &% "#$$. *" ∗

∗ ∗ ∗
+ - -+
∗ +
( -
.

∗0 ⊗ ∗
'&($ *$%.-→ $+.$+.*$%%&$ * ( $%"$7 & .&# " +*& & %&) !$
0
→
0 00 00
⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗ ∗ ∗

0 0 + *
.
+
∗ ∗

∗0 →
&( ,$# .& % &+($ &*,.$( %&+.

0 0
→ ∗ → ∗ →

0 00

→ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ →
0
∗ ⊗ 00
∗ ∗ −−→

−−→ ∗0 ⊗ ∗

00
∗

→

0
∗ ∗ ⊗

00
∗ ∗

→

0

, %, "./ " B 0

7 &+($ *+$ ."&( *-,$#"+($%") " .& %&)
+
00
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
'&#&(&'"

.$( %&+.

$+
⊗
&) &+($

&*,.$( %&+."
0
∗ ∗

.

.& %
&+($ &*,
00
∗ ∗

+

00

0 00

→

+., .+ !&*$!". / .& &( $%%, .& %, &+($ &*,.$( %&+.

0 0 00
→ ∗ ∗⊗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ⊗ ∗ → ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ − → $
!,+ $ ( $.+ 7 ( .&'& *&+ &( $#+ .$#/ .& $ %&) &# ($ +
-
+*& &&#%-)($ + & +" 7 &!+.#- &( &*,("+" .&( & .$#/ .&!,++*& $& ($% $"$
- - / -

+

-
-

-

00
%&)
. .
* + *
∗

&.& !, $%" 7 &' , &'!,%" $%"$ %, → "% "! $. '&#&

.
→

0
0
0 0 00
00 00 -
#&! " #
. .
⊗
* ( -
∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
0 00 0 00
⊗
+
∗ ∗

0
00 ∗0 ⊗ ∗00 ∼ ∗ "
0
00
⊗ ∗00 ∗0 ⊗ ∗00
8.&. '&#&#&! " # *( !, $%"$#7 $.+ !,+ $ ( "# &.&
∗ ∗ ⊗ ∗ → 0 ∗ ⊗ ∗ ∗ $
∗
+ - - - - * (
KL L L NOPOQORSS Z PORO Z OS Y YWS

'& &#J$($"%+, ,('$ ×!," /$+&( ,$#

.
*
.

∗
.$&!$#
+($ %%$.,

--
$$ .*$!+ *- "+($%"$#
$%"$7 $ %&
*

.

2

(

L H
K JO K J
HQ
H I H N
K J Q
J W VN HQ JJL Q J L L O K N
JV MNU

L J
K L

→ − →

→ ⊗ ∗ × → ∗
L N L O K N
JV MNL J
K L N J
JL P K K J NK K H O J H W
∗ ∗ $

($ $. &.#$.".
&*( .&'&/.+ '!, 8##" .$! & / .& *%"#,%"$
!,."(, & $ +.,. %," .&/%%$.,.& '&#&(&'""
& *"("+ * 2 -
"+(, ! $%" ,#"7 / , %$ && '!.&# *, $'&7 +.,. " . !$ & "+(, $.." "
*
. .
- - - -
-
.

Z

W
6
!"#$%"# "% " & $%"$
" *&+ &( $#+ .$#/

.&
7 !"
N NL J L M W
×
7 &

.&# .*$! *$!%&7 !&#$ .&'&/

0
.

(
+
2
-

Z
∗
, ∼

⊕

∼ ⊗ − ⊗

+., .+ *&+ &( &*,. + .$#/ .& −

7

∼ ⊕ $
- - "

−
+
0
( '&#&(&'")& ,+ ,.$(
%&# #%&'"$
&*.&!".
/ - " "$%.,#"
& +.*& ,('$ * , $+ "."*%&)
!," &) '! $ %%$.,/
.$&!$#- &( #&!"
- (
!,++ $%" &.&!&+.!, .+$%"/ #"&.&#*$ .&!%-

.& %, .&.!&+.!,%+.*7
!, #- $#+
.
+ * 2
"#$. $(& + ("%$)%-#"

. .
( - - - + *
(", '!" / *$&.&!,.&!%-$&( !&+.!,%+.*,

,$.+ " '! %, - / .& & /!$$+("$("#**$+."⊗

&,
* ( -

.

&(%".$( *(%&$$.++&&.%& $%"$ ( ( &'& '!

.
- - +
⊗
*$ .&!%-# !&+.!,%+.*&# %, 7 &*.&!"# &$ ,%-$,

. . .
1

- *
⊗ ⊗ ∈
.$(&# +.*& ,('$ !," $+ &) .$&!$#- %%$.,/ ,#$%"* +*& & %-$
&
- - - +
⊗
($ %,+- 7 ]" (&.%, & *-⊗ "+($%"
" ⊗ !,/ " ,#$%!, $%" *+ * *+& , ,.$(.+
. .
* 2 + *
+.*$
& .$ $! " .& %&) &+($ &*,.$( %&+." &+.,
&.&
.

0

00

0

00 + -- +
$ "⊗#$%$%")7
. . .
∗
∗
∗
∗ - - * ( - -
⊗
* + + +

&( ,$.+ .& %, &+($ &*,.$( %&+.

→ 0 ⊗ → 0 ⊗ → 0 ⊗ →
∗
- -

→
0 ⊗ ⊗

'

00
∗ ⊗

−−→ 0 ⊗ ⊗

'

00
∗ ⊗

→

%$.7$ 7 &!&.
* .&# +(.& ,$% &+($ &*,.$(
" %&+.
!& ,/ ,,$.7,%&%"
] !$ $+( ").,.$" &#&!
&( ",$##

→ 0
⊗ ⊗ '

00
⊗ →
∗ ∗
+
+ +
. . . .
M
0 ⊗ ⊗
00 ∗ ⊗ ∗00 ⊗ $
0
∗ ⊗ →
'

'
∗
&
0
∗ ⊗

00
∗ ⊗
∼

0
∗ ⊗

⊗

00
∗ ⊗

/ & .&#

M

∼
× & $
⊗ ' &

&
6 6
'

NT H L JP O L H MJVJK H J V M NQ K L Q K U
66
S N H H JK L H JQ L VN H L
L V NP VN S N L H Q K U
S N H H JK L H JQ W

NT H L JP O L N M
L M V Q
6
VM Q S N
T L
N Q L W 6 6

L W NT L P O L M Q L O
L N L M
Q
N W

× R
× R 6 Q P N U
0
6

NT L P O L M Q L O U
L N L M

× R ∞ R
Q P N Q N U

6 6
W
0

L O 6
M Q
N
U
Q
W NT L P O L

∗

M
⊗

⊕
M
−
$
KL L L YO YPU WWYTU Q [OROPOQORS

&'&#&(&'""
%"*$!+,( ! %-#&'& !&" "*$"$%.&*$%" #&" .$&!$#-
%& *- "+( %%$.,
. + &#&
&!# (- & (.&'&#&
2 - + - ( -
(&'")7

&+($ &
&*,.$(#&
%&
%&+.
" %$
/

&+!$
,%,(&'"(+.*$%%&
% .& &(
%&) ".
&+($( &'&#&(&'")
&*,.$(

%&+."
.
%
%%$

-
2 -

.,.&* ( "'&#&(&'")7 - &'!,%" ,"#+&( !,++#&.!$%"$# '! & " "$%

.
2
, "."*%, '! 7
- -
+"# ("+. ",( %-$" &# ($Z +-7" ,++#&.!"# / &' $$ %-$ " &# ($ +-&%$ %-$
.
- -
Z

0
Z 00
∗ &
/ ,+., #&$ " %&.$%&!#,(&!%&$%&!&"!,++#,.!"

*$ $%"$
∗ & .

∗
∗
0∗
7 &) & $ %&) &# ($

. . . . .

0
00 ∗
00 ( + +
Z Z
*,. , '!,%"$ %&)%-)&# '&#&#&!

($ + / "' #$ $. $)+.*&*,.
!" ., &# " #$%$%"" %
.

0∗
∗
∗
00 *

∗

∗ (
⊗
#$!, "" */ % .& %&# %, !,!"
. !. !
.
+
−
*($%""7 7 (C+(&*"$ !" *"*,($%.%& .&#

. . . . ∗ .
+ * (

*+$ !,++#,.!"*,$#- 6 & $ %- &# ($ +&* ., &$ +(&*"$
!

*-+-7 &(% $.+ / &.&# .& " &%$ %-$ +"# (" ",( %-$ &# ($
.

/ -
>− . . . .
- -

!"#$%"#$ %-$,('$ !," $++- .$&!$# %%$.,/.,.$&!#,( %&"# !,++#,

. . .
.!"*,

&
&+($ &*,.$( %&+.
-

.
&# ($ ,
$ %-$7 .
] !$

*
( &( .& %

.
.

.

.

2
+

→

0∗ 00 ∗ 0∗ ∗
→ ⊗ ⊗ 00 →

∗ ∗

0 ∗ 00 ∗
→ → $
%" !,.".$
% #$!,*%"#,%"$/
"" $+(" −.& "+(&− − −,#$%"(&+ %, " 7 , " #$%$
∗ ∗
/ .&
"
* 0 + 0 ++ +

+& ,($%" / &( $%%, .& %, &+($ &*,.$( %&+. .& %$
" " "
- 0 0
−
+&*+$# .&// $'& #- &.$("7 ? $+
"

2 ( - -
$ ,
%&'& " % %&7
+, & &'&#&(&'""

/ %$ +*- "+(
Z .+ & +$ %&'&

&#&

0∗
'

00 ∗
& &# ($ , &#&

&
' ( - -
Z & ×
&# ($!$+,$("# ⊗ 7

. .

.

00

⊗ Z 0
'&#&#&! " #
. . . .

∗
∗

0∗ 00 ∗ 0 00
. . Z ⊗ Z ∗ ∗
+

0
00
0
00
∗ Z ⊗ ∗ Z → ∗ ⊗ ∗ Z
0
+($ "# & !, &# * +
0 00 ' 0 00 0 0 00 ' 00
$+ !$ &(,',$.+ / .& h / $+(" /"h / $+("

h ⊗ ⊗ i h ih i&

7
+ - 0 0 00 ' 00
i 6 i

6

L S NT P L WW W
6 & & !$ $($%"

# #
N NL
L M W
0 0
"
00 '
0 0 00 ' 0 00 '
& .&#
# ⊗ # ⊗ − ⊗ # 00 $

h#
0
⊗
00 ' 0
⊗
00
i

h 0 ⊗ 00 0 ⊗
'
00

i

0 0 0 00 ' 00
" '
i " − h 0 0 ih 00
0
00 00
h ih i
h
#
0
⊗
00 ' 0
⊗
00
i
'
h# 0 0 0 ih 00 00 i " − h 0 0 ih # 00 00 00 i
0 '

0 0 00 ' 00 0 ' 00 00
i − h 0 0 ih 00

] &(%, $%%- *-!, $%" / .& *.&!- +(,',$#- #&' . & , ,. + !,

h 0 ih i$
%-$
"7 & $+("

+

6 h i

7 (

-
0 0

.
+ - +
& , $#/ ,.&"+ !&+.!,%+.*,

" &#&! " #7 / .&!$ , $"+*+$'& &.#$."#/ & .&!, $+(".
.
/ (
&.&!" !,# *-$%" &! / , ("+, &.&!-

*.&#
+ + (
7 & /

.
* + * + * +
Z Z Z
& %& %, %& , , . .&. " &#&! " #7

]- !,*
$ $ $
* ( - -

Z Z ∼Z
, "+- * " 7 * , "+-/ *&( ""#* " &#&! " #-, "+ * Z / ∼& .&# "
. #
* * + + + + +
*

+
Z ∼

'
00

,
0
, . 00
' ⊗

+
00
'

0

00
'
+
+

+
* +

0

0

00
'

0

+%& ., $/ .& ., & !$ $( %%-) " &#&! " # +&* , ,$. + 7

Z ∼ 0 ⊗ ∼
00 00
0 Z ⊗ '
00
'
0
⊗ ' Z $
] ".&'$ &( ,$# ,%&%" $+ ") " &#&! " #

( + +
. .
+ +
. .

0∗
00 ∗
"% "!&*,%%-) '&#&#&! " #&# 7

⊗ → × & Z
+(" *&( , $+.*$

/] !$.& '!*+$ - & $%"" "$%.&* *#$+.& * . (, ("%$)%-
"."*%
+
'!!&+.!,%+.*7

!,++ -#&
%&
( .,.$ &( "# " &#&! " #
.
&*.&!".
Z
+

.

(

+
(
+
+-

-

M '
⊗ & → × &

& $
'
0

KL L L PWO YWSY [OROPOQORS S TYO YPU W

WYTU

",'&%,(/ %&$"% &.&"! !,$. $%"$ " #- / , ,%%&$

" &!# (&)
'&#&#&! '&#&(&'") &'&#&(&'")

/ * ( +
| |→| × |

" 7 ,%&%"
( &'&#&(&'") #& %&

+
.
!,++#&.!$.

&# & " " '&#&#&!

" #, " $+ &'& #&%&#&! ∗ ∗
∗ / - (

∗
−→ × × −→
" #, &( "# ⊗ ,%&%" $+→ ") '&#&#&! "" .$&!$#- %%$.,7 ] !$ ( 7
.
∗

∗

+
+
∗
.,.$ #
. . .
+ ∗ ∗ ∗ + 2 +
×
!, ($#$%., !" .&# '&#&#&! " #$ +&* , ,$. + / %&

+ ∗ ∗ ∗
⊗ →
!&*$! , .&'& &+.,.& %& +(& %,/ &.&# .& &.& !, $%"$ %$ +"#
. .
* + +

)
⊗
, ("" ("",( %-%&$7#& "$($)7

$ !"*$ $%& & , ,.$( +.*&/ &+%&*,%%&$ %, #$.& $
( * (
.
( +
" # $)+.*. $.&%+.!

#&#&!( '&#&(&'") * !&."*&" &(&!"#$%".%&# %,%$(!,*($%""
/ &.&# .& '&
.

.
/ - +-
. .
+ (

∗

.&) !" "%$/ #&#%&%& &$%"$!$ $(".

*+(& &'&#&(&'" * '&#&(&'" /** %$&.("&.&!-"$ &.+ $#%&",( $%"%-
∗
∗ ⊗ ∗ → ∗ × ←− ∗ $
,$&!$#7 %%$., #-

.&(
- &

(
(

-

(

-
"$%.&** & / ,' ,("$ ""%$ .&( ( & '! " "$%.&*
&"."*%, /
. . .
-
%&!&'&" ( & !" " .&#

2
,
"+!" &( !$&*,(,+ , %$

" # ( ." (""&.& Z
+ -
&( +.!
7 . !, &( &%+.!
. . .
- -
,."*%, %, !"#$!/ & $($%"" '&#&#&!

. .
- +
#,/ ,%,(&'" %&'& ( & " "$%.&* Z 7 & .&# ( &'&#&(&

. .
- - +
'")$%"$+ & ""$%.,#" .& $ $+. ,%&%" $+ " & !$ $( %%&$ #%&
. .
- -
7 %& .& $ +&* , ,$. + GHI

. .
(
!&" *$ $%"$#7 ⊗
. . .
( ∗ ∗ ∗ (
→ & & &
+

%&#&($$:$.&
, " (" %- #& $($)/!, !, &.,%%-) 8)($% $!'&# " , ($)
; / *( $.+ & & $%"$# #$.& , , " (" %- %&+".$($)7 ,"
+ * *
- $ $+.$+.*$%%& .$&!$#, & , " (" %- #& $( &!# ("! $.+ %,

. .
- - - * *
,.$'&!") " % .&!&*7

.
* * - -
%-" 0#&*( ,E &)C +&+.&".

,!- &" J$" E.&* " 7"&(!"$% .&#-.6 (& E!$( $(- % #&!
*/ ,#&!
,%
.
-+

.
NL
.
.
+ S L M Q Q M +
"# *
- ( * -
E " &( %- *- . + +($

&(% "$ +(&*"
. .
+ ( * +
∈ ∈

(

-

- -
◦ ∈
•
◦ ◦
◦
◦

&
0
* E ( *+$ $+. E ($#$%. " / ( E &.&!&'&7 ◦

•

" ◦

-
.

-
0 " ,.$'&!"" * ,.$'&!" +& &+.,

∈ ∈

*( $. ,#&! &#" #& J$ .E ,.$'&!""#&!C & "J$#C. E,.$'&!""
MN N L L
",
+
D
!" .&# &( %- *-∈7 &(% . + +($ "$ +(&*" ∈ "7

&#
. .
- ( * *
. D . . . . .
( + +
(

- -

-

.& +. ∈ E " " &.("

0

,$.+ &. &*,!",%.%&'& .$#/

◦ ◦

7

L
NM
N N
L L -
&*,!",%.%-$ % .&!- " ,.$'&!"" * ,.$'&

.

◦ ◦
!"# & DJ$7 . ,.$'&!"" 6 +& &+.,*( $.

, (&

+
C
#&! " # ., / .&
. . . .
L L M S N M N

- (
→
#&! " #, →C .7$ 7 ∈ E →&## .,."*%, +($
( ,&'& ",'!,##,
.
* + -
. . .
* +

.
-

−−−−→
 
 
y y

0
(,++ &7 J$ %.&*.&!M &*,!",%.%-)

%,
NL Q V
Q
." -*,
−
*-
+ .
−−−→
,.$'&!"
$($%%-$

& J$/ *.-&.&!&)
%, -*, *-. $($% $

" $ ,.$'&!"" +($#&+&*$( " #"" * $ ,

. .
* * + Q U
{ }
.$'&!"
+*& & %- %$&.!" ,.$( %- %- &#

. . .
V Q &
+ -
("%-'! (&.&$ ,!,&'&$%")/ #&%, -*,

%& *-/.#&!,.%& &*- #%&!,.&.%&+".$( %& #& $($) / $+&)
. . . .
*

$+.*&($#$%. " * ,
. .
* ( + M S V Q
M
. .,, "+/ '!.&#%& ($$-

M ⊂ M
- ( ( * ( (
#$%.- 7 ? $+ &∈!, ∈#$*,$.+ & ,!%&/ .&!, (" !&%-$',$.

" & !,*+$ ($#$%.-
. .

M ( *
.

+ * + * +
+.*, E % .&! %,/ , -*,!&. $',$. *+$ "% $ +- ($#$%.&* #%& $+.*, $+(" 7

+ - * (

&.%&+".$( %& #& $($) / M

* (
!" 7
.

+ N O Q
M

+(" %&% .&! +*& & $% &.%&+".$( %& %#&.&!$($), "M(".&$%&%&.%&+".$(
+*& & $% "
.

&.%&+".$( #& $($) / , $+("

* *
%& #& $($) M / .& &% ,M" ("⊃ M$% " &.%&+".$( %& #& $($) M ⊂ M 7
.

0
. .

0
.

N Q L Q NL R Q
N
Q
M
V O Q M NQ Q
N
L S NT P N U
R V M W L P L NM
R NT V Q Q
U
N
Q Q
Q
P M S V N
O L U
L
Q V

M

{
:
0
$ $ $

} ; P 0
$ $ $
0

V
T Q P O L
L M S V P N L 0 N
O L L
Q VU

M W VN
R S L L M S N MN , → , 0

V MN L Q L L M Q Q L S NT Q
6
W
L P
R S V MN L L M L S NT U
→ 0
Q L W

0 P V R P L L M
$" $)/6 &

.&# "#$! .+, 7"#&!*(( $.+ " ,#- &'&, .&!'! &) #$!%-
→
N
NL L M W , - - -

*- !,%%&'& ($#$%.,
.
- + , ,
→
+→7 $+.* $. ($#$%. ∈ / ( &.&!&'&

0
,0
,
0 / - ( *
,
,

.
,
,
,0
-
∈
8($#$%.- / ' $ ∈ E / &.,!, &!#. (,, &"+%&'!%, %&-
.
0 ,
,
,
7 &(& "#

,
* + * +
,*,%", . '&#&#&! " # 7 F $+.$+.*$%%&+." !$& !, &

, ( ,
,

0

,
,
+
" ".&'&/ .& "! "$. * #$!%-$ %-$'&#&(&'" &.& !, $%""+ &/ +($%&$ &.&$./ !,.&

, &

+ +
, ,0
+ * +
→
'&#&#&! # "% 0

- * ( -
$%"$ +
7

- *
,
&#&#&! " #- $# +.!&". "% "$) &

, , ,
→
(
,0
., / .& - *- &(% (&+ !,*$%+.*& 7 9 "#$%%&/ ( , & 7

+
→
0
*

'& , ,%%&'& ($#$%., ∈ !,++#&.!"#

.

* - - (
−

$' & !&*$!". / .& + $+.* $. $
/ ( &.&!&)
. .

∈
+
−
0
−
7 !" .& +($ $. " .&'&/ .& "% "! $. &.& !,

∈
-

$%"$ #$!%-

'&#&(&'")/ , !" " .&'&/ .&
. .

0 + *
−
,

/ , & +(&*"
7 &(& "#

( 0 +
−
" $ &+.!&"# '&#&#&! " # + &#& & "+,%%&) *-

−
0 (
&%+.! ""7
−

→
+
0
( $ %- &.&!$&!, !,$%")&*,%"$ → / "% "! / $" %,& %&'&#&.& " .&

1
$" $+.$+.*$%%&$
. .
/ - * (
0
→ +.!&".+ ,%,(&'" %&7 - &."#/ .& - *-

( * + , , 0 -
→
&(%
(&'& ("+ !,*$%+.*, / !" ( ( 7
!
-
0 - *
! !
&+.!&$%" ., &'& − " #, &+.,.&

'&#&#&! %&/ .& -
!
-
− − ,

, ,

−
0
*- !,%%&'&!" ($#$%., -(, '!,%" $ $)7 −!" −.!$ $#&$ +*&)$

!
/ - - + * -
. !
* *
−
+.*& +($− $. " .&'&/ .& " "% "! . & %& " .& $ &.& !, $%"$

,
,
,
,
* *
'&#&(&'")7 9 !" "#$$. #$+.& !,*$%+.*&

+ ( * (
, ,

0
! !
− − − −
− −
−

! −

−
&+., .+ *&+ &( &*,. + , " (" %&+. % .&!, 7

&
- + -
0
. .
0 0

+.
| | → |

× |

",'&%,( %&$"% &.&"!&*,%%&$
!, $%"$/ * (
"#"%$&.& !,$ →$%"$ '&#&(&'")7 , !&*%$ $ $) +& &+.,*( $. *$!

∼
× ⊗
7 $# %, -*,.
∗ ∗ ∗
*

(

∗ ∗
∗

-

,
( $!$*&&$ $+.$+.*$%%&$ $ %&$ &.& !, $%"$ / V

1

+
⊗
$$ * 7
* * (
→ ⊗ ∗ ∗ ∗
% .&! .&!+*& &.$&!$#$

$% &.%&+".$(, "%&("#& $%$($)&.%&+".$( +#7 !"
-
⊗
#$!$($)77 7 & /.&#

, %+&'(,+%& %&, ."",'&#&
*
M { }
& , " (" %- #& $( (
.
∗

⊗
%,( %, , !& +"#, " "% "! $. * '&#&(&'" &.& !, $%"$ 7
. .

∗ ∗
*

- * -
.

( *- "+($%") & %,
2
1
- - - * (
. ∗
/ &.&!, , , .+ &!# (&)

/ - * V V
- + -
.
; : ; : ;

:
,

$ $ $

X ,
$ $ $

⊗

$ $ $

$
,
%&/ %&.& (" !&*$!". / .& .& &.& !, $%"$ $ %&$/ .7$ 7 7 +

( 1 * (

: ; X − : ;

0 0
: ; ⊗ : ;

$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
X 0
"
− $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
: ; ⊗ : ;

X "
0
− $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ &
: ; X: : ;

;

0

: ; ⊗ : ;

⊗ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
X 0
"
− $ $ $ $ $ $
X
−
: ; ⊗ : ; "
0
"
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
: ; ⊗ : ;
,
6 6
X "
0
"
−
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
: ; ⊗ : ;

> 6
X "
0
− $ $ $ $ $ $ $
0

].&!&$ *-!, $%"$ &.(" ,$.+ &. $!*&'& & &(%".$( %&) + ##&)
: ; ⊗ : ;
( -
"
: : ; : ; ⊗ : ;
0
− ;⊗
$ $ $
: ; ⊗ : ; : ; ⊗ : ;
0 0
− "
$ $ $
"
$ $ $
0 0
$ $ $ $ $ $
: : ; − : − ; ⊗ : ;
− ;⊗ −
$ $ $ $ $ $
"
: :
0
− 0 0 0
− 0 0
− ;⊗ ;
− $ $ $ $ $ $

0
%& .,.&+ !,##,$%"$

!,*%, % ( 7
0 0
− $ $ $
" &.& !, $%") → × / !$ +.,*( $$ +& &) &# & "

* ( - * +
.
∗ ∗
: ; 7→ X : ; ⊗ : ; 7→ X : ; × : ;
* (
0
"%$%"$"! 7$.F * '&#&(&'" !, $%"$ .&/ , *&#&'&#&(&'"

.&'& $ ($'&.&& *-*$+."/ & " " &.& !, &.&$%")!,

$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $

- * ( - *
∗ .
( + ( + - * (
∗

. .
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
", ." GHI+& &+.,*(

!&" *$ $.$%"$7 $ $)+.*".$( %&/ %, !&*%$ $ $) .,
& " ⊗ & $ / ( &&.&!&) &# &
∗
⊗ → × −→
+ /
. .
' '
: ;i hX ⊗ X : ;⊗:
+ - - -
;i
. . .
' , ' ' '
: :
,
h $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
;ih %-$ +(,',$#-$

;i & !,

, ' '
&+($ %$$ !,*$%+.*& +($ $. " .&'&/ .& &+.,(

h $ $ $

$ $ $

$
, .+ * % ( 7 , "# & !, &#/ / .& " .!$ &*,(&+ 7

+ *
- * + ' ) ' *
.
KL L L WY WYY [OROPOQORS Y\[OY Z OS Y YWSY

+. +"# "(" ",( %-$

&%$ %-$

& $ +"#
%-$ ("&#",(($ %-$
+-/
&# ($ +-/ ($.& "

∗
%-) & $ %&) &# ($ +7 & $ # " #& %& +& &
. . .

∗

∗

×
+.,*". & $ × ∈ +($ "# & !, &#

. . . .
2 - ' ' (
. ∈ . ∈ .
' '
*

+
. ×

'0 '
0

0 '
' 0
F !,*$%+.*,h × × × i × 7 & h.&#− ih&( × ,$#i '&#&#&!

+

'

# 0 # ' ' 0

'
"
+($ $./ " .&#
0

'
$

'! × ×× →−7 × × / %, -*,$#-)

"
' ' 0

'

+
# # #

'
' + U

#%& $'$%"& !&*$!". +($ "$ +*&)+.*, *%$ %$'& &'&#&(&'" $+ &'&

T

1
. . .
( -
0

$+(" × → $+.$+.*$%%, !&$ " / .&

• × × × × &
- - ∗
• .
0

$+(" &.&/ .&!, $%"$ × → × 7, ,%& &!# (&)

× &
* ( +
• ' '
'

0
]%$ %$$ &'&#&(&'" $+ &$ #%& $%"$ .$+%&/ '+*$ &.&

,%& !,+ $%"$GHI
∗
× − ×

#%& $%"$#7 9 "#$%%&/ "% "!&*,%& ×",'&%,(
(
1
.
%-# &.& !, .&$

.
)

'
(

∗ '
-+
* (

%"$# 7 $)+.*".$(
'
%&/ 7 '
* (
∗
× →
!, $%"$ %$ ($.& %&$/ & .&# i % h %&×
,#$%". %, i ",'&
'
' '
'

/
∗
h ×
%,( % , !& +"#, " 9($ +,% $!,< C".%"7 ] !$ ( .,.$ &( "#
'

* ( ( +
.

+
. .
h

∗
×
:

;i h × X :
' ,
;×: '
;i '
'
, '
: ;×:
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
;i
,

:
' ,
'
;i
h × $ $ $ $ $ $
' ,
.& "!".!$*- &*,(&+ 7

)
h $ $ $ '
",( %- &#"+($%"" -*,$. &($ !%& #-+($ !&" $$*$ .*$!

($ +&* &($,+.& &'&#&(&'") $%") +"#$%"$7("
*
- +
. .
* + (
. .

∗

×
' )
× ' 0 '
)
× ' ) '

6 ]&+ &( $#+ .$#/ .&

× −
$

W + -

' )
× '
× ' '
×
∗
×
× ×

× ' '
× × ×
∗

× '
× × ∗
×
+%& ., $/ .&
'
7 & .&#
) ) ' '
∗

$

× × × ◦ ×
(
.
' '
×
)
×

∗ '

× ∗
×

× × '
× ×

−
0 '
× ∗ × × ' × '

0 '

∗ '
× $
'
×

−
∗ ∗
× ×

∗ ∗ ∗ ) ∗ W
∈ ∈ ×
0

!$ $ /*+$'&
" 6 × 7 C ".-*,

W
.& **&+!,++#,.!"*,$#&#
&( $#+ .$#/+(.& ,$ ( + - ∗

×
0
/
&( ,$# ×
∗
7
0 -

× ×
0 ) 0 ) 0 0 )
×

R × × R
W $ $ $

Z

C × × C $ $ $
Z

∗ 6

∗

∗

∗
×

∗

∗
∗

R R ∨

∗
∗
6
R
×

6

×

,. &#& & *%$

.$&!$# %$'&!$ &'&#&(&'"
+"'%,.
! #&'& $+ &'&
!&" *$
#%& *$%" #%&'&&
$%" #& %& !,& ")7,
1 ( - (
$# + ".,. / .& / $+(" %$ $(".+ %, 7

. . .
+ - + - * +
-

6 %, / & .&#+(" %$ $(".+" %, / .& & %& " 7] "+$(,( %$)" $#%$
' '
×

$(".+
"
- +

+&'(,+%& .$&!$#$ %%$., 7 ( &'&#&(&'") + & " "$%.,#" R

$# + ".,. / .&
- ' ' 1
× "
*
/ -

. .
2

'
∼
M − '
× ⊗R
$
+(" " 6 / .& %&!#, $!$+$ $%" & .&#

!"%"#,$. %,"# ($#$%.,

,
($*&$ %, $%"$7 !, (& !&+.!,%

"
-
− −
+.*&⊗ ×⊗ * + ## !&+.!,%+.*

+ + (

7
'

− '
− − '
'.&($ & * /.&#" $+( ,$/!&+.!,%+.*, / &.&!&$ $+.* ,

0
⊗ ⊕ ⊗ R R
' '

"#%&&&!.&'&%,(

&' ,
%-%,&.%&+".$("+(, "
%&& &!#- .%-7
⊗

8." !&+.!,%+.*,

$!$+$ $%"7 7 &!#, $!$+$

R

.
+

, $#/ .& , &# !&+.!,%+.*$

. .
-
%,$%"+"'%,.
"#$$.!$ %&'!,%"
($* $%"+"'%,.&!#-
! / .7$!$+$
$ 7 +"'%,.
$%" !,%, & !&+.!,%+.*&
!,*
/ ( ( 0
. .
-

'
×
- -
0

+. 79%,(&'" 7 +. , "+ 7 ]- $!$#/ .7* $ 7 , "+:{ } 7
*&)+.*$%%-)
' '
;i
* * +
⊗
%& *- $!$# *
, "+ " *
R

∗

* + −
)

∗
{ } h
− − '
*-+.*$$!$#, "+,*&)+.*$%%-) $#*$ .&!-
, "+ {*" },7 ] !&+.!,%+.*$ * , $$
7 &!#,

{ }
* ' * +
#& %& * . " 7

#
* * + ∗
0

!$+$ $%" & !, ,$.+ * % ( %, *+$ ,!, ⊗ , "+%- ⊗ *$ .&!&*/ !&#$

.
* + ( +-
∗
∗

,!,!$ *", ,"+%- ⊗*$ .&!&*⊗ &!#, 7 $&!$#, 7 7 & , -*,$./ .& %, ., &)
.
- * - * +
!"%"#,$. %, $%"$
. .
∗ ∗ +
7 +%& .,
, "+$ &'!,%" $%"$ &!#- $!$+$ $%" %,$+ !&, 7
$/ .& &!#, $!$+$ $%" +"##$.!"
. .
* + + 0 ∗

−

−.&# * *- !,%%&#

&
.
0
− − ( -

-
. .

+.!,%+.*& 7 , , .+ ! #&) + ##&) #,.!" − /' $

* * + -
0
7 "'%,. !, , &) ., &) #,.!" - !,*%, % ( 7

0 + - - 0

0
(
− − . .
+(" "+(, " %$ .%-/ .& !&+.!,%+.*& ⊗

' '
&.+ .+.* $./ & .&# × 7

R
'
+$?%,$%"+(" "+(,!&+.!,%+.*,
" !" $($%"" %, " , . &+.,.& &+&+"##$.!" / .& &!#-$+ $!$"$7

%,
"./ * ." !&+.!,%+.*, #& %& *- !,. , "+- ., / .& &!#,
-

''
.
.

.

$!$+$ $%" $. , ,*,. + ! #&) + ##&) #,.!" 7 '!,

( * * +
.
0

%"%- $%"$!&+.!,%+.*
&!#- $!$+$ + ., "#"$%" #,.!"
%, .$%,#"&!%&$$!$+$!&"$%"*$ $%"$
, , .+* #,.!" * #$!$)
- * + - -
0

− - + +
- + -
.
 
%, #"% + $+ & *"(
0
−
0 0
 0
 + + -
− 0 ⊗ 0  0 & .
− −  
+ &(" $%%&)

- , .&'&/#,.!"
++

.& "+(&
- !,*%, % %$( 7.%&7& .&#
$' & !&*$!". / .& +"'%,. !,

7
'
·
−
0

.

'

, &%$ / +. & , " "+(, " .,$( /.+ .&%,- 7#,.!" ]- $!$#- $!$+$
, "+- $%"
* !&*

+.!,%+.*,

.", "+&*, ""+,, "-("$# #,.!"

*
.
+

",'&%,( %-7&'!,%"
*

]& #$%"# .$%&!#-

*
!&" *$$%"$%"$%, ."!&

&!%&$ $!$+$

' '

+
.

-

-
+
*

+
* +

-
+.!,%+.*&
* +
.$( %- 7 ",'&%,(
%-⊗
($#$%.&*
+
7 ( +. &!# " $!$+$ &("

1
$%" $+.*,
* &(& "" '

'

-

-

(

,.!" , ",'&%,( %, + − − &(& ".$(

.

- -
' '
%-#" ($#$%.,#" %, ",'&%,(" " − − &.!" ,.$( %-#"7
"
'

-
(
+"'%,. !, !,*%, − − − − 7
"
'

'

'

0

"("%$)%&$ &.& !, $%"$ R /×+($R →$./R .&%, -*, ."(" "
/ $+(" " .&'&/ .& 7
* ( +
("%$)%&#

%$*-!& $%%&# &.& !, $%"
+

#& %& +&

"# { } { } 7{ } 7 8.& & !$ $($%"$ &!!$/ ,.%&/

&+.,*". &.& !, $%"$ "#$%%&/
&+ &(&(&
(

* ( (
R ×R →R
− −
R × R → R
* (
−
(

&'(,+%& !$+ $%" , " 7 7 &(" &#&!
,"$%.,#" & &'&#&(&'") !&+.!,%+.*,
. . . .

& " %& &(
#%&'& ($%&*7

1 +
:
/ !& , .&!" &*,%%&# & +&&.%& $%" # "
. .

R × R

F+"+(,&( ; / / .&/ ( +*&)+.*&/

+
Z
#& %& &( ". %$ &.&!-$
&'!,%" $%" %,
. .
Z + 1 -

&.&!-7 8."+ &'!,%"

$+.* $.$%"%$*-!&-(" $%%&$ "("%$)%&$ &.&
.
+- ( -
!, $%"$ &( $%- & %&*!$#$%

.
- ( *

%& !%,(,." B$($# : ;
" &> 7&#
:E7 *; &" "%+.,.

" .&." &+.
$ $% "("7 * !$ , "
.
* ( - *
R ×R →R

.
(
&
(

R ×R → R
+ "$ 6 (,++- $+ ""$ / ,++#&.!"#

!$ +.,*($%%-$* " (,#"

−

R − × R − & Z

" '&#&(&'" $ 7

&'&#&(&'" (,++- " / *&)+.*$%%-$ *, +#-+($ ("%$)%&) ,(

3
R × {∗} {∗} × R

'$'")!-!&+.!,%+.*,
(,++,# " / # ( ." (" 7,."*%& &!& . &( & &'&#&(&
. . .
2
+. " 7 & &+.,.& !, %&"$ &#$!%-

. .
* 3

(

'&#&(&'") " &'&#&(&'") !&+.!,%+.*, , ,. /
. . . .
−
R × R
* + 0
−
.& 7 $)+.*".$( %&/ " .&'&

R
!,*$%+.*,

+($ $./ .&
− / +
P 7 & .&# $+(" "

"
. .

∗ / +
.7$ 7 !$ − $ *+$'& / .& "+(& .%&7

"
−
∗
− ,
& , $#/ .& 7 ( !$.&'& &+.,.& %&$.( )!&*

*$!". // %$%.& ($*&) 7 &#&(&'" $+ ") (,++/ +.,*($%%-)

( ( 3 / -
*
&( ,$.+.&' %$, ",#.&(& %$+.-)&$ .&'"*,$..,/7]%$&'!,++#,.!"*,$#&)
, !" & % .""+"..&), ""$
3
.

∗

6
.("+(&*"$
∗ . .
−
R
-
,#, "#% .&+. & % ." $

. .
− - +
.("7 & .&#− − "",%,(&'" %& 7 & !, &#/

.

* + - -
7 & .&#

7 h i
.
3
* +
∗ 3
. "
3 ∗ 0
∗ 0
∗

∗
h i h i ∗ h i

R ×R →R

−
R ×R →R
0

R × R → R −

R R R −
× →

R × R → R −

] .&) '(,*$+%&*& + ." , !"(&

'&#&(&'")7 .+ !,$%")(" +&+.,*(
%-$ !"(&$. $%"
* (
&($$ +"#& !&("%&$",("++($

- %- + ( -
%" &+*&)+.*
%,&*,%"$ &(%".$(+"#%-(" +.!",( %-. !7'&#&(&'") " &'&#&(&'") " **$ $%"$
( - * *

.

.

#"" &#&! $+ !,++#,.!"*,
?" '&#&.&
" #"7
!$.+ $ %$*+$'&&.&!-$& ,* -*,$.+ " #$ '&#&(&'"

,"#&+* .$&!$#,
-
!$*"(", &" + -+ ( -
%&+." '! " ( +* %&'& +"#

.
- ( + - *
%&'& &#!"#$%
,(&.&!-) ($ +,$.+ 7 ?,.$#

+.!&".+ ,
− .$&!"" !$ .+.*")/
,!,.
.

+
- 0 -+
#&.& " $+ " (,++&* &.&( "%.$! !, $%")!$.,* !&+.!,%+.*&

"" '! &'&#&(&'") ." , ,7 '&

- -
. .
- - -
. . . .
* (
. .
LMLML YO YPU N Y S U

",( !$ $("#&# &.&

%-)
($ + !," $%"$ / +($ "#→& !, &#7/ ' ,++#&.!"#
* ( $ +"#+ ("$ ,
!&"
→ 7 &(&∈7 "#% "% "! $.: '&#&#&! " # '&#&(&'")

, * +
/ ' $ : % ,#$%
. .

;
;
, , +

→

(
∗ ∗
0
.,( '&#&#&!
*-$ %-) (,++7" #-&#&.&
%-$ &.& &!,.&#$%" " "% /.7"!$ 7&.&. &!,"%,$%"$&
'&#&(&'")/ * ( - ,

$)+.*".$( %& & !$ $($%& ( '&#&.& " $+ &) '! - 7

. .
+ , * (

!&*$!"#/ .&, &.&'&#&#&! " # '! 7 $!&" -7 -" #-$# !$$#

- ,
!,++#,.!"*,. !, $%"
.
+

*

&(,',. / .& + $!, + ($$%, " *

,!&*

/ .!",%' ("!&*,%%-
! !
* ( - ,
*
→
+.&( #$( #&/ !$.& &.& !, $%"., "$/ .&'&#&.&

%- +"# .!",%'
(" ",( (%-#")&.&,
. . !

+ 1

!, $%" &(,',$.+ & J$ "%$%"$

.
* ( -
!&* , . .!",%'!$ (+.,*($%-

" + $!-7" (,#"
] ., P&# +( ,$ '&#&(&'" $+ "$/ ' (,++-
.
* ( - - ( * - 1
" " P $
.

&
-
" $+ ") +"# ($ +- .!",%'!$ (+.,*($% ") $!*&'& " *.&!&'& ,!,/

, '&#&(&
. . .

'"&.&# (,++'&#&#&! " # '! 7 '& %," (&# 7
.

-

1

-*, . 6

. " "
P P

7
. . .

+ +

&#&#&! " # " / 7, &" +,#, '! , %$ & $%/ ,*"+". &. *- &!,

&.#$
"#$%%&/ $%%&)

$+(" .&
., ,*"+"#&+.
!&" *&( %-) . "
+
+ $+.*$%%, 7 9
* / .& +($ , ",
.
,
.
+

,

+

*
'!,##, &## .,."*%,

.

+ + -
,

.
∗

L ,

/
LLL r
L rrr
LLLL rrr
L&
rx rr

6 6

6

$

:

; &.#$ $%%, .& ,

→

6 $# !$ &(,',. / .&

*$! " "%, 7 *$!& , "%-$# +%,/ ",(, "#&! %&+." (77 &'+. , : ; / ' $
1 /

(

-

,

. ,
P 3

*$! "% −7 / " . ")7 & +.! !,#$.( 7 +8.&# . " &.#$ $%%&) .& $." $ *
.
,

1 P3

." +&&.*$.+.*
.
P P 3
3
,

+

,
%, ,(&# 7 +%&/ .&

.
1 *

−

-
∈ ,

,
Y
−
X3 "

F+ &(!,*$%+.*, P+*& & %-$P& !, +($ "$$.'!!,*$%+.*& /&

,

,
− $
- 7F., /#- &+.!&"

+ 3
3
, P 3 P 3 ,

(" ($#$%. % ,#$%.,( %&) '! -/ &.&!-) &.& !, ,$.+ * P 7

* * +
,
. . .
* ( - 3

.
% ! %

− −
0

* + + - - - *
-

(
- -
P

.

3

- * - -

1
.

*

(

Q

* / -
0

X X " "

3 0

0

.

+ 1

.

- * +

−

−

. . .
&
* 0 - - - * + *

- -

-
−

+ 1
& .
Y Y
− − · − · −

$

+ +
.
Y − Y

$
2
− − − −
·
0
·

- - 0
. .
0
*

!

" # $

% &

& ( ) & ( ) ) & ( ) *
, ' & (' & ( −,' , > + $ $ $
' → '

,

+

& ( ) & ( )

P 3
∈ - '& ( ' '
+ +

) ) − '& ( ) *
& → &
.
( * (

& & & −
$ $ $
* ( -
→ . (
∈& '
+
/

&

& −
. .

( 1
- - -

* (

& &

& −

& − ( ) →
- -
. .
'

0 0

0

-

& &

→

* (
& −

. .

(
( → '& (
! !
P ( ) P ( P '
(

& . .
3
' ∗'
3 3

P

3 * (
.

P ( ) P
. .

∗ '

( 3 3

+ * (

& ( ) *
∗ '
& (

- * - +

→ . .
'
- * (

(

⊃

,
( ) P (
∗'
'

&

*

⊂

*
.
( -

+ -+ *
.

(
.
+ ( - -

&

. . .
* ( ( -
⊂

(
.

* (
&

. .

) P

( ) * . .
∗ '

.
−

* ( *

) P ( & −
. . .
'
(
⊂
) P
( & −
.
' ⊂
6
* ( -

& ( ) *
∗'
+ +
. .
0

* ( - (

.

.
(

.

.
+ -
×

* } )
× { } )

. . .
0

- (
× { .
* ( ( -

×

* ( - (
( )

. { } × ." " .
'
(
×
( & −

. .

' ⊂
- - -

. "

.

− *
. . .

*

.
1

.

.
-

. . .

.
-
*

.

. . .
-

2

.
& .

- →
- ( * (

-
( & − & ( ) & ( )
( - -
. .
' ⊂ ' '

* ( +

) ) − '& ( ) *
& → & ( * (

& & & −
$ $ $

* ( -
→

&
→& − ⊂&
* ( -

* (

&

* (
) →

⊂

∈ - '& (
-

− ( ) .

'
* ( ( (

( & (
.
( ' & ( → '

* (
⊂

.

−
- ' '
+

( ∗

→
'
* (

& ∗

. .

- -

( )−→

. .
'
6
* (

+
6

( + -
.

( ) *

∗'(

( + / - *
. .

.
∗'

⊂ .

&
* (

- * (
→
−

.
-
( -
( ) * ) P ( ) ( )
'
3
∗'
∗'

)
∗P 3
( ) *

'
*
∗

+ +

.
+

.
0

* *
. .

,

&

-

. . .

,

. . .
,

& (
'
- (
* +

3 *

+ - - 1

− ) )
&
3 3 0 3 0 * + -+

&

.
- -
. . .
→ * → * → - −

→ - → * ) Z - ∼ )Z

- ∼
+ +

& ( ) *

& (
'
. ' ) *
0 +

>
'
- 0 + 1
( >

0

& -

, ,
,

"
% ( , , ,
( ) *
' >
'

6

-
%

! "

# $
% &

&
% % % % &

&
& ) & $

& /
#

∪
&
→

) *

#
# $

#
$

>

# %
( $

'

%

%∈

# ) $

( %

'

& %&
→
( & ((

$
&
' ∈- '
% & # & '

%
&

&
#
% &

&

&

⊂ ≈

# # %

( / % & (

% $'

' (
'

$
#

% &
%
⊂
% ( ( ) *

' ' ⊂
( ( ) * % %

$
' ' ( & (( & ((
%

' ∈ - ' ' ⊂ - ' '
& (

% %

%
&
'
$ %

#
&

×
! ) '
∨
! ( ∪ " # $ !

$ !− % →

∨
!
&

' ! ' ( ) % (
$ ' ) * $ % ' ( ∈ $ % '& ' ((

,

% ( ( ) * # +
$ ' ' $*
, - (
% &

'

&
% % # # #

$ %
( # $ $*
≈ %
%

' −

$ % %
%
'
$ % ' , (

% % #
# # % ( %

%
.
$$* , ( $
# / %
#

%
'

$
0 +

1 2 / % %
−%

+ $ 6+
.
→ $
34 56 78797:;7 <=> =? =5;@7 AB; CD56 = A? =<= 56 = A?6 E:A?FE 56;F787:= F @EA?; G : E
A H IJK H

0 +
+
+ / % # $ +
+

# 1 2 6 /− % . $
$
+ $ +
+
→ $ \ { }
.

$ * ) P $ %
+

% ( $ % ( (

+ % "
$ ' '

∈
&'
% % $ −
→
$*
(
+

$
$

1
'
$ % # +

&
+
$

% (
→

( $
' → ' ( $ ' '
$ % (

% $
&
#

∗
&
% $ % % ( − ( "∗ (

→ ' −−→ ' −→ '

$

% ( $ % (
$
# ( $# $' '

$
$
-
) ' −

−%
>
% %

+
(∗ $

%

( * % %'
$
' *
− % ( +

# ( (
∗ %
'

− % ( $ %' * %' *
'
% ( ( $

% %
∗
P $% )' ' $ * ) *

$
− %
&
%
$ $*
% ( ( ) *
∗
$ ' ' $*

%
% % &
% % (
$
$ '
- $ % ' (

' ! ' ( ' '
-$ %"' ( ) *#

&

& !
" $ # , ! $ % →
& $ % & \ & −%
& , # # $'

&
(

# +
& − % →

, ) * + & * , "

- (
' & ' ((
+
$ $ % $ #
( ∈ - '

% &
%

& & − %

%$ #

⊂ ⊂

&
#
&

%
$
%$ #
.
# +

(

1
+

(
'
$
% &→
- (
' (

- ( ( ) * %

' ( '
' × →
( % × { } ( × {* }

|
) ( |
× {} ×

# "
# $

−→ −→

- ( ( ) *

' ( '
- ( (
# # #
% & +
⊂
' ( '
- ( ( ) * %

#

' ( '

& − %
(
' ( & * % #
& * , "
# # →
& $" * +
∈ - '& ' ((
-
( →
& − % # % - ( ) - '
' (
& , # # $' # %
% &

%
1 ⊂ $ (
→

#
(

(
#
%
'

(

)
⊂

' # % %
(
'
(

' ( " ) - ( ) % ( ( '
' ( $ '( − $ % '
& , # # $' % ( ( % ( $
$ '( − $ % ' ' $

%
%
%
% "
→

P - $ − →

$ ,− -

%$
%)%
1 ' $ % %(
$ %
→

% % "
% %
−
→ −
→
) ,-

.

)
# #

%
%
%

$

# #

%
%
' ( %

$

' ( %
%
%

+

$

#
$

%
#
$

+ #
%
%
%

% % $

$ % ' ( ) * $ % ' ( ) ) - # % % &
-

-

& +
( →
& − % # % - ' ( ( ) −- -
$ % ( ) ) - ( , $ % ( ) ) - , ) - ) *
'( ' ( ' −

%
%
%

& %

(

&
$

+ & − % %
( →
& $ %
% ( ) *
% ( ) % ( ( ) −) - ' ( ( - $ % ' ( )
$ '( $ ' $ ' − $ % '(
) *
( ' ( '
# - ( ,

,
( ) * % $ # +

' (
( (
, - -
' '

-

% $

%
%
/ 1
# $

→
$

%

+
Z '
1 # #
/

∈ Z(

/
→
#

+ $

%
%

%

#
%
+ #

→
# #

+
%

+

% %

+ # % $

%

%

+ %

%
'− ( $
.

&

$
# %

%

%
#

' ! ' ( ! & * % ! % ! " ,
% ! " & # ! ) $
* % ( $ , %
" # # $ # ! ) # ) ! # ! '# − $, !

, ) # $# # $
&
←→ '& ' ((

& , # # $'

'& & −
%( → ' (

% # %

# $ + #

#
#

& − / % %

$
&
% *

& & $

$ →

&
$

→

+ # $ +
+
# &
& $
# (
"
# $ + →

→
− ' −

+

# $ +
# & − %
& − % "
→
→
−

%

+

#
& $

& %

→
& − % ( →

+ %

& & −% (
# #
→ ' (

$

&
( '
# % $

# $
× →

& −

+
*
& −% ( ) $
& − ( )

'

& −
×
' * ×

# &

* × × → ∈ −* × × →
% & − * & −* × × { }
#

% &
$
* × ×{ }

% %
$
% % & −

- # $ *× ×

+ & −
' − (

+

# * ×

0 . ( ) . *(
0 . ( ) . ( 0 0

' ' ( '

& −
% % ' ∼ ∼( ∼(

+
& & − % (
*
% %
→ ' % &(
% -

0 ( & (( % '

' #∗%( &

' ∈

' '

∗ & ' $ + # % & - ' ∗(
# #
%
& ) ( %

0
&
→ '& ' ((

$
$

& & ( (
# # % 0 ' ( )
( ' −% → '
) '( (
0 % &
% - ' ( ( ) - ' ∗ ( − - '( ∗ ( # # # %

&
#
# $

(

0
%

& −*

$ % &
% -
$
∈- '& ' ((

% % $
+
+ % & # %
#

& & −% (
' ∗ ( % %
% &
%
→ ' ( ' (
0
'
- ) - (
0 + %

' ∗
# ) 1
& 1 & ( $ #
# $

+
←→ ' Z
& → 1 # #
∗ & ( $
+ #
1 (

∈ ' Z

& − %
' Z
+ %

+ $
+ # % & - (

%
∗

%
' ∗
$

#
⊂& ) &
" 1 &
% # +
%
%
% ∗
−
→

% % $
%
$
$ .

%
+

' ! ' ( & ! ! " , ! " #

* ! # % & "" '& Z ( ! " # $# $ $ ∗ %
, & * + % & "" 1 (
& 1 # #
# $ # )' #Z % !→
# " '
*

! "

$ + % ) # $ !

#
→( (
∗
( (

# ∗ ' → ' ' → '
>

%

#

+

1 1 )

#

1
→ 6
%

# # 1

# $
#

→ *
%
+
%

% &
+
%

1

&
% % %

%→ &
*#
#

+
$

%
%
%

1 # # $
$
→ *

(
.

1 ∼ '

%
%
%
)
1 ( ) (

%
' ( '

%
%
∈ '
*

1 / # %
(
)
→ ∈ '
)
1 → 1 *

%

% %

%

% &
#
%

1 #

&
% %
#
% →
# %

% &
#
$

&
% %

' ! ' ( & " , $ % ! " , % ! "
# $# # $ " # $ # $, ! , )
7→
# $# # $ ! & % ! # " ) ! ! # 1
% ) # $ # →
1 '
→ *
& , # # $' % $
$
% %

$

+

$ -
( (
$

#

( & * % % ) # $ % #

1 & + # $ & # #
1 # % )
→ * →
) '

1 1 # # # %

*

→ % %
%

$

# &
+ {} % $ %

%

&
% %

) # 0 ) -

2 |
1 %
.

#

2 ) 2

2

%

% %
# # # *% $
&

2 →

*

" 1

%

*→ −→ *
$
%

#

#

* %
%

#

1
∗ (
*→ * ∈ *' *
$
+ # *
* '1 * (
* % %

%

*
+ # $ +
+ #

. #
#
* #

#

$

1 # % )
*0 -
*→

* # % *

+
$
2 %
2 % 0
% .
&
2

) −

2 1 2 − % $
2−%

≈

2 − − % ( 1 1
−−−→ ' −−→ × % −−→ %

$ %
# %
$
%
2

$
$
# %

# % &
#
/

- + %

1 2− % 1 % 0
→ −
#

#
>
2 1
→ %

2
+
(
$

( #
2 − % ' (
2− %
2 ' ( )
∈

−%
2 ' ( ( ' (
# 2 2
∈ ⊂
. % &

1 # # %

→

2 # + 0 -
2 >
( " #
1 # $ )# #
→ '
'
'

% +

'
#

+ # $ +
+

#

0
1 %
0 )
→
)

1 % %

%

%

%

+
%

1 % % %

1
+
$

→

' ( ) ' ( · ' ( − %

% % % ) %
(
(

%
'
1 '%

1 % 1 $

#

⊂
#
1 )
() 1 →
%' ∈

( ) ( ( )
)

# '
# ' · ' %

-
! ! "

% #

- % % $ + " # # $ ! # " & (

# - # $ ! %
"> '
(
0 )
( )
2'
0
* 6)

/ %
-

' " 1 % " # # $ # " & ( '
'Z
'
! & # $ & ! ! % , / # ) #
*
1 $ # " # # $ ! # " & ( % ) / ( '
* R * ' %' *
' " # # $ # " & ( '
R ∞ 'Z*
' " # # $ # " & 'Z - ( '
C ∞
' % & # ! # $ $ # ) " "
, ) # ' % " # # $ # C"
! !
+ & (
# % & "" ' , * + & * , % & " " &
, '$ *#

% % , # '
& , # # $'

%

$
%
→ − %
# #
# %

#
# %
%
%

C
$
%
%

%

−
%

−

2' ( ) *
0 - #
>
( ( → 2'
(
% $
0 -

2 ' −% ( ) *

' 2 →
2 2'
( ) * # $−

% ) #

>
' % C

' % & # # " # # $ " # $ *
% & "" 1 " # $ # ' % " # # $ #
+
( # % & "" ' , * + & * , % & "" &
" &
, $' * #

% , # '
& , # # $'
1 ) # # # %

→-

2 ( ∼
' ) 2 ' (
0
>

1 ∞ % % ∞ #
$
C
%
'
( # % P | |* ) 1 ∞
+

%*

% ) - (
' % * ( ∼ ' % * ( '

) 1 ∞ $ + ) ! ! , $ !
" # # $! ∞ ∼

' ∞ " # # $ # " & 'Z ( '

& , # # $' . %
1 ∞ ∞

% %

1 ∞ #
→ $ - ( %
# #
#
# %
'

$
∞( ) ∞ ( ) 1 ∞ ( ) *
-
Z
%' Z ' ' >
( ( ( & # )#
( ) #
∞( ) Z
' * ) # *

( ( ( % & # / # ! ! % , )

& ! # % & ""
" ) ! / ( ) * ' & # )# /
" # # $ # " '
& (''
*
' ! ' ( & * & + # $ & # ! " , !

" # " & ' ( '
& , # # $'

+ $
*→→ → → *

)

-

{ | ∈ } { | ∈ }
$

&
%

>
1
& ( %
%

$
# % ∈$
+ '
∈⊂
) '& ( $

1 & % # # #

% % → & (

&

+
∈ '
%
&
+

# &
# 1 #

# &
$ % 1 % %

%
#

# #
⊃ & '
(
& $ %

&

% % %
#
$ &
%

$ %

#
) - *
$ #

& (∼
$ #

' * )
$ % %
&

%

& % ' − ( # $ % '& $ % ( ∼

)

$

& % ( )
' $ ∼
& (

$
+
# %
$
+

$%
' $
+

&

%

1 % &

%
% & %
+
$ → $ % # $* $

$

&
% % &
%

%

%
% %
$ *$
,
%
$
+

#

' ( % & # ! " " & ) , ! " "
$ -- ! # 0 " # -

! , ( *
1 $ % → $ % '
% $ * ')
0 " 0 & , & # , ! , !
+

( "→ 0 6 & , & # " ,
→ 2 ' 0 ( # ) % # " % & "" & "
, ! !
∗
2'
( 0(
∗& * %'! #→ ")' ! ! # '
2 2
& , # # $' % %

&
0 , +
1 2 % %

6

+ , ( %
0
-
+
+

+
'
#
#
1$2
6
$

→ $ %

+ % $ %

$
$

0

0 ) ,
∗ 6 ∗
$
&
#

1 % 0 #
$ − → − →

+ #

$
# % %
# $*
% %

, (
+

%
+

'
& $ %

#

$ * '
& $ * (

' ! ' ( * $ " # # $ # " & (
$ ! % ! # " ) $ $ # ' '

& , # # $'

+

& (
%
%

&

%
'
%
&

% $

&

&

+
$

$
&(
→
( # 0

2' → 2'
& ) W 1 # 1
$
+

( # ( # +
'
1
'

$
∈

→ & →

& %
+
$ # , ( %

%

$
%
1
'
%
# $
%
→ &

$
+ ) & (
&

&

∈ ⊂

$ & (
'
( #
% → $
&
#
' → '

1 & #

+ $

→ →

+ % %
% $

& %
%# $ $
&
+
$ →

&

&

$

→ & $ % →
& ( & %( ( .
$
$
'
& (
→ ' $ →
' & ( ( # # + #

$

' → '& $ % (

# $
' → '
& % ( (
$
$
' ' % %
$

#
#
# & $ % →
$ →
,

% %
#

( ) *
0 ,

&

&

'
$
$
>
2 &( 2 ( # 0
0→)

$
% +
' & → $ %
'
&

&

$
$ '& $ % ( → '& (
→

0 )
$ & ( ) ( ) *
2' 2'

+
&6
# # + #
$
% %

# . - (
'
( ( ( % & # ) ! ! " , ! "
# " & ( ' & # )# % & "" # ! # $
) % '" '

" ! ! "

# $

&
% %
- &
' − (

$
− %
'& ( '
&
((

$
'

> & ( → '& (

'
& ( ) *

$
−% '
* →
' − % '& ( ( → '& ( → ' '& ( ( → *

& ( ∼
' ) ' '& ( ( %

& & ((
+

$

− % $
+ ∈ & ' ! # '
! % ! %) ! !
& .

% &

&
% %

& (

%
%

'
%
$ & ( ∼
' ) ' '& ( (

&(∼
∈

+
'
) →
#

&
% % &
& (
$
%
'
%
%

%
% &
% %

+

$ .
& ) W 1 % # 1

$
+ .
% 1 % &
%
∈

$

$
$

#
& (
%
∈ '
1

' ! ' ( % & # ! " , ! " # "
& ' ( ' + % * % ! " , % ! " & #
& & ( " # ! # *
& " # $
# → # ' →
$ , ! , ) '
' ( ∈ '& (
! ∗
& , # # $' .

$

$

&
←→ '& ' (( ) '& (

# # &

& &
−−−−→

2 −
y ' (
∗
& (
−−−−→ '& (

'

$ %

&

% +

& & 0 − %

$
.

→

∗ '& ( → '& (
%

% &
$
& # + # % & #

&
) ) − %
#
$ & &

&
%

→ &

#
& &

# (
→ #
# %
+

% &
% $
#
(

+
( ) *

'
'
% $
$
$

& & ( ' ( #

→ '

0 − %
$
# $

# ∗
$ #

#
#

& & − % (

+
' → ' (

& −
%
% %

#
*
% % #
&

%

# & % % %

#
# %
$

+

(
%
' ' () *

% ( ) * $ % $ % '& (
$ '
#
%
+ % ( )$ *∈ %-

)- $ '

) - ( ) * % %
' ∗ ( ) $ % '∗ ( − $ % ' (

% ( )
' ∗ $ '∗
) *
+ 0 ' ( %
%
% % &

% - ( & & - ( # # # % &
%
&
' ∗ ' ∗
0 (

' ∈
# +

#

& & 0 %

→

& 0 −→ &
−−−
 
 
y y
'& 0 ( −−− −→ '& (

∗
/

&
% %

& ' ( %
% $
− %

$ %

$

( )
& 0 )

) ( )
'

'

) ' ' (( ) ∗ ' ' (( ) ∗ ' (

' ' ! # ! # $ , ! , ) # $# # $
& ( & 0 ( 0 (
' ' ↔ '
" # ! % ! # " ) ! & & #

& ' ( → & ' 0 ( # $# # $ & #
& , $ ! % !
! , !
0 '
∗ →
& , # # $'
*
& ( & 0 ( & ( 0
' ' ↔ '
$

%
&

& ( 0 ∼
' ) & ' ( 0 . % &

& (∼
' )
* $ # % %

% !
%) " , % # + #
+
$
%

% # &
#
(

# $
'$
(
'& ( → '& ( %
'

# %

&
% % &
%

( (
' −−−−→ '
 
" ∗ " ∗
y y

'& ( −−
−−→ '& (

%

# +
#
&
→
' ! ! , ! & , & # % ! ! , !
& ( & ( # $→ # % ! %) "
' '
, * + , ! # '
→
' # $ % & "" , , #

$ % 0 # 2 $ # % ! %)
" , # " ' 7→
' (
0
' ! ! ,!
#
∗
2 & 00 ( 2 % & 0( $&
# $# # # ) "
' $ '
*+
$ # #
→
* → 0 → → 00 → *
$ # % ! %) " , & $ ) $ * + , ! #
'
' ! ' ( % ! %) " , # "
' (
# $ $ , ! , ) ! # $# # $ ! # !
& ( ' # # $# # $ , # ! &

7→ ' (
%
' & ( & ! # % ! %)
∈ '
'
& , # # $' + & (

) ∗
(
& & ∈( ' %

' → '

( ) ∗
(( ) ∗
(( %
% # &
#
' ' ' ' '
+ # #
(
'
#
+ & (

)
( ∈ % ' # %
'

% # &
#

& ( & ( # % ) ∗ (
%
'
→ ' '
+
&
( → & ' ( % $
&
+

& & ( & & (

%

'%
→ '

&
& ( % #

→ '& (

'

(∗ ' ( (∗ ∗ ' ( ' ( ) ∗' ( )

' ' % ! %) " , ! # & !

# ,
! # '
& , # # $'
& ( ) * % %

& ( # $
'
' ' − (
' ' " % ! %) " , * + , !
# & , $ % ! ! , ! ! '
→
& , # # $'
% $
#
*

& ' ( ∼
)
& ' ( ∼
) ' (
! ! "

/
# + #

/ % %

%

$

# + #

% #

# $
& / ' (

&

% % # %
(
0
)
( )
2'
*
0 6 )

# *
% # +
%
' +( )

/
/ ( %
/ ( $#
1 '%

'Z
$#
1 % %
% , ( #
Z (
/
'
% %
+ % 1

'

# $ % # $ →
%
& % % #

# %

×

% #
Z −−→ Z → *
% / ( $#
% % %
/ (
/ ( ' 'Z
'Z#
$
/

+
$

$
' (

→
#
#
$

# # #

#
$

$

{ W } 1

) P )
%
{ % } % %

*

#
% %

+
{# $ % } # $ →

$ %
% 0 $
0

# #
0
# $
$

% %
+
$
−%
− # $

+
+
1 %
#

% % %

-

&
% % # # # /
/ (

& % % #

# %
'

→ →* →

−
$ #

*

&
% % # %
%
( )
% $#
%
W / '
' (

.

$ # %

+

.

' ! ' ( " ( ( ' % # & %
& + # $ & # ! " , % ! " # %
−% ( ) * ( ) % % & "" , )
# '# Z

' 'Z Q

Q
& , # # $'

&

%
%
# %
− % ( ) * ( )
' Z

% &
' Z Q
) − % ' ( Z ⊕
− ' ( Z
* ) − % ' ( ∼ ' (
) (
(*
Q ) ' (∼ ' (
-
' Z ⊕ −% ' Z
$
' (

( ) *
−% ' Z
' ( % & # $ % & "" # $ )# ( ) * ' %

' Z +
% & ""
( ! # % # # % % % & " "
' Z
! # & )
% & " "
( ! # & ) # % # # % %
% & "" ! '' Z
& , # # $'

+ $ #

) { ∈ | ) ∈ }
) { ∈ | ) * }
)

% ) * ( ) *

( )
' Z
* ) ( )

' '

+ $ ' Z ( ) * ' Z ( )
) * . # $

* → → −×−→ → *
* → −⊂→ → → *

$

* →
' Z ( →
' Z ( →
' Z( → *
* → ' Z( → ' Z ( →
' Z( →
' Z( →
' Z( → *

+ ( ) *
$
( ∼
' Z
' Z (

' Z )
% $ # #

* →
' Z ( →
' Z ( →
' Z ( → *
$

+

* →
' Z( →
' Z( −→
(
' Z →

( *
' Z →
% % $
& #

(
(
(
& %
+
' Z → ' Z → ' Z
×

⊂

( )

−−→
' Z ' Z(
' Z ( )
' Z (

# %

( ) *

' Z

% % )*' $
(

) *

% %
( )
( ) * ) *

' Z
' Z

% %

' Z( ) ' Z ( ) *

# $ #
% $

#
$

%
#
% % ) *
#

% % ) *
#

% $
- # %

-( $

$#
'
#

)
Q
Q
) ⊕

∈ Z
) * ) .
# &

6 6) * 6

# #

( )

' Z Q
-

' ( Z ) Q
( ) $
' Z Q

− %
# % %

(

( ) 0 ) *
' Z

%
0
&

' 6

)
# % % (
# #
%
%
( ) ( ) 0 ( ) 0
∈ ' Z % $

( )
'

'

#

' + # %
#
% '

Z Q ( %
#
% #

−

−% '

# $
%

Q
$ *
→ Q → −% ' (
.

$

(
% ' Z( → *
−
% 'Q
Z →
+ # % $

'Q Z (
Q)

$
)
( ( *

(
−% ' Z → 'Q Z → ' Z

+ % $
*
→ Z → Q → Q Z → *
$

# )

+

Q
* → 'Q Q ( → 'Q Q Z( →
'Q Z ( → *
'Q Q ( ∼
) Q
'Q Q Z ( '$

(

'Q Z (

! !
%

$ +
$ # ! !

→
% − % $
%

R ∈
$

%

+

+

# % %
× → −

∈
#
# # $ $

7→ ∈ − %

− %
R %

$ + % !

%
$ #
% $
#
# + #
$

' & # / # % ! & # %
! % / ' % # # $ " ,
/ / $
# % ! $ # ! ! ' # ! → & !
) # '
34 56 78797:;7 B EAE? 79 :=<= 6 EAA9= 7:; 56;F787:= F @ EA?; G : E A H IH

# % $ + ) !
→

# . %

# %

$
#
+ %
#

& $ ) + %
+ %

∈

% − %
%
#

$ + !
% → $ *
* → $
!

%
+ − % % → *
−%
#
∈
$ % %
# $ + %* $ $ # !

" % ! ! !

$ %

# $

#
#

' ' ( & #

$ #

" % $% → → #
# * * !
% → * ! ! # ''
*+ −% −% $ ' % % !
% ∈
* ! '
% *
& # # $'
#
%

% -
∈
−%
× R →
$

−%

% % ∩ * × R → % ∩ * × R

*
#
# # $
+

# &
%
$ #

7→ − %

& −%

$ #

# % & # #

# # %
× R →

%
$ + # $ ! +

%
$
$ +

( ( ( & # )# ! $ #

# $ # % # # % % & + # $ & #
" →$ #
% ) # %
− %
→ R
$ # ! ! ! " # # $'
∈
% $ / $ + " & ! !

%

/ /

→

' ' ( % / " & ! # % #

# % % ! # " $ $ # "
%
'''

$ ! $ # )
∈ / '
& # # $'
/ /
× R
+ /
→

{ } × R R

−%

%

%

%
/ /
× R →

7→
, ,
-

% %

' 1 % 1 1 " & ! ! % '

%

-
§
( ( ( & # )# & + # $ & # ) ! % " "
% ! # " % # $ , # % 1 '
( ( ( & # )# & + # $ & # ) ! % " "
% ! # " $ # " # ) 1 '
*
' " & ! ! % '
% % % & %

( ' ( ' '

0
→ →
& , $
0 ∗
0 0
→
0 0 0 0
{ ∈ × | }
0 0

0

0 "
−−−−→
 
 
y 0
y
0 "

−−−−→
3 F7 ?6;F; E9 ; E ;; 6 EAA9= 7:; 7A9 ; ; >= := AF E? :756 76 FD
: > A7>7 ! A?F=> ?6;F; E9 ; E ; ! H
" FE F7B? =6: 5=9 # 7 = A= # ? =@7B : E FE $ ? % 7 A9 ; ; > = :=
AF E? :756 76 F: > A7> 7 ! A?F=> F7B? =6: 5=97 ! # 7 = A= # ? =@7B H

0

0 − %

% 0 , 0 % % , 0
% * * * *
0

% −*% 0
% *

⊂ × R → − %
0 0
−%
⊂
0 0
→ 0 − % 0
0 7→ 0

0
× R

0

( ' ' & # )# $ # # $ #
% # # % % & , $ # ) '
' ' ' ' ( '

! ! " $ !

+
% % → %
→
* * *

%× * %× *→ %× *

− % × − % +
× − % %
% * * %% * *

' & # / / ! & # ! % /
/ × / ' % # % * ! " ! ! & "
$ % ** '
×
(

% % * &*! ! #
→ →

+
- ∗ -

×
%
* -

→ ×

→

+

⊕
%

*
*
− %
% −%
%⊕ * % ⊕ *
' & ! ! # # % 1
! % # $ % $ # , ! ! # $

! ! '

& # # $'
,

1
+

1

1
⊂ R $ % ∈

%

R $

⊂ 1

1
1
∈

⊥

∈ R

→-

⊕
7→ % ,

% * *

( ( ( & # )# 1 1 1 ! $ #
× , ,
$ $ $ " # # $ ! × # × , '
% 2
' ∼ ∗ ⊕ ∗ % / × / → /
# # $ " ,
× ' % % *
*
& # # $'

∗ ∗

. / / %
⊕
*
∈
/ / ∼
/ ×% /× *
%⊕ * % *
( ( ( ∗ & # )# ! % 1 1 %
× ×
0 - " & ! # % # # % % )
' # " ! ) # ) '
' '> %
2
( ' '
% *

% *

% *
∈

%

+ *

− % % *

×R →

∈ R

+
R R → − %

×

− %

+
+ .

+ +
0

∩ 0 ×

R R −−−◦−→ ∩ 0 ×
− 0
R R
.

∩ 0 × R −−
◦
− 0
−−−→ ∩ 0 × R

+ +

+ +
⊗
%
*
+

2

+

+

+
+
+

.

+
∗ →

# !

+

. %
∈

.
.

− %
→
' & " " - & * # & *

$ % & "" ' & #
# ! & >$
. & , & # ! !

. # # ! ! '
→
' & #
/ ! % % & "" $
Z
# ! # # $# # $ & # # , $ # )Z

! # − # $# # $ & # " # $" # , ' !
! & , $ " & # !
→ Z , $ # % " & # ' # &
$ . # $# # $ & # "
& Z
# & * # ! & $
% & "" $ * # ) * # / '

.

+

+

+
→

+ % ! % % ! % ,
# ! $ # !

G

∈

0

2 G

P
2

2 2→
2−%

∈

2

X −
2

0

⊂ ⊂

0

2 G 2 2
0 2 $ %
G

+

2

)

) 2
2 % X − 2
2 %
$ $

2

G

+

2

# →
2

∈#
.
. 2

∈#

.
+

.

' ! # ! - & * # ! &
$ % & "" # R & *>+ & ! # % & " "
∼Z
# $ & # # ' # & & * # ! &
# $
' %
7→ −
$ % & "" ) !
Z

0 ) #
Z

0 0 ) #

2 R Z Z
 *
 $ # & )

 0 ) #
2 Z

0

0 ) #
R Z Z 6
 *
 $ # & )

& # # $'

2 → 2
, 2 , 2 %
−%
) 2 − % 2 − − − $

→
( ' ( '
+

+
Z

Z
*
' ( ( ' ( ' (
.

/

∗
2
Z → − ∗ Z

2
2 / ∼ − 2 /
2 P
− 2
Z
−2 ∗

∗
h
/
i

+ /
+ ∗

∗
−

/

2 2 2
→ − ∗ Z

+
2 Z → − ∗

P 2
/
0

∈ Z

− 2 − 2 ∗
∈ Z

− 2 ∗

h i

+

∗

−
∗

∗
− −

+
− 2 ∗
0
∗

−
/

∗
∈ Z
2 P 2 − 2 − 2 ∗
∈ Z ∈

∗

+

−

∗

− −

+ / +

! ! $ # $ # & !

/ 2 / − 2 /
2 ∼ − Z 2 Z ∼
, # ! /

' ' ' '

→

→

\

+

⊂

+

→ →
.

−

→ ×

∈ −

.

+

−

∈
− −
∈
* +
→
+

*
-

§
+
.

6
>
→

−

0

0
6

G

−

G

∈ G

-
-

∈ G
−

# # ) ! !

.

0
−
0

6 −

6

· · · ·

· − · ·

·

2 2→

2
∈

0

∈

2

! %
2
# 0 0

R 2

0

& # )# 0
! % ! #
0 2 2 '
−

& # )#
! %
)
# $ # $ 1 '

0 #
− 0 '

$ # $ % ! # ") % "" 2 0 $
0 ) # 0 $ 0− ) # 0 ' Z
− Z −
&
# # $'
0
0
−
0

0

1 −
1 −

0
−

→
0
0

0

1 − 2 −

1

2 0
− − → → → − − −
0 1 2

0

→
− 0 −
→ →

0

−2

0

0

≈ −
1

0
0
→
1
2

2

0

1 → 0 → 0 → 1

0 ∼

0

6 −

2
0
∼ − 2 −
0
−

2 − ∼
0
2 − 0

−
− 6 − −
−
0 0

−
Z
Z

→ 1 −
− 1 −

1 − − → − 1 − → → − 1 −
∗
−

∗

Z Z
1 −

− − ∈

1 −
∗ ∗ −

1 −

∈

1

∈ −

.

−

1 −

→
1 −

1 −

−
∈ −
1

1 −

1 −
.

1

1 1 −
1

→ → −

1 −

1 − −

− −
∗

∗ ∗ Z

) # % " " %! % , # !
Z
! %

# '
>

2

−2 0

2

−0

0
−

0
0

− − 2

Z

Z →Z

∈ Z
# # ) ! ! # #

−

% / $ * #

! % /

% / " ! ' & #
\{ }
)# $ ) # ! !∈ % / " )# "
! # % #
# % % % # %
$ '

Z
∈
∈

−
o

>

o

o
−
−
−−−−→ −

− − → − 1 − −→ − − →
∗ ∗

−

−

− −

−

Z −→ Z −→ Z → Z
∗ ∗

∗
∗
∗

→

∗

−
−
− →
& # o
∗ o '
)#

& # )# $ " " # # $ 0 !
o2
* # " ' # % ) ) # #
# ! # " '
o

2

0

0
6 −

0

o

Z

Z Z

∼

∈ Z

Z Z
∼
−

n o

∈

Z h i −

2 h
2 i − h
2 i h
i
h i
2 − − 2 −
−

o

o

o

−
.

o
−o o o
o

Z ∼ Z

o

o o

# ! !
#

! !

! # ! # % #
# % % # $ '

# ! " , ! ! "

! # ! # % # # % % # ! %
% ) ! # $'
& # # $'

{ ∈ |k k }

R

R

∈ R

∈ R R

% * +

% ""
R Z
'

& # # $'

R Z

6

R →
1
→ R −

→

1

→R
1

→
7 − −
− −

−

o ∈

−

1
≈ −

∈
− → Z
1

−
Z → Z

→ Z o
− $ ! !

− −
! # ) # # '

& # # $'

7→ −

−

7→ −

.

/

/

/

∈ Z

/

/

/
→ ⊂

/ / /
h i hh ii

/ ! # # $ ! %
#
/ / '

h i

/

$ # # 1 ) # " # !
$ '
>

1

# ' % ×

× '

& # # $'

.

∈ Z

×
×

×

×

×

×

×

× ×

0 0 0

0 0

6

×

×

0

0

0

×

0 0

×

# ' %
×

×
'
& # # $'

.

− 2 −
⊕ ⊕

2

− . .

⊕

#

# $ #

0
→
∗ ∗

∗

∗ ∗
Z → ∗ 0Z

0
∗

0 0

0 0 0
{ | ∈ 0 } ∈ ∈

−2

2
0 → − 2 0 −2 0
−

∗

2 ⊕
X

2

2 ×
X

×
2

× →

-
× →

→ ×

- - ∗ ⊕ ∗
×

∗ ⊕ ∗
2 ×
X
2
2 ×

- ∗

- ∗ ∗ ⊕ ∗ 2 - ∗ ∗ ⊕ - ∗ ∗ 2 ⊕

2

- ∗

×

∗ ∗
× ⊕
∗
⊕ ∗

× P 2 × 2
P 2 ∗

∗
2 ∗ ∗

.

∗ ∗

×

#
$ $ # !

∼ ⊕

⊕

# # ) # # #

$ $ # $ '
& # # $'

⊕

o2

−2

2

0
o2 ⊕

− 2 −
2

0

−2
−

0 − 2 0

0 → 0 0

0
R R ⊕ R

0 R 0

−

0

⊕

o2 o2 ⊕

→

→

| |

−

× ×

× ∗

× | × |
× ×

∗
× ∗ ×

× ∗

6
× ∗ ×

×

2
2 × − P 2 ×

2

× ∗
2 × Z → × Z
2
0

2 Z

2 L ⊗

L × ∼

2
2
× ∼ 2
⊗

⊗

∗
0
×

M M
⊗
→ ⊗

2 2

→ →

→
→

"

#
#

⊕

∗

∈ Z

−

− −
−

−
−

− − −
−

∗

Z

! ! # #

# ! $ # $ # #

" ! )# ! % / " %

! / ' %
$
' ) # # $ # # "% '
R

& # # $'

⊕

/

/
∈

⊕
'
& # # $'

1

⊂ R

# / ! $ ! % ' #

/ / # # ! $ ! % # )#
! - / $ / / ! # !
×

- % #
×
* ! % /
'

/
! #

# ! % /
/

) # ) ! '
(
) # $ !

# ! # )# '

& # )# ! % / " % $

# 2 $ 0 / '
R 2 2 2

R
# # $ !

' %
'
R R ⊕ ∼ ⊕ ⊕
| {z }

& # # $'

± ∈ ∈ R ⊥
1
R
± ∈ R

± − −

± − −

R ⊕ →

± ±

±

⊥ ±
± ±

−
R '
& # )#
R
# % # # %
% ) # '

R
# % # # % % 2 −
# % 0 '
& # # $'

2
≡

− R

2

2

− ·

6 6≡

! % R
" ! # 2 −
# % 0 '

2 % ) # ) #

$R
" # !
R
+ # $ # 2
! $ #

6 " '

& # )#
R
" % $
R
#
! # $ '
− −
" ! )# + # $ # "

, ! R × R → R # ' " !

)# + # $ # $ # , # ''
$
, # $ # " , " " % # '

%
∈ R
2 # % 0 '
& # # $'

R

1 −

∈ ⊂ R

1 −

− −

R − R −

2 # ! % R " % #
$ '
R −

& # # $'
2
R

−

− R

R R

> − R R −

2

2

R × × R

2

2 $) " ) #
! % " % # $ − − '

R × × R R
& # # $'

2 2

R

× R ∗ ∗
∗ ⊕ ∗ R

R R R
R∗ × ∗ R

−

−

×

R ×ZR × ×
∗ ∗
− × −

R × R

−
−

−

/

/ /

∈ Z

/

/
∈
Z

h

i∈Z

/
h i∈Z
) !

# #

/

& # )# ) # #

R 6

'
R 6

& # )# ) # # $ )
# # ! %

$ '
R
# / %
! " # ! % ' % $ ) #
#
! %

/ $ * '

& # # $'

/
Z ∈

/ → /

∗

/ /

/
/
∈ ∗

∗ / ∈ h / i h i i
∗
h
→

∗

| ∼ ⊕

/

/

/

/ ×

∗ ∗ | /
→ /

|

/
/
∗ →

∗

∗ /
−→
/
−
→

∗ ∗ ∗ / ∗ ∗

/

/ /
/ ∗ / /

h i h i

/

. 0 ) 0

2

2

0 2 2
⊂ R ∈
2 0

2
→

0

2
0

2 0

× R

0 2

∈

2

0

{ 2 }

0
⊂

6 2 6
0

R
2
R

2 0
R
2

∈
2
× R → −
2
2

2 0 2 0 2 ∈ × R

∈ ∈
2
∈ R

* 0 ! $ # !

" # $ , $ ) !
% '
! 2 #

& # # $'

3 6 E:AF76 AE9 := A? 8F 9 ;:7 ! : 5= 856 = A?6 E:A?F 6 E >76:= A? 7 ! ;C F
= : E@ E7? @? = ; 576 7 A7@7:; A= A? =;? ? =9 B= ; : 97F=< = F7B? =6 E H − R

× R → −
2
− 2

→ R
−
− 2 2
−− → × R → R

→ R
2
(
(

(
∈

6∈
.
(
2 ( (
(
→ R0 2
2

0 0
⊂R

( →

∗ 2 ∼

( 2

∗ 2 2 2 2
( 2 ∈ (

∗ 2

( 2 ∈

0

→
∗ 2 ∗ 2

∼

# ! " # $ " # # $
" # # $ ! % ! # "
# ' % ∗ ∗ '
→
∼

& # # $'
× →

× { } ×
∗ ∗ ∗
× →

× {}

# ! # " ! # $ ! " # %
$
$ " # # $ # ' % *
) ! " # ) $ %

|
'
& # # $'

.

∩ → R

∩

→ R

{ } { }
(

∈

6∈
P

∗ ∗ ∗

∗ ∗ ∗

× { }

R R

∗ ∗ ∗

× { }

∈

∗ ∗

∗ ∼ ∗

0
→
0
R ⊂ R 2

∗ 2

2
2

∈ N

# ! " # $ " # # $
# $ 0 ' ∗ 2 ∗ 2 !
# % # # % % # % ! # "

# % '

& # # $'

∗ 2 ∗ 2

∗ 2 ∗ 2

2 0
−−−−→ ⊂ × R
 
  0
y y

0
−−−−→

→ R

0
× R → R
− 0

∈

R → R ⊕ R

0 0

→

'

0
−
→

−

R

'

# 2 $ # ! # 0
! " # ! ! " ! ! # # % !
0
# $ ! $ # ' & # )#
2 # $ # % # # % %
2 # $ '
⊕

/ # " ! !

0
2 /

2

⊕

& # )# ! % / # "

! # % # # % % $ " * # * +
$
# $
⊕
$ / $ % !
# $ ' R >

0

0 0

→

0
Z

2 6 2 ∩
6

0 ! % !

#

0

2 0
− −

−
.

0 0

0

2

0 6
2

0
2 6 20
−
0 − −
−

6
0

0
0

±

Z
0 2 0

Z ∼ Z

0

0
2 −

− −
0

0
6

6 6 6 6 6 − 6

.

!

0

0

0

0 0
−
0

−
0
0

> → 0

0 0
Z

→ Z
0 0

Z → Z
0
>

0
0

Z

∞ Z

∗ 0

∞ Z
0 0
R − × × R − →
| {z }

2

2 ∈ R

R × × R

2

∗ 0 0 ∗
Z → R − × × R − Z

∗

×

R
−
− Z
×R
0
Z 2

R → R
6

R Z → Z
∗
R
R ∞ Z ∼ Z

R

∗ ∞ ∼
2
R × × R Z Z

∞

Z
∼
Z 2
∗ ∗ 0 ∗

∞ → R ∞ × × R ∞ Z

∗ ! ! " , ! ! # )
! % ) $' # ! ∗ 2 % !
2
# ! ! # ) ,∞

'

& # # $'

0
∞ Z

0

Z

0

0
2 2 >

2 6 2 2− 6 6 2
.
2

2 − 2 − > > > 2 >
2 2 2
− −

∗ 2 ∼ × ×

∗ 2
∞
∞

∞ 2
2 ∼ − × × − ∗ 2

2 ∈ R

∗ 2 2 2
∗ 2
× ×
∞

∞
2
∞
∞

∗ 2
R ∞

∗

∞
2

∗ 0

∞ Z
2 ∗
Z
0

∞ Z

" ! )# ! $ # ! *
! ! " , ! ! " ! " # $ % !
%) # )# "
∈ Z
$ " # $ # $ # # $ # "

$ $ ! ∞ # ! ' ' ' %

# # '

& # # $'

∗ 2

∗ 2 . ∗
∞
2 2
∞

∞ ∞
2

0

∞

⊗

# ' ' ' 0 ' ' ' 0 ! #

! ! # ) , " ! # " !
! # $ Z ! %) # "
' ! #

0 0

! # %

0 YY 0

0

% 0 0 %
⊗

0 '

& # # $'

⊗

⊗

⊗

⊗

! # $ $ " ! ! ! !

# '' $ # ! ) %

⊕

% $ ! ⊕
'
⊕ ⊕

0 Q Q
0

0 0

0

⊕ ⊕ ⊗ ⊕ ⊕ M ⊗

Y Y

0
⊗ ⊗

Y

0
0 0

0 0
⊗

! # $ # # )
# " !

! ! ! '

∞ × ∞

∗ ∗

⊗
∞ × ∞

∗ ∗

× ∗ ⊗ ×
⊗ ⊗

∗

× ∞ Z

⊗ ∈
× ∞
∗

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ Z

∈ ∞ ∈ ∞ ×

⊗ 7→ ×
∗ ∗

→ ∗ ∞ × ∞

∞ ⊗ ∞

∗

∞ × ∞

0

#$ !

⊗
0

0

⊗ '

& # # $' Q Q
0

0

0

2
0

2 0

∈

2

2 2

⊕
2 2

∼ 2 2 '
2

& # # $'

2 0
2 2 2
∈
2

2
→ ⊥
2

2 0
2 02
2
2

00

2 002

0 02 ⊥
2

00

2 2 ⊥

→
2

2

2 2
0

2

2 2 ⊥

2 2 ⊥

∼ 2 2
2

2 2 ∼
2 ∗ ⊗ 2 ∗

2

2

2 2 0
2 ∗ ∼
2 ∼ ⊗
2 ⊗ 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 − −

% ! 0 # ! #

% # # % % ) # '
& # # $'

0 0 2 0 2 2

−
2

6

! "

C

C

R

R

−

| |

− −

−

R

R

0 0

C ∞
C
R R

2

! " ! % #
0

0 C
C

2

C
0

0 #
−

C
0 ' $ # $ % ! # ") % ""

6

2

0 $ ' Z
− C
& # # $'

∗ 0 1 −

1 −

6 −
C

0
→ C
1 − 2 −

0

C
0 6 − 0 −

C

0 → C

1
0

0 C

C
0 C

0 C

0 6 − ∼
∼

6 − C
− − 0

∼

2

0
∼ 2

C

− 0

1 2 −
C
−
C
−2
− Z

2
0 C∼

−

C Z

# # )

Z

−

{
C −

.

}

Z

• C

R

Z → Z

•

R

R

•

•

C
∈ C

∈ C

% * + % "" '
C Z
& # # $'

}
C {

| |6| |

| | > | |

∈ C

−

− | |

1 1

→ −

R
C Z ∼ Z
3? E> ;9 ; $ @ EA? = 5; ? 5=D86 < => 76: H

.
C → C

∗ ∼
∗

∗ C Z

→ C Z

C Z

1 1

→ −

Z C

C
−

# ! " $ #
! " , ! ! " ! ' %
2 ×
P 2 ×
'

& # # $'

| −

P

2 × − 2 ×
× ∗

0

0

0

0 0

0 0 0

−

× ∗
0

2
Z

L

× 2
⊗
L

2

2
×
M
⊗
∼
⊗
−
⊕
−
⊗

2

L 2

⊗
⊗ ⊗

! ! ! ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ ∞
C ∞ Z → C ×
)×C ∞
Z ∼ Z 2 ! ! " , ! ! #

! % ) $' # ! ∗ 2 %
! # ! ! # )
, ∞'

Z

⊗

#
! ! "
#
'
⊗
& # # $'

7→

⊗

⊗ −

7→ ⊗ −

−

⊗

∞ R ∞ C ∞ C ∞

∞ Z C ∞
Z

R

R ∞

C ∞

Z ∞

Z

R ∞ C

→ R ∞ → C ∞

∗

∈

Z

Z

∞
∞
R Z C Z

∞

R Z

C ∞ Z

7→

7→

#

) ! ! " , !
" '
! $ + # $ ! # %
# # % % " ) ! % ! #
+ # $ # ! $ + # $
Z
∈ # % '

! ! " ! # %
# # % % " ) ! % ! #

∈ Z

+ # $ # ! ! "

# % '

◦
R

.

# $ ! $ + # $
) ! ! " , ! ! " ! !

# % # # % % " ) ! * !
%

#
Z

+ # $ # # $ ! $ + # $
∈ # % '

.

+ " * + !

∗
∗ ∗
→
→ ∗ 0

" # $ , *

∈

\{ }

R − C −

# 2 0 " # $ , )
→
% 2 0 2 − 0 " # $
→ % −
, # % % "
) 2−
0 ' & # )# 2 2− '

− ≈

∗
→

∗

∈

∗

∗

∼ ⊕

R ∞

C ∞

→ R ∞ ∗

∼

R ∞
Z
∞

∗ C Z

∈ ∗

→ R ∞

# $ + # $ !
" $ # ! # ! " #
'
$ # $ ! ) ! # ' ' '
+
− " * #

h −i
" # # $ ! # " # !
∗ ∼
∗
Z Z ⊗Z h − i
" # # $ ∗ ! # # $# !
Z # %

# ∗ ∗
! #
Z → ∗
# # $# '
Z
⊗
! " ! ) ! # ' ' ' − " * #

$ ∗ $ * $ % "" % "
Z h −i
# !

Z ∼ ∗ Z ⊗ h − i
∗
# # % $ % ! ! ! ! '
∗
& # # $'

∈

R − →

.
R − C −

∗

−

∗
R − C − ∗

−
R − → R ∞

∗

C − → C ∞

∗ −

.

− × →

∗ ∗
⊗ ∗

∼

Z

∗
∗ ∗
h − i

∗

⊗

P 2 P ∗ 2
→
2 2
0
∈

0

0

− 6 −

6
0
0

6 − 6 −

H

−
L 2

L
2 −
2

2 −2

−
H →

H

⊂

∗

H

H ∩ −−−−→ H ⊕ H −−−−→ H ∪ −−−−→
  
  ⊕ 
y ∩ y y ∪

∩ −−−−→ ⊕ −−−−→ ∪ −−−−→

−−−−→ H ∩ −−−−→ H − ⊕ H −
 
  − −
y ∩ y ⊕
− −
−−−−→ ∩ −−−−→ ⊕

∩
∪

& * % $ # % ! " #

! ! " , ! ! " ! + # $ # + " * + #
'
→
& # # $'

∗
→ ∗ ∗

∗

⊕

( →

∗ ∗ ∗
( (

∗ ∗ ∗
∗
∗
(
( (∗ (

⊕

→
∗

⊕ ⊕

∗ Q

∗

P
− −

Z

Z

! " ' %

$ $ + # $ ! ) $ ! " ! )

'

C

C

∈

∈

" !

# ! " #
' % ! '
C
& # # $'

→
C

C

R

1

1

$ # $

∗
C

C

C

7→

C

C

→

C C
∗
! # $ ) ' ) #
# #
⊗
∗
# $ '
C ⊗
& # # $'

∗
∼

⊗

∗

⊗
2 − 2 2 '

& # # $'

R R

R R
−

∗

⊕ ⊕

∗

∗

− −
X 2

− 2 ∗ ∗ X − 2 2

∗

# 2 '

∼
& # # $'
2 2
2 2 2
∼
− −

! " ! %

% * + % " "

! C

C Z −

& # # $'

∈ C

C C

⊥
C

C
∼
C

C

∈ \ { }

∈ C

\ { }

→ ⊥

C

2
0

C
∼

C
C ⊕ ⊕
∼ C

⊕
C ∼

−
C

C
−

R
! " , *
⊗R C

R

∈

−

⊗ C
!

⊗C
"

! * ' ⊗C
& # # $'

− −

⊗C ⊗ C
2
⊗ C
'

# # )

# %

− 2 2 ⊗ C ∈ 2 Z

2
2

⊗C

.

⊕

'
⊕ −
& # # $'

⊗ C ⊕ ⊗ C

⊕ ⊗C

⊗ C ⊗ C ⊗ C
2 X
⊕
2

2 X

⊕ ⊗C
⊗ C ⊗ C
2

− 2 − −
# ! " ! $ #
2 2 2 ' %
R 2
!
X

− 2 2 X

− 2 2 X

2

2 2 2

& # # $'
2
− 2 2 R ⊗ C

∼ ⊕
R⊗C

⊗C

R

⊕
−

∓

⊕

±

±

± ±

⊕ ⊕
−
− −

−

−

R ⊗ C

C

%
* + % " "
'
C Z
& # # $'

C

R

C
P P 2

P 2
2 − 2 −

− 2 − −

PR
2 R

" # # $ !

→
$ $ # !

( (

(∈ ∈

! " ,
| |
!

(∈ ( | |→| |

! " , ! ! " !

∗ ∗

∗

∗ ∗

∗ ∗

∗ ∗

∗

.

→

| | → | |
P
| |

P
(

( ∈

(

P

P P ∗

| |

| | →| |

( (

(∈

( (

% !

⊂

∈

∈

# , # ) " * % !

" , % ! " $ # % ! ! " ! '
& # # $'

& ! " , % ! " * + $
$ $ #
* % ! # * % ! "

$ # )
(∈ $ # # # $ !
! # $

"
# ∩(
(
$

(
" # ! ! " #

(
'

& # # $'

−
( (

−

(

∈ ∩(

(

∈ ∩(

( (
, # ) " 0 * % ! " , %

! " # $ # $! '

0

0

( (

0
( (

(

(

(

! " , ! " # $ # $!
# % , # ) " 0 # $ # $ ! '

0

− >

⊂ ⊂ ⊂

∈ −

−

−

−

−

⊂

−

−

⊂ ⊂ − ⊂

− ⊂ ∩ −

− −

−

−

−

| | | |

| | → | |

→ | |

.
| |

| | | |

| |

| | → | | → | |

| |→| |

0

0
0 (
0
0

0
(

# ! " , ! " "
) ! # $ # $ ! ' % * % " $ % #

+ # $ # $ $ # ! " ,
" " ! ,| | → | |
'
→

& # # $'

→

→

{( | ( ∈ }

∈

( ( (

( (

( (

−

( ( ( ( (

(

(

. (

( |

∈ (

⊂ ∈

⊂

(∈

( ( (

⊂ ( (

⊂ (

( ( (

{ ∈ | ( ∀( ∈ }

⊂ | |

| |\

( ( ∈ ( 6

(∈

( (

.
|

|

| |
# ! " , ! " *
Z
+ $ # $ ! ( * + % "" Z ' % (

% )
, # '
( ( | |→| |
& # # $'

R

⊕

R

P
P −
( ( R →− R (

(

( ⊂

(

⊕

(
# $ !

(∈

∈ ( 6

# # % $

) ! # # $ ! " ,
# $ # ) % " " " ) !
$ " # $ # $ ' %
>
* % ! # # ) % # ) % ! # #

(∗

R
(∈
→ R

# # $ '

& # # $'

Z ⊂

(

( (

( − ( − (

−

−

(
(∗

(

Z Z

>

Z

∗

∗

(

( (
P

∗
→
∗
∈(

⊂

∗

∗
∗

∗ → ∗

→

∗ → ∗

# " ! " $ # # #
# $ % " " ' % ⊂ '

& # # $'

(

0
(

0
( ( ( 0 ( ∈
0

( (

→

(

( (
P
P

|
| P

P

|
| P

P

(

∈

P

| | P

P

Z

| |

→ ∗

∼

∗
∗

∗
∼
∗
∗

→

∗

∗

⊂ ∗ #
→ ∗
∗

! ∗
∗

→

∗ ∗ ∗

. ∗ ∗

∗ ∗

P

∗ ∗
(
∈ ∗

(∗ →

∗
∗
(

∈ ∗

∈

| | | |
∗

∗ ∗
| |
P

∈ (

⊂ ∗

∗ ∗

⊂
∗ ∗
∗

| |
| |

# " # #
# % $ ! " # $ * '
| |

% #

→

→ ∗ ! !
∗ ∗
∗ '
! #
%∗ ∗ % ! ! ! $" #
→ ∗
! # ∗' ∗
∗

Z

0

(

0
Z 0
Z 0 ∼

0

0
Z 0

Z 0

| |

Z

Z

% "" $
Z
% , ∗

P

Z ( ∈ Z

( ∈ Z (

( ( −} Z

{ −
( ( −( (

− −

≡

−

− − ≡ ·
−

· − − · − − −

· − − · ·
≡

−

6 6 −
Z ⊂ ∗ Z
∗
Z

& * %

6 −
" $ # #
, " ! " $ 6

×
⊕

→ ∗ ∗ −
→ ∗ −−→ → ∗
# ) '
! ! # # $ $ * )
×
!
'
& # # $'

→ ∗ ∩
∗
.

\

⊂

⊕ ⊕
∗

∗

⊂

∗
∗P
×

(

6⊂

P
( ∈ Z

×
→ −
→ −−→ →

×

.

Z
−
− 6
6 −

P
P P

( ( (

(
− − −
( −

−
h i ⊂

−

%
Z Z

! %) ! % " " ! ∗ ! # ∗ ∗

−−−×−→ −→
∗
→ ⊕ −→ ∗ ∗

−→ − ⊕ − ∗
→

# ) " $ # # * ! #

−

×
→ −
→ −−→ →

−

−

−

→ →

→ →

−→

∗
→

−→ −−−×−→ ∗

∗

→
−

. $ # #

P

−

& * % , % $ " # $ # $
>
X

6 X

> >

≡
'
& # # $'

→ ⊕ →

6

6

6

6

6

6

→ → → → →

→ → → − → → → →

P
P
−

−

P
P → → → → −
→
P →

→

→

−

−

P
−

−

. −

− −
−

−

≡

Z

% ! %)

Z ∼ Z

% ! %) !
Z
!

∼
Z −

Z
Z
# Z " #

! " % $ # " ! " '
%
! % ! %) #
Z " ) '

! %
! %) ! ! $ #
)# ! # " # ! # $' #
Z − 6 6

'
−

! Z % ! %) #
≡
"

Z %! %) " ) ! − 6 6 '

!
# '
≡
& # # $'

P
P
∅
> 6 >

≡

P
>

P

>

Z

∅

.

P 6

P
6 >

>

≡

−

≡ −

≡

P P

>

P 6 >

P
>

6 >

$ !

( 6 ∈ (∈
(6

& # )# ) % "" ! #

$ # $$ # '
R

!

& # )# " #
, ) % ! " #
Z , ) ! " '

) # # '
6 ∅

.

→ ⊗

∗ ∗ ∗

⊗

⊗ ∗

⊗ −
∗

⊗

-

| | → | × |

6

−

−
→ ∗ ⊗ ∗

∗

→ ∗ ⊗ ∗

∗

∞

∞
∞

∞ Z

Z

>

− −

−

−

Z ⊗ ∗
⊗ ⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗

×

∗

∗ ⊗
∗

∗ ×

⊗ ∗

∗

L × ⊂ ∗ ⊗ ∗

⊗

L ⊗ L ⊗ L ⊗

∗

→ ∗ ⊗ ∗

⊗ ∗

L

L ⊗

⊗
∈

⊗ ⊗ ⊗

⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ± ⊗
−
± ⊂ ⊗ ± ⊗

−
⊂ L − ⊗

L ⊗
×
∗ ∗ × ∗ ×

⊗

×

∗

∗ × L ⊗ ⊗
⊗ ⊗

⊗

∈ ∗

'
−
− −
−

& '
⊗ ⊗

⊗ − ⊗

⊗

− ⊗
− ⊗
− −

−

−
−

' ' ,

* +
−

'

>
−

∈ ∈ ∈

h ⊗ i h ⊗ ⊗ i

−

−
−

−

− −

− −
−
−

∈
−

h i h i h ⊗

⊗ i

⊗ ⊗ − ⊗

h i − h ⊗ ⊗ i− − h ⊗ ⊗ i
− h ⊗ ⊗ i− − h ⊗ ⊗ i−

−

− −

h ⊗
⊗ i

−

− h ⊗ ⊗ i− − h ⊗ − ⊗ i−

−h ⊗ − ⊗ i

− h ⊗ ⊗ i− − h ⊗ ⊗ i−

−

− − h ⊗ − ⊗ i

⊗ ⊗ − ⊗

− h ⊗
⊗ i − h ⊗ ⊗ i

, ,
, −
∈

∈
,
∈

−

− − −

− −

−
−

− − ± ± ≡

Z → − Z

− −

Z → Z
Z → −
Z

,

>
7→
Z → −
Z

≡

≡

−
−
≡ − −

≡

− − − −
≡ ≡

- - - -

-
≡ ≡
- - - - -
≡ - -
≡
≡

,

→
∗
∗
Z

→ ∗ Z

∗ 0
0

h h ⊗ i ⊗ i
0
h ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ i
∗ 0 ∗
i h ⊗ ∗ ⊗ 0 i

h

h ⊗ ⊗

⊗ 0 i

⊗ ⊗

⊗ ∗ ×

L

L ⊗

L ⊗

⊗
⊗

⊗

⊗
h
∗
− i h ⊗ ⊗ 0 i
∗ 0
h ⊗ ⊗ 0 i h ⊗ ⊗ 0 ± ⊗ 0 i

≡ ⊗ ≡

⊗ 0
− ±
0

− ⊗

⊗ 0 ± ⊗ 0 ≡
−
−

≡
-

-
∗ ∗
h 00 i
h ⊗ ⊗ 0 i −
,

0

0

−
∗ 0 ∗
−

− Z → Z

6 6 Z
.

⊂

∗ ∗ ∗
−→ −→ ∗ →
∗
→

⊗ ∈ × ⊂ ∗ × ⊂

∗

0 ∗ | ⊗
∗ 0 ∗ ∗ 0

∗

0 ∗
∈

∗ ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 0
∗ ∗

∈

∗ ∗ 0 ∗ -

- ∗ -

∈
∗
0 -

∗ 0 ∗ ∗ 0

Z →

.

Z

∗ ∗

.
>

•

∗

→
∗

Z
• ∈

∈ Z
•

Z

,

∗
→ ∗

∗
→

→Z → Z → Z →

P

−

∗ → ∗

∗ ∗
∈

→ ∗

∗
∗ ∗
∈

∗
∈

∗ ∗ →
∗

∗

∗

∗

∗

∗

−
− −
∗
∗ ∗ −
0 − 0 −

0

∗ 0 0 ∗ 0 0

−

0
0 0
∗

− −
−

∗

∪

Z →

Z

→ Z →

Z Z

→ →

(

Z

∈

−
0

0

0
− −
− 0 − − − − − −

−

0 0

−

0
− 0
0 0

0
≡

0
≡

−

R

R Z

6 6

R Z

R → R

R Z → R Z

∗
0
R Z
0 ∗ ∗ ∗ 0

R ≈

Z

Z
→

Z →

Z

R Z →

R Z
R Z R Z 6

Z →

Z

Z →
Z

−

Z →

−
−

Z

→

Z → Z

Z

∪ ∼ ∪
∼

P −

∗ ×

×

×
∗

| | → | × |

∗ ×

∗ P × − P − ×

P − − ⊗ −

→

⊗

−

−
P − −
−
P − −
− ⊗ − −
− ⊗ − −

P − P −

−
P − −
⊗
− ⊗ −
− − ⊗ −

− P

P −
− ⊗

− P −

−
−
⊗

− ⊗
− −
− −

− − −

×

⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗ ⊗ ⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗

−−→
⊗
−−→
⊗
⊗ ∗ ⊗ ⊗ ∗ −− −−→ ∗ ⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗ −−→

∗ ⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗ ⊗ ∗

×
L

× ∼ ∗ ⊗ ∗

∗

∈ Z ∈ Z ∈ ∗ Z ∈ ∗ Z

−

× −

×

Z

h
⊗ ⊗ i h ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ i

h ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ × ⊗ ⊗ i
X
h ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ i
−
X
h ih i
−
Xh − ih − i
Xh − × − ⊗ i

P − × − P × − ×

−

P −

× ×

6 − 6 −6 6

6 6

− −

∗

P
∈ Z

∗

Z → ∗ Z

P
P P

P

−

∈
Z

∈

Z

>

P

− −

−
−

−

,- , --, !" #/
$%0 !" - #$%&
.( 6&.-,(12# -()34 '(( (', ()&*&
0 (( , #('3& +
- ."+ + (
$1")"$#.( *
, +
$( #$('(# *" &.(, ((/$&
(3&1*$"5 - (7 ()&*& '((
-.('( )( -, )"$ -, 1" 9 2 )34 , (( ('3& (' * + )(81(
-."+ $1")"$ ,,$(--, #
,('3&
". ?()&*& 4$$%0 '(( (':)" --(3&1*$"5;
, )1" , ,
+-)"8=
< ('(1$=>$(
- -,
( = # ( , (/&/
*=7)">&$+ (7)"8(5
A B C @=*& "
→ 9 2 '*& C M N &.
#
- - DE FGFHHHF & $&)&)%1$%&
IJ ,-".& ( , (7)"/
>&$+
PU Q9 JRS7=*& $"8%1" , L
# K $(>& -, 1( .($&3$%0

-
/&)$%-=P TU&.AU"5

O)==
TU ∈ R 2

A V, (7% - ()&*&

$'= ()&*& .".
+)$%: ,/&)$%:
- -
&.'((()
5 8 W2 11&*4 ( , (7)">&/ 2 '*&
# ')"$3$%:
$+ DXYI Z DXY^B CGI [ → C 2J \ Z E 2- G 2 -5552 2 (- ,(>1 XY D I Z D I ) ],\

- XY Z -,) > \- $" 1& # - &. ( -(7)">&$& )(*( >"& /

−

WAWA+ (ZZ PE 5 Y_`

$&:$(
Q− GSY AX5Y ;∈ P+ $'= +)$('( &. " A B C → 9 ( (>
[ Q9 JRS 5 ; + E/&)$('( - &. -" A ( "'"&

−
abcdbef ghihih WW Z E
- &'( ( , & , 2 3 , ( & - ] \2 , ( XY m [ X U Z

mU j[ k K -, l )&>*& 1

1 , &T #$(2 -,+0G )"1&$DT ^-,nI1" &/

Z)&1(*+
X X,Y DT[I5 1;&:DTI ) ] 2 11%)">&$+
DT ^ GI )1 (7&0 3"

−
6
T] \− 1 )
n

T > \ − G 5 l (< , (=

X Q GS Um
WWA Z W Y − AXY Z U Y − Y AXYX U Z
X Q GS
Y
Q GS UmY U ^ X Q GSUm Y U H
Z X U Y AXYX U Y − AX XY [
− −

"&$ 1(
, 1 , ()(:
- -=&
>
- $*&.,
,-- -$" \2 " $*&.- \ $" ^ G 5 l ( - & , ".(:

8"&$% 1 ()"+ =" (.)" + &)1(:5 m -$(JRS, &(/

)&&

$(1" G G 11&*4 ')=% , Z W -- ,Z

, W [ 5
(' " Q
Z-, )"$ -,5 1"5J <9, =- ')==
⊂ 2 (< (= (>$( )" ( )& # ')== 9 Z

$"8%1" , , ')=(: R

K L M N

,

)(/

3$%0 .(< !&$- " 1 ')=& - 5 % $& 7=*& 11(* # )"8/J

1-$'= G (7(8$"3&$: * ,+ $'= +)$%0- - !" #$%0 '(( -(':

§ 5 5 % (.">&2 3 ( * + 7('( !" #$('( .( &. " &'(
abcdbef +)$%&ghih'(( h L k
(' 8(() $% !" #$%5 j
Mj
K K K K ` Q9 JRSK Z |R9⊕ KHHH{zK⊕ R}

-,- )"$j-,-,1" 9k K,, (3.,!"%7&)&

1 .(($&$
- ,
[ 2 5552" U 2" , (56-= ? & -,(3."
, "0U $&:$(:
,# &> , , , -1+8$( -, )(/,
1 " U(:1 >&# U 5.(($&$
, , , &
1+8$(
(>$( )" 2 3 (
--D U"I , )1" (3." 1=& = #
, # .". -$'= +)$%:- ,- -,&. - A BC [ → 9 J )- < , (8 $ ( = #
QT
W+)$"+ S T
A Z!&## T−D# U I ")"1$" T D U I 5 %". T U (7)"8(2 (3$(, &&)#2 # *(3 , ')"$!%
T U $'=/
P TU U
D I 5 l
U ' = , # 8 ( U 1 ) U 5 %('*" W & Z P TU D) U I − P TU D( UI 5 ! <2 ,'*&(
)&*( (> ( D I Z W
&Z A A " " &
1%)">&$
,- (1 ) .">*( -="E 1 -&0 .(<- !&$- , D(1I )"1$"U E, -=" .(<E l !&$/ ,
/&)$(
,
="l .(& )"1$" 5 (< (=
= -, # Z 9 S Z S 5 &)&)%1$(& ( , (7)">&$&
+ B 9 → * $*=!)=& , ( , (7)">&$& + B P → P 2 " &$$(2 - $'=/
0
+)$(= - &. - = A B C → 9 - (( -, "1 +& ,- + - $'= +)$%: - &. -
0

+ A B C → * 5 l ) < , ( + W A Z P Q− GSY + AX Z W + A5 , 8 )"1&$ -, 1"
[
+ W Z W + - &*=& , 23 , ( + Q W S ⊂ W + Q W m S ⊂ W m 5
Y [
[
0
l (< , (= 1(8$."& , + B Q9 S → Q* S [

−

'((() 8
0 0 0
-, Q S( , (7)">&$& , , (>*&* -, 1&$$(&

−
% (>*& 1&$$(& 9 → 9 $*=!)=&

,( (7)">&$& Q S ,
∗
, 9 → Q S 9 2 Q(< * S (= , '(&(()

, 8 9 → - $*=!/
, - &*=/,
)=& ? 8(()
&& (7(7 &$&B
? 8 9 , - 5 ( = 1&)>*&$&
, -, *(= ."&
Q '(( (3& * S ."+ <.11" &$ $( # 9 → $*=!)=&
→ $
8(() 8 9
S →
Q 5 6 4 7( && (7 && = 1&)>*&$& , ".(1(5
? ? , *

n
abcdbefM ghihF h K Q S Q* S M + F B9N→ *

N

B 9 →

+
j k K %". >&2 .". * + - !" #$%0 '(( (':2 (>/

∗ ∗
P Q9 S → ,P# m [ Q* SL2 * + .( , ()%0 .". - &&: -, 1( '((() 8(1

$( B()&*&

^ m
[W W [ Z + − 0 H QGS
"1&$l -,-,1( + Z *(."8%1"& ,-+ , (3$( , ". >&2 .". )"$# &5
−
, (+2, -1+8%1" P?Q"+ S + P m 5 Q*lS(

,< (: ='(( # , (B (× -, )( '((

∗ ∗
* '
;'= ++)$%: < , ('( -(-, =

→
- &*= !&$=
? '(( (l -, B 9 → '
(7)"8(5 = # A B C →9

[- 5
$/m
&. - 5 "*"*
( ,
Q" F S Z ,QA Q" SF S (- (> - A DEZF PGFHHHF(7)">&$& B C U m ()=/
U_` Q− GS^ GI U [ 2 -'*& U [-
× *
'(:

→
DE ` FHHHF$&:$(& ( (7)">&$& &. " $" &.

` F [ FHHHF [ I C × J 8*& - # E `2 5552 ` ' 1&) $% - &. - "

C × {E} 2 [ 2 5552 [ ' 1&) $% -m &. -" C ×-,{ G} 5 , -

⊂

$'= +)$%& !& [ W A W [ A )&* "1 + (7(: $&:/

- -, &. -,(12 .">*%: -8 .( , ()%0 ,I

$%& .(7$"! $'= +)$%0 &&

0
- DE FHHHF
−
1* BC → 2 '*&
$"$ , #2.".&&. - &$$(
- *
1 × -5 V, (7%$&.(
'

*(."8" ()(&, # ()"1&$
(7)">&$&
-, 1( QGS 2
*( -, &." , (3$(
" 1%+ -/
S --

, -

&. -% 1 × )- < , ( ( =3"n l ,-+ Q-, =34 , (
8$"."
$ 5 -

" (&. -)DE F GF$"3" " * + )&)"
nI &)&0(* , 1 =3": Z 5 ) ( (7)">&/

Ê` E [ G[ n [ − E ` G` G[ n [ ^ E ` G` n` n [ F
" ( - &*= ? && ( , (7)">&$& W &)&1(* , < , - &. -% 1 0
Ê [ G[ n [ GGn
− ` [ [
^G` n` n [
EGn
− ` [ [
Ê ` G[ n [ Enn
− ` ` [
Ê` E [ n [ EGn
− ` ` [
Ê ` G` n [
EEG
− ` [ [
Ê ` G` G[
| {z }
EGn
| {z }
− ` ` `
, &-, 2 ,3 , ( (*$".(1( (*34).$=-, %& -- DE&.FHHHF -% - (.)" FQ ? "GS ,-FHHHF
^ +5 ,
$ I(
)( EF 0(* * +, )(81( #$('(
, B &.
-` ` ^ n [- [ 2

U
-^(16ZGS Q−FHHHFGS2 1(8$."&
DE ÌJFHHHF ` F) [ FQ=$3
^ GS (>&$
[ FHHHF [ I Um
1&) Q−$%GS [$(&)(
DE FHHHF FQ ^
GS FQ &./^
[ [ ) < , ( 1(8$." , - &. -% )( , 1(( (>$('( 8$"."5

`
` `
n

^ DElFGI)2 "( ,((7)">&$ - &. - DE F GF nI &)&0(*

- &*= ? &&W( , (7)">&$&
,
[ &)&1(* <Ê E
,, 1- DGFnI −- DE FnI ^
&. % 1
^G` G[ n [ E
− ` [ [
E n ` G
[[
G n
− ` ` [
n Ê ` n ` n [ E
− ` ` [
G G
! -
G[ n [ W−E [ G^[ n [ 5[$W , -(.)"
Ê [=& 0

-? "&.-,-% +-((1 -,,&1&--

,-, 1=,&.-,%2(,,.)(&
(7)">&$+
-
- &. - (1
- +A
DHHHA5;HHH+ `)(81(

[ HHHI Q #$('(

DHHH ` $=>$(
[ HHH- HHH=7&*
I,S 10(*+# +, 11 W(2m [ 3 (

1 &. % 1*"
,[ W )(1/

$()(1&)+&
( (*$(=,-+5 )"8=2 )34 )( 1(( (>$% 8$"."5 $ ( &'.(
0
−
d ebd ghihih L k M

K K
Q JRS R Q KJRS 9 E K E
`9 Z 9 Z

j
k , -, )"$ -, 1( '(( , (3& -. <.11"/
, -,K -, +'1"&(& - -, ? )( , l , -, "/

,&$(3$($( )(1&)
)( )"$, #2 31=, ( ∗2 ` Q(∗ JRS(+ Z&=R 8 (*$(:
E- -= ?,& -, 1=& , &*$ -, , Q JRS (3.5
E
Z ) (< (=
E *(
5 ; + /
→ ∗ J (7(8$"3

7('(
PU Q GS 1&$$(& U ( (7)">&$&
∗
G C ER l , EJ
&'( A 5 $(2 E3 ( W A Z
>
_` − A [ ) > WÀ` Z 5 (< (=
Q
W [ AZ R[ Z W ZA RJ Z A Z[E > 5Z%E". GS
5 (7)"8(2 ` Z ` Z
−

[ [

− −
−
− −
! "# # # $ %"& ' () *+

$ ) ," ($, - ./ 0 , $ # (
, $( - , & #$%& - )1&*4$$%&
- ')=% '(( ,- (':2
, " , ".>&
, ')=%
.('((
, (>& (':
1 --, )(!" 1 $'=
#$(5 +)$(
(3$"+ =3"&
'(( ()&*&
('3& - ."+ +(
- + (3$(
&*(1" , & ".
#$( >&2
-, # .".
")%
-, ,-+ 7&8! .".0/
,
%
- 7( 8&$&$:5
, , - , , ( -, &*(1" , & #/
1 (-, (3$(:
$(-$'=# +)$= ":&)" 2 #& () *" 1(8$."& -,
!&# 1 9 )=*$(, #2 ( (=- 3 ( $& -7=
∪ (>$( )&* "1 # 1 1*& =% *1=0 $/
'=$"+B+)$%0 - !&&: - $( - , & + 1 9 , 1 * 5 $ ,-" , )=*$(, -, # )$!"-, #/2
! , * + $'= +)$%0 '(( (': (3$"+ ( &*(1" & #$( # ":&)"
-- #&&*(1"(),--&" #$(
-= ?-,& -, 1=& , !# ), $&.( , ()%0 (')"$3&$+05 % (3$"+ (/$(

# ":&)" #& () - " *
+ - $'= +)$%0 '(( (': , & -

1+8"$" ( - &*= ? = , 1&)>*&$&5
2
abcdbef
N
ghihg 3c 45 db6 f 788 9 h L k Q
:KF ::S⊂ ;Q ⊂F 9S
:= >? @

K
9 \ ;\ ⊂ 9 ; L

A L
j B j Q9 \ : F ; \ : S → Q9 F ; S

< ; <

⊂
∗ ∗

n
j
k l -, >? Q :S
:= K >? = #, 9 [ Z>?; 9>? Z 9 \ 5 %('*" 9 Z
:
Z 9 \ ⊃ 9 \ ; 2 (< (= 9 [ ∪ 9 Z 9 5 \

beef ih L K k 9 Z >? 9[ ∪N>? 9 k M @Q S

K L M
j

K @ KKA BC
K→ 9 A
<
K< K Z j A

M <

C A

9 [ 9

K K

j
k -, Q >? 9-,[ S A [ Q >? 9l S -,(7)"8=' , (- , /
, K , $(>& , 1" A [

.)%&7&'"(& <(.)% & .(". $('( $(>& 1" C ⊂ R 5 = # 3 (

− −
,- ('( (.)% , +5 6 - *"& ,

-" &'( /'( 7")!&$ , )3& -.('( (*)"8*&
'
) - &. - " C 2 , ( *"& , )

7('( &. &$+ $& )&/
- , m -, ,- , , , m ]

1( 0(* [ 5 "4 + 1%7)" # ".2 3 ( [

5
-$'=- +)$(= - &.-= A B CP → 9 (>$(' - (( -, "1 , #

&'(

">*(=
7")!&$ )3& , .(&-(*)"8*&
, (7)">&$+
((*)"8*& A $" &. - C-&$&
2 )$"* A Z&>"A? :2'*&7")!&$A (')"$3&$&

, )3&,--.(=
, ".5

- nE &$ C 5 ()" #$( $'= , +)$"+ !&#
P A Q ()&*&
S P +&Q +S
.(1C",2()('(
5 % QC()&*& !&$(& ( (7)">&$& B → 2 * +
S Z D F WC I Z P ± D F F FHHHF U I 2 '*& ' 7")!&$ , )

[− GS/&)$(: ')"$ C ⊂ C 2 ' 7")!&$ , )

0
, Q

7")!&$ )

0 00
Q − nSP/&)$(: ')"$'C ⊂ C ⊂ C 2 ,5552 U ' 1&) $" C 5 l ( (>

0
'
− 0
00

A Z ± 2 '*& .((8!+ ( (7)">&$:

00 0

D F FHHHF I D F F FHHHF U I

Q8*& -# &)1"+ -, )&Z." `' ['(&(()

C →9

-

-

→ − 0 00
S 8 &. (128"*"$$%0 .". =(/

)+*(3&$$%& $"7()% 1&) $ 5
lP( Q S$&:$(P -,Q S , (>$( )(*(' > , # *( '((()

8"
B 9 9 5 (7)">&$& !&$(&B )"1&$ -, 1( W Z
Z W - &*=& , 8 )"1&$ -, 1" W Z W 5

∗ → ∗
beef h M P QS P Lm Q k L
L

K

B j S M K KN K

Wm [
& k^[ BA

9 → [ 9

[ W & Z
& − & M

K & K K K A &

− !
"
j
k l E 5 O((() 8 -,7=*& -, )(-- , #2
K, ( (> ` Z

)&*(
, ) -$'= "'"+23+)$%: ( '((()
- &.-8% BC`2 →5552C 1 P[ =>&
#

QC (S 5 &'.(

)(&$%5)(1&) " (/

, #2−

$ % & ' ( & ) * + ,- , . / , 0 * 1 ' , ) 2 0 & ' 3 4 1 5 . , 6 4 , + )7 & 8 9 , ' * ( , ( * , & 8 3 4 1 & 6 6 ) ,: ) * ( ; 5 - 7 3 <
( = : ) * . 0 - , > ) & 6 ? 6 : & '7 @ * : 6 / , 0 2 A

n

3$(2, ( (!&#)&*(
( Z − − [ W +1 +& + !. (5

,- ,- ;&: -, 1-,, & #/
(>&$ * ^+ !& \ [ Z W 1%( $+& + F)"1&$ 1(
# #

−
#

#
W [\ [ W [\ [ ZE l \ , [ − \ [
−

)34 W [\ [ Z W [ W Z 5 (<^(= EF
− − − − − − −
#
W ( Z W −W − W W Z
− − − − −
-
# # # #
( .(%#.==>&W 8$"&2Z 3 , ( W5 QC S Z E ) > G 2 ( -.( #.= - &. - C

' -, -, -, , & #$(2m-= ?l& -,-,1=& , -m$'=P+)$"+

+'1"&(&
m P m)(
Q S)"$ 1(5 ,

&*(1" TU AU 2
UA BC m [ [→∈C 5 ;[PC+TUQ)(81(
!&# 2 * + .(#$('(
U
()(:-$'=
( Z W [ 5 - = # - [ Z
+)$('( &. " A BC →9

($&:$(
(>-, 5 A%)&7=&(&

Z A )"1&$ S , ,
◦ A 2 " 8" & )(*( > ( (7)">&$& (
-, 1(
W m ^ [W A Z A − A
[ A

- &*=& , 8P)"1&$ -,Q1" PU S TU AU ^ [ W Z − 2 ( -.( #.=

−
m
W [ A Z W [ A ◦ A 5
T m
−
#

#

(' " -,$( -&&, n 7(: ( , $( - , & #$%:- !. ( ∈ P Q9 F ; SP'((/ QS
!('3&$ ( $( & #$(= , !. = ( 2 (- .(
- #.= [ W -( ∈ -; 5

7(: -!. -10(* G # .($&3$(& 3 ( $'= +)$%0 ,&. (12

,
−
(<
- ( (=, ".2('3 ,"( $($( -&& ,,& # *7('(+ .">*('(
-$'= +)$('(!. " -((>$(
&. - "2 1%7)"

10(*+ ? #&'(3/1
: l , , (7)">&/

2 Q!& .( : F &> : S 19 Q[ ZF ; S ' 1 9 Z 9 \ 5 -,(< ,- (= ( , #2S
,3, ( & - 9(\ ∈PP;Q\Q9 \:→:S S (9−;W, ∈ P<()

$& Q ; S *P+85 "4 + )(1&)

(
, P m Q

Q$&.( :()('(
S ∈ [9 2
∗ ∗

( (l −-,W P∈ ; \Q S '* + $&.( ()('(

- -, ? - ∈ 9 \ 5
PQ S

= # 9 ')="2 ( (+ "+ 8 = !&&: 8 9 [

0 0
P Q9 PS 5ml( = -Q (1S W ∈ P Q9 S 5 ! %7&)& 3 - ( , ".2 3 , (

{ }

{ }

∈ [
{
9 5 %('*"
}
^ W Z − W ∈ P m [ Q9 SH

{ }
l = -, # − W Z ^ 2 '*& ∈ P m [ Q9 [ S ∈ P m [ Q9 S 5 %('*"

Q ^ W S Z ( − W ∈ P Q9 [ SH

0 00 0 00
( − W − W Z ( − W

l ) < , ( ( F W ∈ P Q9 S W ∈ P Q9 [ S 5 &*(1" , & #$(2

0 00
P Q S P Q S P Q S P Q : S Z P Q; \ : SF

0 00
( − W ∈ 9 [ ∩ 9 Z ; ∩ 9 \

3 , ( , )&7(1" ( -#5

0

n

7)" , -+ , &&)# . ,-,(3$(: (F - &*(1" , & #$(, -, -, ":&)",2 ! #& ,,() - "5
(; -+ &*(1"
7%0, & *1=0
#$( -,$(>&
# 1 9 [ 9 ⊂ 9 &&U U & ( .()( ."+ (3$"+

E → P Q9 [ ∩ 9 S −−Y −−−Y → P Q9 [ S ⊕ P Q9 S −−−−→ P Q9 [ ∪ 9 S → EF

− { }
P Q9 [ ∪ 9 S Z P Q9 [ S ^ P Q9 S ' ')="2 -( -, (+ ? "+ 8 -=

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

'*&
!&&:5
{
, }
, , - , -,

$ ," .()(-,."+ (3$"+ ( &*(1" & #$( # $*=!)=&

, , (3$=
-
∗ ∗ ∗
( &*(1" & #$( # U

Q
→ 9 [ ∩ 9 −→ 9
S Y Q S Q S

U [ ⊕ P 9 −→Q S Q S
∗ ∗
−→ 9 [ ∪ 9 −→ [ 9 [ ∩ 9 →
∗ { } ∗
- 1. 3&$& P, Q9,[ ∪,9 S → P Q9F[ ∪ 9 S $*=!)=& , 8(()/

∗ −

6 8 '(( (':2 ( '(1()+
{
2 3 ( ")"
}
,
{9 [ 9 } =*(1 & 1()+&
, K
N
j M ! , P
- S - Q,9 [ ∪ 9-,S (>$( 8"/
∗ ∗

,
&$ #')=(: 5 ".(
Q =3"& ')==
{ }
, ) < , ( 9 [K ∪
9 5%
(3$=
k K(k @ &*(1"

& #$(
k
#'((
K 5 (':
∗

$"8%1" ∗

d 8 ebd ghih h L k
L L
9M[ K < M N< {9 F 9 }9 < M < KN
K
K N9
[ 9

M

<

<
k k

K

k

K

K

[

- 5 5G 5 l ( =(.)=>$( -, 9 [ 9

j
k l - l ,
-, QK S ( Q= (1 S 9 Q[ ∪ 9 Z S [ 9Q[ ∩ 9 Z S∅ 5 (<, (=

=3"
E → Z(.→ E 5 [ 9 [ ⊕ [ 9 → [ 9 [ ∪ 9 → [ 9 [ ∩ 9 && 1*

n E

,3, (l (&-- 0(*=

9 [
*(."8"
∪9 Z
, & >?# -, 1" ,>?&()&%, ( 1%)&8"$F 7% ( *(."8"$(2
9

[ , 9 2
-, ( ")" ,
{9 [ 9 } =*(1 & 1()+/
-,

& ". (& 1%)&8"$+5 ;(."8" & # 1( <() $( '((() 8/

# #
∪
"+1$(2 " P($(() { Q9 S -,→ - Q9 S 2 ,'*& 9, Z 9 [ ,∪ 9 -2 , " -P(*&)>

}
$( # &*=&, 8 ('(2 3 (P &m Q S ∈ [ ,9 m Q ,-+

S
P Q S , - ? -,
∗ ∗ ∗

W ^∈ P m 9 Q2 (SJ = -,& 1=&, !&# 'Z ∈ 9 2 *^ + .( ()(:
{ }
W ∈ [ 9 *&: 1 & #$(2 W ')"$!" !& W 5

{ }
J

d 8 ebd ghih h Q S
Z ZE 6ZZ H
(

j
k l -, , (3.-,- &)% 2
K = # " [ " l *1& -, )"8-, 3$%&
'
9(<[ ,Z(= \{"Q9[}U SZ9E )Z 1 -\&0{" 5} 5 )( )"$ 1" 9 [ 9 +'1"&%2

-, , , 2 (<- , (= ,")" {-,9 [ F 9 } =*(/

$(>&, 1"- 9 [ 9 ( .)% % 1

,
1! #&& ,1()+&
() -" *"4". ,(& 8(()1%)&8"$+5
8
% (3$"+ ( &*(1" & #$( # ":&)" 2

Q S∼ Q \ {" [ F " }SH

Z [

F [ 5 l (< , (=

( Q S ∼ \ {" [Q " }[ S ∼ -, ,- , , #2 (3 , (=3"& 8(() 8

−
1
, Z [

5

"4 + 8"&

−
) Z E , )&7=&/
(& = 1&)>*&$& (3&1*$(5
−

−
J
d 8 ebd ghihgh Q F S
[ Z ZE 6ZZ H
(

−

j
k - , -, Q F [ S (."8%/
, , K % (3$"+ ( &*(1" & #$( # ")%

1"& 2 3 (
−

Q F [ S ∼Z [ Q [ SH

−
−
−
df 7 b 78 bh -,
< Q 9 S ∼Z [ Q9 S M K
> G

8(() 8 $"* )(:.

−
f f f ghihih
< UQ9 F * S ∼Z UQ9 ∪ P * FP * S

f f f ghih h
 G

f f f ghih h L k Mj N P
K *

K 9 UQ KF * S ∼ U Q * S

K 9 Z 9

<

n G
l = -, # UQ9 [ F ;U [ S Q9 F ; GFS 'n l*1& ")% , (( ('3&

, -.0 )( -, )"$ -,-,12
)34 F-, , ; ⊂ 9 F⊂- 9 2 ,Z , 5-, )&*(
{9 [ 9 } { ; [ ; } =*(1 & 1()+ ". (& 1%)&8"$+5 % ('*" &&

, -(>2 3 ( (7& ")% $(>& ,1
& ( (3$"+ ( &*(1" & #$( # U
Q F S Y
→ U 9 [ ∩ 9 ; [ ∩ ; −→ 9 [ ; [ ⊕ 9 ; −→
Q F S Q F S
Q F S Q F S F
∗ ∗
−→ 9 [ ∪ 9 ; [ ∪ ; −→ [ 9 [ ∩ 9 ; [ ∩ ; →
∗
.(k,
()= , -, K,
,k - K
,
k-, K k @
-
∗
−
$"8%1"V,
, K ,5 ,(7% ( )( ,# <- =, ( &*(1" & #$( #2 )&>*& 1 &'(

8"&
1. 3&$& 2 3 ( ( (7)">&$& ( $( & #$%0 '(( (':2 $*=!)(1"$$(&
P Q9 [ S ^ P Q9 S P Q9 [ ∪ 9 S F
P Q; [ S ^ P Q; S → P Q; [ ∪ ; S

∗ ∗ ∗

+1( +&('3&,-+ - 8(() -8(5, ! - "(

∗ ∗
-, *& &2 Q )" -- ( , )

∗
F , (3$=S '(/-
(, 1&P,-, 1= .=?Q= ( , (3$= &*(1" &(#$(- &*(1"# ")% , 9#[ ∪* 9+ '((
-, ; [ ∪ ; (/

S , & #$(
, (':
, 1*"
,-
$(: -
{
( &*(1"
}
9 , [ ∪ 9 2 .( ()"+ 1(8$."& 8 (3&1*$(: .()( .(: (3/
-,
& #$( 5 61 , ()(: -, -,

& 1&$$%& 1.( - 3&$+ !&$%0 .( &. (12
, , , , -,
∗ ∗
$*=!)=
)34 ( (
, (7)">&$+
(7)">&$& "7 (3$(:
- ( , , $%0 '(( (': &*(1"
8(() & #$( 1 &)1=
l ,
8%5 (< , (=
- , , , - ,
'
88(()
/ &%
8%5
&*=& 2 3 ( ( (7)">&$+ ( $( & #$%0 '(( (': (>&
-, ,- -, , , ,
% &&)# ( "4 + ( )( # .()( .= (3$= ( &*(1" & #$( #
- , -,
E → PP QQ9 [ ∩ 9 SS → PP QQ9 [SS ⊕ PP QQ9 SS → PP QQ9 [ SS ^^ PP QQ9 SS → EF

;[ ∩ ; ;[ ;[
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

; ;
,, 5& 5 $=>$(
-, )(1&)
∗
, , #2 3 , (
∗
- ,
". ()8"!+
,
∗
-,.()( , .(: , ,(3$(:

,
∗
( - &*(1"/
- &/
∗
&*(1"#$(, & #$( (-, 5(3$(:, (*( &*(1"

, & #$( )1(*
, , . (3$(: - (
, &, #$(,-, &:2 $( $*--(+ 1&)$( $&, ( #.((*- +&*(1"
,7%0 ,(3$%0 ,
.()(, &.0#$( -,(3$%0
- , &:5
-,
V, ((7%&*(1"/
*(."/
8".(# <&.(2- 7=*& )" " )1" # (3$=
P 2 " &4 (*( - &*(1" , & #$( -, # ' .".!&$(: ( &*(1" & #$( #
(*.( .". !&$(:
-P
QP&.S E 5

-, - ,
% (3$( # ,( &*(1" -& #$( ,&: (8$"3"&
-, , ,
2 3 (':2 QPS
( $*=!)(1"$$= E
Z Z.(/5
0
" & (3$= ( &*(1" & #$( -, # '((

0
)( , .(: , (3$(: ( - &*(1" , & #$( -, # E → P → P → P P → E B

∗ ∗

0 0
QPS QP P S QP SH
−→ [
∗
−→
)&8= # , " , & ( =3 QP P S Z E 2 3 , ( , )&7(1" ( -#5

∗ 0 0
−
! 0
n n

d b c cec c 88
87 75
L M N ,-+ & -, & -,-1&$$% (7)"/
8(5 O)="
l -, K P
Q S
- ()&*& +&
, " = Z 5# %('*" 9 P Q ')=" $'= +)$%0 !&&: .(< !/
9 JRS Z P Q9 SFR ' ')=" - $'=/
'
&$+)$%0 m -Q .(< , ,- R 5 (')"$3$%: , ()
PB Q9 JRS.(!&&: P
→ P [m9Q
JRS !&$ "
()&*& -,
(&)"
P Q S+& ,+ .".-,*1(: ,1&$$%: . ')"$3$(/

=*& +&(&)" , ()= W B

[ 9 S → 9 5 " & "$*") $% (7)"8( ()&/
,-+ ')=" .(!. (1 2 ')=" .(')"$! ')=" .('(( (/

':; + -$'=
5
+)$%0 .('(( (': -)"1&* 1" , &()&"2 "$" ('3$"+
,-,&()&&-,( ,1%)&8"$ ,* ,+ - $'=
, - +)$%0- '((
, (':5 ; + &4 *(."8"
- , & #/
<':1" !&$
*( ", "0(3$(!&$(&8"&( ,(7)">&$&2$*=!)=
#2 3 ( (' " $( &()&& ? (78(()
&& =$1&) 8" #$%0
- .(< !&$ , " Z 2 $*=!)=& , , ".>& 8(() 8 .('(( (/
'(( .(/(/
':5

(# $ # # ) #.
$'= (':2
Q.(? S'(( Q.( S'(( (' ' < ,-( , # (*$" 8 -1(8(>$%0-, , &():
+)$%&()&*& -, 15
6 4 (*$ )&)( - 4$$%0 , *
=>"*".('((+ 1 &0
(' ((V ('3& .0

-
&0"5)&8=; +# , )(!" )"$#$%0&&
.( &. - (1 (7& < , , &() , (*$ , ( , >& " , 2 $(
? 0 l, (( ('3& -.0 )( -,V)"$ -, 1-,)&8= # , " , % ,('= , (Q =3S , # -+ )"8/ * + 7(
(7$%5
, (( .('(( (':D ,nI &0" -& ()=
# *)='& &() - .( '((.( , ()%
(':5
*(*1& >$" $)(* :
=*(1Q.(& ,S1()+
$ &$7&)'
, # , &()+ Q.( S,'(( (':2 )(1" ".
*(."8" (%2
2 3 , ( - 7%&
,?&() '(( ? ,
, (':2 =*(1 & 1()+ ,0 < -(: &&, ".- ( - -,
& 0 (*$= -= >& ')== .(< !&$ (12 (1"*" $" /
!"@=*&#$%0 .( &., #2"053 , ( . " -- A ") Q9 F ; S , (( ('3& -.0 )(/
'(1()
-, )"$ -, 1 L K N 2 & - 1%( $+ ,-+ - &*= ? & = - (1+B

- , QJ F S , , Q F S Q F S Q F S Q F S
• & ")" 9 ; 10(* 1 A 2 ( ")% 9 9 2 9 ∅ 2 ; ; ; ∅
10(*+ 1 A
- Q F S , , Q F S , (>& 10(* , 1 A J
• & 9 ; 10(* 1 A 2 ( 9 × ; ×
Q F S ' (*$( , (3&3$(& )( -, )"$ -, 1(2 10(* , 1 A5

• ∗ ∅ 2 '*& ∗
-, "1%&()+, '(( (': ()&*&

Q F S &$" $" *(= -, (
-, . " -- & ")5
-- $"
- ((/
!& (=+& 3 - =7(: "7&")&&1=9 ')==
; 8 *"$$('(
Q F S*(= ('( ., " " 7(=
9 ; 5 ">*(= ( (7)">&$ ")

n
B Q9 FA; SB → QQ*9F F;SS →.">*(=

A 8 - - (( -, "1 +& ,-+ '((()/
Q* F S!& (= 3, =
Q F S 5 )(& Q S ('(2()&*&Q S&$%')"$3$%&
Q;Q F ∅S'(/

(()
()+ 8% W B
∗
9 ; → , [ ;, 2 -'*& ? [ ; Z- [ 5 % &/
N
'((
(':

*(
>$" S =*(1 & 1()+ # &*= ". (" K
∗ − − −

5
GS 6 - ,A ' , (>*& -, 1&$$(& ( , (7)">&$&2 , ( A ' , (>& , (>*& -, 1&$/
$(& ( (7)">&$&5 ∗
nS Q A S Z A 5
S W A Z QA | S W 2 , 5& 5 - &*= ? "+ *"')"" .(= , " , 1$"B
∗ ∗ ∗

Q F S
9 ; −−−−→ Q* F S
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗
 
 
[ Q; S −−−−→ [ Q SH
y ∗ y ∗
| ∗
S Q 8 cef c 7 c 8 5S l = -,- # B ;?→ 9 - \ B9 →, Q9 F ;-,S ', & -, &/

− −
-,

1&$$%& 1. 3&$+5U %('*" &*= "+ ( &*(1" & #$(U # (3$"B

HHH −→ Q; S −→ Q9 S −Y→ Q9 F ; S −→ [ Q; S −→ HHH

∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗
S Q ,8 cef ,cec c -88 5S 6 - ( , (7)">&$+ A F B-Q9 F ; S →,Q* F S

−

'(( ($%2 ( * + 1 &0 '((() 8% A (1"*" 5
S Q 8 cef 45 db 6 f 78 S l -, : ' , ,
∗ ∗
-, 5 , = # - ⊂ 9
,- ( .)%
>? (& (*/
1.$(>&3&$&1(2 Q98"%."$& :F :.( S ()('(
Q F S (*&)>
-
→ 9 ; 2 & ($( +1 +& + *(=/
+ 1 ,-; 5 %('*" #
-, %
Q9 \ :(F ,;(7)">&$&2
;
: S Q *F +S 7('( $*=!)=& 8(() 8
\ \
,
9;5
S Q 8,cef df 6 ebd7BB
c 8
S Q∗S Z E ) 6Z E 5 O)== ` Q∗S $"/
\ →

8%1" L A
5 5
% &()+,.('(( (': Q()&*&
-, F S &$" $" *(= -, (
-, . " -- & --")5 $" -(/
(!& (="1 3+& - =7(:"7&")&&1= 9')==; 8 *"$$('( Q 9 F S *(=

5 ">*(=('(( ,.(7)">&$
" " 7(=")
B Q9 FA; SB→ Q*Q*F F S S→.">*(=
A 8 !& (= 3; - = - -, ,-

Q F S ,S('(2 ()&*&(( "1 +& + '((()/

[ Q9 S ; 5 )(& Q F [ Q&$% S .(')"$3$%&
[Q F S

'((() 8% B 9 2 '*& Z 5

∗
; → , ; , - ? ; - ; Q∅
&()+ .('(( (': ∗
*( >$" =*(1 & 1()+ # &*= ". ("
− − −
K N

S 5

%

n

GS 6 - ,A ' , (>*& -, 1&$$(& ( , (7)">&$&2 , ( A ' , (>& , (>*& -, 1&$/

$(& ( (7)">&$&5
∗
nS Q A S Z A 5
S A Z QA | S 2 , 5& 5 - &*= ? "+ *"')"" .(= , " , 1$"B
∗ ∗ ∗

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Q F S
9 ; ←−−−− Q* F S

∗
 
[Q S [ Q SH
y ∗
y ∗
| ∗
; ←−−−−
S Q 8 cef c 7 c 8 5S l = -,- # B ;?→ 9 - \ B9 →, Q9 F ;-,S ', & -, &/
− −
-,

1&$$%&U 1. 3&$+5 %('*" &*= "+ ( &*(1"
U & #$( # (3$"B

HHH −→ [ Q; S −→ Q9 F ; S −Y→ Q9 S −→ Q; S −→ HHH
∗
−
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
S Q ,8 cef ,cec c -88 5S 6 - ( , (7)">&$+ A F B-Q9 F ; S → ,Q* F S

'(( ($%2 ( * + 1 &0 '((() 8% A (1"*" 5
S Q 8 cef 45 db 6 f 78 S l -, : ' , ,
∗ ∗

-, 5 , = # - ⊂ 9
,- ( .)%
>? (& (*/
1.$(>& 3&$& 1(2 Q98"%."$&
:F :.( S ()('(
Q F S (*&)>
-
→ 9 ; 2 & ($( +1 +& + *(=/
+ 1 ,-; 5 %('*" #
-, %
Q9 F ; S(→, (7)">&$&2

Q
\ ;
: F * :+S 7('( $*=!)=& 8(() 8
\
,
9 \ ;\ 5
S Q 8,cef df 6 ebd 7 c 8 S Q S E
5 E
∗ Z ) 6 Z 5 O)== ` ∗ $"/
Q S
8%1" L A 5

BB

". 1%+ --$ ( -# 1 -.()& (-,- & =7 ,."! - .$' ,
$)(*" ()%0
, $ :/
&$7&)'"2
&-,, $)(*"
& -, 1&$$%". ("
(7)"8()"8&)$(
1(8$." ')"&
? , ( (7= )( #B * +
,- - -
0 &():- 1%( $+ + 1 -,& ". (%
$&.(
,&() Q 2 $S : &$7&)'"2 8" .
- , 3&$& ".
(% N)"8&)$( 5 %
".&N
.( '(( (': $"8%1" K

5 $ ( , $( -+ ,-+2 $")&)2 , &()+ .(7()*8(1 / , &()+5

*" /
@)"=<) , D GI2 D I-*(."8"

-, , 2 3 , ( & - - $(>& -, 1( ⊂ R, '(&(()
-, $( /
$(- =3"& [2 Z(n R< , "\ , &()&"

−
( (7%8" *1=0 1+8$%0 .(($&$ 5 !
3"
*(."8"$",)"$&&, -()*"$(5? %&()&"
()*"$" 2 @)"=<)" (3&1*$% (7)"8( 1% &."& 8 &*= &'( = 1&)/
,
>*&$+5

n
abcdbef ghih 3 b f 7 bd 9 hQ K ;S F ⊂ QR S

M B

N
j L N

K K

E

R \; ∼ Z R \
j
k D I -- ,
QR \ ; S ≈ QR \ S -Q3" -,, #, 2
>
,3, ( ; ⊂R S×K{E-} ⊂ {"E} ×(R )5 %('*" R Z R × R 7=*& 3 " #2

&()&"
, , ,,
5 5- 6 ;? 6 Z R 6 Z R 2 ( )&7=&(& = 1&)>*&$& &'.(
,
1% &."& 8 &*= &: &%5
beefh
mUQ mU K S ∼; ⊂ QR S M @
j L

Kj
k ; 6Zj R

MK <R R \Z;R Z× {E}R⊂ \R;mU

E K L

>

j
k -, , --(m , )& , # - =3": Z G 2 " 8" , & )/
, K ;(
l " (3$( )"

&$ # $*=.! 5 ( (> 9 Z R [ \ ; 2
9 m Z { QQ" FF SS ∈ R × R | ] EE " ∈ R \ ; } FH

9 Z { " ∈ R × R | " ∈ R \ ;}

$(>&
Q -, 1" S
−
9 m 9 ( , .)% ,,% 1 9 9- m ∪ 9, Z 9 -,2 9 m ∩ 9 Z

Z#&R, ()\-"; * ×+ )1&*4$$%0
! R5 " &'(((3$=(': ( &*(1" & #$( # ":&)"2
−

− −
m Q mS m Q S m Q m S
→ [ 9 ⊕ [ 9 → [ 9 ∪9 →
Q m S Q mS m Q S
→ 9 ∩9 → 9 ⊕ [ 9 →
− −
l )( -, )"$ -, 1" 9 m 9 -,,+'1"&%2 m Q m (< (=

, S 0 )1&*4$$%&
−
Q m S ,'(/
−
( m(' m $= &1%&2 " 8$"3 2 [ 9 ∪ 9 Z 9 ∩ 9 2 5& 5

[ QR [ \ ; S ∼Z QQR \ ; S × RS ∼Z QR \ ; S 5
−
∼ − −
-& Q6 - m>&; 6Z;S RZ2 R,m( 2 -('Q, (" -$(% S&&- (>& Q
R \; ∼
S Z, m QR \ ; SJ
R [, \ S [ R Q \ ; 5S % ".
( =3 &#- 8(()
(7)"8(2 Z 8

Z

; Q∼ , Q S Q
; S
-6 Z R 2 ( R \ ;, ∼ Z R m \ 2(< (= m Z R \ 5
6 R
6 ` QR >&m [ \ ;; SZ∼R `2 QR (m [\QRS 5 [ $(>& S-,Z QRm [ \ S 5 m! 3" -, $(- -,-, 2
−
R \; ∼
R [ \ ; Z R [ \ R m( (/
\ ; ∼
,, )(1$(

8 Z
*1=0 .(($&$ , - 1+8$( -, 1(
2 (< , (= ,$(>& -, 1( R [ \
, (>& - -, ,
( (.('*" 8 *1=0 , - -,
.(($&$ 1+8$( 5 1 ( < ( 1(8(>$( # 1
( - =3"&2 ZR 5

,
, 8 &()&% &. -"$*&)"
D I &'.( 1%1(* ,-+ - &*= ? && = , 1&)>*&$&2
*(."8"$$(& @)"=<)( 5

n

abcdbef ghih 3c 874 fd 8 f 7 7 c 8 c f8 9

h LK:k : N

B N

K K
RN < K

j
k l -, , ()"+-, , (3."5 ,-, + *(."/
, , -K =, #
, ` , $&.( - % )&7=&
?
'
8"" --#2(3 ,() (*&)> ( 8
.)% (&B :1 →R $(>& 1(2 (*&)>" &&Q ` S(3.=
! `5

∈

'(&(() ( (> ` Z [ 5 %7&/

E ,
3 , ( -, 1(Z R{" \∈ RQ | kS" -−1+8$(2 - ,

)&&.X- "$*&)" ".2$(>& ` k 6"X}$(>&
⊂ 5 (' " $( &()&&

−
:
-

-, , , -

-,-,1( R \ Q -,[ S 2
[ ZS W Q 2 S ( Q( [8S *1=0Q >? .(($&$

'*&

1+8$( 5&*$&$&
$(>& 1"

−
Q−

Z
Q -, [ S!5 l (<-,, (=-,&$$( < , $(>& S - 1+8$%2 " 0 (7 )"1/
-, ,- , "/

$( R-1+8$( 1" +1 + + .(($&$

#
R \ \
−

\
5-, 1" 3"R \$(Q 2 [($
−
+1, ()(& ,- , ,
+ +1+ +&( ,-.)%+ ( ,%
(*$(>& -, 1"/
-, 1()(R-, )"$
5
&*(1"
S 2 .( .)%
, & #$(2 $(>& -, 1( Q >? S 3 Q ` S Z ` ( , .)% , ( 1

− , %
(*$(>&/
R 5
#

b b
fd f
c

df h
@@
48 3874 8 7 7 9
B j
L < L

< "∈ W

→
d QEFebdS n ghih
8
] ] h L K k 9QEFZ S QR ×G ]{E}S] ∪G Q{E} × R S ⊂R : Z
Z
{K |: }
ZB{N :| − N }9 K
K
"
N

9

- 5 5n 5 1 &$1")"$ , $( -, # (7 " -,

f f f ghihgh L k :
B N

:K j L

K R
j

< L K K

<

n
! #! * (# ') # #) ," # #

(# " ) & " # ) #& #
6-- ' - !", #$%:- .( &. - 2 , ( * + $&'( (>$( ()&*&

- #
,
.".*(.">&2 !"
3 , ( < ,#$%&2
')=% ". 8(()$'= +)$%& $%5 l ')=%
) ( -, '((
)(&$ (':5
!&$('( *& #( ,%(/
7)">&$+2
- !" $*=!)= ? , , , , 82 =*(7$(
&'( < ( -8(() Q -( #8(1"S, # $&
#$%:
- P Q !&$(:
S .( &. 2 " ( " ,#$%: =()+*(3&$$%: !&/
$(:- !" #$%0 '(( (': Q,'((
.( &. ∗

2 ')=% &()&" (':n 5G.(5G $"()('( - 5 8(()
S 5 $% ')="

-, "1 -I &. -='Q ` FHHHF S -$/

'=7)">&$& ((
+)$%: - -
&./&)$(=
- A B DE =()+*(3&$$(=
FHHHF I → `
D FHHHF 2 '*&, A $&:$(&

( , (/
-
&. >&$$(&
(12 &)&1(*+

? && (3.=

,
1 (3.= U ,
5 $ ( ((/-
-, "1P&$&2 -, ,
\ -B Q-, S → P Q S 2 '*& P Q S ' -$'= +)$%: !&$(: .(P &. - 5 8
)(*( ( $&:$( 2 ()&*& +& '((()

1P&/

(1*$(2 )&* 3 ,1&$$(

( \ 8 ()&*&
!&$(& &$: ')"$3$%0 '((()
, Q SS Ql (<S , (= \ $*=!)=& , '((()/ 8(1 1 1
Q(P (7)">&$&5
' ∗ ∗
8 '(( (': \ B 5

∗ ∗ →
abcdbef ghih h \ j Bj

∗
j
k -- , - , -, - !" #/
K- $"3" "!%, )" -( ) =3":2.('*"

$%:*=.!&: .((&. 2 '*&.($&3&$5

.( 3&< -,(1( 1=3"&- &0 - *(."8"&.- (1& #1 -&01( )"8&)$(

)(1&*4-,$/&:
6 - -, 1" Z(3&1*&$
G 2 , ( - ( -, ( , 8 (*$(: , (3.5 ; + (*$( , (3&3$('(
'
1)( -,5 )"$

8(() 8 *">& $" =)(1$& !&&:5

l )&*( (>- , &&)#2 - 3 , (
? \ '
8(() - 8 * - + l7('( -, -' !/
-
" #$('( .( &.
!"-#$%:&. - .( "2 (*&)>"
- -
&.-"2 (*&)>" &'(
∗
? &$&&
: )(1$(-, 5 - &. (15 - = # -- , /
&.&. -(15C $&" +1(+&)

1')"$#

C ".
, #$(: )"8&)$( - -

? ,-+
&$&& 8-, 2 &.-,(<-(15(= [ Z \ C (*.( &. 1 2 (*&)>" :
'
Q S QP Q SS
; +.)" .( 11&*4 -- , (7(8$"3&$&
, - ,

Z-,
5 !; +, '((/-
(':
+ C(< , (=(>$( )" ()()&-, )"$ # (-, 1 &*(1" & #$(& , 1()+&# , ":&)" 2 #& () "
[ 5 $*, "+ ")" -
∗
*$+2
- $'= +)$%0 '(( $& =*(1

(': )" -- ( , ) ".( (&
- 1%)&8"/
&*(1" , & #/S
-,
$(" ` ∈ #>?C5":&)" ! ,
! 2 #& ,() , - " * + C -
[ 2 ? '*&
[ Z , [, Q >?
C \ {" ` } 2
)&8= # " & ( =3 &*= = .(= " 1$= *"')"/
#
0 0
∪
#
n

= - , (3$% -, )(."B
m Q S Q S Q S Q S
[ WC −−−→ C ⊕ [ −−−→

−−−→ −−−→
  
  
m Q S Q S Q S Q S
y y y
[ WC C ⊕ [

  
  
m [ QC \ {" ` }S −−−→ Q S −−−→ QC S ⊕ Q [ S −−−→

y y y

-
-, )&, 1&).-,, ." -, ' ( , (7)">&$& \ 2 $>$&
0
−−−→
*& # #$%&
, ." 1&)0$& ' #$%& )& .
8(() 8%2 $*=!)(1"$$%& '(( , (3& -1&)/
.//
Q , (>*& -, 1&$$% , S
∗
<.11" - &$ , $( , + ,

Q S Q S '
( (7)">&$+ 5 , 8
&%
Q3 , (7% )&$&*=& 2 3
, # ( /( (7)">&$&
&=2 $=>$( \ . B - →
$"

"$$(=

1% & 8(()
=3" -, .= 8
*"/
- " , # ( (*$(= 3 &$= -)"1" - &1" S 5
∗

')"%-- *( , ) , &&)# - =3":2Q S.('*" - !" #$%:

- 7& -/

.($&3&$5" ( , .( &.
&. - ,;".2+ 3 ,(7('( &>∈ , 1 (7)"8& 1 (>$( Q S )1%7)"'((() # .($&3$%: (*.(/

8&2
Q S Q S '
$*=!/
)(1"$$( 1. l 3&$& → , 5 &*(1", ,& #$(2

\ B

Q S E

<() 85 )&*( (> &&)#2 3 ( \ Z 5 " =)(1$&
→
∈ P
, , , - Q S - , ,-, ?
∗
1

!&&:
)&* -,<
( (8$"3"&
,
"1 +)$(: 23 (
& '((!&('3&m .('( $'=
- +)$"+ !&#
--

. "Q S"5 !2%7&)&

& ,- 2
+1 +& 1+ ')"$!&:
∈

((
∗
1& 1= ,"+
$&.((*/(/
)(: -$'= P m
[ $( -[ , & & !& m [ 5 ! Q S !&# &

.($&3$%:
.( &. - , ".2 3 , (7% ($ 7%
∈

-, "1 +& , $= &1(: . " -- '(( (':2 (< , (= Z E 2 , 5& 5 \ ' ($(/

)&*
() 85

∗
abcdbef
E ghih h K : N

K R Q: S Z

Z

j
k -- ,
>
P Q: S K " ( ,-) )(81(

, ,#$%: -$'= +)$%:' - !.
+)$"+
(∈
!&# 2 1>: 55 l%=)&7=&

-, # 9 +' *(."8"
(7 #2 3 ( 1 -(&0Z (7)"8(1
&*$&$& W ) 2 '*& -)$'= +)$%0 $'=/
---, &. -(12 10(*+ ? 0 1 ( 5 :$(>& -, 1( ,9 ⊂ : l.(".

-, , $(2' -(< , (=-
)"1 R 2 (+$&
-(*&)>" X &>*=
? : : 9 , R \ ( (> & #$(5
)"$'= )(1"$$%: -, ( # =& #.(2 3 , ( *"&

&., )
7('(
- -
- -, &. -" , )"$'=- +!
? - &$# - & X5
"--- ( ,?) 1 (*.(/ -,
, )"$'=
&. 2 +! ( (+'")"$: ,8)=&1 ,&02 3 , &. :(12 &)& &." 0 9 5 & .( #

( | |⊂ 5

n

" & * + ")% Q F S , (3$= ( - &*(1" , & #$( -, # - !" #/

$%0 '(( (':B HHH Q F S Q S Q S HHH

- Q S E m Q F S E

-= *&(1
→
-
# ^ GZ> 2 ^(G .( #.= 5 ≈ &*(1"
→ →
C 2 , & #$(2
→
[ Q Z 2 ( .( #.= (

S E -
l &)&:*4, , &&)# . -$'=

+)$%
#
'((

('+5

;Z + 5 -$'= +)$%0
,- -, Q S E l -,

'((
9) '⊂ |-$'= (': ,(>&
| 2 (< (= (
1%(
' -$+& + )"1&$ 1( | | Z 5 ,( ( )(&$

+)$"+ !&# 1$'= +)$%: !. 1 | | 2 " 8$"3 2 ( Z W ) 2 '*&

| |⊂ 5
:
feb f 78 bh + 8".$= , ('( $(>& -,,1" "$" (' , &()&%

! -, , D I ; -,

-, G - ,
5 5 $&1&)&$5
1" "#$% #& '((( ('+ )(&$ )&) 8".$=#$(('(1% -(*$(>& 1" 1-,R+05 $& )/

1 )(81( (.0 )"8&)$(

- ,1( -( ,#8(1" , # -+ -G1(: -, 1" $&)1" (.)% , +2 8-, (>&$$%

3"& 5 2 ( 8 &()&% 5 5 (>$( &'.( 1%1& 81& $= , &()&=1
-, 6 -,
abcdbef ghih 3 b 8 @i 9Nh
LKjk : [ N :
@m [ @ NN

N L N

L <L

K
R
@ L

@ L

K K

<

j
k l : HHH : m --( , ) ,* + 9
(.)% , K

U ( (>
G 9 Z ^[ G∪ l ∪ -, [ )"
-, $(& ,U&()&&
Z { }52GE Z8 3"2 5552
:
-, -,5 )"$= -,#1( 9 '(($&)1, (3&(.)%-. +<.1/U 5
'

(' "
1"8 &$/&)$%0
$( | | 5')"$&:
)(
l )&*(- (>2 -3 , ( :m[ ∩ HHHl ∩,: m [ Z ∅ 5 %('*" - ( -,-,( ,

Q S ∼ Q S ∼
[ J -,
9 Z | | Z Q S&.6Z E"5 C$ , ( )( 5 (<, 1()&3
(= | ,| ,∼&()&&1 3" 5G 5 $(5 2

Q

% &()&= & S *">& $&.( ()(&

, -, 7( ,&& (7? && =G, 1&)>*&$&2? ,-(/
>&. -1(:
*(."8"$$(&
-, 1" $&)1"& (.)%
(>$(

, +5 1%1&
; + < ,('(8 $"&()&% 5 5 ,-
($"*(7 2 $&+ -(7)"&*= "+? &&#
= , 1&)>*&$&5
beef ghihih L k 9 [ 9 A < N

K

N N

@ N

jK
G < K A K K <9 K <K
KL K<

G

HHH 9 Z ∅ n L Q9 [ ∪ HHH ∪ 9 S <

<

L MK 9[ ∩ ∩
6 6 −

K∩ 9 6Z ∅Z − Q9 ∪ HHH ∪ 9 S ∼ m Q9 ∩ HHH

< HHH

K
HHH ∩ 9 S M K
9 [ [ Z [ [
!

∩ −

nE

j , k K " -- (-,, ) -,$"3"- " - =3": Z n 5 6 - 9 [ ∩ 9 - Z

."Z ∅Q9?2 0∪(-9+ 9S"!.

[ ∪ 93$%0 )&* )("1 -,+&)"$ -,(7(: (7(< , (=
&*$&$&

l Q *1=0 $&&)& S E &/

Z 15
E ) 6Z!E 5 6,- ->& 9 [ ∩ 9 6Z ∅ 2 , ( )1&*4$$"+ ( - &/ ` 9 [ ∪ 9 6Z

, [ -,

*(1" & #$( # ":&)"2 #& () "

Q S Q S Q

9 [ ⊕ 9 → 9 [ ∪ 9 S → Q

[ 9 [ ∩ 9 S → [ Q9 [ S ⊕ [ Q9 S

, , Q S Q S - Q US Z E
→ − − −
(."8%1"&
* +l1 -&0 5 , 23 ( 9 [ ∪9 ∼

Z
[ 9 [ ∩ 9 2( .( #.=

[
9
l ( )&*( (>&$ - $/

− −

)&$ -, &&)#
-, $*=.! ( HHH 5
.=!*=.! )( )"$ 1(6Z ∅ 5[ lZ)1&*4$$"+
9 [ ∪ ∪(9- &*(1"

9 HHH 9
:
[ "!.
, & 3$(2
#$( -, # (":&)"
.( #/2
, [ -" (."8%1"&[ , 2 3 , ( Q: [ ∪ 9 S ∼Z [ Q: [ ∩ 9 S 5 l ) < , (
−
#& () ∩ ∩
Q -, S ∪ HHH ∪ Q9 [ ∩ 9 S 5 l )&$- )&*(, (>&$&-

−

∩ 9 Z 9[ ∩ 9
[$*=.!
: −
. <$(>&
, 1"-,91 ['∩ 9< , ( 2 &)&5552 -9&3&$&[ ∩ 9^ 5G 8$(2$(>& 3 ( -,&)&1 9 &/2
−
3&$+ 8
l 0 $(>& , HHH Q , , , [
−

5552 9
3=,-,( &)& 5 )&*( (>2 3 ( 9 [ ∩ 9 Z ∅ < ( <.11" &$ $( (=2
S(, 5 l-&3&$& )" --" , )1"&%0 $(>& -, 1 9 [∩ 9 Q:2 5552 9 S [ ∩, 9
∩
$"Z ( −$= (n+5 )&*( ,l('*" (>&$ $*=.!

, ( #.( , ')=" − G Z[ Q [ ∩− 9GS − (n 2 ,3/5& 5
−

('*"2
, &&)#2 .('*"
,HHH( 9 [ ∩S HHH ∩Q 9 GS6Z ∅Q 5 %('*"
−

Q[ : [ ∩ 9 S)&*( (> Q 3
^ G Z − ^ G 5∼Z [ [ [ 9 [ ∩ ∩ 9 5 1 ( − − − GS ^ m

−

− − −
% &&)# , % (>& ,- *(."8" , # - ,&*= ? && = , 1&)>*&$&2 3" -, $% - =/

3"& .( ()('( +1 +& + (7%3$"+ &()&" & 5
abcdbef ghihi 3 b 8 9 h LKk 9

[

N N

9
N
@ N < j

L K R^ G <A K <

K K

K K 9 [ ∩ HHH ∩ 9 A < < K K
L K

<

6 6

j
k D I l , ,

K -, )&*( (>2 3 ( - &()&" - & $&1&)$" * +

$"7()"
$" $(>&
#$( -, 1 9- [&*=&
2 5552, 293 , (2 &)&

)34-&3&$& 3 ( 7%08*& 6# $"&$#

G &&5 -,, 8
− $(>& 1

9 [ 2 5552-- 9 , "!.- 3$(5 - HHH ∩ 9Q S Z ∅ 5 $ , ( G(>& ,

, " ( ) $"3"
^" G =3":2 l .('*" ,9 [ G

7%=3# # )Q9 ∪ HHH ∪ 9 5 S 6Z)&$1 E 5 *)='(:= 1&)>*&$&

-, ()($%2 " −&%
∩
n > 2(<5 5 ,2(=
(/

−

nG
-(' " -$( , &()&& 5G 5 Q9 [ ∪ HHH ∪ 9 S Z E 5 l ( =3&$( )( , 1()&/

3&5 -- , , - HHH ∩ 9 6Z,∅ 5 l ( )&*(/

−
(>&$

" ( )
-,
)( )"$
&&)#
-, =3":2 HHH .('*" 9 [ , S ,E
? 1(-, 9 [ ∩ ∩ 9 $& "!. 3$(5 $ ( (>& 7% #
∩
, E , Q HHH

# ) - 5 = & 1=& > 2* ^ G+5 .( ('()('(

- , 9 [ ∪ ∪9Q7 S 6Z&/5

" & 3 ( 1 1*& Z " $( = 1&)>*&$

G G Q9G[ ∩ HHH ∩ 9 S 6Z E 5 1 ( Z ^ − G > 5 $ , ( )( , 1()&/

% , ,5 5

3 &()&& 5 5 5

−

b c 75 b cec c 88

; + )(81( #$('( P /.( &. -" 9 (>$( ()&*& , # . & , (3$%&

, ,-,( *&- " ( -# 1 - =3"& - !" #$%0

'((
.( ('
- (*(7$( ,(=2 .". <
18+&., #(15-UQ$'=
$(=3"& 9
% ( #.( &&)# 1& !
+)$%& '(( ('5 ( ( -
( !" #$%0
#8(1"1 - #
F 9 [ S ∼ UQ9 9 [ S ∼ UQ∨ S ) > G 5 l (< , (=
'(( (':
8"*"3&: 5 G 5 $=>/
2 (/
Z 6Z 2 " ) Z Z < , " ')=" ' -1(7(*$"+ [ "7&/

UQ F [ S E
9 9 Z )
− −

? , , $"0(*+ ,-+ 1( 18"$( (*$(8$"3$(

-((&1", 1&')="2
,-, 1 (7)"8= & .( ()(:
−
- /&)$%

-

. & ." - 95 P Z UQ9 F 9 [ S

".
()&*& 1
'((() !" 8
#$( W P=3"&2
Q B S
P ( (>
→ Q [ 5 l$(1" *(."8%1"&2 3 (
, −
S , -,

W [ W [ 9 - ∼
[ ∼Z 8(()
- &*$&'( [ 9, - 5 ,) *(."8"
Z #8(1" , &7"+# -1&$'=/
(/
−
,8" $=>$( 1( ( #
, ()( .($&3$(&)$( ( -, (1& 9 5 + &2 3 (
− − − −
+)$"+- !&# - &> 1 $&.( , -

6 1( (-, "$(1 . & , (3$% L '((

#8(1" ,-#++ (3&1*$%5 ('+2 ,
( - &*=
? &&
,=
1&)>*&$&
j
K
k
9
P
N Q K S K
L 9,

K

, , ,-

K -, 1 $() (- "5= 1&)>*&$& $" ($"*(7 + ) *(."8" & #/

-, 1& $&)"1&$

" ($ - (

l = -, # ' 8".$= , (& ,$('((7)"8&2
- (")$( - A ' -
=$.!+ () " $" $4
2 G 2 5552 ')"8
3$% .) 3& . 8$"3&$+5 ;( + Z.">*('(
Q Z

Z" E=$.! - -, , - S2
$('((7)"8
- (>$( ((
-, "1 #
, 3 - , -
5 $ , 3 - " -31+8"$%( ()&*&

2 )"1$(& .( 3&- 1=
4$$% (( , $(.)&$+3& .0 $&)"1&$
(3&. $*&.
-, 1"5"

$ + & ;35 0 0 , 6)+ 3 ,

4 + )7 -* 2 >&(,
(= , )5 . . = >- , + & > ? 0 & ) >&- 2 >5 & 8 3 41 )* . <
0-,>)4 0 3* ( ,0 3 ,3 = 6( & . & + & 83 4 , ( * * >& . 0 4> + ,( ? 4 - 8 & , >& . 0 4> + ( & , 0&'.(& ,<
)+ 6& <>& . 0-,>) 4 0 ,3 , ),> 4, + - * 2 > & ( ,
( & ,
* )- & & + > 3 = + = : > - , + & > A
nn

l )&>*&, 1 - &'( ( , &, , 2 3 , (-,P Q− GS Z Q -,S Z P, Q− GS 5 1 & - (>/-
$(* + 1%3".>&- *(."8" #& ,$&)"1&$ 6 5 ;&: 1 & #$(2
1( (': P 1)"1$"
.( Z&. &5

&$+ . (3$%0
- , , ". , ()8"! ,Z ( =3"& ,-+ ')="2
$(2 -3 ( )
'(( ')=" !&&: )"$'

.( , ()(: $&
)&1(
-" )1(* 0(*, . - 5 &*=@( &&? &=

1$"7( &&& #$(&, (3$(= 8=3&$&

,
< ('(-, 1=5!&$('( .( &./
$&)"1&$
abcdbef ghihiih L k k
j L @ L N
L
M Q KS < K

<
^ ^ [ 6 H

j
k ,- - ". , ()8"!
−
-1(7(*$%0 K O)=% [ ( =3" + ) ? -

P P
1 ⊂ P [)"$'" "7&
l &1%0 , (*')=
5 ) < (2 *<() + ')=% [ )"$'"

-,
[ & # 1(7(*$"+

- [ 2 (*&)>" 0 +
−
−
"7& &1")')="

, ? - , (/
−
[
7)">&$
−
[
$( ( (7)">" "+
−
+ $" P[ m (
-- ( W, )2 " ,*1 +P ')=% "$" 2 ('3$"+ ')=" ⊂ [5
0− −
? -
− '
"
)"$'"J , 2 .( ()"+ &>

(*')=% ,

1 W

[ -
&)& & &."&4
1(7(*$=
,- + -
0− (*')==
W m ,
[ ( #.(
0
( $=Q S 5 <O)="

" (*')=" - - , ,-,
(( ,-1&+ 1 1=&
, -
m 1(7(*$(= , -
-

"'"&(=

^ ')=%
"+5 ;" &&2W Q S E (*&)>
⊕ Z 2 " W l[ Z , [ 2'*&
W [ 2 (< (= ="
' - )+/
1(7(*/
[ ^ [

$%& "7& &1% ')=%

(*$('( )"$'"5

P (< (= -
, ="
0−
[

−
- , (>&, 0− −
)+"+5
-^1(7(*$=%". "7& (7)"8(2
&1= (*')==')=")"$'" 2 )"$' [
^.( ()(:
^ 2)"1&$ (< , (= 2 (*&)>
⊕
^ ^
0−

6 5

− [
−

V - " -1+8"$% , ".>& - &*= ? &: -&)&: $&)"1&$ -, 15

abcdbef ghihi h M Z E G

K

K

− [ ^ − HHH ± ` 6 − [ ^ − HHH ± `

Z LK
k
Q KSZP
KMQ S

K
− − − −

Z BB

Q S Q S
M G ^
N *&$& S - ^ S, 8

,= 1&)>*&$+ K S &'.(
-, )(1&)
, S "P QG &*=&

'*& − >− Q5 %('*"E 7 5 ;&: 1 & #$(2 = E # − Q Z S E 2

S-,^ `Q, −` −` Z` S Z` >,>2 E, [, 5−* 5 [ -−$( ,S".>&2 ` − `3 ,Z( [ >Z E 25

[ − [

% ". (7)"8(2 *( " (3$( *(."8" # = 1&)>*&$& 7 5

n
l = -, # T [ ] T ! ] HHH ] T- ' .) , 3&m-.&, 8$"3&/,

$+ ] =$.! ] T [ ] A5 ] HHH%7&)&]Q S T ]3 m" [ G] [n∞2 2 5552 )" --^(G[, )--".2$('(/
3(

[ , )S

(7)"8+
−∞
, ".>&$('(3 Z &$%
{" ∈ Q | A "P6 } 2Q Z 2 2 5552
S S Q S 5 "
Q (F

Z - , -, Z

, Q F S

P
* + 5 " & (3$= ( U &*(1" & #$( # ")%

B

m Q F S Q S −→ Q S −→ Q F S −→ [ Q S
[

- ,
$(2 3 (
−−−→
−
Q F S
Z Q ^ S W F

Z

− Z

Q S Q S H

Z − W

l (< , (= −
Q F S Q S Q S
Z ^
W W [
mF
" 8$"3 , 2 Q S − Q S − Q S Z QG ^ S Q SF
− −

'*& ,
'
$('(3 &$ - $&( , )!" , & #$% .(< !&$ , "5 -$( , "./
>&2 3 (
X m Q S Q S m Q S Q SF
[ − Z [ Z

_ [
, (=, ( -, "4-,,-+, *(."8" , #2 ,3 , ( ,P _[ m m [Q SQ S Z QA S 5

(<
; + ' < ('( *( .)" (3$( )(1&) #2 &>*=
3 ( =)(1$+

[ Z A2 Q" S'*&Z

$*&. - , 3& - .(: , (3.

Z Q m [m F AS Q∼" SZ 5 1Q ( m [ ≈SF ∼∪ Q Q × SS2 ∼(< ,Q (=S

−
[ Z ∪ × Z × Z 5

− −

" " #&

abcdbef b 7 bd f 8 bdf

l = -, # T 'J ." , &'()+
,( (7)">&$: , - -, , -, 1 - $&)&)%1$%0
' ,(( ('3& .0 ,)( )"$ , =()+/'
*(3&$$%& ")% ")% , ." -&'()+2
(( $&)&)%1$%0
T ×T (7
-, &. "
-,
('3& .0 )(( , (7)">&$: Q .(
F * ()(:
S =>"
)"$ 1 9 A B92 "→()9 2 8"
=()+*(3&$$%&
)&*&, & #$%0*1"!&$%0, , ,
=$. ()" - 8 ." &'() T × T 1 ." &'() $&(/
B *
→ 5
* 0 0
, )!"

.( &. (1B

0

n

=$. - ,P() Q - ((* SJ-, "1 +& , ")& Q9 F * S -$'= +)$%: !&$(: .(/
&. 9 ×
•
P =$.Q9 ,S ()⊗ P Q*-S((5 -, "1 +& , ")& Q9 F * S , &$8()$(& )(81&*&$&

∗
• 0
∗
1 "($2
,- , 3 , ( , &$8()$(& )(81&*&$& !&$%0 .( &. -(1 ()&*&/
∗
+& + ".B P Q S P Q* S M P Q S P Q* SF
9 ⊗ Z m _ 9 ⊗
∗ ∗

W Q& ⊗ & S Z W & ⊗ & ^ Q− GS & ⊗ W & H

=$. , ()% , "!. - 3$% ( ,,$( - ,,& #$( (*& -&: M Z-,{ QC ,F C S} 2
'*&
"!.

3$()(7&'"

-, # ,1 & !& %& $&( )!" - & #$%& 3 -,"5 ;&:

=$. ()"
0
(3&1*$"2 ( .( #.= )( )"$ -, 1(1C & ×#$(2C
-,+'1"&(5 V,
(7% *(."8" , # "!.
3$( -, # =$.
,- #2P 3 , (P& - , !&$%& .( &.-%, P P "!. ,-3$%2 , ( !&$(: , ()" 2 *( -, " , (3$(
)(1&)
.(
0
3& -.(:=$.&., &()&% (>& "!. 3&$5 $ ( &'.( 1%1(* + 8 " '&7)"/
0 00
,
∗ ∗
$$& "5
0 00
⊗
, () -1(7(*&$ (P, $(Q -S , & P#$(Q* (*& -, ,
∗ ∗

- -
8*" &(⊗ 1(7(*$(: 0

')=% 9 ⊗ (*$(8$"3$( S - &: ,M 5 ;&: 1 & #$(2 7"/

=>" -$'= - +)$%& !& 1/
? - , ,-, -

2
(∈, (7)">&$:

$"0(*+ & + 1( 18"$( * l , (( 1& -, 1 ")"/ ,
P QC S ⊗ P AQCBCS (>$( → 9 2 B C → 5 (< (= 1 ."3& 1& < &&$ "
&
, - ,

- , -
18+ , & ##$($'=(*&+)$=&:{ Q!&# C ×C 5
F C S} ⊂ M 5 ;&:/

=$. ()
-, 1 , & #$(27"8
∗
1(7(*&$ ∗
( $( C
--( -1(7(*$(: ')=% P Q9 -× *,S -,-,=>" , --$'=, +)$%&
?

!&2
$+ $"0(*+BC & + 1( 18"$( (*$(8$"3$( (( 1& 1 ( (7)">&/
→ 9 × * 5 7(& , ".(& ( , (7)">&$& 8"*"4 ,- + ")(: ( , (/
→ 9 2 B C → * 5 l = -, # B C → C × C ' *"'(/

7)">&$:
, A
$", #$(& ( (7)">&$&5 B C % ('*" (>$(

)&* -, "1 , # 1 1*& .((8!

* l , -,,-, ?

(, " (7)">&$:
P Q C −→
S

C
× C −−−→ 9 × 5 (< (= 1 ."3& 1& < &&$/

, -
C ×C5 (>$( 18+ # $'= +)$= !&#2 (( 1& 1= = - ,

( , (7)">&$
∈
- , P Q S$$& ,P" Q*- S&*=& ,2 Q3 ,S( && ,-* S+

∗
, 8 " - '&7)"3& .(: &()&% Q

."$($3&
- $( *, ".>&2 .: 38(()
,,- ( .(($&$ 8 , `
% 9
$&:$(:⊗
-

1+8$(
∼ 9 -,⊗)"$`-, 1"5
Z-, ` )(
, -, $&:$(: -1+8$( -,
∗ ∗
9)(×-, )"$+1-, 1+ 9 + )(81&*&$+

* l , - ?.(($&$
-, , -,
Q S 5 Q* S(< (= P = Q & S 1=&P Q*& S & 1&$$%: 8(()/
8 + B ` 9 ⊗ ` → `
, 9.".⊗ . ( , (7)">&$5 %&()&= +(72 , "."!/
.. 3$%0 (*& +0 (>$( −
)&$ #
( , (7)">&$ + [ 5 ! )&8= # , " , & ( =3 !&$%& ( , (7)">&$+
∗ ∗

n
B P Q91 '((
, ()%&∗ ×
* S P Q S P Q* S = P Q S P Q* S P Q
→
('+0
∗ 9
)"8&)$(
⊗
-,
∗
E B 9
$*=!)= ⊗
, -
2 (( 1&
∗
,
→
,-, 91&$$(2
× ∗
*S
2( ,.(/(/ ∗
7)">&$+ + + [5

&$(& ( , (7)">&$&
−
Q * S ◦ ,$*=!)=&
=
- ,- , (>*&
, -, 1&$$(& ( , (7)"/
>&$&(*&
$%0 ')=% +0 ( , ` 9 × 2 (<= ◦ (=!&$((' "'((
(7)">&$& $( , ($(
&()&&, (>*& (7 "!.
-, 1&$$(/3/
( , (7)">&$
=( , ($( , 5 $" ('3$(
-, , ( , (7)">&$& , ,
◦ = (>& !&$( '(/
,
Q (>*& * S 1&$$(=
P Q (S (7)">&$ P Q* S ' 58(() &*(1" 85& #$(2! (, ('&(7)">&$&

∗ B
&abcdbef ∗ 9
- &*= ? && = , 1&)>*&$&5
× → ∗ 9 ∗ ⊗ ∗ ( =3"/
ghihi 3 b 7 bd 8 bd * 9 h N M Q j*S k
N

L 9×

P Q S P <Q*KS j K B N K 9

9⊗ , -- " '&7)"3& -.(: , &()&/

7 &*$1 &()&= : &$7&)'" 2 #7&)"
∗ ∗
,

L @
(:
abcdbef

$$& "2( =3
ghihigh
$

* + $'= +)$%0 '(( (':5

M j k N

*

j B j < K K K 9

K
Q * S ∼ Q S Q* S
9× Z 9 ⊗ ⊕ Q9 SF Q* S [ H
∗ ∗

∗ ∗
8 f c 7 f 7 f f dc 8 ef 8 b f 7 bdf 8 78
−

l = -, # 9 ' , (( ('3& -.(&P Q)(S -, )"$P -,Q 1(2 B 9'→ 9 × 9 ' *"/
'($" #$(& ( ,,(7)">&$&2 BP Q 9 → S 9P ×Q 9S S P $*=!)(1"$$(& Q9 S ' =$. , (/

)" !&$(& ( (7)">&$&2

, B ∗
9 ×9 →
∗
? 9 ∗
" -- (#$(&, )!&$(& ( (7)">&$&2 , $*=!)= && 8(() 8 '(( (':5
∗ ⊗ ∗ ∗

.((8! ( (7)">&$:
P Q9 S −→ P Q9 × 9 S −→ P Q9 S ⊗ P Q9 SH
, (7)">&$& P- Q9 S →-P Q9 S ⊗ P Q9 S =$. , ()", #$(

∗
&$(& ( B
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
&)&1(* , ? #$(& , E
7(: /&)$%: ,
∗
&. 1` B P⊗ Q95 S@=*&

∗ ∗
P Q$"8%1"
S P #Q9 S2 7(&
∗
=$. ()" !&$(& ( (7)">&$& 9 &/

k A
,

)&1(*+
."!+3$%0!&$(

&& 1
(*&'((

⊗ 2
+0 ,&'.(

1%1(*

K
,--,+2 3 ,,( 7"+ *"'($"
→
5 , 8 &()&%
∗
#$"+
⊗
(7
")(. "!/
∗
-/
∗
($" 5 ;&: 1 & ,#$(2P =$. Q , P Q S -

()P Q99S "!.1(7(*&$
(( ,, $($( -- ,, && #$(
#$( (*&
< , 0 &: M Z { C } 2 " =$. ()
(*& &:5
∗
9 S ⊗ 3&$ ∗
-$'= +)$%0l -,.('(( P(':Q J S /)(81&*&$& ,-+ -, &/

∗ ∗
;?
*=)(& .(= +
(7)"8(5 P Q J S()&*& +&
, " , 1$(& =.( ##!(& ∈- &*$!&:59 %&('*"∈ .(!&# 9 & 2'*&& )$"& $&.( (/,

'

n

$"1*=2!&3 , (& m ∈ P m Q9 J S 8$"3&$& h& ⊗ & F ` & m i5 *& -# && ,-+ 1

FU
h& ⊗ & & ⊗ & Y i Z

U Y h& F &Uih& F &Y i H

1 " =)(1$& - .(!&&: /)(81&*&$& 8"1 - , ( , 1%7()" *"'($" #/

$(:
()&*&")(. "! , $(5`2 $( $" =)(1$& .('(( (': /)(81&*&$&
&$( $1")"$

; + 1%3
,- - &$:-, =*(7$( & , # *"'($" , #$= ")(. "!
- - 2 .( , (/,
)"+

8"*"4k +M )( (:K ()=
A M (:5
; K+ <
0 !& &: =3 & 1 &'( (*0(*

DE F GFHHHF I 7→ X U_` DE FHHHF I ⊗ D FHHHF IJ
8*& -E#F GFHHHF

D && ,- I+ 1 1*=2DE FHHHF3 , (I DEDF FHHHF
GFHHHF I'I ' -$'= +)$%: --, &.,-
-,A ,B1= ? &,-')"$5 →92"
, , 1 =>$( # )(1&) , #2 3 ,(')"$3&$+
-

( < , ( ( , A $" ((!&$(&5

(7)">&$&
- Q- - G GS 5
1& /
$ ( *& "& + (3$( ". >&2 .". 1 !" #$( =3"& 5 5

-"! -"$*&)"2 , $ $" =)(1$& .(/

; + *"'($" #$(: ")(.

-,
!&&: /)(81&*&$& = )(&$( &*= (7)"8(B - &.?
FDE F GFHHHF ^ Ii Z h& FDE FHHHF Iih& FD FHHHF ^ Ii H

h& &
)&*& , &&)# /)(81&*&$&5 P Q (!&# Q P Q9 J S (>$(

--" , )1" , # .". '((() S 8--& B , 9 S → ) 6Z , $" /&)$%0

)"!&+0
'((() 8 $= &1(: 5 " ( ) .((8! ( (7)">&$:

∗
& ∈

P Q9 S −−→ P Q9 S ⊗ P Q9 S −−−−→ P Q9 S ⊗ H ⊗
, , $" 2 " ( , ( &? 4 )&$ =$(>&$&

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
;($(>

B ⊗ → 1 .( #!& B
<
( &$8()$(
P Q9 S ⊗ −−−−→ P Q9 S ⊗ P Q9 S ⊗ −−−−−−→
⊗ ⊗ ⊗
∗
P Q9 S ⊗ ⊗ −−−→ P Q9 S ⊗ H
∗ ∗
⊗
m P m Q9 J S Z P m Q9 S ⊗ (7(8$"3 & & m 5

→ ∗ ∗

7)"8 !& Q
1 " =)(1$& .( '(( -(':
& S ∈

/)(81&*&$& $&

8"1 - , ( , - 1%7()"

*"'($"
&.- "$*&)" #$(:2 ")(.
, $ ("!
=3"& (7%3$(& `5 ; +()&*&

*"'($"&$&#$(: /)(81&*&$+B
")(. "!
DE F GFHHHF ^ I Z h& FD FHHHF ^ Ii DE FHHHF IH

&

n
c b
7 8 75 f
P Q!9 (×, $(* S-, &P #$(

Q S - P=3"&Q* S =$. , ()",- #$"+ !&$"+, <.11" &$ , $( -, #
<.11"
∗
,, $( -, #-,9P ⊗9-,× * FQ98"&$+&
&$ ∗
SF Q*+ $"* S=$. P()"
∗
× ∪ ;×
Q9 F ;,#$=S ⊗P,!&$=
Q* F - S 5
1 ( ) < ( )( , )"$ 1" {9 × ; × , } *( >$% =*(1 & 1()+ # ". /
-, -, )(, ,-+ -,&*=- ? (7)"/
∗ ∗ ∗
(&
8(5 1%)&8"$+5
- -, " !&$"+
-, <.11" F &$ $( #
8"$+26 , ( &)(
-, & -,)"$ 1"1.{9×3&$& ; × } =*(1 & 1()+ ". (& 1%)&/
$ *
1&$$(&
P Q9 × S ^ P Q; × * S → P Q9 × S ∪ Q; × * S
$*=!)=& , 8(()P Q 8 '(( (':5 $"3 , 2& -, & -, 1&$$(& ( , (7)">&$&
∗ ∗ ∗

9 *S P Q9 × * S
P Q9 × S ^ P Q; × * S → P Q9 × S ∪ Q; × * S
× ∗ ∗
, (>& $*=!)=& , , 8(()

∗
-, P 8
Q S '((
∗
P (':5
Q *S ;"
P Q&&2
∗
=$.
,
* S ()" #$"+,
!&$"+ P Q S 1&$P $(Q9 ×# S 2 " 9P Q⊗; S ⊗ P Q*→S ' 1 9P ×Q; × * S&)&1(*
P Q9 S ⊗ <.11" 5 l (< , (=
, -,
∗ ∗ ∗
( =3"& !&$= <.11" &$ $( # &>*=

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
m ∗
×
∗
P Q S P Q* S P Q S P Q* S
∗
× ∗
P Q9 S ⊗ P Q9 S ⊗^ P Q; S ⊗ P Q* S ∼Z P Q9; S ⊕ P Q S H
∗ ×
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

((8!+ < ,,0 -,*1=0 !&$%0 <.11" &$ , $( -, &: & -, # , )&7=&"+ !&/
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
$"+ <.11"
- &$ $(, #5 , -, ,

L
, ( #8=+ < ,= !&$= - , <.11" &$ $( #2 (>$( ( =3 #
* + ( $( & #$%0 '(( (':B
@

9×
* FQ
9 × SQ∪ Q; × *S Q∼Z* Q Q*
Z 9 F ; S ⊗ F S ⊕ 9 F ; SF F S [ H
∼

)(& ,('(2Q (>$( , # 1$& $&& '(( ('3& -.(& =$(>&$&

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
()&*&
−
9 F ; S ⊗ Q* -F S → m 9 × * FQ9 × S ∪ Q; × * S

1$& $&&

.('(( ('3& .(& =$(>&$&
Q F S Q* F S
m * FQ S Q * S H
9 9 × 9 × ∪ ;×

; ⊗ →
l
Q )
-, , $( - , & #$( - =3"&2 , 5& 5 * +
F9? ;([?S )(&$
Q F S/)(81&*&$+ , 1 ( -
(7)" " 0 -+ 1 9$=; # ,2$"1(8$." P Q; [S ^ .('((P Q; S 2(' .(( -,&.)(&$
" .(!&&:2/

" )
)(81&*&$+ 1(8$." '(( (' .( &. -" m 5 l (< , (=

∗ ∗
∗
∗ ∗
n

- $(>& -, 1" {; [ F ; } 1 9 =*(1 & , 1()+ , ". -(& 1%)&8"$+2 , (

&()&*&
&$( /)(81&*&$&

Q9 F ; [ S ⊗ Q9 F ; S → m Q9 F ; [ ∪ ; S

/)(81&*&$& Q F S m Q F
9 ; [ ⊗ 9 ; [ ∪ ; S → Q9 F ; SH

c cec c 88 dc 86 4 b b 78 f 75 f

,
% &()&" Q$$& " ,* + .('(( (': *(."8%1"& +, 7( && - (>$(2 3&
,- -
* + '((
$&3$( -, S(':
5 7( &&, #('(2
;(."8%1" , ($" 1&)$"
&()&= $$& , " #1 )
(7 ?

$&.(
& 1*& ()%0% =$& 7=*&2$(
(1+0 .(/
- 7=*& , 1">&$ (*$ 3" -, $%: - =3":F , &()&%

1$&*", "2#$&:
" &
&$$(2

* + $"
1%)">&$& .('((

(': ")% 9 Q
× R 9Q × R \ { }
$/
E S
-, )"$ -, 1" 9 .('(( F ES

3&)&8
; + $"3" .('(( ('
" ('3& - )(
1%3 -."+ .('(( Q
(', & #$( -,R# ")%F ('
R \{ } 5
E ")%
S R R \{ } 5
, ('((
, Q F ( -
E &*(1"
S Q E
∗
S QR F RQ \ {ES}Sl(."8%/
1"& [ R \{ } ∼ [ [ 5 (< , (=

')=" 2 3 ( Q R F E S Z
, Z
, R -R -,\ { } 8(() $" "**Q 1$(: F ')=& E SF .( #!" .(<m /

R \{ } ∼ − −

−
!&$ (12 ",1 &-,( " #$%& ')=% R R \ { } 6 Z 2E$= &1%&5

; + .)" .(E} 2 R 11&*4

Z1%)&8"$+ Z (7(8$"3&$+ ] E 5 R` Z R \ { } 2 R Z
&& , & -, ( -8(() , 8
` Q mS ∼ ` Q F S ,
$( -, # , )(:. QRRF R` FZR S B R` R 5 " & (3$= ( &*(1" & #/
{" ∈ R | " − { " ∈ R | " } ,
−
` Q F S ` Q F S [ Q F S [ Q F SH
−
l (.">&2 3 ,-,(R R ` QR→QF RF S RZS ` RE[ QR- −→F R S,ZRER2 -`" →8$"3-, ,R2 R ' 8(()/
− − −
85

"1&$ 1( ` R R Z &*=& 8 1+8$( R 2 " )"1&$ -, 1(
QR F R S Z E ) E - &*=& , 8 , (3$( -, ( - &*(1" , & #$( -, ")%
− −
QR F R S B
−

−
−
Q S Q F S [ Q SH
m
l = -, # , ' (7)"8 < &&$ , " G ∈, ` QRmS 2 -(( , 1& ,-,R 1= ? &'( &*$3$(=
R → R R → − −
< &&$ = .( #!" .(< !&$ (12 ) .((8! 8(() 8(1
` Q mS ∼ ` Q F S [ Q F SH
R Z R` R − R R`
[Q F S , →
O)="
, (12! < &&$R,R` +18(() $" "** <1$(: ')=& .( #!" .(< !&$/
−
+& ,-+ &*$!&: , ('( .( #!"5

-.(& )(81&*&$& . "*--FQ(1 .('((S Q(': *")S
Q9 F ;$&S $&&

Q* F .('((
S , &>-,,('3&
1 .('(( ('+0
, , ")% Q9 F S 9
Q F S ∪ ; × 5
@=*& * + .)" .( (7(8$"3" # < = ")= 9 ; 5 ×
×
*×

n
&'.( )(1&) , #2 3 , ( Q F S
R R ` × R R` Z R
Q F S Q m F R m S 5 ;&:/
-, 1Q, &F #$(2

= -, # ∈ R ∈ R 5 % ('*" R × R` ( ( 8 ".0

- -, `, ,
- $(2m 3 ,S(2 (73 , (&*$&$&

") E , -( -,-,( ,- 8-, , ".0
6 Z 2 " R` × R

, ") Q F S 2 3 , ( , 6Z E 5

1 R " --5( , ) < &&$ ,< 0Z $(>& 1 ( ( 8 $&$= &1%0 1&. ()(1

×
| {z }
HHH × 2 .( , ()%: &> , 1 QR F R` S 5
abcdbef

ghihi h L K k ; ⊂ 9 N

K
m

Q F S QQ F S Q F SSF

9
j
B L 7→ × M M9
;KM ×j R RB` j
; →

j
k l -$"3"-- "2, 3 , ( Z G ; Z ∅ 5 ; + ./

-)(1"$$('( K ,)&*( (>Q S

< &&$ " ∈ 9 )" ( ) *"')"=

` Q mS _ ` QR` F R S −→ [ QR F R` S

∼
R ←− −
  
m
  
Q S ∼ Q mS Q
9 Z ,9 ×R ←-,_− 9 ×R` 9 ×R −,→ ' [ 9 ×R F 9 ×R` SF F S Q
y ×
y ×
y ×
∼ 0
'*& '()8($" "'#$%& )&.81 8&1( .1"*)" & -.(:8(() 8% 1%/
−
)&8"$+2 '((()
-, , ,,)(:. Q9 × R F 9 × R` F 9,× R S 5 , &1%: .('(( ('3& ( - &*(1"
, *"')"% , & #$(/
=( -.(" 1&$2 "
0
)"1%: .1"*)" .(= "

, 1&$ .1"*)"
- , (3$( -, # *( .(/
8$"."2
Q × " S Z UQQ− GS ×F " 5 O((() ,-+ 8(()/
−
#.= - S E 8 +1 E Q +&

-, )"$/
-,8(2 ( .( #.= 9 × R 9 × R Z ) (7" )(
0 0
,- , ,
'(×1" ,9∈('(×R>&m [Q9)(9××-,RR)"$ +11"+ 9 ×+ {−*& G}()"!($$% )& )".3 ," (*$(/,

-, S ! ,
−
5 ('& (
F 9 × R` S +1 +& ,-+ (7)"8( < &&$ , " ∈ Q9 S )
−
=3"&2 ( < &&$
.((8!

l )&*( (> 8((), &&)#2 8(15, G

3 ( Z 2 $( l -, ∈ [,QR F R` S '
; 6 Z ∅ 5 --= # ( --

.(!. -,
2 )&* *"')"=
, " , 1$= ? -
"1 + : .('(( ('3& .: . " 5 " ( ) .(/
=
E −→ P Q9 F ; S −→ P Q9 S −→ P Q; S −→ E
  
m m m
  
P Q Q P Q
E −→ [ 9 F ; S × R F R` S −→ [ 9 ×R F 9 ×R` S −→ [ ; ×R F ; ×R` S −→ E P Q
y × y × y ×

- Q, (3$% S Q-, S)(."5l !,&) , ." #$%& ( , (7)">&$+,.(!&$%&2 , ( -.( #.=
& × ( Z & × ( 5 (< (= % ( =3"& .(= " 1$= *"')"=

nE

* + ')= Q.('(( F S (': Q S Q S

−
→
9 ; −
→

9 −
→

; −
→
m m m
  
[ Q F S Q F S [Q [Q
9 ; × R R,` −→ - 9, ×R 9 ×R` −→ , ; ×R F ; ×R,` S −→
F S
y × y × y ×
−
→
% =>& *(."8" 23 (8%5
* + "7l (<( ,(=$%08.('(( (':
- 1&), 2.", #$%& ( $(/(/
,
7)">&$+ 8(() / &%
- , & #$%0 .('(( (': 1&) , ." #$%& ( , (7)">&$+ , (>& 8(() 8/
'
&*=& 3
( * + (
%5%)&7=&(& = , 1&)>*&$& * + )(81( #$('( - &*=& , 8 )"8(7)"$$(/
'(T ×- =3"+Z QT ×Z G 2([ S-×.( 5#.= 1 - = " -- (!" , 1$( -, 1$& $&'( =$(>&$+
−

" #" $ '
$ ,D &)& -I . '(( , (3& -., ')=" - &) 1(8$. - , &0, ()2 .".
-,((+$$(=5 )14 )&) ( ,(7)">&$+ -, → -, 2 $& '(( ($('( (/
,
,

>&$+2

(
- (( -, "11

*(."8" $& )1" #$( # (
, (7)">&$ A ,B → &'( '(( )(&$$('(

( (7)"/
, (3&/
, 2 ,$%$&.">*(= (

-.: $1")"$ , D I

( 7('(
()&*&
$"8%1"&%: , $1")"$
, ( ( "5 " & 1

[→ * +

l ".(: $1")"$ * + ( (7)">&$+ A B

,? 8"!&5 &)1($"3" , #$%& ()&*&

D ? I *" &$+()&*&( &$& -
" $1")"$

( #8(1" ," .(<("/-
−

!&$ &$+5
((l = -,# # =$(>&$+ $)(*
1 .('((

('+05 /&)$"+ - &)"2 '*& > nJ

()&$ , )(1"$$"+
[ → ' -$&)&)%1$(&[ ( , (7)">&$&5 @=*&, )" --" , )1" , #
'
A()&$
B , )(1"$$=

−

-,&)= -,

.".Z ')"$!= ()&$ )(1"$$('( ")"

5 l ( -, )( )( )"$
1( 9
−
5 O((
, ('( )(Q -,-,)"$ -, 1"n8"1GS -!-, , ( #.(, ( , '(( , (3& -.('( . " --"--( , (7)"/,
(3&

- .: ,
<>&$+ A 3" # 2 -5 5 *= 1, < ( ")"')"

∪

& %, 7=*&

,
, l Q )"S " )/
1"Z #EF.('(( n J (' .(<" #$%&
!&$ " Z 5 (.">&2 3 ( 9" --Z(Z, )
)

1 - & ( -, ')=% .('(( (': $=

-.= ( - &*(1" , & #$( -, # ")% Q9 F S B &1%&5
* + < , ('( .('((

('3&
HHH → Q9 F S → Q9 S → Q S → HHH
l&()&"
, ( 1%)&8"$ EF Fn

(."8%1"& , 23 , (Q S Q-,9 F , S ∼Z Q S ) E 5

%
(< (=J ) 6Z
')=" 9 Q( S 1_ (.)=>&$ Q S

$= &1%0
')= ) Z ( =3"& 8(() 8 9 −→ 2 " ) Z

n Q S _ Q S
∼

Z ( =3"& 8(() 8

9 5
∼
−→

n G
l =,-, # ' (7)"8= ? & Q9 S Q S Q9 S 2Q- ((S ', 1& ,-, 1= ?- &
()&$
, "!+ -
$ ( 3 ( $"8%1"

,
5 %('*" Z B A( , (7)">&$+

2 '*& A A5 !& (& 3 (5

-)&* -, 1&$$( 8 ()&*& , ( ) 8&$&$ ()&$/

, "! 1 &(- , &$+ 1*$(2 3 ,-

&$ , "! &)%")" $1")"$ $1")"$ ,( (" $&" 8&$+& 8&$+& , 8$".5 +2 " ) 8&$&$ ()/

df 7 b 78 bhQ S NQ S Q
S M QB S → Q SB Q S →

AZ A A Z A

<

- l$&34,, $(2 , ( EZ − ,2 )34 , , , , ,1

6
')=& A5Z5 (< (= Z 2 " 8$"3 2 A Z * + 7('( ( (7)"/

Q S <E ( < &&$ &>

>&$+

6 - Z A B →QA S Z 'G 5 )" -- (&$& ( "2 , ( 9 Z C 5 ! < , ( - =3"&

df 7 b 78 bh K kj LM

M
N < K B K N

AB → AB [ → K

feb ,f 78 bh *" - D I *(."8"

G - 2
? 3 ,-,( ( , (7)">&$&
, , A B n →
[ - $/
1")"$ ( ( "2 )"1$% 2 = & 1=& ( #.( * + Z 2 2 5

−

,l$1")"$
, ?( " (>$( ,()&*& , # $(' l)"8$%

-, DT I -(D-I(7"/'
5 )1&*4
(7)"8= ? & & 4 (*$(
')= Q 8 S ".0 ()&*&
[ Q [ &$:5
S 2 - (( , = ,-,# 1= ?& ()/
1&

&$'((, "!+ [ J T 'T )&*T -, "1 ,+ ? & 0Q .(!.

%5(< , (/(/
− −

- -- S E

('3& .: . " .(!. " &> 1 Z 2

−

? & -, 1=&- , .(!&#-- & ∈ P [ Q QTSS 2 * + .(, , ()(: Q & Z TS TE5 (/

='((-=('3&

[ Z 2 QTS(/

,< (= -=? & -,.:1=&, ., ".(!&# .(!. ∈" PA Q [&> 1

−

, Q S S ,
2 * +A .(QTS()(:+1 +& ,-Z+ A.(!/5

−
&'.( )(1&) #2 3 ( .(!&# A

−

.Z A(5QTS;&: -,A 1QTS, & −#$(2 A ZQ&ES 5−l (< , (=A QTS(>$(Z A )"QT--( ,T)&S −, # Q.('((S (/Z

& −

'3&
- --
.:[ Q. " [ S.(!., " A & −

Q S A QTS 5 $ , ( , --. "D--I &> , 1 ')=/,

&)(()!($" #$(2 -,(< '(=< , (($ )(()!($" -, # $1")"$&$, . (" =" Q5 A S (<5 !&$

&

− −

, & # -, 1"--<.11" ,-$( -, <,, 0 *1=0 ()&*&

)"$ ; , +
" *(."8"
( " % )" ( , ) &$1 (('" & #$(& )( -, )"$ &$:
-, 1( $1"/Z
Z1"$ ∪ !Q $*)"[ × S 2 '*&[ ×).2 &1"$& ,-+ (, (*$(= ( -$(/,

−

")= Q )(81(*
F S
[ 2 1 .( ()= 10(*

- , 2 3,(

*)='(& ( $(1"$&
S[ ∼Z !Q9 $*)"5
F ∗S ∼Z % &()&"
Q9 S )( 1%)&8"$ (."8%1"&
− −

Q F > 5
G

−

n n

" -- ( , ) - &*= ? = *"')"=B

Q S Q S Q F [ S −→ Q F [ S ←_− [ Q [ SH

_ _
∗
− − − −

- Q" S QZ " " 2 " ( -, " #$%& ( , (7)">&$+ ' & -, & -, 1&$$%& 8(/
−→ ← −
*& #
∼ ∼ ∼
() ,8% -&)1%: $*=!)(1"$

, -, )(&.!&: B ,- 2 +1 + ? -
&: +
'((
'3& (3&( -.(:&*(1"<.11"
-- .(: , & #$(&$-,$( ")% # 2S"5 !*1"< ,*)='0
(: 7&)= +*(1(
*"')"&
→
8 .('((
#$( (/
&'/

.(-, 1(= (*1=0, )& , # &)1(& ()&*&, &$& -,$1")"$ ,- ,-" (-- "B . " --, DTI ( -)&*/
&$+& ,- + ( , 8(()
(7)">&$& 8(1Q ( S (>*& 1 +& + . " ( 2 8"-- &
Z 2 % ( =3"& . " Q. S )/
A 3 , (2 '*&& -/
(7)"8 . " -- " D I ) & -, & -, 1&$$( 8(()

8&5 l (.">&2

( 1=3< ,,(:# 1*"')"& , $" =)(1&$# , ( 8 $&4 (>$(

'

, ()(& ()&*&&)&: .(!. (12

&$& $1")"$ , " ( ,"5.(!. T 1 T Z QTS 5
" =)(1$& .(!.

l ) -< , ( A QTS ,' -=>&$&
1 (1 8(() .(!.
8" &)&1(*
T $" P$(>& -, 1( -$'= +)$%0
∗
--,/
QTS QT S Q S P Q S

&. (1 1. [ 23&$&
-, 1&$$(&
5& 5 AQ(')"$3&$&
Z 2 '*& =$.!
B [ → -, S & &/
$" &(*$(>&
'
T T 2 )"1(--5($", )(/

−
∗

− ∗

P Q S ,

'3$( * + .(!&
QS QS Q S l -
& ZP Q & SA l & -,Z & '5 ( = (1
& ∈ 2 * + .( ∗
()(:

Z
QT S Z A QTS Z , * + .(!&

-,

T [ 5 = # -, )(*(, - >&$& .(!& P$"Q S2 5&- 5 Z ?Q S 5

$"< ,"8$(
P Q # [ S−5 6'( )&* "1)"+&-- " ,(7(: .(!. 1 1 P2 Q 3&8"F :[ SJ
∗ − 0 0
∈

,

(>$( )1" # .". .(!.

0

,-- .(!. -, "1 +& , 1 Q F, ,[ S . " -- 2 - (( , 1&!,-, 1= -,? :

( )&*
− −

DT I
.)&*" -,= "1 ,5 & + $&= $=>$( 1)&$ #, &( .(7)">&$& 518+ , #."3&.(!.1&

−
(

=3&$$('( )&8= #
QT '− S T 2 ( -.( #.= $" P Q [ S < , ( )(81&*&$& -3&8"& , , " " -- " (>$(

.(')"$!"5

0
−
l (< , (= .3Q ,"(--A .(!.

- Q& S − AQ SQTS Z Q& S QTS− , QT-,S Z Q,-& −- --T S 5

$(2
0

T "S ZA T & −T − QA S (T (>*& 1 +& S + T .2 "3 , ((
0 0

QT

.(!. " Z

, )&7(1" ( -#5 & −
0

− 0 0
# ') # # ) ," . "
-$'=l = -, # ' 8".$= , Q J, )=&(&

P U U (&P ()&$ S $('((7)"8&5
- -, , ">*(:
+)$(: !& A (>$( (( "1 # &4

P U U
A kZ
P U ,

- ,-
| | 5 $ " $()" &)&$( + $" '(( ('
∈ R
Q J $()=
S - &/
? - -- Q J S - -,
&*=,-+ 3- (7)"8(B '(( ('3& .(= . " = ∈ R (( "1 +/
k R
( -, , -- } H

k kZ {k ( k B !. ( )&* "1 +& . "

> #

n
Dk Ik2 A'*& kD N I ∈ Q 2 JRS' =$*"&$

' ,

,2,"$('((7)"8+
#$%: . "
J - -, -- $('((7)"/ <(
8+
5 -
*)(7$( (7 =>*" + 1 5
!"
,- #$%:
D (7 I 4 (7(8$"3"

k k &'( 1(: 1" (/
d 8 ebd ghih h [ E
k kZ
j
k l -, DE F GI ' ( , (7)">&$&28"*"$$(&

Q S K U = # A B ' → [ -, ? - ()/

=. " --(: A D [I 5Zl (< , (= 5 %('*"

.

" -- D [I )&* -, "1 &$ !. ( [ A 2 $()" .(.:
A !. 2)&* "1 +
: '(( ('3& , (/
)('( )"1$" [ 5

($
, -, )=.! , 8 )&)" 5G 5 (>$( )&$ ,, # * + - ?7('(-, 8"/,
.$= ('( ()&$ )=&('( $('((7)"8+ 2 * -,+ &&$5
.( ()('(%".&= (& , (7)"/1=&

, (7)">&$&
(>&$& - .( # ='(*$( 7( # (:
, ()"GS l Q*(,-, "/

, (3$( (E&'.( -, )(-,,)(+# (,-E, (7)">&$&2
+2 $")&)2-,*&&$# + - &)% * +
→
,
.( ()('( 7( # & 5 (< (=

k kZ k kZ 5

d 8 ebd ghih h n kZ

L
n
Z | |Z − Q S
nQn K
nS K

B

K < > k

j
k -,. & , # 8 /='(l #$."5

,$ ( , /='(K#$. (>$( $('((7)"8& , (>$(
)"8)&8"n # Q$" S −^ nH )&='( #$."5 (< , (=QGS

n

l )&$ , $&)"1&$ -, 1( , QGS

k
, .
k6 |
$('((7)"8
|
2 .( , ()(&n Q/ -,S $(^ n$"/

.)%1"& Q S| ^ 5n, Z n)&8=

Z n|;(.">&
!
Q # "S &^ ( n-, 5 l=3

)

→ ∞ ( =3"& k
k k6k k6 |

n |Q

SZ| 5

' -

&&)#
n
|
$&)"1&$ |
- 1(
- -- n , Q S| 5 l = -,-# A B C →

k6 |
, &, $'=B '+)$%: /&)$%: ' &.- 5 -," ( ) -=$1&) " #$(&-3$".)%/
k k> |

2 '*&
( .(

# (7"3&1
,

.('(

, J 7=*&- - , " , #2
3- &( , ).(: )"$(1(

→
( - .( -,

$('((7)"8&2
(7"3&1 - .('(5 $"; .(+ (()(
, & )."A -('= ? &"-,(1"$"
(7)">&$+ 1=& ,
,
(*$+ & A BC → 2 * + .( ()('( *"')""

,

||>
|
|
||
C / ||

.(=
- , " , 1$"5 "&$
, -$'=- +)$%:
, , - &. - A $" -$'=
- -,+)$%: -/
&. A 2 (7)"8( .( ()('( => )&='( #$. 1 ( .( (7"3&1/
0
n

,-.('( - , & -->&D 1&)I $"5

, 6 - U Q P, U AU )&*-,-, "1 +&,, =$*"&$/
P !.
", #$%: . " -- l 2 ,( !.n Q S A US (>&Q )&*

P U
"1 +& =$*"&$/
Q? AU Q-C S 5
"1 &)"1&$
#$%:-,.1(" 8*&5 -#)-1+8"$( Z , ()%&S 6&)&.)%1"
< ( - ,|&2 3 , (| $&.(
0

| |
& + 3"/
0

-,- -? &$:&. - (1 ('= ,, 18"$( - (.)" ? " , # - + J & -

-, 7% , ".0 18"$%0? "*#
(.)" ,
7('( )&='( $& 7% (2 ( % (
- =3
-, 7% )"1&$
- 1(5 1 ".($&!2
- , (
< ,(= QAU QC#$."S 6 $"5 (&*(1"
.( ,& #$(2
(7"3&1n| Q.('(S|$&6 P)&1(

U 0(* k 52 (/
l )&) 5G 5 *(= -."&

, - &*= ?
&&
(7(7? &$&5 l = -, #, ' 8"/
0
| |6k
.$= ,
--," #$%-,(& ()&$ ,,)=&(&

Q )"$(1"<S K$('((7)"8+

$('((7)"8&2 - 5=> & 5 =$1&)/
, )(/

$".)% &- * + Q S Q S
' )"$ --,1(&.-D (7"3&1 .('(#$('( 5(7%('*" k Z , , C 2 '*& C

-IJ "

% 4) ($(
". -5 , ".>& D GI 5 5 $ ( = 1&)>*&$& *(."8"$(

4"

1
k
( " $$# " # #+

) ##
#" $ # # $ " '"
; +
$&"7& [&1(: ')=%
,- , .(<- !&$
? , (1 R 1 D I ()&*& &$%P .('((/ Q JRS
`

(' #$(:5;&)"8&)$(
Q)(81( "& + -,< ( S ()&*&&*= +& ,-(7)"8(5
(!&#
+((.".-, "1 =$.!+2 & ∈, 9
.( ,()"+ ."/
>*(= - $'= +)$(=
R Q-( , $( - ,-& #$"+ .(!&# - &. - = C 9 - +& , $" (7)"? " , # -+ 1 $= #
→ &&$ ')=%
*S & ∈
$"1 "8(14
, #&."**"0 ,C1$(2→ $& -5 (O)=(1=
-%1" G/&)$=- .(!&# ,
([ ∈
)+ $" (&)"!
, (2 3 , ( ($" , (/)&>$&= 7=*&
&&)# $&.(=
P Q9 F * JRS A 2 & - * + 7('( , " , 8"/
1$"5
-$'= +)$('( -
&. Q" A SBC →Q 9 S1%(

$+& ,-+ )"1&$ -, 1(

( [ AX ` − ( [ AX [

^ ( [ QAX S Z EF

'*&` XPY `BQC F * [JRS→ C ' ( ,(7)">&$&2 -

()&*&` Q 4$$(& S $"
` Q
- 5 n 5 (!&#
S
( AX `[ Z ( AX [[ * + 7('(

9 $"8(14 2 &
−
-($'= ∈
+)$('(
G - &. - " A BC
A
[ →=[9 5 N - -

? & -,;1"1=& ,/&)$%0

E/&)$"+.(!. [
" &(` 2 * (+ .($"8(14
, ()(: 1%( $+& ,-+< )"1&$2-,& 1( =/

.(!&#
Q S ` Q S ^ ( [ QA S ^ &` QAX `[ S
(=[ A Z − & AX [[
*)+, #21 -3&0, (G/&)$%0 -$'= -,+)$%0' - , &. - (1 A B C [ → 9, 5 -,&'.( )(1&/
-- (1.('((
-, 1(Q .F *"JRS <.11"('3$(
&$
,- , $( # '( < ,$(( &$&
-, -

& -, # <.11"
[ Q F &$
, 9
, * JRS $(5 5$(>&
Q
$(>&/
-, 1(S
[ 9 $& +1 +& + ')=(:2 $( (*&)> ( &3&$$%: $= &1(:

n
&&$ , G'/&)$(
<.">*( . " -- <.11"
- $'= &$ , $( -,- , )1"- #$('( .(!.
+)$( &. & )$"& , "2
8$"3&$& .( , ()%:
E 5 l ( $"(/
>l =-,` Q#99F * JRS 9 Z '` Q9 F * JRSJ <-,, ( $(>& -, 1( +1 +& ,-+ ')=(:5
(*$(>& 1" 1 9 Z 9 [ ∪ 9 5 ; + Z
E G
()&*& [
P
Q9 F * SJRS 2 )" --, " , )1"+ , ( #.( , & -$'= +)/

$%& - -
?&.&:%28$"3&$+ , {
.( ()%& $"!& 1.(

∗
-
}
- &>" +)$%0 1 9 [ - 1 9&.5-"02">*(: .(!&2

- ((/

)$"
-, "1 ,,# .(!&#2 ? &0 $'= -, - (>$(
- l
>&2 3 ( & - 9 )$"
Z >? >?= 8$"3&$+
9 [ 9 2 , ( , ".(& $"- ((3" -,"1 &$& &.$*=!)=&
(15 (."/,
18"$( (*$(8$"3$(& ( , (7)">&$&
# #
∪
Q F * JRS P Q9 F * SJRSF

B 9

{ }
l ) ?Z&&E $=< , (&1(: < &&$ , 1 (3&1*$(5 &&$-,,15 , & #$(2 1 (*$( - =/
∗
→
&)&1(*+ $= &1(: < ;&:
∗
,= 1&)>*&$&
,
3"& .(!. ' % )$" )"1$%& 8$"3&$+ 1 .($!"0? 7(: .)1(:2 " 1
*)='( 1 .($!"0 7(: .)1(:2 !&3".( &>" &:!&1 9.(
1>?( 7= .)1= (>$( )"87 , # $" -, 2 .( , ()%& [ &>"1 9, 15
#
9V,[ (7%
1*(."8" >?
#
9 ,5# , )&7=&(& = , 1&)>*&$& ) Z G 2 ( -, )( ( , (/

7)">&$& P Q9 F * SJRS → [ Q9 F * JRSH

B [ { }
l = -, # -( [ ' )(81( - #$%: .(!.
∗
28$"3&$+ .( , ()('( ()&*& -&$% , ( #/

.($%:$"-&.&.- 5 "0V, 1(7%9 [ ()&*& C [ → 9 Q()(81(
1 9 2 ,A# B 8$"3&$& '
[ S $" A2 #$%:
)"8*& $'=
( , +)/
)&/
[ $" S Z-n )"1$%0-, (,, )&8.(1 [ 2 5552, Q( , )&8.

8(. C
(&>()+*.= 5 6 *( 8"$=&)(1"$%
,)&8(.Q S!&^ .(
! , " (3$( 1& .(2 ( 7(: (

,
^ ( [ QA |1 9S[5 -,())&.
1 9, $(5 -, #".(

, - =3"& ( (> - Q S
( [, Z ,( [ A | ,
HHH^'
([

.(!.

,
5 ;&:, $" 1( , )&8. -< ('(
& #$(2 & (2 ,)&8(., ()&*& &$+
2 S!&− (.( &*=& &>" 8? ('(2 3 (
:| 1S Z9 [E 5 1

Q Q S ^ Q

9 2l)"87

,-( Q( [ S ' .(!. ( [ A [ A
[
-- (,, ) ,)(81( #$%: -$'=/ A
)(1&)2
- 3 0 (
5 00
"| | (
0 00

+)$%:
A&>$" , 1 7(: - &. A&.B-C /'(→ 97")!&$ 5 %7&)&
!
, )3&--.('(".2 (*)"8*&3 ( (7)"8&$+

(')"$3&$+
!&, )3&/
.(
-

9
-.('(, (*)"8*& [ 1 9
&$+ 5 ('*"
1%(
%

*
$&$(+ .">*('(
= - (1& .(!. &. 3$(" /'( 7")!&$
-, 5,-l (.">&2-3 , (

8 &.< -('( -

Q &*=& GS , ,
2 3 ( = (1& - , .(!.
- -,
3$( 1%( $+& + * -+ /
.(!. (13$(

− /'( 7")!&$ )3& .('( (*)"8*& &$+5 (> = (1+
-,T *^ + - &. - (1^G 2 n 2 5552 EQ), - 5 T5 S^5 !T )&8= # , " , &^( =/^
3 ^ T ^ ^
[ -# TU '[ 8$"3&$&& [ .(!.^ & − " Z 2 - 5& 5 [ - TU [, S
^
^ &[
^ & "Z E Q8*&

" $" &. & 5 5 5 )(&
n

- 5 5 5 (>&$& = - (1: .(!. 3$( -,

, ('(2 ( ( -, )(&$ , 8$"3&$& .(!. - " Q( [ S $" ( , )&8.&

Q S 2 )"87 , ( $"
[

*1" )"1$%0
- $(2 3l, (( ,.('((
)&8." 2 )"1$( =& 8$"3&$: , ( $" $" 5

.(!. %5 (< (= ( ('3$%& =3"& ( ,.(!. % &)&1(* 1 .('(( ('3$%&

0 00
0 00

(7)">&$&
∗
B [ P Q9 F * SJRS → [ Q9 F * JRSH
{ }
- -,
1 &( )&* 1&$$( 8 ()&*& &$: 1*$(2 3 (
∗
, Z Z 5 ∗ ∗ #
∗∗ #
-(% - $&/

%, ( , =3 "$" (' ". , 1%)&8"$+

l , * + .('(( (':
-
.(=
, & #$( -," 1$% .(<! , !&$- "5 l"5
":&)" 2 #& () = -, # ( =3
9 9 &&)#(*$(>&
"$" ('-,(1" &*(1"/
1 9, Z#2
Z3 ,9( [& -,∪ 9& -,21&$$(&

" ` ∈ 9 [,∩ 9
'
$&.(
[
, ()"+ , (3."5 % 7=*& )&*( "'"
'
( (7)">&$&
B Q9 F * JRS → P Q9 F * SJRS

{ }
, - -, ,- -
∗
∗
18"$(
Z 9[ ∪ 9 5 ,
>? (*$(8$"3$(5
>? $ ( 1(: 1( 1%( $+& +2 $")&)2 & 9 Z
Q9 F * S →, Q9 F,* S 2 .".
# #
1 &)&)%1$(& ( (7)">&$& A B
A B * +Q9 F *(7%3$%0 JRS ,→ Q,9.('(( F * JRS 2(':2 $*=!)=& ( (7)">&$&
0 0

'*& Z E, G 2 &)&1(*+
? && ( ,,/
(&3&$$%:
, (7)">&$+< &&$ 1 ( &3&$$%: < &&$ 5 $" ('3$( 1(8$."
∗ 0 0
[ P Q9 F 9 SJRS −−−−→ [ Q9 [ F 9 [ ∩ 9 JRS

{ }
∗

∗


[ P Q9 F " ` SJRS

y
∗

{ }
∗

n
l ) < ,?( ( , (7)">&$& - [ 18"$( - (*$(8$"3$(2 ( -.( ?#.= ?.(!&2- )/#

$" & 8$"3&$+ $" &. "0 1 9 [ 1 9 (7)" " & + 1 $=
∗
1 - &0 - - "0 1-9 2 ' < , ( , ( >&? - "(&2 , ( .(!&2-)$" ?
$"8$"3&$+
- &.
? - 3
- - &
1 9 [ ∩ 9, $"5 &.-, "0 1-,9 [ (7)"* " & + 1 $= # $" 1, &0, &. "0

;` Q+* F )(:.

JRS )( Q)"$F * JRS1 -⊂&*= ⊂ ?9(>$( ()&*& +*"$$('(
# ( (7)">&$&
B('3& → [ 9 (7)"8(5; P .('((/

-.('(Q S. " --"Q S` ∈ ` Q* *F JRS Q()&*&

S E .(!&#
* ,
` ` Q 9 F * JRS 2
` `
`
(.(!."'"+(&[ ∈" Z[ Q9 F *" JRS* 2+(" ∈"'"+ (&[ QA"S ZZ −&*` Q+AX"[ S6∈^ &5` QAX" [&S *()&*&
& ∈

-$'= +)$('( - &.- " A BC [ → 9 5

[ ` + 7('(

" -- ( , ) *"')"= ( , (7)">&$: U
`Q
9 [ ∩ 9 F " ` JRS −→ [ Q9 [ U∪9 F " ` JRS −→ [ Q9 [F " ` JRS QGS

∗
 Y
9 " ` −Y→ [ Q9 [ ∩ 9 F " ` JRSF

[ Q F JRS
y ∗
y ∗

∗

'*& ( , (7)">&$+,-
- \ $*=!)(1"$%
? 1. ,
,3&$+2 " ( (7)">&$&
C ()&*& +& + .". &*= "+ .((8!+ ( (7)">&$:B
∗ ∗

`Q [ P Q9 F " ` JRS −−_−→ [ Q9 F " ` JRS

9 [ ∩9 F " ` JRS

{ } ∼
∗
x
 
y 
∗
[Q F
9 [ 9 [ ∩ 9 JRS −−−_−→ [ P Q9 F 9 JRSH

∗ − { }
∗
, (7)">&$+ 1 $(>& -,,1( - ( , &3&$$%, < &&$ , ( (>$(

∼
; + (,
()&*& # +*)( .". )((7)"8 ( &3&$$('( < &&$ "5
abcdbef ghihi h [ ∩ Z C
L k T [ Q F JRS Q F JRS

K 9 " `
∈ [ 9 " `

∗ ∗
QTS Q S [

K& ∈ [\Q9[ ∪Z9 \ F " ` JRS M Q& S Z<T KL Q& S KZ L

L

∈
∗

` Q[
∗
K 9 [ ∩ 9 F " ` JRS Z E [

&

j <

∗
∗

j
k -- , -, ( C? ( , (7)">&$& C Z - Q [ S [
K , " ( )- 1&
Q8 .((8! -,

8(() 8 S 5 %()&7=&(& (7)">&$:2 ( "1 + *( -,0"C2, (3$( % =7)"&

*(."8" , #(* +&*$:
0 ∗ ∗ −

= , 1&)>*&$& *"/
n

')"%
`Q
9 [ ∩ 9 F " ` S −→ [ P U {

[
} Q9 F " ` S −U−→
Q9 [ F " ` S 0 ∗
QnS
0
Y
∗
 
 0 ∗
Y [ Q9 [ ∩9 F " ` S

[Q F S
y y ∗
9 "`
Q* + .)" , .( -, 1 (7(8$"3&$+0 % =7)" ')== .(< !&$ , (1 RS 5 −→

∗

7"
, $(>&
-, -, 1" C ? Q ?[ S ∩- Q S -( -,G (+ , 8 . -" -- (1 <.1/ - "02 0 ∗
1"!& &$.($( &>" .(!. ? 0 1(129 [(7)" " 0, + 1 $= #-,$" /&)$%0 &.
0 0 ∗
QTS Q S

∩ 9 5 % (2 3 ( )"1&$ 1( \ [ ZS \ <.11"/

,Q $(S -Q = ?S & -,T 1(1"$ , P Q F ,-,()(/
∗
∈ [

&$ < &&$ " 9 ` 2 * + .(

∗
Q
'( ` Q9[ ∩&9 ZF " ` SZ E (8$"3"& S Q S
& Z ,2 )(1&)+&
0 ∗
,
& ,-
-, + $&(

-, - )&* -, 1&$$(5
" 0
"1&$-1+8/1(
{
∗
}

$($( -,Q&-[)( 2 3 ( )( )"$ 1( 9

-, 1&$$( -, # < &&$ , " & - &*=&[, 8 $&:$(: -1+8/9 $&:$(
0 ∗ 0 0
R-,6Z)"$ES 5-,6*$

∩
1" 9 [ ∩ 9 5
0

G G , ,
% &()&" 5 5 (81( +&, ( =3 # $"7( && (7 = 1&) &()&%
? - , -,
1"$ + < ,"&$"

;)(1"$$(& ('(*1(: $"(-,($"*(7

=$*"&$,-" #$(: ')=& (7 &*$&$+ *1=0 -$(>& 15
+ ()&*& &$& ""')="
#'"% R')=2 ()= /

1&$$%
R R (7)"8(5 , &$$(2 R +1 +& ,- +"" #/
'"(: *1=0 ')= [ ( ( $(
+ B R ` → R + B R ` → R 2 & - .(= , " , 1$"+ *"')""
&$

. ')=& ` '((()

8"
[ [

E −−−−→ QRFR S −−−−→ QR [ FR S 0

∗
0
 
 
∗
QR
FR S −−−−→ ` FRS
QR
y ∗
y
∗
, (3$" * + 7(: ')=% R 5 $ , ( ()&*& , $( ()&*& &/
0
$ "" #'"%2 )1&*4$$(= 1 3" 5 -, 0

&$& <.11" &$
abcdbef

Mj N
ghihi 3 e : 9 h : L Kk K Q:K :: [F :S M:M[
∩ :M

L [ [ ∪
@

k K L " ` Q∈ "` LK

: F [ S∩ Q : F S

Q:

` " `
: F S [[ B j " `
[ L A N @ <
M

[ [

[ ∩ → : k
K
K

"
[ ∩ → : [

∪
: : : :

[ Q: : F JR S [ P Q: [ ∪ : F " ` SJR S

∗
B [
j j M @ L N R
∪ " `

→

0 {
∗
} 0
<

0

n
j
k l -$"3" "2 3 , ( (,, (7)">&$&
K )&*( (> R -, , 18"$(
, 1$"+

(*$(8$"3$( * + 7(: ')=% 5 ('*" && & ( .(= "

∗
QGS Q- R R S , -

-*"')"" 8"&$(: : $" 5=3"&2

)(&3 ,('(2 `8 : = :(1+ $&:$(:
% 0
l = -, # 9 Q' $&:$( -1+8$(& )( -, )"$ -, 1( " ` ∈ 9 5 ! (8#4S Z< E&/5

1+8$( -, )( -, )"$ -, 1" [ ∩
:
(
0
( Q [ ∪
F " ` JR 0
&$ ,- ∈ [ 9 F " ` S )", --( ,-)-, ( - &*(1" , , , & #$( -,?# G/&)$%0 ,-/
3& &.-.((1 .C "[[ --2 5552 [ 2 .( ()%& Q ( F "1JR+ S & 2 &>"

& C
5 ; + [ ∈ [ 9 "` ( (> [ Q S Z= ( [1QC'((
[ S ^ (/
HHH^
^, ( [ QC [ S,5 &'.(- )(1&)--, #2 3 ,,( ( [ Q S *&: -,,1 , & #$(Q S8"1 --[, ,, (, #.(

( 0
(

([

(.( ('(( (3&('3&

, .('(( .('(-.('(. " ." "&--" !. 2 "7(( [ 2&&, 5& 5('(2% ( =3"& 8"1( ,(7)">&/

( #/
$& [ Q9 Fl" ` JR S → , [ Q9 F "G` GSFR 5 $ , ( ( , (7)">&$&
[ 18"$( (*/
$(8$"3$(5 )&$1 &()&= 5 5 8"&$1 $" 2 ( =3"&2
0 0

[ Q: [ ∪(>
3 , (l )&*( : F S'
"` "" 3#'""5
, , ( [ Q: [, ∪,: F " ` S ' "" #'""5 "&$1

[ &&)#2
$" 2 ( =3 (3$= .(= " 1$= ,

*"')"=
E −−−−→ [ Q: [ ∪ : F " ` JR S −−−−→ [ Q: [ F " ` JR S

U
U y
∗
0 0
Y

Y

[ Q: F JRS [ Q: : F S
∗
y ∗
"` [ "`
∗
*3"&2+ 37(: R - QnS

−−−−→
U ∩
:U
, ( (')=%
, (7)">&$&5 )"1$1"+ &4 2 '*& 9 8"&$&$( $" 2 ( =/

18"$( (*$(8$"3$(5
0
∗

! " # $ ! % &
l - - , (>& &/
,& ,&; -,+ ,(2(($(, ('3& -.0 $('((7)"8:
&'( 3*(."8"
, ,, -, ,
& ((# 1(('3&)&7=& -
8(()
, 8 ="$.")&
)1 &3&$+ $&(1, &, &()&% *)='0(
&, )"$'=
(*(12 )=&(
( (= ( * + .0 $('((7)"8:
l ="$.")& & -,&!"5 l-)1(*%&

, -
&*= 1 ( $(1$( 5$>& *(."8"
D GI , & D# -,GI1" 8(() 8(1
'#

( " * " $) ," . ) ((
, ((l )&>*&
('3& -3& 8"$+
.0'((
, # -+ ( -, )(&$& =$*"&$
$('((7)"8:
, % *(.">&
- , , " #$('( . "?--" * +
&()&= (7 (7)")&$ 1
$= , #&()&=

/&)$%0 (': (( ('3& .('( $('((7)"8+
(7 (7)"? &$ 1 $= # /&)$%0 '(( (': $&.(". , $('(

nE

, (( ('3& -, -.('( $('((7)"8+ , 7&8 .)"+5

-- l ( - &*$++ , &()&" $=>$"
* + ( )(&$+ =$*"&$ " #$('( . " "5
abcdbef
Q S Egh hih K <
K
j

Z

j
k -- , -$'=- +)$%:- !.

Q KS " ( ) )(81( - #$%:

( ?∈
1 ( 25 ' 7.($&3$('(&*$&$&, $(&(7)"8(1 -,, $'= +)$%0
, -&.(*&)>
(12 10(/
,-

*+1 (70&*$&$
.(".
$(>&
$"7()" 1(2 , (<
(.)%.)%, (=%0$(>& (= ($(
-, : FHHHF : +
$(>&-, 1=1 1 R[ 5 l = -, #2
.">*(&
8
: : HHH : l .( , ()%0 '(&(() $( ( ,
, Q S E l G , - -,,

Y8 Z, &()&%

[ ∪ ∪ 5G 5 5∪l )Y5 \ (.">&2

G --3 (, Y, Z 5 ) -\ Z < ,( &*=&

)": ( ) (3$= ( &*(1" & #$( #

! , -
":&)" 2 #& () " * + Y [ ∪ Y Z YB

HHH → Q Y [ S ⊕ Q:Y S → Q Y S → [ Q Y [ ∩ :Y S → HHH

−

$(>& , -, 1" :
Q Y S YE
−
[
:
Q : S E
, , , -,Q S E
∩ Y '(&(() $% ( .)% % $(>& 1" 1 R 2
− −
(< (= (>&$

(( ')&*(
:
[ Yl (<[ ∩, (=Y Z 5Q Y S)(&
Y Z $*=.!5
−

Z E 5 ('(2
, ( Y ,[ Z,
(8$"3"&

23 (

')"$!" -$'= +)$(: !& 1 Y ⊂ 5

− −
−

$
- Q S $&.(". , $%0 V,$('((7)"8: ,, &()&= nG -

, ; +
1+8$%0 E , 5 5 (>$( =,-/
- &*=#B ?&& 1 -(('"
Z ), & #$(&> =5, 1&)>*&$&5
(7% *(."8" # < (2 $" ($"*(7 +
beef gh hih L k : ⊂R Q >M nS

N
:N
KM
Q F : S
K

KF : S→<QR "F R∈ R\ {\" }S

K
∈ M
Q S Q S E <
Q

K

K @

Z

B

R
Z E

K

∗ R

<

j
k -- ,
QR F : SB K " ( ) , (3$= ( - &*(1" , & #$( -, # ")%

HHH → QR S → QR F : S −→ [ Q: S → QR S → HHH ∗
- , (=-, *( -,?" , (3$( *(."8" , #2- 3 , ( W -- Z E 5

l*&= -,- ##, (W ∈ 8(()Q[ : S ' 82 (<
−
'
∗
(-, 1( & ,#".2!&3 , (( .(". !., &$22)&*

(< , "1 +(>$(
(= : '(( ('3&
1%7)" , # ( , .:,.(& "$(>&/
.)% W 5 ∗
∗
-, 1( = Q.(". , $( $(,- , & # !&, ( -(/

−
1
⊂ 2, $(>&
= :

,-
*&)>Z W +2 1'*& 5 B &*(1"

& #$(21 -, -, S -,
[ 1.& #3&$&5

< &&$ 2 * + .( ()('(

: '
& & 1&$$(&
l ( #8=+- -# .(". , $( -, # = 2 1%7&)& 1Q R ( ,S.)% , %: .=7
−
,
= = ".2
∗ →
,3 (7%
∗

($ (*&)>" 2 ( (> Z \ ∩ 5 %('*" ∩ Z ∅ 2

nG
, ".2, (=
(< ,3 ( "* ∈+ -.">*(: ,∩".0Z.=7(1
, (3. " ∈ (>$(
,
∅ 5 (". $(& $(>& 1(
FHHHF

1%7)" -,, # 8".$=
=
, %: .=7 ,
(>$( (.)% #

.($&3$% 3
(
[
l ( = - (1 Q S Z E 2 (< , (= .(= , " , 1$"+ *"')"" 5
Q[ S −−−U −→ [ Q: S ←−−−− QR F : S
∗
∗
U
∗
− −
 
   ∗
[ QR \ {" }S −−−_−→ [ QR \ {" }S ←−−_−− QR F R \ {"}S

y y y
∗
, 2 3 , (Q (7)"8 <S '&&$ , " ) '((()

− −
(."8%1"& 8& 1. 3&$+

∼ ∼
Q S
[l (.">&2 [3 , (R(7)"8 $= &1(: < &&$ , 5
U S ', ", (>&)$= &1(:

Q[ S → [ Q \ SU_ [< &&$ '((() 8&, 5 1." --( 3&$+

→ \ {" }
, )
− −

-,

SU U

Q EF GFHHHF S < &&$
$(>&
5V,l(7%) - *&1"Z E" ,=#,Z1&)>*&$& Z ( -.( #.= )&$ $*=.! (

\ _[
Q S E5
− −

"'" $*=.!2 (3&1*$(2

--
)" (m ) , , ` Z
(3$= (- &*(1"-
,

[
& - #$( #Z-,

! , - Q , ,
−
":&)" 2 #& () * + R \ [ < ( (>$( *& " #2 ( .( #.=

(7" $(>& -, 1" ( , .)% , % S B

Q m S [ Q m [ S −Y→ [ Q S ⊕ [ QR \ m [ S
∪ R \ [ →

-, Q m S , , , -, /&)$"+

∗
$(>& 1( ∪ R \ , [ ( '.)% (&2 (< (= &'( ')=" '(/, (

− − −
,- , ,

((7)"8%
(':< $=&&$&1"+5 $"3
, " ) m'((() 2
\ ($(() 85
8"02 $*=!)(1"$$%0
"4 + 8"&

1. '((()/#2
3&$+ 3
,
∗
→ → R \ [2 $= &1%& < &&$ %5 ; + &)1('(

, (, 1&)$( -Q(' " -$(m )&*( , ()('( '
'
8" < (>&$ $*=.!2 " * + 1

,
( (=$(>&3 -,( 1( [ R \ - (*&)>

[ ∼
S Q S
Z ,-+ [ R1 \:{"2 } 5(< , (= '((() 8

Q S → Q S[ Q: S )&*Q-, "1S +& ,-+ 1 Q:1*&

− −

[ S .((8! , '((()/

8(1 [ [ [ 5
, 7)"8
l , < &&$ "Z E 2 ), 5& 5
−
−
&)1( E '((() →
8& '
$= &1(:
→
< &&$ 5 (< (=
− − −
W Z5 ∗
∗
Q% (3$"+ ( -E &*(1" , &Q #$( -, #E ")% QR QF R \S {E}S (."8%1"& l , 2, 3 , (

F S
QR F R \ {E }S ∼Z R Q \ {F } Z E J [ S ∼
S [ ) n 5 (< (= G
R R: \'{ } Z Z R R \ { } Z Z Z ) > 5

∼ ∼
−
- , ( , .)% , , "2 S'(&(() - ? ,

−

6 Q "+
F
.=.(<" ∈ !&$2 ,((1 Z S 5 V, (7%\ {*(."8" .") Q F $"+ RS Q(*&)>" "+- (3/
Z 1, # =3"&
"} ∼ Z , # < , (2 *(\ {-,""}, (3$(
: : ∼Z Z )&$ , &(/
)&=\ :( ⊂1%)&8"$

-,
. $(>& ,-1" - \ ⊂ \\:{"Z} ⊂ \ :5 " ∈(1&
: Q - : S
\ {" } 1%( $+& +2 ( .( #.= 5

nn

Q F \ {" }S ')" , 1">$= )( # 1 ( -, )(&$ =$/

O)=%
,
*"&$ " #$('( . " "5 --

abcdbef gh h h KMj

j

j
M Q S K E

Z
j
k l , ( * + S 7(: , (3.l "-,∈ D I '((()/

K Q S (.">&2 Q F3 --

8 B \ {" } $= &1(:5 = # . "

-, Q S P ,
'
'((
$(!.- , &(':2
#
∗
)&*" ( "15 l&$$%:
!.
→
)&*( !.(>( -($"3"∈ "2 3 , ( 2 " ∈ .(".

' (
P $%:
\ 5 % ('*"
,- Q S$&.(l ,,()('( !.D I " ( )
(Q +1 +& S+ (7)"8( D I '((()
E

- 8&
B Z E 5 l )&*(
\ {" } →
(> , 5
&&)#2 (<
3 , ((= P 5
( l Z
( = - (1( Z 2 (
$('((7)"8& .( #.=
, $(5-- ! ,3" -, $( -, 2 6Z P 5 l (< , (= (>$( 1%7)" , # , (3.=
∗ ∗
∗
∗ ∗
$&.(". P
# ∈ , \ -,5 " ( ) '(&(()

" ∈
8Q, B

2

.( , ()%: 8( , (/
&$, * (>*&

1&$$(=
- &)&1(*
, , " 1 -# ".(: '(&(() 8 = & J 1=/
→
- ? -, ,(
&*(."8%1"&+ 7('( ,-+ , (3$( -,, ". >&2 .". * .('(
1+8$('( (( ('3& $('((7)"8+
+ S'5 O(&(()
"*.0 $('((7)"8:B 7&8 .)"+ -, <
3" # ,2
&"
'(&(() (7 (*$()(*$(
8
$('((7)"8: , 8
, -,
\ {# } 2 (< (= && & ( .(= "/
$*=!)=&

,
, 1$"+ *"')"" \ {" } →
Q S −−−−→ Q F \ {" }S
∗

 _
 

Q S −−−−→ Q F \ {# }SH
y ∗ y ∗
∗
"1&$ -, 1( Q S Z E -,&*=&-,, 8 ,)"1&$ -, 1" nQ G S Z E 5 -- , ,

.">*%: ". -$'=

) *(."8"∗
+)$%: & # (1& ∈ &()&%

!. Q S 5, 5 2 % 7=*&
( *& #$(2" 1 ,
∗
)" -"=3"&)1"1&/#
".(
-, ( , (>$( -,)" ---," , )1" , # .($&3$(&
: FHHHF

(7

&*$&$& ( ,l.)% , %0 .(()/
*$"
Z1 SU_2 $%0

: U (.)& $( &:, [
(.">&2 3 ( !.
:
+12 '(&(()
+& ,- + $%0 R 5 ,( (> Z
')"$!&:

$&.( ()('( !. "

[, 5& 5 Q S Z E 5

--.( l#.=)&$ l G ,

: -, $*=.! V,( 5 - ) , Z = 1&)>*&$& (3&1*$(2 -- , (/

&*(1" , & [#$( -, # ":&)"2 ! #& , () - " * + *1=0 ( , .)% , %0 $(>& -, 1 (/
+'1"&(5 (7% *& " # "' $*=.!2

)" ( )
: m [ B

Q S Q: m S Q m S

⊕ [ → [ →

[ Q ∩ : m [ S →Q S Q: m SH

[ ⊕ [ [
−

→ − −

n
l (-,)&*(: m (>&$ - , $*=.!

, Q S E
Q: m S ZE 5 )(&Q: ('(2
, m S 8E -,l+'1"&/

,
()"1&$-, 1( [ Q &*=& 2 3 ( [, Z

m S E [ [ Z 5 (< (=
-,
B l [ Q ∩ : m [[S,→Z <.11" Q S 5&$ $( ($(() $( '((() 8"
−
)&*(

(>2 3 ( [ Q ∩ : m [ S Z E 5 " -- ( , ) *"/

[
∗ −
−

')"= ∈
U Q: m F : m S
− ∗
Q m F : m S
[ ∩ [ ←−−−− [ ∩ [

xU
0
∗

U Q S
  ∗0

: m S
y
Q F Q : m S
00
∗
∩ [ −−−−→ [  [ −→ [
∗00
∩ −− − −
∗
−

Q[ : m [ S Z E
y

! , ,-,()"+ -, )(." 1 , ()(: -, ( 7&!E -' =3",-, ., , (3/
< (: *"')"& 1
−
$%0 -
( *&*(1" , & ,#$( &: ")5 ,Q8 )"1&$
F -,:1"m S Z &*=&
, 23 ( Z
Z* +W $&.(
00 00
+ $&.( ()('( ∈
00
∩ [ 5 )(&' ('(2 Z W
, ()('( ∈,= Q: m [ F ∩ : m [ S 2 ( -.( #.=-, W , <()- 85
∗

0 0
-- ,
∗ ∗
1"", & (#$()

-, <")%B
&&$ Z − 5 " & =3" (. (3$(: ( &*(/
0 0
0 0 00 00
∗

∗
∗
Q m S Q m F : m S
[ −→

[ ∩ [ −→

[ Q ∩ : m [ SH ∗
- , l , =
∗
−
$(2 3 ( W Z W W E Z W 5 (<, (= = W Z W

Z ∈W Q−mW S 5 Z − Z 2 " 8$"3 2 W Z * + −$&.(W , ()('(Z
0 0 00 00 0 0 00 00
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
,[
0 0 00 00
∗
, , -, -
∗ ∗ ∗
% (3$( "., >&2-,.". < ( % *& " 1 ,$"3", & *(."8" & #, 1"2 ( #/

8=+
'((()$&.(". 8 $(Q S #B Q2 (>$( m S (."8"
Q #23 F (\*{"+}S $=7(:&1(:5(3.! 3"" ∈-, $(/
[

-, 2 Z E 5 →

l = -, # " ∈ :Qm [S \ Q ∩ : m [ S 5-,%('*", ∩ : m [ ⊂ \ {" } 2 (< , (=

∗
∗

'((()
8(1
8 (>$( )&* "1 # 1 1*& .((8! '((()/
∗

Q m S Q m F : m S Q F \ {" }SH
[ −→ [ ∩ [ −→

, & #$(2, E Z Q S Z Z , = Z − 5 %(3." " $& &/

∗

∗

&*(1"
,
> 1 2 (< (= (>$( 8"&$ # $" .((8! '((() 8(1
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
0 0
∗ ∗
00 00
∗ ∗
Q F : m S Q F : m S Q \ {" } F \ {"}S Z EH
00
∗ ∗
∩ [ → \ {" } ∩ [ →

n

$"3

Q , 2F \Z{E"5},S 8-<, ('(Q:-m&*=& F , , E l - , -, ?
: m23 ( S Z 5 ( & ( (>*& 1 &$+
[ [ \ {" } '((() 8 )&1)" "/
00 0 0
& ,-+ 1 '((()

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
8
0
∗ ∗
Q S B Q: m [ F ∩ : m [ S → Q: m [ F : m [ \ {" }SH

l (<E , (=2 1( -( #8(1"1 -# &(: 5n 5G 2 ( =3 Z E 2 " 8$"3 , 2 Z
∗
Z5
0

b 48 b ih L K k Mj

j

Q S Q F K S <KBj

B
\ {" }
j
k l -, Q S Z E 5 %('*" 1 Q \ {" }S
∗ →
-, ,K = #
,

& # < ,&&$

.(". $(2 (< ,2 (=
* + .( Q()('(\ {" }S ZZ E 55 1 ( $('((7)"8& \ {" } $&/
∈
∗

∗

b 48 b h L k Mj

j

Q KS E K Q S ∼ M < @K

Z Z \Z{" }S M M
KM <"∈Bj

B j Q S Q F

B

→
∗
j
k -F $( - S&* -, 1 ,-G '((() 8
Q KS (' Q "

l (<B, (= 7(→ Q S Z E 2 \7({" } ∼Z,Q Z S,+1∼Z Z+& +(7)"8(

∗
G
($(() -8(5
=> ,
')=" Z ⊂ Z 5 1 =>$( # )(1&) #2 3 (

Z&()&%
± 5

-, 1+ GS )(0(*+ , $& , ( #.( ,* + R.(<l !&$ ,R(1 Z 2 $( 5n 5*n--+Q ,- 7(:&*/
l , G , -, ,
∗
)&*(

(>2 3 ( 5 ;(."8" & # 1(

"7& &1(:, " ,')=%

.(= .(< !&$ (1 5 ( (> Z Z )" ( )
1$= *"')"=

Q S ⊗ Z −−−−→ Q F \ {" }S ⊗ Z ∗⊗

 
 
y y
Q J Z S −−−−→ Q F \ {"} J Z S

- + + ' ($(() 8% 8 ()= % =$1&) - " #$%0 .(/
∗

*&
<(5 #
!&$
[ ,
(15 O((()

8-
, ? , Q S,
⊗' (>& *( >&$ 7% # ($(() 8/
Q ⊗ SQ*)='(:
-,
GS ()($%2 G & G E (7)"8= "+ ')=%
∗
#
2 (
⊗ Z ⊗ Z ⊗ Z 5

#
,S(3. " ∈ Q S )"-- (Q , )

∗ ∗
; Q+ .">*(:
F F ')=% J S Z5
Z &:3" - % 11&*4\ {",}((∼Z ('Z $" $(>&
Z Z \ { } Z Z
-, 1"0 T Z S Q ST QZ S Z
" ∼

Z

S
∈
Q

S , ,
-, -,
Z Z ".2 3 ( & & 1&$$%& )(&.! T T Z $" ∈

n
+1 + (.",-+ #$%0 $".)%-,-,+5 , & , 2 ,3 , (- < , ( <.11" &$ , $( 8"*"$ $"

, (1 Z (." #$"+& -.(< -,l &"-,!&$

, )1" (1 #$"2(
')=" , Z Z 5 ; + .(< /
, ( & -, #, )(1$(

!&$
8(()

8 Z → Z 5 )( )"$
-, 1( Q S (=
T Z )&* "1 +&
3
-, - (7(: (*$
*1"
<.8& +)"

$('((7)"8+

J (*$ 8 $0
, = , ')=%-, Z 2, " *)='(: ' -$&$=-, &1(=5 ; + .(<, !&$, , (1- (( ,
1& ,-, 1=& , $= &1(=

<Z &&$

(7(7%? "&0(, - -,(&=, )( # *(."

-, + '#$="*.0
&= .(< !&$ (12 .( ()"+
$('((7)"8:5 ' , -,
L N -
@=*& $"8%1" # $(>& 1( K 2 $"& 5 l )1$=( -,)&$$( #

8".$=
, (( (' , ('( ")"2 &>" ? &'( 1 $&.( ,
()(:

.") , &
-, 1&, T % 1( -( #8=& -+ , &2 3 , ( & - $(>&

)(&$
-, 1(
-, $"
*(=-.(:(&<.11"$(>&
" ∈&$ ,2 $((-,1 #(>&$&

,-

,,(3&
, \- → , \,{" } +1 +& + '((/

5 , 8 < ('( &*=& 2 3 ( $*=!)(1"$$%:

< 1 (>&$& '((() 8

Q
B F \ S → Q F \ {" } S Z
+1, (3$(+& ,-,+".8(() Q - , (G*(."8%1"&- n,-S+

8( *- + $'= +)$%0 '(( - , (': <

;7=*&
+ .">*('( >&2< .".&&$ ,*" + ∈ Q!"F #$%0B S 5$(>& &()&=-, 1" 5 5 $"| " 5∈ }5
, (( (' -3 , " , # -,( , .)%-,, %5 $ ,, (,, .)% , %&, $(>&-,-, 1" (7)"8= -,, 7"8=
\

{

(7)"8=
, 7"8=)( , (()"$ ('1" T)(5 -, )"$ & -,21" 3 ( 5*(= %& $(>& 1"

, -.('( $('((7)"8+, $"8%1" , $&)&/,
(( ('3&

- A ,

)%1$(&
Q, " S ∈ &3&$& +1 +& ,- + $".)%
(7)"8= + ? T&: →')=%2 * + ∼.(Z()('( 5 - $(2 .">*%:
3 ,

( = -<1+8$('(
&&$
Z

(( ('3&

-.('( $('((7)"8+-7&8 .)"+ & -, # 7( )(1$(, *1& ()&$
-, , "/
!2 7( $"8%1"
, "!+2
&$8"*"$$(: $ (*$(:5 , %((

('3& L
.(&N $('((7)"8&2=
2 " , (( ('3& - .( $('((7)"8&
.(& ()('( & # ()/-
()&$-, "!&: $"8%1"
,
N 5
-- Q S Q S ,B LQ F
k NS 2& -/

O(( - ('3& .: ., "
* + 1 &0, " 1∈ (7)"8=( (7)">&$& ∈
$"8%1"
B 5 ". %→ -&:3" - =7&*\ {"-+2} Z=$/

&)&1(*
? = ')=%
,," #$%:, . " -- , & --$( -1+8"$ - ()&$ , "!&:B
∗

, "!

*"&$
8".$=

- , .">*(:
,-, , ()&$
, " #$%:('(. " --((5 ! Q3"('3&
-,S$( -,.('(2l*$('((7)"8+
+ 8".$= , ('( -((1+8$('( 1& ()&$
,
1=& , )=&('(
,
=$*"&$/
$('((7)"8+ Z Z 5 )&>*& 3& &)&0(* # . ()&$ )=&%
-
$('((7)"8+2 )"87&)4 + $&()&$ )=&%5
∼
- ,
abcdbef gh h h K M
Q
S E L

KMj
<
K
j

j

Z
n

j k K , l = -, # ∈ , Q S 5 ; +,-.">*(: , (3. " ∈, )" -/

-( , )

'((() <8&
&&$ B ∈Q 2 S.(→ ()%:

Q +1F +& + (7)"8(

S
\ {" } Z 5< ,&&$
8 " )
$&()&$ ,,/

)=&( -, - , , - ? -, , ,
8"&$+& ,-&*=&+ $"2 −3 ( 5 l= (<&, (=1=& =Z E#5 2 &*)-, 1&
∗
(70(*&G , 1*( # .( 5n(/5n
)('(
(."8%1"& , 2 3 , ( Z E 5
&()&%
! - -+ 11&*4$$%

."8" ,(& (# -, #8=&

1& - &*= ? , (7(8$"3&$& ) ()= )(1.& *(/
&'( = 1&)>*&$+5

abcdbef gh hgh L k

j

K A
K
Mj
j L

L

L
L

K"∈
N B L
k N KK M K ZKQ" S M K

K B

→T

j
k , -, , ' - ?

-, 1(1"$&

K
=$*"&$ 1 "7(
, " &&
#$('( 1">$"+
. " -- "5 )=*$"+
< , ('( %3" # &()&%
$"3$42" &*$ -,=1&$/&/
$( -,1#"($2

*(.">& 1 3.($!&5

, ( S & - ' ' *(= -,,(& $(>&, -,-,1(2 ,, (
Q F
B . " -- \'((→(': 8(()
,, )&7=&%:

1 Q 85 F $ ( (81(
S +& , ( - )( ,#
\ 5 % 0( . & #
--% - ((,? # ( , $( - , &- #$(: (--- &*(1" , F -,S ":&)"

!".& . " Q & #$(

#& , ()
l ) )"7( - "
, - ( -=3 # '((
, ('3&
-, .: . " 1
! , - ∅ Z
Q ,S2
5
& (
*&1%(( -$+&( ,,-.)%+ "1, % &*(1" & #$(
-, 1"2+ ":&)" #& () " =*(7$&&
, ()%0 ".-,-(" 1%)&8"$+
2 & #
, (" ,$(>& * + .(

3& - .5 l ,
= J(< ,(= 1& ( *(=
-, ('( $(>& -, 1"
,
(<1(8#4
, (= % &'( 8"%."$& -, )( , #,. (" --(7)">&$& Q F (>&\ = S8(() 82

$('((7)"8&
(>& ( .(". $(2 (< , (= &'(-, (>$( 5 ,

= FHHHF(.)%
= l # .($&3/
∈
$% -,
>2$"7()( 8"%."$:
( -, )(*(= %0, $(>& 1 [ 5 )&*( (/

3 , ( % =>&

< &&$

[ F \ Q =[ ∪ HHH ∪ = S F
+ .(, ()('(
*(()

[
∈
Q S - = HHH ∪ = J 8*& -# ' '(/
Z " ) 1 &0 " ∈ , [ ∪

8 '(( F(':2 $*=!)(1"$$%:

Q\ =[ ∪ HHH ∪ = S →(Q (7)">&$&

F \ {" }SH")

" -- ( ,) ( , $(F - , & Q #$= - , -, ! , -

( &*(1" & #$( # ":&)" 2 #& () "

= HHH = m S
\ [∪ ∪ [ →

F Q
\ [∪
= HHH = S Q F
=m S
\ [ →

F \ Q =[ ∪ HHH ∪ = S ∩ =m [ H
→ ∪ ⊕

→

n
,3 (8#4
!
1 )+(:
,- -=& < &&$, , Q [ F − ,m [ S 5 % 0( , *(."8" , #2

( ($ +1 +& + (7)"8( $&.( ()('( < &&$ "
m F \ Q =[ ∪ HHH ∪ =m [ S H
, [
, , ,
[∈

, Q F mS

$ ( <.11" &$ $( (=2 3 ( (7)"8 < &&$ " [ − [ 1

F \ Q =[ ∪ HHH ∪ = S ∩ =m [

)"1&$
Q = $=HHH 5 = 7(8$"3
S
,, l -
= m < ( (7)"8 5 Q ( = F (1 PS* + 1 &0 " ∈ Z,
- P
Z 1 $=[ ∪ #5 ∪ ∩ [ '((() 8

\ → &)&1(*

beefh L KQ k F:: S⊂ MN
:
K B j

L k K Z E" ∈

Q F :∈S

<

→
j
k , = >& -"=- , &0$.=2 .( , ()=,- =>&
, K - % )&$ ,

$('(.)"
)( -, %0 (7$(" -, &:2"
( #8(1"
8" , & B)" -=)(1&)>*&$&
-, )"$+& ,- + $"3"
- (("?*(."8%1"&
# ( - &*(1"+, &* #/+
$( -,l ":&)"2 ! #&- , () - "5 , -, 1( \ :, - *&)>

,-+ 1 .(()*/
, )&*( (>
-, -, $"3" "2 3 ( $(>&
--
$" $(: (.)& $( ≈ R 5 "U ( ) .(= " 1$= *"')"=
, ,
Q F :S Q F S
∩ −−−−→ ∗
\ {" }
_ _
 
Q
y ∼
U
F : S −−−−→ Q F \ {"}SH
y ∼
- , ." #$%&, -, )& .-, ' 8(()E 8%'1%)&8"$+5 "1&$ -, 1(

∗
*& Z# E1&)<.11" &$ $( )"1&$

()Z E 8&
∗
1%)&8"$+5 l )&$11= &=Z 2 '*& 5 ∗ )((7)"8Z E 2 ")8$"38(/, 2
n 5G 2 ( =3
5
l,&)&:*4 ,-,&&)#-, . (7 ? &= - =3" 5 l = -, # U ' (,, .)% , "+ .(()/
*$"\ :$"+(>$((.)& (.)% $( #, # .($&3$%
2 '(&(()3- $"+( (R, .)% 5 (".
, $(& $(>&
-,

U
-,l1(

(> :U Q
Z :S U
∩ 5 % ('*"

\ Z∪
: Q %0\ :$(>&
U S 2 , 5& 5 :1 Z 5∩:(/U 5
l,(< , (=, *( -, " , (3$(

\
-, )(1&) : #23
, , , ( & - = , 1&)>*&$& &%

-, 1&)$(
: :* +

( ".)%
-- ( , ) ( , $( - , & #$= ( - &*(1" , & #$( -, # ":&)"2 ! #& , ()∩- " 5
%0 $(>& 1 :
0
2 ( ($(
00
1&)$( * + $(>& 1" 0 00
m Q
[ F : ∪ : S → Q F : ∩ : S → Q F : S ⊕ Q F : SH
0 00
0 00
0
00
n

&'.(,)(1&)
, ) , #2- 3 , ( , m [ Q -,F : ∪ : S Z E 5 ;&: -, 1 , & #$(2 )" --(/
(3$= (m Q &*(1" & #$( # ")%
0 00

S m Q F : ∪ : S → Q: ∪ : SH
- m Q
[ → [
S Z E -, Q: ∪ m: QS Z FE:2 & - : :S ∪E: 6Z SQ& - >&
0 00 0 00
:*& #: [ ,
Z( =3"& 2 ( )"1&$ 1( 8 [ Z (3&1*$( 5 %".
0 00 0 00

(7)"8(2 ($(()
0 00 0 00
∪ ∪
Q F : ∩ : S → Q F : S ⊕ Q F : SH
l = -, # ) < , ( ($(() , , Q F ,S 5 l = -, #2
0 00 0 00

' 8& < &&$ , &)&0(* 1

*" &&21 52 %('*" Z (7)"8% <−&&$5 l(1(< , (=2 & - ) (, ((7)">&/
0 00
$ E l
0 00
Z -, E Z E
,- 2 Z
- E 0 00
" ∈ Z \5 Q:( ∩)&*( : S (>&$, )"1&$-, 1( Z E 1%(

1%( $+&
$+&,-++ ** ++ 11 - &0&0
0 00 0

5 $"3 2 )"1&$ 1( Z
00
",∈ - \ 2 ," )"1&$

:
0
, -, 1(E Z E 1%(
00
E - $+& ,-+ * + 1 -&0 " ∈-, \ : 5 ,,8 0
<3 ,('( ( , ('*"&*=& 2Z3 E (5 Z Z 5 (1& ($(() $( (8$"3"& 2

0 00 00

0 00
, m
Q [ $Q S&&$
F − - [ S 2 (7 ="*"&[ 2 HHH, (7)"8(
m [
, )&7=&% .(-,1(:
()('(-, 1(2+1,+&5& 5,-+ < &&$ m ,
[ [Z

Z " * -,+ 1 &0 "-,∈ [ ∪ ∪ =,m [ 5

6*$ -, 1&$$( - # --
=$*"&$' " #$('( . " " , *(."8%1"& --
,-+ 1& --#/
(", 1&Q )(
,-,S1= (5? 06Q ()&$ ,"! 2 ,*1"

F \ {" }S &)&1(* ( * =$*"&$

+
0
1 - &0 " #$%0'(((). " "2 8(/
, . " -- − Q- 1 -,Q" S − GQ",S Z
" ∈
E
,
→
,
,-
Z 5 1(5n<5nS( 5 '((() 8 +1 +& + ($(() 8( &* 1& &(/ 0
)&%
, $( - , & #$( .(<, !&$ ,-,(1 Z $('((7)"8& 1 -&'*", ()&$ , )=/
&(2
(1 )34
, () , # , & ()&$
>& - "%&"!+)"&*$
-- 1&$$"53 ,;( + )
=>*&$+2 .(< *(."8"
!&$, (1-,Z (>$(
& # 1& , &()&/
n
% 5 5 2( -,* )(+ .">*('(
, ,
8".$=, " #$%: -
('( 1+8$('( -- , (( ('+0 -
('3& -.('( $('(/
(7)"8+
&$ , " Z 5
# =$*"&$ . " 1 '(( .(< !/

! #!
, ('(, 8(() - Q, ^ /&)$%&

8 % (" 1+8%1"& S .('(( ('('8".$=/
$('((7)"8+ /&)$%& .('((

F, × \l Q-, S 2 '*& , B → × - ' *"'(/
")%

$" #$(& ( (7)">&$&5 ( )(&$& < ('( 8(() 8" ( $(1"$( $"
×

n
)1(*%0
, $>& &"0 nn n
5 5 5 5 5 1 "3$4
- , ('(2 3 , ( 11&*4
$&.(l =()%&-, #- (7(8$"3&$+5

'
, 8".$= , (& ()&$ , )(1"$$(& F , (( ('3& -.(&' $('(/
(7)"8&
! $" ()&$ "!&:
&)1%:

1 , ()(: B $(>→,T& 2 #5 [; + B.">*(:× , (3.

→ )(&./
)" -/

-(Q ,F)S (,, (7)">&$& Q S

Z " # 5 $ Q( ( ,F(7)">&$&SB $*=!)=& 2 8"*"$$(:") ()= (: # Z
" ∈
→ ×
, ( , (7)">&$&

F × \ Q S F
, ()(& % , (>& 7=*& (7(8$"3" , # 5
.(beef
\ {" } →
×
gh h h L k ⊂
MN M

K K@k

kM
k N K

K
KL K
MKL

K kB
j B K L[ KQ SKZ
×
A→
K[Q S"<`∈

@
L @

K

K K [ [ −

−
Q F S Q F S M K
" ∈ # ∈ j
Kk #
M <

" # Z " #

0
0

" Q" F " S Z Q" F " ` S M K

" ∈
!

Q
S M Q" S Z Q"` S kM KQ
S " ∈ j
k
@ M L
!
L " KK K K N

∗
K

Q SQ" S Z Q" F " S Z K Q" KF "` S Z " ` K kj K K

B L

"

j
k l -, - &7+ - &*= ?
K , ( )( - '(&(() Q F 8
S Q F S $"

(7)"8(B
$&:$( (.">*%:
, (7)"8 ( )&8(.
$" ( , .($!"
)&8(. - " " Q "F # S2 '*&Q "F ∈S # ∈ -W 2
.($!"
×
", " ` " # 5 1 " ) 5 5

(."8"$(2
n .". = -, )(&$( (')"$3&$& < ,
, ('( (-, (7)">&$+ , $"&'({"}(>$(
) Z 5 " ×W
> , # $" × '.".< , (,.".
)(*(, (7)">&$& 1

'(&(()

8
(>*&)"8-, 1&$$(&
(>*& ( 1&$2 (< (=
, (7)">&$&,1$& × 5
×
, ,

>&$( $" ) - 5 5 5 -$(23 , ( < , ( ( , (7)">&$& ( ( (7)">&$&2 .( ()(&, "!8(7)"/

- (0)"$+& , ()&$ 5
; + .">*('( ( , .)% , ('( $(>& -, 1" ⊂ (>$( )" --( , )& , # "/
)= [ Q SF [ Q S \ Q S Z × F × \ Q S F

, ()= %, 7=*& (7(8$"3" , # 5 F; + *" #$&: Q&'( S1">$(&, ,8$"/
− −

.(3&$&

×
3Q , ( F ( ,&& ")" (>$( Z )"×-- " , )1"×, # .".\ ( , (7)">&$& 5 & ") 2

(7)">&$&
\ {" } →
S 5 ×
×
nE

- 5 5 5 l ( -, )(&$& '(&(() 8"
beef gh h h U Q S Z E ]

Q S ∼ Q S j Bj L A
×

` Z

L @ A
k

L @ L @

k N
N K
K M @ <
× !

Q S Q" S K K KK

A
" ∈

∗
j , k K , - ( -( ,#8=& -+ &(:' - 5n 5n, 5 l,-,= -, # $(>&

!
? -, 1(
=*(1
() & 1()+& = (1, < (: ,&%2
85 % ('*" ( (7)">"&
Q S 1 × {"((` } 21&(< , (=
1= :$*=!)=&

'(&(/,

'(&(() 8 ")
×
Z
×
F
× \
Q S → × Q F
` SH
\ {" }

$"3 ,, 2 Q S ∼Z , × , F - ,× Q \ {" ` }S 5 l )&/
×
$1
32 3&()&=
, ( $$& "Q * S + ( $( & #$%0 '((- (':2 ( =/
')="
∗

8(()
∗
L m
_ Q S Q F S $" Q )+(:
\ {" ` } Z `
S ⊗ Q =&
×
F \ ')= {" ` }
S
Q SF Q F S

L m

Q SF _ Q [ F {" ` } Z
⊗
UQ

S F S

ZZ E )` ] [ 5 l (< , (=\ {" ` } 5 1 ( \ {" ` } Z

\
Q S E ]
−

Q S∼ Q S Q F
−
S

Z ) ×

Z ` ⊗ \ {" ` } 5
×

nG

" -- ( , ) - &*= ? = *"')"=B Q S Q F
` ⊗ x
`S
\ {" }
_
Q F \ {"}S −−−−→ Q S −−−−→ × F × Q S

 ∼
\ {" ` }
∗ ×

∗


Q F \ {" ` }SH
y ∗

%
Q S 8$"&2 Q S 3 , ( Q
Q
S F Q S
Z SQ" ` S 5 l (< , (= ( , (7)">&$&

, -
`$& D"→I → `D" I ⊗ ⊗Q" ` S 2 +1 +& ,-+\ 8(()

∗

"
{" ` } 2 $*=!)(1"$$(& ( (7)">&/

8(5 6 %
- 1&)$4 +
1D" I → QQ S S 2 Q",S( 5 1& -, ( < , ('( ( , (7)">&$+
×

( =3 ( , (7)">&$&
, ,Q%& ".
∗
(7)"8(2 , * + $(>& -, 1" = ,-1&)>*&$&

- -, &%J 1&)$(5 7)"/
1$"$&2
S Q S
` 3
&&( %
, & $&
-, ( (
* #8=&
+ $& - + 1+8$(
1+8$('( ( , #
.)% , ('(8(()

$(>& 81"
-,
Z

5* + l((<, .)%
, (=, ( -, "4 ,-+ -,)(1&) , , - ,
×
: : #2 3: ( & : ,= 1&)>*&$& &% 1&)$(

∼
-,! 1", : [ ∪- :%05 ,$(>&

" -- ( , )1 [*1"2 =3" -,[."∩ (2- &*(1"

( ($(,1&)$(
- & #$(
-,
&:* +$(>&/
-, ":&)"2
#& () "
- ( (7)"8
8"2 ( "$$('( 1 = (1 &%B
- (*$ 8 $0 1 *)='(: ( )&* 1( '((()/
Q:
` [ ∩ : S −−−→ ` Q: [ S ⊕ ` Q: S −−−→ ` Q: [ ∪ : S

  
Q: : S Q: [ S ⊕ [ Q: S −−−→ [ Q: [ ∪ : S H
y y y
[ ∩
×
−−−→

[ × ×
, " , 1$( -, #2 . < , (: *"')"& (>$( *( -" , # -)"1"

×
(0)"$++ .(=
− − −

*"')"= E E
−−−−→ −−−−→
 
 
Q: [ ∩ : S −−−−→ Q: [ S ⊕ Q: SF
y y
× ×
.( , ()(: -, (+ ? & 1$8=2 $= &1%&5 l )&$1 /

×
−−−−→
1&=2 ')=%
, '((
( =3 )&7=&(&5 (':2
! - -# &(: 5n5 U Q S ()=E (: =$1&) -

$%0 ( ( #8(1"1
, ] " #/
Q .(<S ∼ !&$(12 ( =3"& Z )

Z Q SF Z ∼Z ` Q SF Z J (7" 8(() 8"

×
× ×

nn

."$($3&
Q S -.&5 " -- : ∈ Q S 2 - (( , 1&, ,-, 1= ? : '((() , 8=
` , ((→ Z('3& 2 $*=!)(1"$$(=

- .('( $('((7)"8+ "='&$

×
"!&:2 -- $"8%1" KK
: FQ S Q S 5 G " %-(" (*$(8$"3$(

0")". ,
:F Q S &)8=& G,- + ,, &2 3 , (
-, -, " i ,Z ,* + :

1 &0

2 ?, 5& 5
" i ZQ 5 $ F (2 \1{"3"}S 5 $( 2 (8$"3"& 2 3 ( (7)"8= "+
h ∗ '"∈
')=%
∗ ∗
h
l = -, # 9 Z × ; Z × \ Q Q S 5 %('*" : ∈ Q Q9 F ; S 5

;>+, 1.('(( Q ('3& S -.('(

,

. " --" --∈ , , S ,. "---, [ S &/

9 2 Q(<9m S ⊗(= (>$( )" (m Q9)&F ;#S 5 (l $(( (> & #$(&Q S Z/
∗

)(81&*&$& Q 9 F S

Z [ Q S : ∈ Q S5 ; ∗
→
m Q
∗
×
abcdbef gh h 386 cecd 86 e acef 9 h Q S S

j B j M

K
B ∗
→ ×
j
k , .)% , ('( $(>& -, 1"- ⊂ -
-, : K Q; +S .">*('( (

=-" #: $"∈ 5 " --( , ) ' ×
(')"$3&$&
( , $( - , .('((
& #$(& ('3&/)(81&*&$&
.('( . " /
Q S Q S Q Q× S S 5 ; + ∈ Q S ( (>

Q
+ Z

S Q S Q ×
S ×
-,51(2 =*(1, & , 1()+ ? && = - (1 , &/

⊗ →
l = -,n n# [ ' ( , .)%, (&∈ $(>&
×

: −

∗ ∗ −

%
() 5 5 5 % ('*"
8 B '(&(() F 8Q 8 < S(: &%Q $*=!)=& S 5 &()&" 58(/
G 5G
-
n
$"G ⊗ 5 ∈ `(81(
Q
∗
S +& ×
, ,

Q ( (>*& F
×
-,
1 , #S <

&&$
\ {" } →
, Q : S
[ ? < &&$ (
% - ×
,
FG G \ {"⊗}S 2 * + .(,, ()(:\-,{h"} F2 Q'*&" Si Z G Q1 (7(8$"3&$+0 (7)"8= "+ ')=%

∗−
Q , &()&/
'

% QR 5 F5R \ {EZ}S (B -%)&* -,( 1((>*&8(()

1 +& 8"')=%
Q S F \ {" }
S

, , - -, 1%)&8"$+
, 5Q
-, 1&

S 5 l (< , (= 8 & -, & -, 1&$$( -, /)(81&*&$+ - &*=& ,$"2 3 ,$(>&

O((() 8 (7 "*"& & 1(: 1(23 ( [ Z [ (
Q [ S Q: S Z Q [ S [ Q: S Z

Z Q [ S [ Q: S Q S H
∗ ∗−
∗ ∗ ∗
, Q S, &>, , 1 -, , × F - × Q \, {" }S5 %&()&"Q S $/

∗−
∗ ∗
$ ,&&$

$& " ∈(81( Q+&S 5 ( (>*& 1 # &'( < &&$ ( ⊗ " 2 '*&

∗

Q [ S Q S&)&1(* , Q F /)(81&*&$&
−
O((() 8

, G
< &&$⊗ (1Q" S ∈ ⊗ Q S ⊗ ∈ Q ` F ⊗\ {"}S 1 5 $\, ( {(8$"3"& S ,
− −

∗

3 , ( + Q S Z 5 , (7)">&$& 7→ 8"*"4 ,-+ .((8!&:2

"}

− − −

∗ − −

n
8(() 8(1
Q S
× F × Q \ {"}S ∼Z

Z Q S ⊗ ' Q F \ {" }S ∼Z Q SH
→
− ×
∼
Q S Q S 8(() 85
− −
% ". (7)"8(2 + B
- -,- "$*") , $%& )" --=>*&$+ - (Q - &*(1" ,& #$(Q-, # S
×
, ( !#8=+,
→
S
∗ −
":&)"
* +l1 -&02 #&> ()5 "2 ( =3"& 8(()-, 8 +B -, → ,
+ ×
∗ −

>&$& &)&:*4
.(!&&:5 $" =)(1&$#
" , & ( ,!&&:
( ( )(.(!&&:
,Q (7)">&$+ * + &)&:*4
*1(: 1&$$(&. ( , ( (7)"/
(7)">&/
Q[ +S B : 5 ;&: -,S →1 ,& m#$(2
Q S 5 l (.">&2 3 , ( + Z 2
∗
$, 5&5 +.('((

Q S Z (': ∗

× ∗ ∗
Q SF m i Z h F + Q m Si Z h FQ [ S Q: m Si Z
∗ ∗

h+
Z h [ Q SFQ: m Si Z h [ Q S : F m Si J
∗
∗ ∗

-n( #8(1" -# , &2 3 , ( h F m i Z h F m i Q, &()&/

∗ ∗

% n1(n -
" 5-,5 $",- 5 5 , , + ' nS

, "4 + )(1&)
, ,
!)=& .(= " 1$= *"')"= #2 3 ( 8(() 85 , 8(() 8 + $*=/
∗
∗
E −→ ? [ Q SF Z −→ Q S −→ Q SF Z −→ E
−
  
E −→ ? m [ Q SF Z −→ m Q S −→ m Q SF Z −→ E
  
y ∗ y y ∗ ∗
- + + ' 8(() 8%2 ( - .( #.= + ' 8(() 85 (' " - /

− × × ×
*&

# ∗ [
$( / && , (>& 8(() 85
+ ∗
∗

∗

! #! "
l )- *(."8" , & # -, 1& , &()&% (7 8(() l - * -,+ , ((/
8& ? ="$.")&
('3&, %0.0, (($('((7)"8: ,- -
$" ($"*(7+ + &*= & *1" 1(: 1" 8"/
.$= ('3& -.0 $('((7)"8:5
abcdbef gh h h @
j L
<
K
j
k M

L k

j L

R

K A B

j M L
L
N

<

→R

K: Q S
KM MK
KM A Q S

K

⊃A

n

j k K " S l = -, # : [?FHHHF : ' ( ,-.)% , %& $(>& -, 1"2 '(/

&(()
U B U → $%& (.)%1"-- &, 5 , . )=& U'(&(() 8%

\ {# ` } )" ( ) ( (7)">&$& A B 2 8"/

: R

*"$$(& ()= (:
R ≈
→
UQA " S Z ( U Q" S * + " ∈ :: UU JH

#` * + " 6∈
, (7)">&$& AU $&)&)%1$(2 ( -.( #.= A Q" S Z # `5 , (7)"/ #
>&$+ A [ FHHHF (>$(m )"--- " ,,)1"-, # .". (*$(

QU A U , Q (
→
S , (7)">&$&
Q S ,l
A< ,B(= 8→ .(".

[
_ [ ,⊂$(R-, 5 0"=$(2- *()
3 (m&(1(-," 6ZR" 2 m( [A -" &*=& 6 Z A " 5 (/
, 23 ( A
0 0

'(&(() 8 $" A

S ; + .)"-,, .(,-, 7=*& (7(8$"3" Q
S , [ 5

,
'
7
# (7)"8 1 R (>& 5 %/

⊂R

7&)&&>"1 R( *(-, )('(" (3$( 7( # (: - &. - C , ".2 3 , (7% $('((7)"8&
,-) C 5?l ( -, )( Q7& -.($&3$= S , )"$'= +!

!

)( -, -, 1$=
,, )3&)"$ 1" C \ &$& &*=C 5 )&*(7)"8(5 $"3"- " 1(8#4 7")!&$/

-,.(& (*)"8*& -

, , (- =3&$$%0 - , &. - (1 1%7&)&

&2
)!&$ .( ()%& &)& &."
, )3& -.& (*)"8*& 5
&$+2 ; +" <( 0
-, "
#$%& &.- (1
(>&
&. - % 1(8#4
( -, "1 +&0 7&87"/
8&$&$:5 &*=
, ?
-, : "'- *& "&, + , (3$( --,
,- , , ". >& ,,5* 5 ,
, 8 .(". $( &*=& 2 3, (=
( )"= , (3. (+$&" &(-, # (.)& 7(:-, (3.

" ∈ C- \ ? *(- ( (>

- ,

& #$(2(< - - - -, $( -,, #2
&)&
. &." "+$ +, ( (8$"3"&

(7)"8(5

# .($&3$%

, 23 , ( $" 3" .($(-, )=.!+ &. *&:

(12 -,(1 ,)(&$$%0
& #$( ()&/ "/
*& +&l (,-,$&.=
)(
,
, )"$'= +! -
&&)# 1 C )(
-, -, )"$ -, 1" C-, \ 5 HHH
&&: 1( (*$(>& 1 ` ⊂

[ ⊂ $&/

)&)%1$%0 ( , (7)">&$: U B U ,
U $" ' , (>*& -, 1&$$(& ( , (7)">&$&5 ! ."3& -, 1& ` 1(8#4 (7 /

→ ".2 3

, ( ⊂
U (')"$3&$&

1 - &0 1&) $` -&)&1(* -" ,5 ">*=

&*$&$&
,!(3.=-," ∈-, ` (,Q(7)">&$&

!", 1#$('(

7 >": .( = &.

[ . " (3.=

5

3" $(>&
S
$( -,21" ` "U Z( ,"(7)">&$+ -
* + 1 &0 (3&. ,
5
U -, )( , # $*=.!&: ( 5 l )

,< ( )-&)&0(*&- ( , U . Um- [ 7=*= 7=*&

" ∈
, *(7"1 + ,,# -+-$&.( , ()%& UmQ[ ^ GS/

&)$%0 , &. (1- .( &.,- " 5U &$$(2, & &. % UmC [ ⊂ 2

- 8

')"$!% .( ()%0 (*&)>" + 1 2 )34 ( (7)">&$& Um [WC −→ ,

, ,

Um
7)">&$& Um [ $" C [ % 8"*"* - &*= ? (7)"8(5 →" --(5 , )(/
(>$( )(*( > # *( $&)&)%1$('( ( (7)">&$+ C

$ (& , )+ 6& >& . 0 4> + (& ? 0 & + & . 5 '- 7 - 8& +&
>* , )+ 2 :& +7 8=
& '( 4 + &

>4 ⊂R
? '- 7 > & + & 3 & A -* 4 47 ∈> R + &
> 4
+ & - 8 47 ∈
* 1 + 4>*: + &
,> A
k − k

n
- & $&)&)%1$%& , + BC [ →
Um Um [ S>"- ? & (,, (7)"/
1>&$& U 5 l = -, # Q+ S ' *"& , ) U $(>&Um -, 1" 2+)(*(
( (7)">&$+ Q C 5 $(2 3 ( +

QS
, -, Q S l -, T ,

[ 5 E =, # U , (3$"+ ,$>$++

$&')"$#&$#$(>& & *"&
-, )"
-

$(>& - 1"
Q S WC
- T '
Um Um [
1T (*$=E 2 ,,((3.=

1" 1 &0 53

! , & ".(
+ 5 6
- =3"&
( Z 2 ( ( (7)">"&
Um [ Um [ QC ,[ S Z " ,5 6 -
(>

WC
" -,∈ , Um

>&$: 1 ."3& 1& ( (7)">&$+ [ $" C 1%7&)& ( 8 ( (7)"/

+ 2 * + .( , ()('( T 6 Q+ S ] n T 5

- Ul$"= -, #U 5 1Z&( -U)&* _` -,U 21&$$(B 8→ .($ -,')=.! ( , (7)">&$&2.( , ()(&, -,(1"*"& ,

,
S
1*$(25 l (<( ,< (=( ( ((7)">&/
∞

$&

$&)&)%1$(

, , 1( 1 - &0 , (3."0
, $(>& -, 1" , -, "4 ,-+

)(1&)
, (3.& " 2#2.)(& 3 ( * ,+('(2 .">*(:-(*&)> (3. ", ∈( , .)%(, =(7)">&$& \
-, -,$&)&)%1$(
(.)& $( # (3. " 5

,

1
beef gh hgh Q FM @S ] X E @ N

N k E
j <
K

" ∈ C\
"

k
K K K

X

"
j
k ! , =)" -#$(& 3 - ( , ".2 3 , (- *"& ,-) /
- K - %7&)& $" ,

7('(
&$# &.
l -," /'(
7")!&$ )3& .('(
- (*)"8*&
- -, ? &$+
, - &. " C
-(1 /'(&- X57")!&$ = # , )3& -.('( (*.( &. 1&$+2 C( 2.((+ , ()%& : 8$& &0&)& - &./,
'
(*)"8*&

, -, , , &."

3- (- 5((26 $")&)2

Z ∅X52 6(- 1 ."3&6Z ∅1&2 , ((>$( 18+ #Z Q|7(& (| F (>S 5 $&, (#$(&
( (> 3/

, & #$(2- ( -,-.( #.= $(>& -, 1" | | .(". , $%&2 )/

(>

34l($ $& &)& &.", Q+5 F S ] , ?

- )&*( &. - (>2

/'(
-
,
3
7")!&$ ( , "
)3&

- .('(
-
5
% ('*" " 6∈ | | 2 (< - (= /&)$%:
(*)"8*&
-,&$+ C 2 (*&)>" : " 2

, ".(: -

-

*(7")!&$
>&$ ,&)& &."
- # 5
(' ",- $( $"
l &:
, .($ )=.! - - &.
-,(*&)>"-?)3& . (*)"8*& ,- +& +5 (< (= Q/&)$%: ^ GS/ "'&5&.;"& 8 , )2

: " 2 -( =3"& + $& )"$&& 3& $"

".('( &. " &$# & X5
; , + .">*(:
, , (3.
-, " -, ⊂ R * + .">*('( X

HHH m E -,
, ( )(
, m - -, &/
= (Q ,.)% m [ S ⊂%0 (.)& $( &:Z {`#⊃∈ R[⊃| k" −⊃# k] [X}1 5R! ."3& ".2 -,3 1&( ` [1%7&/
∈

2 '*& ⊂
( .)% , (&-, 1((*$(>& -, 1( 1 ,- 2.( ,-,()(& -(*&)> , , (3.=-, " 2.)(&

)&
, ('(2$(>& ` ∩ , ".>&+1 +&-3 ,+"*(=

%` ⊂(*$(>& 1(2'(&(/

, , 5 l ) > G (.)& -, /

() $%
-, # U -, )(
$(1%7&)&
R 5 @=*&
,-Q+ S ( E(.)&

#2 3 ( C
-, $(, -, U [ - &*=U ? , (7)"8(5 -$"3" "
- , U ⊂

3 ( X ".2 3 ( [ 5 " &2 ( #8=+ ]# &/
−

(: 5 5 21%7&)& 3 ( ".2 3 ( & # C \ k" − # k Q S 2

n - Q S , , -

−
∈
n

, ( Q 7(: S /&)$%:
- -, &.,- 8Q S 2]- (*&)>"
, Q S ,? : ,# 2&& , *"& , )-,&$#/U
&1%7&)&X 5 ,(>$( 3 " #2 3 (

".2 3 , (7% ($( - (*&)>" ( X

- # 1 5 .)%
U Q -

(& 1 R $(>& 1(
(*&)>"

( , (3.=

SJ
, -, U , -, -,

.)(&
'(&(() ('(2$(>& 1( ∩, *(- >$(, " ,7%#2 3#,*(=
$% Rm 5 @=*& ".>& 3

( U ⊂ %
C 5
$(>& 1(2 "
l = -,? # # ∈ l [ \ -, 2 C Q# S - ' /&)$%: - - &.- - 8 Q S2 -(/

*&)>" , :
>" 1Q S [ ⊂ 5, 6 # 5 ( ( )(&$
m - 1'

& 1&)
1&) $%
$" -
&.
&. - "
" C
C Q# S 2 ,&/(
#
- - - Q S

k 6 k − " k 2 (< (= (7)"8% 1 &0 1&) $ &. " C # )

,( (7)">&$
, m
-, &>" 1 - [ ⊂$(Q S R5 2 (< , (= ( , (7)">&$&

k −

$(>& 1( ∩ - '(&(() 2 8"/

# 2 (>$( )(*( > , # $" &'( )4/

*"$$(& $" 1&) $"0 &.

" C
,S2 C-,[ ⊂ 5 ( , (7)">&$+ 2 8"*"$$('( $", 1&) $"0
-, C&.[ 5-" $"3
7)"

C
,Q # 2 & # )(*( >&$&

n Q

$"
^ GS)&7)( , C [ 2 * + .(, ()('( -,*"/

&QC )[ S(7)"8"
&$# <& ('( Q )&7)"
^ GS ]&$#Q S 5& ($!% )&7)" 2(< C(=[ &>"

*"&, 1 ) $(>&

2 (< , 1"
(=

QC [ S ⊂ [ ∩ 5

-- , Q(>$( , #S* + n/&)$('(!( -, (1"-, -,, 5* 5

! %, ".& >& )" =>*&$+ )&$

S Q
−
Q#mS ∈('& ( 2 (<

=32, 3 (,C # ⊂ C # ⊂ ` ,Z 5 3" $(, 2

(= ( (7)">&$& $&)&)%1$( 1 (3.& # 5 )(& ('(2

[⊂ 5

beef gh
h h
M @ N jM L
j M
< K k
L L

Q S M
M [| | K N
K
K
K

×

K

j
k ! - -# ,, &()&(:,- 5n 5 2 1 (> 1 R,

K -, -, ( ( : #8(1"1 ,

$(1%7&)&
-, -(.)&,&*=& ,$(2 3 , (# F(>$( 2 .( ()"+ 1%7)" )&, #)"')=&
X E , + $", - 5 , 8 .(".
".2

3 ( & )" --, (+$& /

1&>
R &>*= (3." " # ∈

,, 1 : 5 &$# & X2 , ( ( , )&8(. - .($!" " #

,

(7)">&$+
-, [ $"
, $(>& , -, 1& Q S -(1"*"-, , 5-,l (< , (= .(/
".
-, 1"Q S$(Q #QS ,S".23(81(
, ( * +&+ ,1%7)"7(: # 1 ) ∈ × )" --,(.)&(+$&$(&>*=
, (3. # , (3."

$(>&/

- , [ Q:) S , Q) S &> ,:1 : 2 (/

) , ) &$# & X5 )&8(. .($!"

,< [ (=

(81( (+& ,(7)">&$+

( < , (: '(([| , ( | ('(( -, )( ,($%# '((1 , (5 & )".!+
1 5 B →

" -- (Q ,F )S (Q ,F(7)">&$& B × $*=!)=& , ( ,2(7)">&$&

8"*"$$(& ") ()/
=B (: →" # Z 5 # " S 5 $ , ( ( , (7)">&$&

→ ×

× ×

n
beef gh h h K ∈ Q S Z Q− GS

∗
×

∗
j
k l -, -, (&, ,( , .)% , (& (*$(>& -, 1(
K = # -- , *(=
'
2 '(&(() $(& R 5 " ( ) .(= " 1$= *"')"=

Q S Q S
U U
∗
∗
× −−−−→ ∗
×
 
F × \ Q S −−−−→ × F × \ Q S
y ∗
y ∗
∗
-
×
& , ") , × '((()

*& # F × 82 Q S$*=!)(1"$$%: 1. )(1&/
3&$/
'
5 &'.(
∗
F × -, \ Q S ∼Z Z5 ;&: -,, 1 , & ,#/

)$(2 #2 , (3$"+ 3 ( ( - &*(1"

\ → ×
,

F ×Q S \ Q S &Q ∼Z#$( #E[ S ")% (."8%1"&

QE S 5 )(&2 3, (/,(
×

[ 5, $"3 2

'(2
−
× × \
≈Q R × R \Q { } ∼ R \ { } ∼
F S S ?

×
, <×&&$\ , Z∼Z Q: S 2 '*& '((()
\
[ [ Z Z 5 7)"8= &: < (: ')=/

−
%1. -3&$&

=> 8 $*=!)(1"$

×
∼ −

−
5
∗ ∗
l (.">&2 3 , ( Z Q− GS 5 l ")" × F × \ Q S '(( , (/

⊂
,$ " -'(( , $",-")&- R ×? R F R × QR \ ,{E}S ∼-,QR F R -\ {E}S 5

3& . <.11" &$)(

∗
, (+ -,

1$&.">*( - (& {# ` } × R
+ ,&*= (3.= QF (7)"8(5
` ` S 2 )$"* (>*&
&>" ? = 1Q S 2 -R*1/
1 , (3.=-, Q# `,FES,, ".2 3,, (7% ,- (: &)& # #

Q FES 4 1 - &7+5 $ ,Q= '((

F ,S(

(>$(
-,- " , (3$(( E)()( -l &*# ,".2
#2 .".3 (7% *&:(3." -, 1=& #`
, $" &)& - "(:21 $")&)2
(*$ # ` −# ` 5 ;(/

$"5
(: `
l ( - & '(( Z 5 (* *&: -, 1& , (3."
QEF ` S &)&0(*
, (- ( =3"& , (3.=, Q" ` FQEF−" ` S 5 S )(&!)(1"1 , 1 , (3.= Q ` FES
, = , (3/
#
-
.= B$" QR0(*$%:
"
, < "
FR, \ {E(:2 S, ( =3 Q, R F R(3.=\ {E}S −$*=!)(1"$

" ` 5 $"3 2 '((() , 8

" ` 7→ −" `5 &&$# < ('( ( (7)">&$+ )"1$" − 5

∗ } → Q GS ( (7)">&$&
l = -, # ' ,
( .)% , "+ (.)& -, $( -, # $(>& -, 1" Q-, S 2 =*(1 & , 1()+/
? - n

"+ = - (1 , &% 5 5 5 -,"&$1 ) $1")"$

$&(70(*(, $" (, $( -$" , & #$(∩ 25
, , -,

(>$( 3 " #2 3 ( (.)& $(

l ( (> : Z ×, , \ 5 %('*" := ⊂ × \, Q S 2 (< , (/ #

= (>$(
F \ )&$ Q S ∼Z# &()&=

Q S 5( $1%)&8"$

,,( (81( +&, ()&*=3-, "1 # 8(()

8
, # 8(()/

8 %(" 1 1*& .((8! ( (7)">&$:

∗ ∗
×
∗
Q∗ S −−−−−→ Q S −−−→ F \ Q S ∼Z Q SF
| ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ ∗
×
n

'*& : '
(')"$3&$&
- , , . " --" %(" $" 5 l = -, # ∈ Q S 5 ! ( -/
( #8(1"1 # &2 3 ( [ Z 2 ( =3

0 ∗
×

Q [ | S Q S : Z Q | S Q S Q: S Z

Z Q− GS Q | S Q S : H

∗ ∗
0 ∗
∗ 0

0
Q S Q S , Q S Z Q− GS Q S 2 " 8$"3 , 2 Z
∗
1 (Q GS[ | ∼ - | 2 (< '(=

Z − 2 ( .( #.= 8(() 85 ∗ ∗ ∗

∗
∗

- , - , , (1(,* + *(."8" , & # -, 1" 8(() 8"
% &&)# = $" -(3 1 4 '( , l,=/
("$.")&5
('3&-7&* + # 1 (2.($&3$(
.('( $('((7)"8+ 3 ( ')=%

'(( (': 8".$= ('( (/
()(>*4$$%&5
abcdbef gh h h
L Q SK

j L

j
M < K

<

j
k

-3: , " , #2 3 , (, ,1 (>&$(, 1 R 5 " --,-( , )
∗
, ,K @=*&
-,

1l =R-, #( C.)% ' (&-$(>&&. - 11(R 2 -⊃(*&)>"2 )&? :)".: 5(".(--, (+$&
()('( +1&>*= +& + .(/5

". , $%
, $(>&
, -,,1" , C \ : -( (> ,-& #$(2 (< , (= ,(>$(

1%7)"
-.('( (*)"8*&# ". &$+

2 3 (-
*"&&.-)" C7('( &$#

& 5 &. " /'( 7")!&$ )3&/

-" -- ( , ) - ,!" -#$%: .( &. - 2 -( -, (+ ?,: 8 , &0 --/

,&. (15 /'(-$(27")!&$

,3 ( )3& .('( : (*)"8*&

⊂| |⊂ 5 = # B| |→ U
l -, &$+ C 2 .( ()%& &)& &."/
'
(')"$3&$&
)&& ,-,+)".! ,

5 ((8!+ ( (7)">&$: → Q +1 ' +/

:
, (>*& -, 1&$$% ( , (7)">&$&2 , Q S − S

(< (= B

→ −
→ | |
Q S ,
<()
Q S 85

( ')="()(>*4$$"+5
, (>&1.($&3$( | | .($&3$( ()(>*4$$"+2(< (= ')="
∗

| | → ∗ ∗ ∗
abcdbef gh h 386 cecd 86 e f 7 fdb 9 h L K k

j
L
∗

L

j

< kK N
K L @

D I∈ Q S B L

Q SKK K Q K S j
B

A

L QT S T D I M M
B M j →B j

A

Z K K

−

j
k l -,
= # . "∈-- P D Q I 5S '" --(!., )2 )&* -, "1 + /

? : P=$*"&$ K , " #$%:

,
P Q S 2 8"*"$$(& ()=Q (: T( Z(7)">&$&
0
B Q S
T 5

,Q8 )"1&$

S -, 1"

QT
→
W ZS E Q - &*=&
GS , 2
−
T 3 , ( W

^ T Z GS Q
GS 2 (
T -.( #.=

−
0 0
0
WZ Q− GS Z W Q T S 5 Z$"3− , 2 ( , (7)">&$& W &)&1(* Z − , .(!. Z

0
−
0
0
1
0
0 −
0 0 0 −
0 0
− 0

n
!.
-(1"*"& 2 (<,, (= ($( $*=!)=&
- '((() , '((() 8 Q.( S'(( (':2 .( , ()%:
8( 5
l ="$.")& % -$"3" " *(.">& * +l.(<, /

% &()&=
, (7 8(() 8&
, , (1 Z 5 (< '(/
!&$ (1 Z--2 " ,=>& 8, < Q('(S 1%1&*& &4- * + .(< !&$ ,
= 7=*&, " ,)"1$(&".()1"
.(= #!( #- &*$!&:5
.( '(( (' .(< !&$ " 2 '*&
;× + (7)"8 '(( <('3& -,.0 . " -- (1 QF ∈ Q J JS S (7(8$"3 3&)&8
, &()&% $$&
8(7(8$"3
&&$, "5" ; +⊗.('((
1 ('3&×-.0 . " --)

∗
(1 T F
∗
($(()

Q 8& JSS

T , QTS Q S
3&)&8: ∈ × Q < &&$S ' [. " -- %("5∈ ;" &&2 :× Z Q: S5
Q
∈ J
∗

". )"$&&2
∗ ∗ ∗

, S Q Q × S 2 -S((l, 1& ,-, 1= ? : : ) '((() 8&

& 7=*& (7(8$"3"
S 28"*"$$"+ )(81( #$(: , (3.(: " ∈ 5 1 ".($&!2
, &&$ D I )&* -, "1Q &$ 1 Q S × Q S !.S ( Q S QD, IS 2

(<
&$ ,(=D" I ×'((()
$
D I 1 Q 8S Q"BS 5 $"3×, 2 →
" ×
∗

&)&1(* < &/

×
∗
: FD I D I Q: SFD" I × D Ii Z h: FQ S Q" Si Z GH

∗
" × iZh
--% D" I × D I D , I × D"DI (I =3"D I ,-Q+ *)=' -)&* -, 1(
h ∗ ∗
"
)&(7)"8(1"$+ 2 (< (= × " Z − " × 5 %". (7)"/

GS D 8
I *)='"
D I (
8(2 ∗
: FD I D I Q GS : FD I D I GH

Q 5GS

× "iZ − h iZ
T
" ×
, ( ;(.">& &? 4 (*$= ()= =B & - ∈ Q J S ∈ Q J S 2

h

: QT
S Z Q− GS : Q × T SJ

Q 5nS
--# (*)"8=&1"& ,- , : Q × J S 5 ;&: -, 1 , & #$(2 -(/
×
8*&
' " $( && 5 5 n +2 3 ( ∈
Q− GS : QT × S Z : QT × S Z
Z Q GSQ: Sm : QT Q × TS ZSH

∗

∗
∗
Z−

, -, : - , -, Q nS : 5
×
, 8 < ('( )"1&$ 1" * +

-$(1$"+ !& # $" 0 1%3&*=&- &$:)"1&$- ( -, (1(, 1 5 , (2* +3 , (7% 1%)"8 , #
: F QT S : FQT D IS

× i Z h

h × i
nE

3&)&8 T F i 5 ; + < , ('( (( ()= T QQD5GS I Q 5nS S$=>$% 1%)">&$+

QT h
GS QD
*T +× G Z× QT S QGS×Z QT S ×G G × T Z G× QT5 l S(5 l()&*&
I S QG S
(< , &$
(=
[ QT GS QD [I S QT S QD I S

∗
∗ ∗
∗
QG × S QD I × S Z QT S QD I ×× SH
× × Z [

T
∗

∗
l = -, # D ` FHHHF - I D ` FHHHF I ' - - D FHHHF? & 1 I)&*D -,FHHHF , &/I

-- D I &. %2 10(*+ "1

)&* &: '((

-, "1 ('3&
+& , -.0
(7(: . "-==(1 - &.5 %- (1('*"D ` FHHHF
` m I 2 × '*&` U Z

ZZ QQ UU FF UU mS S 5l ()()&*&< , (&$ Um [ Z Q U m [ F U S Um [ Z

[

[ D ` FHHHF m I Z hT [ QTF SFDD FHHHFFHHHF m mI DIi D FHHHF

QT S ` FHHHF I I Z

∗ ∗
Z hT FD [ FHHHF i m` I D FHHHFZ IF

QT S D ` FHHHF m I ZZ hhT FD FHHHF m IiD ìFHHHF` IH

∗
V,D (7% FHHHF ( =3m I -# D $&$=FHHHF&1%& m I1%)">&$+2 , - &. -%

>*&$$%5

( 1,

()( - =3"& - &.- D *(` FHHHF>$% m 7% I <#, $&1%)(/

= -S (/
1& T F ()&*&D
!
I +& ,-
D +IJ (*$(8$"3$(2
-, D I (< , (= , D I QT S
,
QD ,

I
× Z
- , --

Z-1+8$('( × ` 1& ( ` (>$( 18+ # " 2 ( (= 3 ( 1 & (3.

∗

, , , E

'((
h i
(':5

$('((7)"8+
&)1( - =3"&
8"*" (*$ ( >& , /&)$%:
(*$(8$"3$( ()&*& 4$ ( #.( - . &." -

D - FHHHF m I 5Q; +F -
!
S &. -" QD ` FHHHFF S m I *( >$(- 1%(, $+ ,-# -+ , ( #.( - (1

=)"1$"(1&D `` FHHHF Z ` ` I × D `ZFHHHF I5 l (<5 , (= =" 1QT&0 S ".0QD &.

[ I × Z
S
Z QT QD IS × 5 ,

−

∗
−
% &&)# % ( =3"&2 3 (

: FQT D IS : FQT GS QD I S
× i Z h × iZ
Z h: QT × GSFD I × i Z
h ×

Z :hFQG: QGT ×S T SFDQD I I × S i Z

Zh × × iZ
Z h: F hT F i D I × D" Ii Z[

Z[ Q− GS hT F iF

nG

, 5& 5
F QT S × i Z Q− GS hT F i H
: Q 5 S
, Q 5 S (81( +& , - *& " , # 1%1(*2 3 , ( & - T 6Z E 2

h
, ( ((QT $(S 6Z &$& E 5 $"3 , 2 ( , (7)">&$+ Q J S −→ Q J S

Q J S Q J S ' ($(()

, Q −→ J S ' -, 8%5

-, 6 - .( #!( +1 -,+& ,-+
−
($(& &2)( -,( )"$ -, 1= Q $&:$(& S )(- )"$ 1( $"* 5n (5 < ,& )(2*1(: 1&$/1"
−

J 5 (' " $( , &()&&
, (= ($ 8(() $% (*$(= , (= >& $&:$(/ -, )"$ -,
.($&3$(&)$%&2 (<

= )( -, -,
)"$ 1= 5 % ($&:$%0

=3 )( *1" -,($(() -, 8" , → ,

→ .($&3$(&)$%0 ,- )"$ 15 &*(1" ,& #$(2 <
−
($(()
−
8%l +1 + + 8(() 8"5 % ". ,(7)"8(2 '&()&"-,(7
38(()
- (5 8& ="$.")& *(."8"$" * + .(< !&$ (1 Z 2 )( (&
V, (7%, *(."8" , # , &()&= (7 8(() 8& l ="$.")& * +P .(< /
!&$P m Q (1 Z2 P
S ( -, )(
Q S !&$(:
, P .(
P &.m - Q- ')="
S ⊕ P Q !&&: S 5 O)"$3$%: Z
Z'((() [ ⊕ = P P 2 5& 5 Z
[ −
8 W B → [ 8"*"* ()= (:

−

m m m
−
W=QT [ F S Z Q− GS T [ F W ^ QT [ S H
−

, #2 3 , ( W=W= Z E 5 ;&: -, 1 , & #$(2

− − −

&'.( )(1&)
m
W=W=QT [ F S Z T m F Q ^ QT m S ^ Q GS Q T m S EF
Z − m[ W W m [ − [ Z
−

( -.( #.=, W -, QT ,[ S Z ,Q− GS [ - QT ,m [ S 5 -,

− − −

, && & ( .()( ."+ (3$"+ ( &*(1" & #$( #

− −

E → P Q S → P m [ Q S ⊕ P Q S → P m [ Q S → EH
8 , ".0( -.()( , .0, , (3$%0 - &*(1" , & #$(- -, &: ')= -. "*%1"& ,-+
− −

, (3$"+ -, ( - ,
P →&*(1" P Q &S #$( #,-!&$%0 .(, ( &.#.((15- , (3$(
*& #2-,)"1*"2 ( (7)"/$(
,
>&$&
':< , ('( *( +1 +& + !&$%
-, " , (3$( *- + (l-, )(&$+ ,,(3$(:,( -, &*(1" , & #$(
∗
# *( 8$"."2
-, '(( (/
- ,
∗
!&$%0 .( &. (15 (.">&2 3 (

[Q m1 < (: (3$(: ( &*(1"
S →P m[ Q Q S S-(1"*"& & #$(/
--,! '((()
-1+8%1" 8(
P
?
: '((()
5

, ;&:
QTFES-, 8
1 ,,& #$(2 =
, -,
−
# T
,-

T [ , --Z 5
−
T E,
%7&)& 1 Z < EF&&$QTS 1(8#4 2 .( ()%:1 P( Q(7)">"& + 1 <5 , ('(" &< )"&&$(/
−
∈
, ) = QTFES S , "5

$ W
)"1&$ QTS 5

, (7)">&$& T QTS )((7)"8
-, -
& # 1+8%1" : '((/

?
Q S

() 8 $" =)(1$& !&&: 5

7→

nn

= >& ,- "=, .($ -, )=.!- ,(>$( -, )&$ , # * + .(< !&$ , (1 Z

( =3 # (3$= ( &*(1" & #$( #
%
HHH → Q J Z S −→ Q J Z S →
−

QP J S [ Q
m J S HHHF
, , - , ,
→ Z → −
Z −→
1 .(QP ()(:J Z S Z'((()

E 5 1 ( 1--8% 8(() 8%5 , 8 < ('( &*=& 2, 3 (
∗
QP S
'
8 $"3 ()= % =$1&) & ')=%

" #$%0 .(< !&$ .($&3$(
, (1 - ()(>*4$$%&2
&*=& , 2 3 , ( QP (<S Z(=E 5
, 2 ' 8(() 8 * + .(< !&$ , (1 Z5
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

∗ ∗
7(& , -1+8$(&
- , 8".$= , (& , ((, ('3& -.(&, $('((7)"8&
, - ()&$ , /-
)=&(
-=>*&$+( $(Q,Q( #.( & #$(1 =)(.(< ? !&$ (11*&ZS 2 (."8%1"
(< (= ,&2 >&3 , ( "%& )" /

4$$(

J Z ,-S → Q J Z S 2 8"*"$$(& ()= (: QT S Z ( , (7)">&/

$&
Z T

B
D

I
2 +1 +& + 8(() 8(5

−

! #!
; + , ((,- ('3&, -.0 $('((7)"8: , &()&"l (7 8(() ,8& &- &/
!"-0&&2
1%1(*,, ( +* 8+ ', &()&%
3 "*.0 (7 8(() 8&1 ( , &&)#
$('((7)"8:5 ="$.")&$"($=>$" (: >&, &()&""(:
(7(1()( - $.& * + (( ('3& --.0 $('((7)"8:2 , .( , ()"+ *(."8%1"&

-, , ,-+
*"&$ && , "(>$(23&
#$%: . "1--' ()&$
"*.(, )(1"$$('(
=3"&5 )(&, ((('(2$=>$(

('3& - .('( ($('((7)"8+

)( # =$/
- .)"& *(."8" , # &'( -1(: -, 1"5
% &()&=
D IJ ( 1()( , $.& * +- , ((,('3& D GI -.0 $('((7)"8: *(."8"
@)"=$ $" & 8 (>&$& &*=& 5

abcdbef gh h 3c 4 cdc 78 b 9 h L K k

j

L K L DE F GS

< KN

:K
Z W
K

K
B j : K

B
DEF GS N k ×

B

Q" S Z Q" F ES M K
<
" ∈

→ ×

<

j
k
-
=?,(3.
,

,> -,K1
: Q ;,FES.2+ .3,>*(:

(> ( 1 B 7):= ×, DE1F GI
→, .) /2
-,- 1= ", ∈1
:=>
*
+2
.
< ,
)

= 8
#. Z # {*:= +} 1
0>
# ∈ -, 1
.
. , /
5
>

:= FHHHF :=

} ;
<
> =

: FHHHF :

= ?
> ' [ FHHHF

[
{

n
%

=
: U

<

=

{ }
>

{ U }
=U ⊂ : U

m

= × D− GF EI

>

+ B ×{ }→ E ? = = Q" F ES
=
" ∈

?

U B := U × DmE F GI → = :

⊂

=>

m

> U B := U × D− GF GI →
=
:

( UQ S
" ∈ ::== UU × DDE FGFGIJEIH

UQ S
" Z
"
" " ∈ × −
:= U E
1 × { }

>

<
=
=

> U B →D− GF

EI = U = m

=
Z E G

A ? > B → Z

=
B

U =Q

3f 9 UQ S
A " Z − " ∈ Y_ [ Y
A Q" S Z − G " ∈ SJ
G

S
3 9 UQ S F UQ S J

" Z " A " " ∈

349 U Q S
Z ∪ { Q" F S | > AU Q" S }

= m

>
'

l
<
=
= E =

U[

> ` Z A` @= AU
U A

U [ =>

U U

#
≡
U [Q S

>
U [ [ Q U S ⊂U :=Q × DS− GF GI:= U
>DE

−

F GIJ
−

>
<
= [ [ ⊃ ×
−
− −
<

>
>
−

+U B U [ U Q S := U
D GF GI

−

−

[ → × − =

>

" ∈ =U

" ∈

D− GF GIJ
=
= <

>
B + U U [ U [ Q =U S Z

−

:= U D GF EI l
+ U

−
Z>
Q:= U <
>
−
× − : U S D GF
GI
:= U

E V

>
S
\ × −

=
× { }

:= U : U

=U

? Q

=
> >?

U B :=

U → DE F GI

<

\
l
= = = =
E := U \ : U G

n

>
U−[
U [ Q S
−
=U Dl G= UQ S' U QS

^

>
=U DA U− [ Q" SFGI

U Q SQ GSFGIJ
D− GF GI

" :A= U− [ :"U DA U"−[∈Q" SFGI

= <

=

=
− " −
Q F S U− [ U Q S

UQ

> "∈ \

>
;
+ " F S Z " F Q S J

m> + U

" ∈ [

>
> U B U Q S →
=

−
U Q" S Z ( U + U U−[ Q" S " ∈ U−[ Q S ∩ UUQQ:=U ×SHD− GF GISJ

= " ∈

U >
"
U U U
Z − [

U

U Q
1

S
Q:=U \ : U S × D− GFGI =:=U

> U +Q
>
U S
E
× { } U '
>

>

=
+
>

=
>

>

U [ Q S ∩ U Q:=U × D− GF GIS Z U Q:=U × DE F GIS ∪ { Q" F S | > A U [ Q" SF " ∈ :=U}

= Q
S Q S
−
U [ = AU Q" S

−

Q S

Q S
−
l = '

W

=

=

= <

>

= ?

;
" ∈ \ W
>

=

\W

L
N T →
= <

= ? =

n
Q" S '
= ?
=
" ∈ \ W
<

A

=

=

=

W
>
=
>

W
=
Q F W S B L
O

kN
B Q F
W
S
∈
Q F \ {""}S∈Z \
W

>

= ? = =
∗ →
abcdbef gh hi h L k j

Mj

L

K K

A M
< K K
L
L

N B L
k N

W
K MK KZ Q" S K

" ∈ \ W KK

Q F S
W

MjN @ B j Q F S → [ QjWM S

K B L
k N W B j L W

∈

KK

Mj W j M

Q S j
∗ −

WB
k N K K

W L

∗

KK
j
k

K
Q= ?S Q =S

=
Q
=

<
=

= ∈

S

Q S Z "
" ∈ =

= ; <

∗

=

Q F \ Q \ W S ∼Z Q F W SH

= Q S \ W

$Q
S

>

<

1

=
0

=
=
Q S \ W ⊂ >? Q S

'
;
0

=

=>
#

0 0

Q B S = lQ S \ W ? Q S

<
=>

0
0

<

0

Q S → Q F \ Q \ W S −→_ Q F W SH
∼

Q S <

! Z "
l = " ∈
!

W [
"

W

=

−

n

Q{ " F S:| "Z∈W [×F DE∈F DGSE FG nI

>Z

−

>
Z
} ,

=
F W S −→U

Q Q F \ >? S Q F S

∗

←
_
#
− W ∗
_y
∼
  
U
 ∗  ∗ ∼ ∗
y y

[QW S −→

0
∗
[ Q  \ >? S
#
←−

[QW S 0
∗
_y
− − −
 
[ QW F W \{ " }S −→_ [ \ >? FQ \ >? S \{"} ←−_ [ QW F W \{" }SH

y ∗ y ∼
∼ # # ∼

O

<

− − −

Q

=

=>
=

<

= S

Q S B Q F W S →∈ >?Q F \ {l# }
l
= #
#
S

F W S −U→ Q F \ >? S → Q F \ {# }SH

Q
∗
Q S SQ S Z Q# S Q S
= ? =

∗
$ Q
F
? = \{ # Q} ∼Z FZ
?\<

∗
>? =S <∼

> Q

F S = Z

>

= =
Q S Z Q S
Z Z
#
=
∗
W

Z
∼

Q S W Q S Z

=
0 0
Q S l Q S
∗ ∗

0
Z W \ >?
<
FQ =
>? S <
W Wl <
=
∗ ∗ 0
[ W Q S
= ? Z
<
=
<

0 0
∗ ∗

QS

∗ ∗
<
W
# #
\ \ { " } ∼ Z
? Q S Q S
−
> = ?

∗

= Q

0
=

W F W

<
S

W ∗
[

ZW
∗ ∗
Q

W S ' = − \ { " } ∼ Z $

% =>

∗

=
'

=

l S >
[? '
Q F
= Q S W Q S
=

>

%
W
[ QW S
[ = ?

>

W ∗

'

∗ =

l
<
= [ − ∈ W −

=

\ W :
∗
,
<DE F Q = S
= Q>
=

Z W :
×
GS l

<
=

Z
∼ \
S E
W Z
\

n

Q S → Q F W S −→ [ QW S
∗

= W Z E
−
%
>

Q
> =>

S
?

= =

=
=

= >

abcdbef gh hii 386 cecd 86 e b b f 9 h L k

L

Kj

D N I ∈ QQ FFW SS BL Q
S< K k N Q KKS K Q FW BjS

j BN
LW

D I M M @B KM j → Bj W

→

−

−

Z

f f f
gh hih j
L K k

L

j
<K

K
@
K KM W
K <
j W

[ j M W

N j
k Mj N

K K K K

B j Q F S Q F S j N

[

< D I M M
M j → j

L

K

B −

"# $ )) #

§ n G

n G
n n

Q
G GE
,

n ES

abcdbef gh hi 3 b d 77 bd 9 h L Kk N −N

j
FHHHF

< K

[@ N ^ G

L K

K KK
6K−

L
N

N
M
j

< <

K

6

M M
M

B

K K [ ∩ ∩
M<
< KM −B
K
K LLK
K HHH K A < K

k K
k K − ^ n jK
K FHHHF

<

K K [ ∩ ∩
[ A <

N @ HHH

<

!
n

j FHHHF

k K l

[

G ,

FHHHF G G

[ FHHHF6 −

[
n

l

[ ∩ HHHl ∩ * Z E l

Q S > G^G n QZ* S [ ∪E HHH ∪

n Z

nG

Z
Q* S Z E

− n 6

−

> ^ n
Z * − n l
Q * S 6Z E *

*
'

Z
6 Z

G GE Q* S Z E , ' Q S

−

Z $
'

* 6 Z l

1

l

HHH [ ∩ HHH ∩ 6ZE l

[ ∩> E ∩

Q
HHH

S
E

6Z
[
^ G Q S

GG
Z
Q [ ∪ HHH ∪ G SGE6Z E l

∩ ∩

−

∪ HHH ∪
^ G

[Z > E

6 ^ G 6
^ G !

Z

6

−

HHH

[ ∪ ∪

l

^ G
^ G ^G

−

6 −

6

−

Q

S
[ ∪ HHH ∪

−
Z
,
HHH
'

1

Z [ ∪ ∪

f f f gh h h N ^Nn M M N MN
LK N K K M

^G j

@

KN K

<
K KK K K K

6

A

K

< <

n

# " # # #

nE l

n E

%
1

U" Q S

U

%

" ` Q SlZ G " Q S Z E

B [ → '

#
U Q S UQ

S

" Q S Z "

∗
∗[QS Q [S

∗ ∗

Q

∗ S Q S

B →

Q S −−−−→ Q S

∗

 
 
y y
[

Q S

−−−−→
l

∗ Q ∗ S Um

U QT S Z
Z T P Ul−
[ Q
T PU_−[[ Q− UmGS [ " U Q ∗ ST − U ∗ QT S Z
∗
Um U Z

Z ∗ _ [ − GS [ " U Q ST − Z PU_−[[ Q− GS [ ∗ " U Q S ∗ QT − SJ∗ Q T U S

∗ ∗ ∗
U

∗
Z

Q

S ∗ QT S Q S
Z

U Q
S U Q S

" ∗ Z ∗ "
∗
∈

l

Q

Q S

S

PUm
UQ

S Q S Q

" ⊕ Z
Z Y_ " " Y

S

E ! E

[ ⊕ { } { } ⊕

[ l

[

⊕

Q S Q S

Ql

⊕
S

EE

Q S Q Q S S QS

Q

Q
Z ⊕ \ Z ⊕ \ S
S

:
Q ⊕ S

U UQ S

U

PU Q
GS Q GS Q S
Q [ SZ _` − " # ! Z Y_` − Y "Y # Y # Z

P

Z "Z[ Q ⊕ SZ

Z

− −

# #

Q F S
⊕

B
HHH → Q F S −→ Q S −U→ Q S → HHH

∗

∗

Q S

∗

1

Q S l
P Q

U
U

[ Q S

U_` − GS " UQ S T Q Z E S
Z A Q [ S

l Q

S Q

S

Q
# ZQ "S [ T Q

S
−
" [ Q S Z

∗

A [ ZB

Z
" [ A " [ [ Z A Z

" Q [ S Z

l

S
⊕

[
∗ ∗ ∗

[ ∈ Q F Q S F :S

[ Z [

0
Q F :∈ S E

0

EZ $ [ Z

∗ 0

[
0 Z 0
∗ 0

[

Z Q [ S Q S Z E !

0

∪

0

∗ 0

∗
∗ 0

X Q GS U U Q S U! X Q GSY Q S Y  EH
U_` − " # Y_` − "Y # Z

− −
!

2

!

V "U # l

Z

m X
X Q GS UQ S Q S

m EH
UmY_ Y Z

_`

−  " " # −

" Q ⊕ S

m
X Q GS Q

S m Z EH
_`

− " ⊕ # −

" ⊕ Z Y_ " U Q S " Y Q S

Q S PUm

EG
! #! *) & (() "# .

D

I

!

l

#

l

1

KK

'

B →

B
GS

B →

Z J
nS

#

Q SS

∈ :

Q S :
3

Q F

Q F SB :× R → ∩Q F−[S Q

Z ∈ × R Z S

:
∈ :
3
Z

d ebd gh hih M M Q SKM Q FES K

KK B

8

K d ebd gh h h K k

jM k L K

→

Z j M

< <
j

M BKL NjM K k

8

A
<

kk M M KM

KKB → × K

×

<
→

n

n n n $

K
k N

KK

W l

D

W × E F GS ,

' 0 0

0

×

0

B →

B → 0 0 Q

S B →

B →

B → 0 B → 0
En

N

: : 0 Q S Q S

0

B : → : 0
0

Z 0 0 | Z

abcdbef gh hih M j L j M
k

k L
@ K

0

KK
j
k !
K

KK

K

∈

Q S

QES Z " QES Z

QGSB

→

X E

" ∈

X

" l : '

QF S F
QX S
B : → ×

" Z "

:

: 0
Q S ×

%
: ∈ × F × \ Q S

" ∈

B Q F Q \S{"}QS →F S × F ×: \ Q S F

#: Z' " #

Q F
S

Q F S

l
\ {" }
\ {" } '

KK B →

∗

: ∈ F \ Q S

B

∈

[ Q SF [ Q S \ Q S → F \ Q S

B
[ Q SF [ Q S \ Q S

− −

:

−
−

%

,

abcdbef gh h h L k N P

K

K L k

Z KKQ KS K M K
j KK

KKL

K N
K
K Z

M

`

L
L

N :
N

Q F S

K K K @ KK

∈ M @ `

K K K <

BB A

Z
E

: M M
M j L @
L N
<Q F ∈ E S KK
U Q \F { }S jE @ U
] N UmL @
K A @ K M R
∗

` Z

Q S

R R
Q F S j
B L [
!

Q S : M M
M j → B j M`

!

K K

j
k !
∗
7→
K

Q E

Z
Z × R ` Z ×

S
R \{ } B →

'

G G

: S l n Q

Z

Z

; Z ∅

: : ∩

:
l Q: ∪ S[ Z −[ Q: S Z −[ Q S Z −[!Q: ∩ S

Z
Z U−[ ∪ U

U B
U
U 2

[ Q F S Q F S Q [ F [ S Q F S Q F SH

lU Q F ] S ` ` → U Q ` F⊕ S ` → `

−
→
E
Q S `

Z
$

`
: [ ∈ Q [ F `[ S
:
Q F S

`

Q F S l

`
∈

:
Q F
` S

: [ :

[QQ S F ` ∈S Z E

$

−
V Q S

2 !

!

∗ Q S : l

2

n

Z

c b c 4 f b 7 c 86 87 f

l B → '

Q F

S

`B
HHH → Q F ` S −Y→ Um Q S −U→ Um Q ` S −→ Um m [ Q F ` S → HHH

Um ∗ ∗ ∗

*+
∈
∈
$ + ( & ) * + ,- 2 ( & , <0 3 & * 1 6 ,',( * , >- 4) ) & 6 * -,
∗

6 A

E

Um

Q
S Um Q
S

∗
B → U

Um

%
+ ∗ B Q S → Q F ` S !

'

U
HHH → U Q S −−−−Y−→ Um Q S −−−→ Um Q ` S −−−−→ Um [ Q S → HHH
∗− ∗
∗ ∗
−
∗

k k @
I

K K

$j D

!

O

`
∗ ∗
$ Q S

+Q S Z

[\ +
[

Z [ QQ SS Q
∗− ∗

[ \ +Q S Z [ \ Q S :Z
\
∗− ∗

Z [\ Q: S Z Q S\ : S\ ZQ: S Z Q [S\ lQ: S R '

∗− ∗ ∗− ∗ ∗

∗
∗− ∗ ∗− ∗

E

∗− ∗ ∗ ∗

E G
C ⊂ R \ { } ± C ⊂ R

S E Q

\ Q: S Q SJ

∗ ∗

n Z J

O

Q Q S

) S

%

O

[

→

[

−

f f f gh hih N < K
L N j M RmQn ^

^ nFnS K kj LM KK

Qn ^ nFnS −−→ RmQn ^ nFnS

( ) # 0
!
l

'
Z

U Q S Um Q F S

: '

Q SZ Q S `
' %
+ →

%

+ :
∗

$ + & & 1 ( 4
4 , + ?
+ & 6 ) , )- & * − $ & 3 * , ( + * 3 & 6 4 ( = ) & ;- 4 ) & 6 4 ( ( = . & 8 3 4 1 & . A

E
abcdbef U gh h
3ace
U i 9h B
M U Q S

+ [ Q : S

KK

)

U

−
j
k l

+ [ Q : +S

K

2
U :
[ Q ` : S Z + [ Q: S Z

−

Z l
Z '
− −
l

#
'
Q S '

→ 0

∗
Q: S Z :

'
0
→

0

%

Um
%
∗
∗
U
Q S Q `S
−−−−→
 
U Q S Um
  ∗
Q `S
y y
∗
0
−−−−→
l

UQ S + Z Q +U : S Q S + [Q ZU :Q+S S [ Q S

0 0 0
+ [ + [ + [
U Q S

ZU Z Z Z
0 ∗ ∗ ∗ − 0 − ∗
:
Z Q+l S [ : Z ) U Q S

∗ 0 −
∗
)
∗ −

0 −

∗
0 −

∗

Q S
Q S QS

∗
1

) ×: Z) Q × ) S :

Q S

m %
Q S `
Q
` S

` Q
:
S
:
Q
` S

` `
0 0
∈ ∈ ×

'

×

:
× ∪ 0
×

0
:

: × l

× ∪
l × 0 0
0
0
×
%

m

×
:
m m
QR R` S R '

×

:
×

×

n
QR R` S QR R` S

1

: :

+ Q S × + Q S Z + Q × S

%

×

×
Q
∗

: S×Q ∗ : SZ
∗
×
Q ×
S :
×

!

Z

Q
∗

: S× Q ∗ : SZQ
∗
× ∗
S Q: × : S

: :
× Z :
×

l ' '

× 0

Q S Q
SZ
0

Q

S∗ Q
S∗

QZ × S Q S
0

ZZ Q S×∗ Q S∗ × 1
Z × ∗ Q
Z

Z
∗
× 0
%
∗
∗
× × ∗

∗
0
∗ ∗
∗ ∗
× 0 S × Z
'

0

Q S Q : S
× 0
Q

S Q S
[ : SQ+ −[) : SZ + −[ : :
Q+ −
!
0 0
+

+
Q : S
) Z : + Q × S

×) Z Q S× Q S Z

ZZ ) Q × ×S Z Z ) × ) × ) Z

:
×

×

× ×

Q S
[[ R [ ≈ [

`

Q W S W '

Q

S

W Q XS
Z

,

QR S

U

U

∼ R ∗

∗

Q S Q S
Z

> %

%

: R

[ ∼ R
[ Q [ S

[ [

:

+ [ Q [ : S 6Z

−
∈

R

1
Z

6 Z

6 Z

%

2

%

l
Q S
Q S

%

PU
U ∗ → ∗ '

Z

Z >` h

i Z

h i

Z

I ∈ ∗ Q S S I

ZQ
−[

Q S − Q S '

'

l

Z

KK L

→

abcdbef gh hg 3 9 h

@

j j

h

i Zh

i
@

∈
∗

)
"

j k l

l

h i h i h i

h i

i h

)

h) i h : +i

!

∈ ∗

%

%
)

%

× × \

%

+
! ∗ : ∗ × → '

'

: ∗
× : ∈

:

!

:
)

) ×

∈ ×

:

: )
×
:

:

i h i h

h × i
: :

× i h × i

h

:

:
h × i h ) × × i

: :

h × ) × i h × ) × i
:
:

h × )

i h × ) i h) i
1

!

∈

∈

− ∈
h i h
i h

−

i

−

$

−

B

)
) )

< )

)

)

< )

)
) )

)

B

−

<
<

<
<
)
!

3 8 9 @

−'

−

>

) −

≈ R R

78

−

1

?

"

!

#

'& $($#& ) " #&

R

=
=

#
R

=

R

≈ \

∗ ∗

∼

∗

∼

\ R R \

R \ → R →

R

R
A

@

:

Z

∈

1

→

∗

→

∗
→ −→

:

∗ : |

∗

→
:

: :
: : : : :

∗ |
− :
|

∗ |

\

\ → →
:

R \ −−−−→

R R
 
∼ 
y y

\ −−−−→

R
\

:

R

< R

R −

!"!"! #$%&' ' ()*+($%&'
,-./01213456
?2.=: :C.2.?: D-;00:781 9:3/15;
@F60-47G5 189-<815;
F H I6:5=13.>8?;
9:3/15; @?92J7.=4J
⊂A
>101>8:B
18BF6
FE F E∅
-<8<K 5=13.>8?
=:N<?:.5<S TUVUVUL @ >101>8:?2.=
VUV UT D15151-M4N5 OP @F
Q R F E /:2..6
,-./01213456 →FE
L
781
WXYZ
→
W[\Y]^\Y_`
a 84 >101>8:?2.=4b ;/1?2.8?1-bJ8 >2./;Jc45 ;>21?4b5 R
• P
OP H de fPgh
• i
OP H O iQ OPQ 6 .>24 j ⊂ L ⊂ @ `
F
k 8:915
,;>8q >2;7:.4 D1?1-b86 781 F l=: m1/=15
0-./0;794 W^nmo ] Up4 815
:C.2.?<K
3. D-;00 =: A `
0-1>8-:=>8?.
,-./01213456 G l
781 /2b 2JC1D1 189-<81D1 5=13.>8?: @ N:/:= A
D1B`
5151-M4N5 r P R F E@F → G E@F6 0-47G5 /4:D-:55: ⊂ A
F
FE
@F −−−st−→ G E@F
 vt  vt
yu yu
 
FE
L F s v
−−−−→ G E
LF
9155;8:84?=:
0-./0;791? r R F/2b→?>.K L @ 1D/: D1?1-b86 781 N:/:= TUVUVUWXYZV
`G ⊂ ` w

51/;2.S6 =:21D47=1

D/. 513=1 10-./.248q 912q
M49>4-1?:==1. 0-./0;719
1 912. 424 0-./0;719
D15151-M4N5< 8:94K 0-./BB

0;791? 813. 10-./.2bJ8>b

l :=:21D47=1 ` h
Up pU _ pU[ n U [UV^ ^ U TW omm UV U p VU UV\ U W[V U VU

W^ @ mW^nmoU] U [ _^W TW o [\^mo UV o V \ U W^ o U \U [^
! " # ! && '
$ %
( () * ( ! + " &( ( ( '
_ô \⊂o A^ o mTW ommo U ommo mW^nmo ] Upmo\[Z [o 01>81b==<5 o m

$ $
&( # & &( # ( * &( &( # & &( '
%
# ( # + ( ( # +(
p U[]^ U ^ F E@F UZ UV VU V \ UU ^ U U \^mW^W p \

, - $ ,
p
2 ! 3 @
. /
T
X o \ Y \[ W omm [_ m ^W[ Y_ m ]^]\ ^ ^\Y^ X o \ Y
#
&( #
2
# ) 0
4 (
&( #
&
$
#
$1
2 !
2b 9-:891>84 2.5.=8 OPQ;/1?2.8?1-bJc4S

F6 D/. ∈ F E@F610-./.2G==<5
C;/.5 1C1N=:7:8q
,
,;7195
a 81 a
0-./0;7196 E /1012=4B|Q `
8.2q=<5 l ` M1-5;24-;.5 a 84 ;>21?4b ` ,;>8q U H {@ } l =.B
;>21?4b5
6 6 6
9181-1. >.5.S>8?1
@F 6 @ 189-<8<K
6
7
C;/.5 01/5=13.>8?
=:N<?:8q UT ?UA ` .5.S>8?1
V6 .>24 a 2.5.=81?H
{ P ∈ FE }
H N:/:G8 /2b 2JC<K @5=13.>8?1
@ ∈ U ` L:3/1. [ [\\189-<8<K 5=13.>8?
>.5.S>8?1 P |P P
& #
7
P |P P 189-<81.
&
6 ∈U $ 6
H189-<8<K @ ` ,-./0;719 =:N<?:J8

∩ 0
8 9
P
0
6
pUV6 .>24 /2b

>bmo ]>2./;Jc4. ;>21?4b R 2JC1D1 >.5.S>8?: 5=13.>8? ?<012=bJ8B
0 ∩ 0
S
U F ∈U
U
.>24 a2.5.=8 ∈ F EL F 8:91?6 781 |P H I /2b ?>.K @ ∈ U 6 81 H I h

/2b2.5.=8
2JC1D1 >1D2:>1?:==1D1 >.5.S>8?:H a2.5.=81? >;c.>8?;.8
• 6 6 6
{ P}
•
a ∈FE
L F6 /2b 9181-1D1 |P P /2b ?>.K @ ∈ U`
6
pW V \ U ^ o @ pUVYA@ UUT n[^nY\^\Y^ p [ Y _ U Up

6 6 6
: ; &( ) 4 "< nU o \^
U m
\^\ o ^ m _\\ mW^nmo ]^W^
U ^ #
1
& += &
1
('
\[ A \^ _ _^ _ mo ] &( # >
( ? A # !B &( !
$ $1 , @ $
# (&
Up [Z[@ ^F6 H I6U >1D2:>1?:=16

,;>8q U H {@=1 @=.} `>;c.>8?;.8 .5.S>8?1 a2.5.=81? I ∈ F E@ F6F6
,

6
( ) &( #
E 6 |P H I 4 |P H 6H I `
/2b∈ F9181-1D1 ?
6
,
>8
a 2.5.=8:
? 7
∈ F EA 60
>
H R F mW^nmop ] Up UTW[\Y]^\\ X o \ p ]YUp

60 C 6 0 D 6
^ @F U
E ; &( )
U Y o YZ AUT W[\Y]^\\ X
*
\ Y \[
4
@ U W^n
2 !*
\^ _ F_Ê _ mo ] pUV o m mo $1
( & &( ( 2 ! ( (
, , $1 , -
# ( &
Up [Z[2.5.=81?^ U ,;>8q H F@H 6 >1D2:>1?:==1.6

6 D/. @ H E− =1 F =.` w1D/: >.5.SB
,
>8?1

a
1D-:=47.==1S
( ) &( #
M;=9
,
6
{ }
F 644D/. U { }
=:
6 H
F
F F
ER H S @ 6 9181-:b =: 9:3/15 5=13.B

H
∈N
>;c.>8?;.8 F 8
G G
>8?. @812q91
C<8q >1?0:/:2:
M;=9 C<4b > E F `H .S>8?48.2q=16

6
8:91S M;=9 4.S 51D2: C<
6 : 1=: =. 1D-:=47.==:b
FI >
∞ F
`
F F 5
6

6 H H

0-b515; JC15;0-./.2;0-./0;79;:015=45513=1>118?.8>8?;Jc4.
>101>8:?48q 0;719610-./.2.=4b4>012qN;b 0.-.K1/ 9
` ` .D1

=13.>8?1 =:N<?:J8

\[ W[ ^\\
2.5.=8:54 N:/:=1 18=1 .=4.m 8:96 781 ?<012=bJ8>b >2./;Jc4. V6 .>24 5.3/; =.9181-<54
a;>21?4b
#
$

R

/2b 2JC1D1 ∈ h
.>24 4 6 81 h
•

/2b 2JC<K ∈ =:S/G8>b ∈ 6 /2b 9181-1D1 4 `

•
8

U U U p L V \@U UU^ U n^W [

•
Yp XY]^\Yp YW UL [\\@oo UTUn[] p o ∈ A\[Y [W[YZU \^\\U WU^\Y^ ^ o^

; &( ) & &( ( ( ( &( # * & '
$ $1
=
1
# +
&
+
# + (
H
4
m
*
^ V
(
#\ U ^

U &
&( #
( # ( &( # (
,;>8q =:0-:?2.==1. 5=13.>8?1 4>8.5; 0:-<

:C.2.?<K2.5.=81?
D-;00 { } 6
, @
⊂ ,
6 l
=:N<?:J8 U 6 .>24 `
/2b 2JC1S a
D15151-M4N5\[mW[ R ^\\ → 6 0-47G5 H de 4 ◦ H `
7
%

N:/:=
∈ # !

Up \[ mWHU @FW[\ ^ AH OP UT\[

6 % % 6 6 6 6
U V U o U m
V W^n mo ]
m{W[P } ^\\@ 3^ \ \[^ mW[ YZ^\\[_ mWY ^W[ Y ^V [ [ ^P ^ F ETW ommY P Q Q n[
; &( ) 4 &( &( # * 4 '
F
# &( # *
,, % 6 , @
* * 4 # & &( " #
2b =:0-:?2.==1S >4>8.5< :C.2.?<K:>>518-45

D-;00 mW_=.>?bN=1.
VU mW^n^1C −d→./4=.=4.
% H $1 ,
10-./.2b.8>b
5
D-;00 4 >2./;Jc45
0-1M:981-4N;.5 1C-:N15.D1 ` 01 >2./;Jc.5; 18=1 .=4J a 9?4?:B

!
∈
%
2.=8=1>844 R ∼ F 6 -;001?:b
%
.>24 E10.-: F H 4b E??1/48>b
F /2b =.9181-1D1
>2./;Jc45 EN/.>q
1C-:N15

` F

H

6
F} 6 D/. 4 `
6
R
E E
% ∈ ∈ %
2b >1>8148
=:0-:?2.==1S >4>8.5< :C.2.?<K D-;0010-./.2bJ8>b
4N 0-45.-: " >2./;Jc45
` ` 0-b51S

{ } { } { 6 6
0-./.2
5
1C-:N15 4N -1>891? ? 8179. 69181-<.
189-<8<. ` ;/.519-.>8=1>84
>748:8q6 78181794 a2.5.=8< 6
H
∈FE
@F 4 .>24
9?4?:2.=8=<6 ∈FE
L F6 HD/. @ 4/2bL
l=.9181-1D1 189-<81D1 5=13.>8?: ja ⊂ @ ∩ L ` 2:>> a 9?4?:2.=8=1>846 |i |i
6
H 6
?1C1N=:7:J8
9181-15 2.348213.=4. a 2.5.=8 -1>891?
∈FE
@F610-./.2b.8>b
=:N<?:J8 W.>8.>8?.==<5
U pUV ? 8179. 9
1C-:N15 4
,121345 F` H −d→P F E@F6 8 `. ` F l D-;00: -1>891? ? 8179. 6`
&(
6 6 H
7
6

! H S F ` =:C/45 F 810121D4.S 8:96 781C< .>8.>8?.==:b 0-1.9B
!
H
4b ,;>8q R F → @A 6 181C-:3:Jc:b ? 6 C<2: 219:2q=<5 D15.151-M4NB

3
7
F ∈!"

515#
`
3.>8?1 ?>.K -1>891? ⊂A l
189-<81. F
5=13.>8?16
6 ∈ @ ` w:94. 5=13.>8?: ∈FE
H
@F ` :>>518-45
C;/.5 >748:8q C:N1S
6
5=1B
6 H

810121D44
D4.S6 81 l0-1>8-:=>8?: F`
219:2q=<S D15.151-M4N5 >=16 781 .>24 F >=:C3.=1 8:91S 810121B
! !
V =:/ 189-<8<5 5=13.>8?15 ` @ C;/.5 =:N<?:8q =.B

^]^\Y^
#
⊂A
0-.-<?=1. 181C-:3.=4. @ 6 /2b 9181-1D1 H de P `b?2b.8>b
=13.B
!
>8?1 >.7.=4S
F
=:/ @ C;/.5 R
1C1N=:7:8q @ F 81 5=13.>8?1
!
F ha
#
D-;001S ` 2b >.5.S>8?: D-;00

→F
@
E 9181-<.F E
.>8.>8?.==<5
◦
1C-:N15:9>415:5

10-./.B
8 !
2.=<
0-./0;79: D15151-M4N5<12..
5
1D-:=47.=4S6
81D16 b?2b.8>b
.>24 5< 0;7915
F ;/1?2.8?1-bJ8
0121345 FD1E@F=:N<?:J8
8 !
H E@ F0;79156
F6 81 012;745
0-./0;719V `F6 6424 9181-<S U U V > ` m UW U 8 !
n \\:3/15;F 2.5.=8; [ YYW [\\ F`

'
a @F 513=1 >101>8:?48q >.7.=4. 0-./0;791? @ F6

0 && 2 #
012134? E F H ` w:9∈ F 5<E 012;7:.5 ∈ E F

$ $
9
6
D15151-M4N5 8 !
RF →F`

H 6

UTU U pWUVU UTU VYVUV

&
U\ ^ mo ][Up@ ⊂UA U UYZW[UVUWXYZ
F 4 V mo ] pU@F ^ n@F_
^\Y^ P R F E → F E
*( 4 #* (
, ,

_ _^ _ YZ WXYZ
+" ( ( &( # ( "
$
# ( &
Up [Z[ @F^ 4 UH ,-1?.-45 >=:7:2:6@ 781N 10-./.2.=4b 51=151-M4N5 ,;>8q

,
/2b ?>.K P l -1>89: `

>2./;.86
∈ `
( ) &( #
781 ∈H/2bF E9:3/1S

,
6
8
6 8 . 81794
F H
6
@ =:S/G8>b

19-.>8=1>8q L 3 0;79:
∈I ,1 815; 4N 0.-?1S :9>415<
H
6 /2b 9181-1S

>2./;.86
781|Q H|Q ` ` E − |Q ` a
H H
6 6
/2b ,-1?.-45
9:3/1S
6
8.0.-q6 781@ =:S/G8>b
81794

P l a 0451-M4N519-.>8=1>8q ` ,;>8q
L 4 @ F 1D/:
∈ E F `w
=:S/G8>b a2.B
8 !
5.=8
4/123=< FE
L F6 /2b 9181-1D1
∈ H
H E F ` 81 1N=:7:.86
3
781 >.7.=4b H
Q E F∈>1?0:/:J8 ? 8179. ` ?: >.7.=4b6 >1?0:/:Jc4K ? 8179. H6

6 6 H

>1?0:/:8q
Hj i E |i2.3:c..
6
4 ? =.9181-1S
F ` :3/1S? @F8179.4 2.5.=8 @ 5<19-.>8=1>84
>101>8:?424
H
j 5
`
189-<81.
3
,1 a 815; |i
5=13.>8?1 H

H

3 E
6
9
?>.K ∈ jH ` .5.S>8?1.S>8?48.2q=16/2b a ∈
2.5.=81? ∈ FE
j jF 8:96
H
F 781 H E F 8/2b.
>1D2:>1?:==1.6
a ``

{ ∈ FE
H 6 6
i i
>bH I|-:?.=>8?1

i H i `
F H
7
,1 815; ?>.K }
j j ?<012=b.8B
6
FH
` a
5
i i |i i − |i i

6 ∩
6
1>8:G8>b
∩ |
E
N:5.848q6 781 51=151-M=1>8q
h 4>q ?81-1S :9>4151S 0;79:6 012;745 a2.5.=8 @F6` /2b
6

6 E ∈
5< ;3.
∩
/19:N:24
k1>B
6
6
012qN1?:?
∩ ∩ ∩

∈FE
9181-1D1 H E F /2b ?>.K ∈ @ `
6

H H
6
,-b5<. 0-./.2<
0-:?2.==15; 5=13.>8?; 7:>816 :C<?:.801 ;/1C=1 ?<74>2b8q
=.9181-15; .D1 =. 01 ?>.5;,1/B
01/5=13.>8?; =:B
5=13.>8?1 =:N<?:J8 pU.>8qXY\[2.5.=8 \ V ? 6 =:0-:?2.==15
`
5=13.>8?.
6 .>24 /2b 2JC1D1 ⊂

∈
?
a /2b 9181-1D1 )
`
$

"
TWUommV U oU pUd XY\[ \ U ^ mdU nV \ U\[m^W[ U^\\[_UT n[Y ^V [ \[[ m^W[^

. ; &( )
{% }
*
∈
* 4 # & &( " '
^\\ ^ \ ^ Y H
# * '
$1 ⊂ 4 ) &( #
, @
4
# &( #
% ∼ % ,
Up [Z[ :8.5 ^ /2bU 2b513=1 ?<C-:8q
−→ ∈
513=1 ?<C-:8q
−→ ∈
8:96 781 8:96 781

,1 815; 4
` ` a
( ) &( # 5 8 0
0
, ∈ ∈
l =:0-:?2.==1. 5=13.>8?1 `

0 0 0

∈
b54 w13/.>8?.==<.
601 a 815; 181C-:3.=4b 181C-:3.=4b
813/.>8?.==<. →
9155;84-;J86 > 181C-:3.=4B
%
6N:/:J8 %
D15151-M4N5 −d→ ∼H −d→ ` 818 D15151-M4N5

6 → ∈
l a 0451-B % %

M4N56 01>912q9; /2b 2JC1D1 2.5.=8: 6 6 513=1 ?<C-:8q

a

∈ % ∈ %
8:96
H 781 F ` w
,-1?.-45 1D/: 10-./.2.=1
8.0.-q6781 181C-:3.=4.
818
∈ ∈
D15151-M4N5 R 51=151-B 4 %

E ∼` I /2b =.9181-1D1 a∈ 6 8 `. ` 513=1 ?<C-:8q

∈
M4N5
∼
` ,;>8q
6 l ∈ → 6 % %
8:96 781 F HE F H EI FF HH I ` Ik<C.-.5

D/:

F

H I 6 8 . 8:96
I 781 =.9181-1D1
/2b ` w 1B

`` ∼

È E E
6 6 ∈

6 6 ◦ 6 6

∈
!"! ! '' *

,;>8q=: U H {@< C;/.5

0;719 }l
189-<81. 019-<84.
0-./012:D:8q6 781 0-1>8-:=>8?:
?>. A
5=13.>8?: h
@ Fl
0-./B
010:-=1
-:N247=< A `2b 9-:891>84 ??./G5 1C1N=:7.=4. @ H @ ∩ ∩ @ `
`

U ^m2.5.=8∈ E@U h F F >101>8:?2b.8

@10-./.2b.8>b
F
5
@ F
F
@ ;01-b/17.==15;
F UT =:C1-; @ 6 ```V6
TUVUVU

a ` W[\Y]\ WXYZ
2 )
E ∈ FE

F

M1-5;21S

8

8

$
!
E F E@ @ F H E− F E@ @d @ F|P
F >
F X F
8 8
8 8 8 8
C C C
I
,-1>8:b >8:=/:-8=:b 0-1?.-9: 019:N<?:.86 781 HUTI ` 81 01N?12b.8

10-./.248q D-;00; 91D15121D4S

84b U > 91 a MM4 4.=8:54 ? 0-./0;79.EU hFF` l

F pUTUVU YY ^ [ 019--./>8?15 0.-.K1/: 9 812q91

0-b515;180-./.2; 513=1 10-./.248q6 : 91B=.
$ U,
D15121D44
18?2.==1.
91=9-.8=1D1.K:6 N:?4>bc4.
.D1 019-<84b 2b >:51D1
81D1 0-1>8-:=>8?:
=;3=1 01>8-148q A=:0-:B
U` a

>.5.S>8?1 D-;00 91D15121D4S ` .2:.8>b a 81 >2./;Jc45 1C-:B 5

5

N15 L{ ` ,;>8q
H3.=4. 6 8 . 10-./.2.=4J
U V ` ` U { | ∈ A} l
1D2:>=1 H @ 4N5.2q7.=4b 4N5.2q7.=4. 019-<84b
>;c.>8?;.8 181C-:B H
| ∈ B} `

V

6 /2b 9181-1D1 @ L /2b ?>.K ∈ A ` 101>8:?45
91 .04 R A∈ → BEV h F F 91 .0q ∈⊂ EfU gh F F6 /2b 9181-1S
7

7
F F F F

F E @ @ F H EL f g L f g F

E
F F
8 8 8 8
.D91
1 .0=1.0-1?.-48q6 781 181C-:3.=4. 91 .0=1.6 8 `. ` 91D15121D4S
H `

181C-:3.=4. 4=/; 4-;.8 D15151-M4N5
EV h F F → EU=.h FN:?4>48 F ` 18 ?<C1-: ,-.3/. 7.5 /19:N<?:8q

9
∗ R 15151-M4N5

F

F
` 1=1 ?.-=1 /2b 01>81B

81 ;8?.-3/.=4.
ab==1D1
0;79: F ` ? 1Cc.5 ?4/.6 01b>=456 ∗

017.5;

F _ F m UY\n U_\\YW UUTU[\ moYV] p [ Y Y[F \TUVUVU

V U WXYZ
U W[
V
R V EV hRF →F EU h FF ^W^ Uon_ YV m F Y R
&(
F F
^\Y^

2 # & 2 ) ( " '
o TU ^ U UmU\ W[EU ^\Y^ → EV m

n _ pU UW UTU @ ⊂ L f g E U U U W[ A^\Y_
∗
! $
nW TUVU Y
* # = # & 4
→B , !
( " * ( * ( ( "

! (
Up [Z[ ^ 1D/:U ,-./01213456 781F 0-4=:/2.3:8

8179: 0-4=:/2.348 >4502.9>;
$,

=:54
8 `
F6
8 w
( ) &( #
,
6 81794F6 E F
F6 4 E
6 F 8:91S >4502.9>;
>4502.9>
! > ?.- 4B
>;c.>8?;.86
H
``` ``` !
01815; E781 E L E L E h @ H
H H

f g ∩ f g ⊃∩ 6 ∅
1./4=4? 81794 E F 4 E F 18-.N9156 2.D91 01>8-148q 8-.C;.5;J D1B

∩
518104J
!
7
` H
!
H
,.-.S/G5 8.0.-q 9 1Cc.5; ;8?.-3/.=4J `

@ ⊂ L f g U o ^Y RoA^ →pUB ^m \[_nW o TUTUVU

: &
* = &( #
^ U UU W[Y_ ^\Y^_Z n [_ pU[_ UUW UTUU
m 2
4 ( "
* &#
*
# +=
(
( '
W[ ^\Y_ Y
( & ( (
$
"
Up [Z[ ^ U :/:/45 181C-:3.=4. R EV h F F → EU h F F

,
F F >

M1-5;21S ( ) &( #
,

−
E F E@ @ FH X E− F EL f g L f g L f g L f g F
F >
F − F
8 8
8 8 8 8 8
− C I − C
,19:3.56 781F H @ F − 1D-:=47.=4b` k ?<-:3.B

=44 FF @
91 .B
0.S E EE− F E− F ELE f g E L f g L f g @ L f g F

F F
4
8 8 F
F
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 F

LE−f Fg E−f gF f g EfLg f gf g L >19-:c:J8>b

f g L f g `L[f g /.>qL f g F 0-./012:D:.8>b6=:
> F
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 F

781 ` 2;7:S 812q91-:>>5:8-4?:.8>b :=:21D47=1 4 >

72.=< EL[f g L f g L` f g F 4
F

d
7.5 =. >19-:c:J8>b

7
F
8
E− F E− F EL f g L f g L[f g F
8 8 F
F F > F

8 8 F 8 F 8

513=1 < -:>>518-.8q

01>8-1424 =:0-:?2.==;J
0-b51S 0-./.2 >4>8.5;
d :C.2.?<K
F H D-;006 F01a 815;
h F l pU `

EUhF EA F F
TUVU UT YY
1D15121D44
^ [ 0-1>8-:=>8?:
.K: 0-1>8-:=>8?:

1
> 91 a MM4 4.=8:54
A A > 91 a MM4 4.=8:54 ? 01>81b==15F
−→ ? 0-./0;79.

'
0-./0;79.6F >118?.8>8?;Jc.5 :C.2.?1S D-;00. 6 5< C;/.5 1C1N=:7:8q

9

F
EA h ` %
%
F H YF pU\^]\ YV m Y Y[ \ pUV m ^p U

E & 4 ! & 2 ) ! &* (

F
E| | h ∼ E h

%

F

% ,
$ $
Up [Z[ ^ U 6D/.
5=13.>8?:54 ,;>8q U ?.-l 019-<84.
4=: 0-1>8-:=>8?:
1D/: =.-? 189-<8<54
| F 1813/.>8?2bB
`w
( ) &( #
.8>b > 6 01 a 815; EU lh F ∼H EU F h ∼H E EhU F `

, |

F F F
,;>8q4:2q=:bl C:-4 .=8-47.>91. 01/-:N/.2.=4.181C-:3.=4b 6 r R →r >1Bl

% % %
>45024
01>8:?2b.8 C:-4 :00-19>45:
.=8-;
0
D-:=4 4b
1/=; 813/.>8?.==1D1
4N ?.-

4= 81S D-:=4F6 E
019- 0
a
>
U l
84.>240-1>8-:=>8?:
1813/.>8?48q N?GN/:54
F > ?.-6 81 4=r >45024

513=1 4:2q=1D1 91502.9>:
-:>>5:8-4?:8q 9:9 181B
`

>
0
C-:3.=4.

E F
| |
U → EU `
EU F 81 181C-:3.=4. 4=/; 4-;.8 4N151-M4N5 > 0 >
91D15121D4S `

>

?.- :8.54=F BD1513=1C:-4F6 -:>>518-.8q

.=8-47.>91D1 U l 019-<84. ` | |81C-:3.=4.
01/-:N/.2.=4b N?GN/:54

>b EU817=1→8:9EU3. ` 4=/; 4-;Jc.. 4N151-M4N5 91D15121D4S6 >8-148B

>
−
< 01>8-1424 =:0-:?2.==1. 5=13.>8?1 4 =:0-:?2.=B

=;J b?2bJ8>b
>4>8.5;

:C.2.?<K D-;00
4N151-M4N5:54 ` ,1EUa 815; h d F6 ? 9181-1S
U U
?>. D15151-M4N5<
F ∼H E h F `
F

>
U h

6
81C< ?1>012qN1?:8q>b 8.1-.51S `` 6 E
019:3.56 781 019-<84b
%

F
%

F

%
1C-:N;J8 91M4=:2q=1. 01/5=13.>8?1

"−
? 5=13.>8?. ?>.K
→
019-<84S
U

9-<84.
U
0-1>8-:=>8?:
>
0-1>8-:=>8?: | |`

6 ,;>8q .D1 U l
74>21 0-14N?12q=1.
.C.D:
5< 189-<81.
0-./012:D:.5601B
781 >45024 4:2q=<S 91502.9>
| | l ?213.= ? .?924/1?1
E 0-1>8-:=>8?1F `

k<C.-.5 8:96 781 /4:5.8-

>91D1 01/-:N/.2.=4b 5.=q . 2JC1D1

1D/: >4502.9>: BD1 C:-4 .=8-47.B
` w U U`

U o TU A pUV p\ UW VU [ \ UU^ UUm U UT Y]^ UpU ^ UTmW U

W[\ F H d ^F T n^ m [ \ ^ UpWm nmY^W W[\V \ U ^ [Vn[Y

; &( ) 4 ) ( & '
&( # *
U pEW h V Y −→A [EU\^h p [p U UmW^n^m ^\YY pUTUVU UT Y ^ [

&( 4 ( &( &( #
F F @ ,

* 4 ( &( # *
%∼ % $
( ( # A # * # ! B
Upk<C.-.5 U ,;>8q 019-<84. 5=13.>8?:546 189-<8<54 ?

$ $ 1 ,

` [Z[ ^ 4N
( ) &( #
=.D1 91=.7=1.Ul
01/019-<84. @ @ 4 -:>>518-45
A019-<84. 5=13.>8?:54 @
,
6189-<8<54 {
? ` JC1. }
01/0-1>8-:=B >8 8
>8?1 =1-5:2q=1D1 0-1>8-:=>8?: K:;>/1-M1?16 : 9150:98=1. K:;>/1-B:

∩
M1?1
N=:7486 0-1>8-:=>8?1
? 019-<84. =1-5:2q=1
@ ,1 815; 0-1>8-:=>8?1
` a ?04>:8q 189-<81. 019-<84. L
513=1 =1-5:2q=16
8:96 781 L @
⊂ ∩ `
/.>q
{ ∩ }
N:5<9:=4.5 L ? A 6 01>912q9; N:59=;81 ? A `

L
l N:5<9:=4.

L ? 6 =1 1=1 3. C;/.8{ }
4

,1>8-145 =:C1- 189-<8<K ? A 5=13.>8? jL 4 jj 8:96 j781

L>1?0:/:J86
j 6 j 8 .⊂ L
@ 4 =.-?< L 019-<84S
H 81D/: L 4 812q91 81D/:6 91D/:
>8
8

8
8
` `

> 8 >8
⊂ { } { }
j ∩ ∩Lj6 =.H 0.-.>.9:Jc4K ,;>8q lL 1C =13.>8?: ./4=.=4. L?>.K6 5=13.>8? ?4/:

∅`

∩ ∩ C ∅
L59=;8< 4 @ N:B

`4
>
A
C
? 6 0-47G5 5=13.>8?: L @ F =. 0.-.>.9:J8>b

`
> > > >
,14 ja 815; ? AA 513=1@?<C-:8q ∪ EA \

C ∩ ∩ \
189-<81. 5=13.>8?1 j 8:96 781 L j

> > >
F H 81 -:?.=>8?1 1N=:7:.86 781 j H4

∅h a
>
∪ EA \

⊂
HL ∅ 4 jL ⊂>1?0:/:J8
>
∩
>
@ ` ,19:3.56>=16781781=.-?< >
.>24 019-<84S
j L j L L H
∩
L 6 81 8
>

>
`
> > > 8 ? 8
{ }
L781∩ LL ∩L ∩ L HL∅ 6H01>912q9; L j j ,-./0121345 8.0.-q6

8
` ` 1j H 6
> 8 >
{ } ∩ ∩ ∩ ∅ C
1D/: L L

` w
> > > >
C ⊂ ⊂
01/2ba 815; j L L H ,1?81-4? 8; 3. >:5;J 91=>8-;9 4J

`
> > > >
∩ ∩ C ∩ ∅ ∩ ∩ ⊂ ∩ C ∅
j L L 6 01>8-145 j 4 8 `/ `

>
∩ ∩ ∩ C ∅
,19:3.56 781189-<8<54
=.-?< 019-<84S 189-<8<54 ? A 5=13.>8?:54

> 8 ? 8 8 ?
j j 4 ? 5=13.>8?:54 j jj∩ } >1BH

{
?0:/:J8 >8
`
HL ∅ ` ,-./0121345

>=16
8
}
781

.>24 j
8.0.-q6 781 jj H 6 {
81 jj ∩

H 1D/:
> 8

8
∅` w
C C

∩ ∩ ∅ ∩ ∩ ∩
L H 6 : 81 9?4?:2.=8=1 815;6 781 j j H

j ∩ ∅∩ j a H a∅ ` ∅`
C

∩ ∩ ∩
=:7486

C ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ C
8:96 j5< 019:N:246 7819181-<K

019-<84b=.-?< 189-<8<54 ?jA 5=13.B

C
>8?:54 j 6 /2b 019-<84S j}

4019-<84Sj {
j
>8
}
8
>1?0:/:J86 91M4=:2q=< ?{
5=13.>8?. >8 8
=1 8.1-.5. " ` ` −d→ EU h 189-<8<54

5=13.>8?:546 F ∼H −d→ EW? h AF `` ,1=:7486 >1D2:>B

> 8 8
{ ∩ ∩ }
01>8-1.=4J

F F
F ∼H 019-<84bEW ∩ Wh ∩F h N/.>q H {j ∩ ?>.K 189-<8<K j ∩ }`

EW h 81D16
F F % %

9 -15. %

%
019-<84S ` N a 81D1 >2./;.8 8-.C;.5<S 4N151-M4N5 `

91M4=:2q=< W ∩
? 5=13.>8?.

> 8

8

/;Jc.. 2b ?<74>2.=4b
;8?.-3/.=4.7.K1?>94K 91D15121D4S 7:>81 C<?:.8 012.N=1 >2.B
`
5
pUV p U WY[\T To YW o ^VUU ^ mW U

W[\[ U W^n U U moUYnVpUV]Am U^p \^pUm [UW U\ ^ WY[\ _ YYHmW W[\

; &( ) 4 ( ( '
T o UT n[
&( # * 4
Y
&( & ( ! ( 2 &( '
&( #

F

%
,A;
F
E h ∼ −→ E hH
d

F m* (
% ,
>
F | |⊃| |⊃ | |
?

I >
∞
, @
Up [Z[ ^ U b?2b.8>b
01/-:N/.2.=4. ,;>8q A 012=<5 l 8-4:=D;2b 4b A 6 /2b 9181-1S
01/91502.9>156

8 . .>24 9:91.B81
=:?.-=:C1-4=
>
` `
( ) &( #
,
?.-
=:8b=;8 4= 4
=:8b=;8

>4502.9> >4502.9>
91502.9>: 91502.9>:
8; 6
8-4:=D;2b 81 =: a 818
A 4J 5< ?<C.-.5 >812q =:C1-
`

5.291S6 7815.=q
02.9>: C;/;8. ?<012=b8q>b 781C< /?: ;>21?4b815;R E F>5<>26
0-4/:8q

/4:5.8-=;3=1 2JC1D1 >45B
?21348q

a

A348>b A 0-1>8-:=>8?1F
? .?924/1?1
E h E F N?.N/: 9:3/1S ?.- 4=< A >1/.-B

8-4:=D;2b ? N?.N/. 4b =.9181-1S

4=/; 4-1?:=: ?.- 4=<8-4:=D;2b
A ` 4.S < C;/.5 0-./012:D:8q6 781

>

` 019-<84. N?GN/:54

:>>518-45

/2b

/?: 019-<84b

4 A −

U hU l
?,.-?1.?>.K019-<84.

?.- 4= 189-<81 6 U l? 019-<84.

6 ?81-1. 189-<81?? AA ?>.K

U
N?GN/:54
?.- 4= ` 0

`
0
>21?4. F 01N?12b.8 01>8-148q >45024 4:2q=;J :00-19>45:B

4J

r E
?92J7.=4b
R → > 6 01 a 815;| |012;7:.5 |`
.-? 019-<84b

513=1
C-:3.=4. 1813/.>8?48q
>
r R EU F →4N151-M4N5F
− ⊂ |
F 4 4=/;
>45024
4:2q=1.
4-1?:==<SF 45 D15151-B 181B
U
>
−

M4N5 =. 1CbN:8.2q=1

E 5< 10;>8424 D-;00; 91a MM4

EU
r F
E 4.=81?
>
R EU ` w→:945 E1C-:N156 U h
F /2b
F F
9-:891>84
−
>
d E F ∼H −d→ EU F `
∗ −

F F %
−→ 2b 019-<84S 4N ;>21?4b E F >2./;.86 781 U U 6 01a 815;

?1N=49:.8 D15151-M4N5 r F R :EUN=:7486

0
F → 01>2.EU 1813/.>8?2.=4b
F ` ,19:3.56781 =.-B 0 0 >
5
E
U F F
?<=.-?1?
019-<84S 4 >1?0:/:J86 a 84K
−
0
0 > 0
D15151-M4N5<
rE F 4 Er F >1?0:/:J8 `
∗
0 −
U U
>=16 781 F ⊂ E A8.0.-q6 F6 01a 815; .>24 ∩ F EH F 6H81 ∅1N=:B 6 81
0

∩ E A 6 ∅
F H ` E
,-./0121345
8
781
∗
8
∩ E A 6 ∅
∗
`
8
7:.86
8
781
815 { }012=<S

=: ?.-
?.- 4=<
4=< 6 : >4502.9>:
01 01>8-1.=4J ? A =:8b=;84:2q=<S
>45024 >4502.9>01/915B
` ,-4
8
a02.9>

l ` =:7486 =: ?.- 4=< { } ? =:8b=;8 >4502.9>6 8 `. `

{ }
∩ E

F 6H ∅ `
w:945 1C-:N156 −d→ EU F ∼H −d→ EU F `

8
F F

0

I

81C< ?1>012qN1?:8q>b

1C-:N;J8 8.1-.51S01/5=13.>8?1
91M4=:2q=1. " ` ` 6 019:3.56 781 019-<84b
? >.5.S>8?. 5=13.B

019-0
>8?:546
U
189-<8<54
?0
189-<8<54

? ? 5=13.>8?:54
AA ` =:7:2: 019:3.56 ,;>8q
` 781 U l
019-<84.
019-<?:.8 =.9181B
-1.
8179: 5=13.>8?1
6 =. | |`
019-<8:b ,-./01213456

N 781
7
9150:98=1>84 ? 9:3/15 U5=13.>8?.

>2./;.86 781 .>8q
01>2./1B
U` A | |
?:8.2q=1>8q
,-./.2q=:b

8179: >1/.-348
2.348
>K1/bc;J>b
?

H01/01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
=:6 9:9 4 2JC:b }`
{8179:
5=13.>8?:
{
6
}
019-<8: =.945

189-<8<5
T
| | `
5=13.>8?15
I >
∞
@0-184?1-.748
4N 019-<84b

U`
1 81D/:
0-./01213.=4J

@ /2b /1>8:817=1 C12q 1D1 6 781
`

∈ G
w17=1 8:9 3.6 /19:N:8q6

9:9 /19:N<?:.8>b 8.1-.5: 0121348.2q=1.
.C.D: 1C 189-<8<K 01B6

9-<84bK6
1C2:/:Jc.. 513=1
>2./;Jc45 781
>?1S>8?15 >;c.>8?;.8 74>21
R .>24 /4:5.8- 5=13.>8?: 6 0.-.B
>.9:Jc.D1
3.>8??04>:=1019-<84b 6 5.=q .
,;>8q 6 81 >1/.-348>b
4 ? 1/=15
,19:3.56 4N 189-<8<K
781 019-<84.5=1B
U` 6 `

| |
?
-15. 019-<84.
81D16 8: ` 4:5.8-
U N?.N/: 0.-.>.9:.8
2JC1S N?.N/<6 01>912q9;

?.- 4=< 5.=q .

=:7486` N?.N/: >1/.-348>b a ? 1/=15 4N 189-<8<K | ⊂ | |`

0 5
U
9
| |
5=13.>8?| 019-<84b

U`
0151cqJ/?1S>8?.==1>84
c4S ?:-4:=8 91D15121D4S .K:2.9>:=/.-: 513=1 /19:N:8q >2./;Jc4S C12.. 1CB
7
`

o F H $ F WYZ[IVp \ o U ^ m U nV\nÛ ^ U WYUT n[^

; &( ) 4 ( &( #
nTUVU\\E UT^ ∼YY]^ U p YÊ pUTUVU m UTYY 6 6 −mWY ^n \\ ^ Y\ To m_W\ ^

, @
! F ! F > !
A &)
∗ 4 # '
− − \ ! G ,
0 #& * 4 # 0 &
$ 1 ∗ $ $
B
?>.Up [Z[B5.-=<. U ,;>8q 0.-.>.9:J8

^ >4502.9><
,
l >812q 5.29:b 8-4:=D;2b 4b 6 781 =.
h f g l B. C:-4 .=8-47.B
( ) &( #
,
>91. 4N01/-:N/.2.=4. :>>518-450.-.>.9:J8

` 9181-<. l 01/91502.9> f g6 >1>81bB

c4S
02.9> 8.K >4502.9>1?6
=. 1CbN:= C<8q 5=1D11C-:N4.5 h ; =.D1 51D;8 C<8q 1>1C<.

` 45024 4:2q=<S 915B

7

81794
815; 4NE424>8:21

1>1C<.
513=1 >4502.9><F
?<-.N:8q 1 ?>. 19-.>8=1>84
` 5:2<. 1>1C<. 817941>1C<K 2.3:8 817.9
?=. 68:96
01B
a781C<
5=1D11C-:N4.56

>1/.-3:c458-4:=D;24-1?:==<K
E-4> ` " ` F `
w :9 513=1
01>8-148q 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
D11C-:N4S ⊃ ⊃ 6 0-47G5 T H ` 2b ?.-=: 8.1-.5: 5=1B
/?1S>8?.==1>84
817=1 8:9 3.62.9>:=/.-: F ∼H F h a 81 /19:N<?:B
> ? ∞ I> 5
9:9 ? D2:/915EE8-4:=D;24-;.515F E \ >2;7:.

!F

.8>b ` 84 4N1B
! F >

− −

4> ` " ` ` >0-:?2.=4.

51-M4N5<
=4b54 9155;84-;J8
601 a 815; d
> D15151-M4N5:546
F∼ d 4=/; 4-1?:==<54 F ?213.B
1D2:>=1
E H>2.?:6 `7.K1?>94K

8.1-.5. " ` `⊂ 0-b51S 0-./.26−→ >81bc4S
>

!
F
a
E
81
D-;00:
! F >
l D-;00: >4=D;2b-=<K
\

7
91D15121D4S F C./45>b6 781 >0-:?: >8148

− −
−→
D15121D4S
! F
`
E E \ F `

15151-M4N5< E \ F /:J8 E \ F6
!
F >

4=/; 4-1?:==<. ?92J7.=4b546 D15151-M4N5
− − ! F > ! F >

→
d E \ lF →4N151-M4N5E` 1>48.2q \ `
F 2JC1S
;3=1 >4=D;2b-=1S
0-1?.-48q6 781
− − − −

a4N→818 D15151-M4N5 .04

! F >
!
F >
F 9150:98.= ` k213.==<. /-;D ? /-;D: 189-<8<.

− − − −
−
5=13.>8?:
F >
E \\ 019-<?:J8 .D16 01 a 815; 1= >1/.-348>b ? 1/=15

4N9150:98=1>84
=4K ` N a 81D1 >2./;.8 a 0451-M=1>8q ` 1=151-M=1>8q >2./;.8.S 91B4N
− −

81-1S

>2;348 =1>48.2b
-:N=1>8q FB5.-=1S >4=D;2b-=1S .046
E/?;K− /:==<K E − − FB5.-=<K >4=D;2b-=<K

G
D-:=4

.0.S `
G

!"! ! * ' )$& $) )$(( ' *

& $ ' * & '' *

/.248q w17=10;719
8:9 3.6 9:9 10-./.2b.8>b
=.:C.2.?<K D-;00 =: 0;719 :C.2.?<K D-;006
0-1>8-:=>8?. ` k 513=1 10-.B
=.:C.2.?15 >2;B=1
7:. D-;00< 91D15121D4S F 0-4 A
10-./.248q
EA h F 5=13.>8?1 EA h F F > 185.7.=B
F
=.2qNb6
513=1
=<5 10-./.248q 91D15121D47.>91.

G

>
a2.5.=815 ` ,-4 >aD-;001S

815 .>2491D15121D4S 0;719 :C.2.?<K D-;006 81 a 81

F l
5=13.>8?1 >1?0:/:.8 .K:60-47G5 185.7.==<S
a2.5.=8 >1?0:/:.8
781 >.>24
=;2.?<5 a2.5.=815 D-;00< D-;00
91D15121D4S `

:015=456 F l
0;719 :C.2.?<K =: 810121D47.B

>915
.0q@ 0-1>8-:=>8?. F A 4 U H {@;01-b/17.==15;
>101>8:?2b.8 } l
189-<81. =:C1-; 019-<84. @ 6 @A 6 2.5.=8
81 91B

@ F EU hF
>
@ @ F H
>
@ @ F ` ,-4 a 815 91 .0q a 91B

b?2b.8>b

E .>24 ∈FE ∩ E ∩ h F =:C1-: @ 6 @ 6 @ 0-4 1D-:=4B

> ∈
>
492156 /2b 2JC1D1 ;01-b/17.==1D1

8

7.=44

H E@ =:@ @F ` F6∩ @1/2b.0q

> ∩
@ 45..8 b?2b.8>b

5.>8191D-:=4 -:?.=>8?1

.S6 E@ >;c.>8?;.8
.>24
F
>
@ F E@ 91@ .0q FH
>

8

F

>

8 F
EU h F E@ @ F9181-1S 0-4 1D-:=47.=44 =: @ ∩ @ 45..8 5.>81

8 F 9

-:?.=>8?1

∈
2b 0;791?

=.:C.2.?<KH @ F
E D-;00
>
− E `
@ F
>118?.8>8?;Jc4.

8

10-./.2.=4b

8:94.@ `6

1@ 492
5
2.5.=8 B5.-=<SF >=1?: >101>8:?2b.8

E ∈ F E@ ∩ @ F H E@ ∩ @ h F F6 0-47G5 /2b 1D-:=47.=4S ;01-b/17.==15; =:C1-;
a
9
6
=:9?4?:2.=8=<

@ ∩ @ ∩ @ 18247:J8>b45..8 5.>81=:-:?.=>8?1 6
91D-:=4 ;F6.>24 H /2b`9:3/1D1

?: 91 492:

5=13.>8?: 4

a@ >;c.>8?;.8 Ea2.5.=8 @ F6 /2b 9181-1D1 0-4 1D-:=47.=44 =:

F F F 5
6 6 6 6 60

∈ E hF
@ ∩ @ 45..8 5.>81 -:?.=>8?1

H ` 1D15121D47.>91. 5=1B

>
3.>8?1

85.7.==<S

F 81 5=13.>8?1 92:>>1?92:>>a 9?4?:2.=8=<K
F l a 81D1 5=13.>8?:
EUah2.5.=8 >
91 492: 6 91 4921?9:B`
9181-<S
6 0 − 6 9
a

3/15;

;01-b/17.==15; =:C1-; @ 6 @ l
>101>8:?2b.8 ./4=47=<S a2.5.=8
D-;00<1D15121D47.>91.
@E ∩ @ h F F ` 5=13.>8?1

F6 9:9 ,;>8q 4 ? 019-<84.
9155;8:B

EA h F0-./.2
>
84?=15 4N5.2q7.=4.
9
>2;7:.6 >8-148>b 019-<84b 9:9 0-b51S 4 @ L ` ` w1D/: 91 492;

U l
EVhF
F 513=1
>
>101>8:?48q 91
V
492 ⊂ f gEU h F F6 /2b 9181-1B

>

D1 E F E@ ∩ @ F H EL f g ∩ L f g F ` 81C-:3.=4. 4=/; 4-;.8 181B

6 ∈ ∈

6
C-:3.=4. R EV h F F → EU h F F ` ,-1?.-456 781 .>24 @ ⊂ L f g 6 81

6 > 6
>
H ` 9?4?:2.=8=1>8q 91 4921? 4 ;>8:=:?24?:.8 IB5.-=:b

∗
91 .0q H f g f g ` .S>8?48.2q=16 4N ;-:?=.=4b

∗ ∗
91 492: >2./;.86
781
6

6
f g f g H f g D-;00:6
f g 6 8 `. ` E 810121D47.>91. F H E F `
5
g g g g

f ,;>8q
f f f 810121D47.>9:b
6 >

6
0-1>8-:=B 6 6
6
6
6 −
>8?1 ` :>>518-45l 0;719 %

=: 6 /2b l
9181-1D1 E @ F l D-;00: ?>.K
=.0-.-<?=<K
-<?=<K M;=9 181C-:3.=4S

4S >1
G 4N @ ? 6 8 .
N=:7.=4b54 ? ` ` G l
0;719 G -1>891? =.0-.B 8
,-./01213456 781 D-;00: `

MM.984?=1 /.S>8?;.8
a8-4?4:2q=1. =: 810121D47.B>1 %
%
>915
>21.5 0-1>8-:=>8?.
=:N<?:J8 W[ U ^\Y^V U
` 19:2q=1 p -:>>21.=4.
U T U R 6 .>24 %
D1B
W W\ W
#
5.151-M4N5< r @
R E → =:S/G8>bF @ o
1C2:/:J8 o >
&&
omm
>2./;Jc45
→
>?1S>8?15 R
& &( ( ! !
%
/2b 2JC1S
9181-1D1 r 0:-<
r 4=/.9>1?
F H F
×

/2b ?>.K

a 2.5.=8
#−
@ ∈ E ∩
@

@ @
.S>8?4. F6
/2b
=:
∈ ∩ `
8 8
E E
> G
a MM.984?=16 01 a 815; a 2.5.=8 1/=1N=:7=1 N:/:G8>b D15.151-M4NB
8 8 5

−
6 6 %
5:54 r 4 r ` 2.5.=8 0-./>8:?2b.8 >1C1S 181C-:3.=4. 4N @ ∩ @

? U>8-;98;-=;J
;=9 44 D-;00; 104><?:J86
0.-.K1/: ` 81 181C-:3.=4.
9:9 =:N<?:J8 X>92.S9:
0-14N?1/48>b o \ p Y^ 1Cc.S
m ^W^
n[` 2 ! '
%
7:>84 >812C491? @ × 4 @ × E-4> ` " ` F `

1

4> ` " ` ` ;=9 44 0.-.K1/:
k a 815 10-./.2.=44
c.>8?.==<S =./1>8:819 -:>>21.=4b >1 >8-;98;-=1S
N:?4>451>8q 18 019-<84bD-;001S@ .>8q81C<>;B
l { }`
4NC:?48q>b 18 a 81D1
r P R E8.@F D15.151-M4N5<6
>
=./1>8:89:6
@ 6 9181-<.9181-<. -:>>518-45
513=1 /1C:?48q ?>. D15.151-M4N5<
9>2./;Jc45
D15.151-M4N5:5 r 6:

45.==16
/2b
#−
9:3/1D1
→ ×
@ =:S/G8>b 2.5.=8 1C2:/:J8 >?1S>8?15 R

a P ∈ E@ ∩ @ G F6 /2b 9181-1D1
rC;/.5
P r E=:N<?:8q
>
F H UP E F V /2bV ?>.K

p V @ ∩ ;/.5@ ` w:94. D15.151-M4N5<

>748:8q6

7811/=1/?:4 01B81

8
n Y Y [W [ Y`
8 8

mo ∈
−
6
6
9-<84b
3.3.>8?: @
-:>>21.=4.
{ } >1
4 @ > D15.151-M4N5:54
{ >8-;98;-=1S
}
D-;001S
0
r
&(
{6 .>24
4 $
r
} {; =4K
N:/:J8
(
} >1?0:/:J8 5=1B 0
k?./G5/10;>845<K
8.0.-q 9:-8 ` 4N151-M4N5: /?;K -:>>21.=4S >1 >8-;9B
01=b84.
%
8;-=1S D-;001S-:>>21.=4b =:/ 1/=1S>1 4 81S 3. C:N1S

>8-;98;-=1S D-;001S ` ,;>8q R → 4
15.151-M4N5
`
#
#0
R → l
0
%
R → =:N<?:J8 YZ UVUWXYZ VUV -:>>21.=4S >1 >8-;98;-=1S D-;0B

%

01S 6 .>24 /2b 9:3/1S 81794 ∈ ?<012=bJ8>b >2./;Jc4. >?1S>8?: R

0
F >21S EF 181C-:3:.8>b =: >21S E F EF h

%
#−
>
#0 −
>
F 513=1 ?<C-:8q 19-.>8=1>8q @ 3 6 a2.5.=8 P ∈ E@ G F6 /10;>84B

8

5;J 9:-8;
9:-8; r r PF R @FE@F @→ @×/2b /2b-:>>21.=4b
#
>
-:>>21.=4b 8:96 4 /10;>845;J
781 /2b ?>.K
@ P R E 5.>81E -:?.=>8?1
45..8 0 #0 −
→ ×
> −
r r F
P P E P E ` H
F >
8
0
8
∈
:0-45.-6>1 >21.5
B5.-=<. 4?.981-=<. -:>>21.=4b a81 81F `3. N151-M4N5
>:51.6 781
0 −
6 6
-:>>21.=4b

>8-;98;-=1S
D-;001S l E R -:>>21.=4S
?.981-=<K
>1 >8-;98;-=1S -:>>21.=4S
D-;001S
R
l a 81 81 3. >:51.6 781 4N151-M4N5 8
-45:=1?; 5.8-49; ` >24 ? ?.981-=15

=:0-45.-6.>24 C:N: -:>>21.=44513=1
9150:98=:F681
513=1>748:8q6
??.>84
781 >8-;98;-=:b E l a 81 E F ` ,-4 a 815 -:>>21.=4. 1-4.=84-;.B
D-;00:
51 81D/: 4 F812q91 81D/:6 91D/: ? 9:7.>8?. >8-;98;-=1S D-;00< 513=1
?Nb8q

E `
m W
UHW I ^ UTU n\ UpWU n\U o pUUpUCWnY\[ Up U p [W [FV Y @ H I
pUV
[ Z[n[ _ W[ \^\Y_ YY
; &( ) * * * * '
R R
( (
E o

$ ,,,
(
$
#
n[ [\
$1
\Y]^ ^W[ U ^\Y^ \[n (
1
Z[n[ _ X

o \ p Y_ V
>

+( & #
m ^W^ U n[ H
& && 0( & 2

, @

C
,
Up [Z[ ^ U F 21.5 9:=1=47.>91D1 -:>>21.=4b =:/ 817B

1
91S
( ) &( #

,
b?2b.8>b
r R E E@R F →R @ × C 513=1 N:/:8q E M1-5;21S
7
0-b5:b r
F ` 15.151-M4N5 FH 8 8
H E R R F 6 D/. H 6 8 `. ` E F H E ` ,1
>

#−
8 8

8
10-./.2.=4J H 6 8 `. ` H H `

8 8
8 8

V ^W\U U ^ U ^pp UW\ U ^ W[ U ^\Y^ Z[n[

o [ _^ _ XU \Up VY_[_

2p

V
X oWY\ Y_ UW_n U p
Y mp^W^[ n[ UT n[ n U[ n ^\\ U]^ W[^ Um^\Y^
; &( ) '
A#
! (
#
W^n Z[n[ ( &&
&( # ( & "
0( &
! '
V Y m ^Wô m U n[ E F o
1
( 2 B # ! &( # && 0( & 2 '
,> @
Up [Z[ ^ L U L81C-:3.=4. R L →5:8-4L 4=/;.S 4-;.8 1/?1S>8?.==1.

1 − ,
181C-:3.=4.
( ) &( #
>;.8 =. a 81 181C-:3.=4.6?∗
→
,

>∗6 9181-1. N:/:G8>b
: 1C-:8=1. 9 =.5; 181C-:3.=4. ` =:> 4=8.-.B

L →L `
> ?

>∗ ?∗
>8?.==1. >24
-:>>21.=4.
l 1/=15.-=1. -:>>21.=4. > M;=9 4b54 0.-.K1/: 6 >=1

N:/:G8>b M;=9 4b54 0.-.K1/:
81 /?1SB
` 8:9B

3.6781 .>24 1/=15.-=1.

81 -:>>21.=4.

⊗ 8-4?4:2q=1 -:>>21.=4. ∗
N:/:G8>b M;=9 4b54 0.-.K1/: r 6
N:/:G8>b M;=9 4b54 0.-.K1/: r ` k 7:>8=1>846

-:>>21.=4. `

[ VU WY V U U W[ ^\Y^
∗
⊗

I I F
H RUEC R \R E VF R p RUU UR U→pUV
>
Z[n[\\ U

^ X UW V o UW\ EV W[R R U ^\Y^F VH
p

U && ( ( "
>
W[ ^\Y^ _ _^ _ ^
# * ! #
C
n ^\\ [\ \Y]^ o W[ U ^\Y

( ( " # (& # ( && *
, - > $
# ! &( # & && +
$ ,

"
Up [Z[ ^ r U 15.151-M4N5
M1-5;21S F H r R FE@ F→6 D/.@ × CH 513=1 N:/:8q 1D/:
>
`w
( ) &( # #−
H H E R ` R E R R

,
> 8 >

492>24 N:/:=1

H { }189-<81.
91>1 >8-;98;-=1S
∈
019-<84.
F6 81 513=1 H @ 0-1>8-:=>8?:
01>8-148q
EU h G 4 >21.5 ` 2b a 81D1 =;3=1 ?Nb8q
D-;001S
U { } >
-:>>21.=4.
4 =:/
N:/:=
/4N@ B

J=98=1.
1813/.>8?48q 1C ./4=.=4.
8179; 5=13.>8?

F @ @ 4 /2b 9:3/1S 81794
×> 81791S
%
F @
@ ∈ ` ∩1-B
5
E E

-.98=1>8q
2b 8:91D1
012;7.==1D1 1813/.>8?2.=4b

0-1>8-:=>8?:
∈ ×
1C.>0.74?:.8>b
0-1.9 4b
8
6
;-:?=.=4.5
∈
4=/;
×
914-1?:=:
492: ` 8
6

9
.>8.>8?.==1S 0-1.9 4.S @ × → @ `

5
R →
#

>24 N:/:=< /?: 91 492:4N151-M=< F 4 ∈ EU h G F6>181>8-;98;-=1S

-:>>21.=4b

EU h G9:9 -:>>21.=4b

> >
D-;001S
#

4
R → F 81D/:R 4 812q91

→
#
∈
81D/:6
0
91D/: 0

E 91 492:5 4 >118?.8>8?;.8
0
1/4= >=14 8188:93.6

3. a2.5.=8
781
%
2JC1.91D15121D47.>91D1
-:>>21.=4. =:/ 5=13.>8?:
>1 >8-;98;-=1S F
G `
E hD-;001S

0 >

4 >21.5
513=1 012;748q 9:9 -:>>21.=4. /2b =.9181-1D1 91 492: %
` ,1a 815; 45..8 5.>81 >2./;Jc.. ;8?.-3/.=4. `

Um U UT Y]Û pU TW ommo U Z[n[\

; &( ) UU XX^p Y \ U ^ \ÛTmW^Wp \ U ^ n^ UVU Y^
\[ W W\W[\U UVTW ommÛUU ^ Yn[ UYY^[V \[YZ^V U^\n_WX[
( # # ! &( #
\_ W[^ ^ ^\Y^\\\[nUV Z[YV \ UW Uomn\p UoZ\[]\

$
( & ! &( &( # && '
$ % , @ $
&& ! & &( ( ! ! & ('
$1 % 1
V pUTUVU UT pUTU V U h G F WY ^VUV^\ WY Y[ \ UV o

W[Y U ^\Y Y]^× UU \^ ^ o ^[ U EV ^]^\\
& # &( &( # # & ( # ( &( # & ( '
>
& &( # ; ( ( # )
,
&& + & ( # ( &( # ( ( ! (
$ ,

:015=456
81 781 /4MM.-.=
012424=.S=:b 4:2q=:b BM1-5:
91>1>455.8-47.>9:b M;=9 4b=:185=1D11C-:N44
?.981-=<K
01B

l a
6 ``` 6
=: ` 4=.S=1. 0-1>8-:=>8?1 BM1-5 =: 5=1D11C-:B

G
2.S
N44

G
M1-5 5<∈ C;/.5 1C1N=:7:8q F 10-./.2.=1 F ` 2b /?;K /4MM.-.= 4:2q=<K

> F
E

F4

E E

> F
4K ?=. =..k=.0-14N?./.=4.

5
G

F h 0-4∈ a 815 H E− E ∧F H `L =..E;5=1B

F
> ?
3.=4.
>
∧
0-.?-:c:.8
∈
?
E 24=.S=1. 0-1>8-:=>8?1

∧

>
F? ?

?

>
F
:2D.C-; ` ∗ F
2:/91. 181C-:3.=4.F R →F6 : 45.==16 4=/; 4-;.8 24=.S=1. 181B

>

C-:3.=4.
6∗ R E → E
F

E E F
6 F

FH

6∗
>8

8 F

H E
911-/4=:8:K
9:2q=<K
F6 D/. H
81 l /4MM.-.=
181C-:3.=4. 4:2 181C-:3.=4b
?<D2b/48 >2./;Jc45 ` k 21B
1C-:N15
a ``` 6 219:2q=<. 911-/4=:8< =: 4 ``
>8 8 F
6∗ 6∗ 6∗ 6 6
,;>8q 6 6 4 6

w1D/: ```H
>
H l >

6EX ∗

C
∧ ∧
H
FHXC
H
∧ ∧

C

6C

C

6
C

D.C- `81C-:3.=4. R E F → E F b?2b.8>b D15151-M4N515 :2B

6∗ ∗ ∗
,1>8-145 >2./;Jc454
012424=.S=1.>?1S>8?:54
181C-:3.=4.F R H IE F F →012424=.S=1 F6

1C2:/:Jc.. R

◦
h F H

F E F F >
18=1>48.2q=1 D2:/94K M;=9 4S6 8 `. `

/2b 2JC1S ∈ E F ` 2b a 81D1 =:5 E01=:/1C48>b 01=b84.E 9155;8:B

8 >8 8
8 8

81-: ?.981-=<K 012.S `

∞ 5
,;>8q
4 l ?.981-=<. 012b =: 6 ∈ E F ` ,121345

F H
FF
FF ` >24 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b 8.56 781 H
E E E − E E
∞
D
8
H 6 81 ? 219:2q=<K 911-/4=:8:K 012;745 ?<-:3.=4.

D

F H X

E

8

−
H H H
w:945 1C-:N156>1C1S? M49>4-1?:==1S 219:2q=1S >4>8.5. 911-/4=:8

0-./>8:?2b.8 ?.981-=1. 012. 0.-:81- =: D2:/94K M;=9B
8
4bK =. N:?4>48 18 ?<C1-: 219:2q=1S ` >4>8.5< 911-/4=:86 01 a 815; 5<

8
012;7:.5

81-=<K 012.S ?.981-=1.

4 `
012.
6 9181-1. =:N<?:J8 pUVV o [ UW UV ?.9B
8 ( (
.01>-./>8?.==1
0-1?.-48q6 781 .>24 4N 10-./.2.=4b ?4/=16 781
H
` .D91
∈ E F6 81
H
− −E F
h /2b /1B
8 8

9:N:8.2q>8?: =;3=1 N:5.848q6 781 ∞
8 8

E
F H

w.0.-q F `5<,121345;3. 513.5 10-./.248q 181C-:3.=4. ` ,;>8q H H H

∈ E F
E

F H X E− F
E

F
F
8 8 F

8 8 8 8 F

I
E− F E

F

X 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 F

F
6 6

2b 4∈012424=.S=1>8q
=1>8q E F H E ?4/=< F 0121345

E
F H
E F ` 1>1>455.8-47B

?.=>8?1 E

F H E

F >2./;.8 4N 4N81D1610-./.2.=4b
=.01>-./>8?.==1 781 ` :B
5 ∞ 9

8 8 F 8 8 F

F
FH

E

E

8
H
E

F
E F E

F
8

8 F

8 8

8 F
8
8

8 8

8 F
8 8 8 8 F

F
F

FH

E

− E E

8 8
8 8 8 F 8 8 8 8 F
H
E

F E

F

8 8 8 8 F 8 8 8 8 8 F
k?./G5 219:2q=<.
H E F 911-/4=:8< 6 ``` 6 4 ?<74>245 /4MM.-.= 4B6

:2 M1-5< 6 D/. ` ,121345

H H
>
>
H

F

```J8 6
H
H I6 D/.,1 815;∧ ∧ ` k.981-=<. 012b
010:-=1 9155;84-;B
F
H H C

F
H
R ` a

8

E

F H X E− F E

F
F

8 8 F 8 8
8 8 F

I
H
H/.>q6 ``` E6
H
6 =:7486
8

8
8
: ?1
?>.KF H 1>8:2q=<K

8 F
>2;7:bK 012;7:.5 I ` ,-46 a 815H
E F6 .>24 H 6 ``` 6 H H
>

>
−

>
`

F F

>

>
−
E− F E

F H

8 8
8 8 F

H
H E− F ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ E

F H

H C H H
8

8
8

8 F
H
H ∧ ∧ ∧ d ∧ ∧ E

F

H H C H H
8

8 F

k 481D. 012;7:.5 H
F F H X E F

EE ∧ ∧

H H C
∧ ∧ H ∧

H
H H C H
I
81D16,12qN;b>q a 845BM1-5:6
?<-:3.=4.56 2.D91F 0-1?.-48q6 781 F◦ H I h 9-15.
H
.>24
4MM.-.= 81 G
H
l4:2q=;J M1-5;E ∧=:N<?:J8 Z[∧ Vp \ o E−U 6 .>24∧ `H I `
> > ? > ?

F
> ?
4MM.-.=M1-5<
9181-1S
5
4:2q=;J M1-5;
=:N<?:J8 N:59=;8<K
:981-0-1>8-:=>8?1 U]\ U 6 .>24BM1-5
H =: /2b5=1D1B

=.B ( !
`
5 ( ! 0
1C-:N44
1C1N=:7:J8 01 817=<5 BM1-5:5 =:N<?:J8 pUTUVU UT Y_ V Y n^ [ V [ 4

0
G
E F `

F G

.
ERF ∼H R Y ERF H I

>
Up [Z[ ^ F U 2bF R0-4.>8q815812q91 1/4= =.8-4?4:2q=<S /4MM.-.=B

,

4:2
01>81b==<K R ERM;=9
( ) &( #
→ ER h

4S

5
, >
,1 815;a 7→
F H ` >=16 781 .D91 >1>8148 4N
0-1?.-48q6

` a H
ER BM1-5:∼ =:R ` R 45..8 ?4/
6

H
781 H ERF ` .S>8?48.2q=16 >

2JC:b

D/. F ,121345 E F H R
E F 0-4 > I 4 E F H R
E F
5
0-4
E ` H
H ER6F I ` wER1D/: F H I ` H
` w:945 1C-:N156 ERF H ERF H

∈ R
∞
H H>
H>

>H > H

. . & Y _Z\ U ^ V \ UTUU W[ZY^ U E F ∼H R

4 &# " * (

UpM;=9 U /-1? 9:3/1S

D15151-M4N5: F → E ;/1?2.8?1B
F >1>8148
,
4N-bJ8
[Z[ ^4S6 9181-<.
( ) &( #
,

911-/4=:8=1S R E19-.>8=1>84 >
91501=.=8.;>21?4J>?bN=1>84

H 5=1D11C-:N4b

H H I `w:94. M;=9 44 01>81b==< =: 9:3/1S
`

C

.D91 0-1?.-48q6
4-1?:==1.
D2:/945 781 181C-:3.=4. R E 6 F .0=1.6
181C-:3.=4.5 E F6 4=/;B
8 `. ` 0-4BH
F F
R →
6 ``` 6
1C. M1-5<

→ 6 ∗
H=45:J8` 1/=1 .S>8?48.2q=16 =: ?.981-=<K 012bK

6 6∗
4 81 3. N=:7.=4.

∗ 5 F
6
X
E− F
E

X
F
8 8 8 8 F
E− F E

F

6∗ 6∗

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 F 8
6∗ 6∗
01>912q9;

H

`

8 8
6∗
H @ @ T n^ @ Y @ U U pW ^ V \ U

6∗ 6∗
&( #
, @
UT
^^ UWY[ [ n[ Y ^^ ^ V
(
o

. ; &( )
V U ∪
U U U
]\[_ m ^n [ ^ \

&( [ ^W[
>
(
?*
&
> ? 4 ( (
$ $
# ( ) &( ) !
'
/) ( &
E F → E @ F ⊕ E @ F → E @ ∩ @ F → E F →
F F F F F >
> ? > ?
Up [Z[91 ^ .0.S U 1>8:817=1 01>8-148q 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

→
D-;00
( ) &( #

,
5
I → E F −→ E@ F ⊕ E@ F −→ E@ ∩ @ F → I
F ∗ F
>
F
? ∗ F > ?
,;>8q M1-5<
7.=4b E =:F ` @,121345
F
4 @

E F H E∈ E@ F6F 4D/. ∈ 4 E@ Fl` ,121345
,;>8q 1D-:=4B
`
∗ ∗> 8 ∗? ∗> ?
∈ F F ∗
F H − D15151-M4N5:
E 1=151-M=1>8q
∗ > 8? 6 D/. l 1D-:=47.=4.

>∗ >
>
17.?4/=:6
?∗ ? M1-5< ?
01>912q9; =:M1-5:
@ ` =:
∗

> > ?

?

1/=1N=:7=1 N:/:G8>b >?1454 1D-:=47.=4b54 =: @ 4 @ `

∗

> ?

,19:3.56./4=4781<6 01/74=G==1.
-:NC4.=4. l a 0451-M4N5∗
019-<84J` ,;>8q @ { @ ` }w1D/: l D2:/91.
M1-5; >8 ?
91--.98=1

∈
@
F
@ > F 513=1 ? 0-./>8:?48q

? ?4/.
E ∩10-./.2G==:b M1-5: =: @ 6 01>912q9; H I h=: 5=13.>8?.l{ }
N/.>q ∗> ?

>8 ?
∗? > ?
@ \ E:91=.
> @ ∩ @ 6 F0-1?.-456
> ` ?
781,;>8q H F ` N -:?.=>8?:
>
H I >2.B81
?
/;.86
1N=:7:.86 781 781

⊃ F H ` F /2b ?>.K E ∈@ @ 6 8
,1 .
∗
H
` a`815; 513=1 `10-.B
∗ ∗ ∗
`
∗ ∗ >8? ∗ >∗ > ?∗ ?
/.248q M1-5; E=: 6 E012:D:b .G -:?=1S

>
H
?
H
∈ ∩
=: @ 4 =: @ ` >=16 H
> ?
781 H E F ` ∗

>8?
> > ? ?
-.= 52b =.9150:98=1D1

4:2q=<K M1-5 5=1D11C-:N4b =:-b/; > :2D.C-1S /4MM.B
F 7:>81 C<?:.8 012.N=1 -:>>5:8-4?:8q :2D.B

F /4MM.-.= E 4:2q=<K M1-5 > 9150:98=<54 =1>48.2b54 8 `. `

C-;
M1-56

E
813/.>8?.==1
∗

-:?=<K =;2J
∗
?=.
=.9181-1D1 9150:98=1D1 E
5=1B
3.>8?:F
/2b =.D1 4MM.-.=
` 813. 4:2 /2b01 =4K
?<012=b.8>b6 815; 81801 M1-5:5
3. >:5<S6> 9150:98=<54
>?1S>8?1 ◦ =1>4B HI
a
5
8.2b54 513=1 01>8-148q 91D15121D446 9181-<. 5< C;/.5 1C1N=:7:8q

/2b∗
E =.D1 >1?0:/:J8 ` 1 .>24 =.9150:98=1 E817=.. D1?1-b6 ; 4=.D1
F ` >24 5=1D11C-:N4. 9150:98=16 81 91D15121D44

∗

∗
=.8 9150:98=<K >?bN=<K 91501=.=8F6 81 a 84 91D15121D44 -:N247=< `

FHI
. : & Y _Z\ U ^ \^pUV m [p \ U ^ V \ UTUU W[ZY^ U

4 &# ( " * (

E
Up01>81b==<K
[Z[ ^ M;=9 U /-14S >D15151-M4N5: R E F →` 1 01>912q9;
E F >1>8148
,
>
4N=.9150:98=1
( ) &( #
,

4 >?bN=1F6 9150:98=<54
8:9:b M;=9

4b =1>48.2b54
812q91 1/=:
813/.>8?.==1

-:?=:b =;2J ` E l
. E
E FH
>
Up [Z[ D15151-M4N5:
1C-:N. ^ U 1-5: E F F E> 9150:98=<5
( ) &( #
R ∼R
F 81D/:
,
4 =1>48.2.5F
812q91 2.348
81D/:6 91D/: ?
=1>48.2q M;=9 44 E F HR R ER E→F 9150:98.=6

,
ER H H >
8 `. ` R E F H I `
FE :>>518-45 181C-:3.=4. F 181C-:3.=4.
6 N:/:==1. 0451-M4N5 M1-5;21S
∞
E
H >
F ` >=16 781 a 81 a `
−∞ −∞

D1 b/-17→>1?0:/:.8
R
E > ` ,1 a 815; F ∼H ` l
∞
R → R

ER
H H −∞
>

1D15121D44 > 9150:98=<54 =1>48.2b54 45.J8 ?.>q5:0-1b?2b.8>b

>;c.>8?.=B
R
=1. 182474.
9
18 1C<7=<K 91D15121D4S /. :5:6 9181-1.
>/:3. ? >2;7:. 9150:98=<K
=1>48.2b545=1D11C-:N4S
45..8 5.>81` 817=:b 45.==1601>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
/2b 91D15121D4S
9150:98=<54

I

:S.-:8 . kq.81-4>:6
-1=;6 8:96 9:9 =1 D15121D4S6:
/2b 181C-:3.=4b=.? /2b=.S 91D15121D4S
=:0-:?2.=< ? ,-474=:
1C-:8=;J 81D1>81B
` ` ? 8156 781 /2b M1-5 > 9150:98=<54 =1>48.2b54 ` a

N:92J7:.8>b
4>012qN1?:8q 10.-: 9150:98=<S
4J 1D-:=47.=4b M1-5<M1-5<
=: 189-<81. =.2qNb
5=13.>8?1
.S>8?48.2q=16.>24 =1>48.2q

>1/.-348 /:==1. 18B `
5
9-<81.
=1>48.2.5 5=13.>8?16
1 ? 81 ?M1-5
>2;7:. -.N;2q8:8.
> 012;748>b=1>48.2b54
9150:98=<54 M1-5: > =.9150:98=<5
/2b 189-<81B
D15< 5=13.>8?: ` @ 513=1 4>012qN1?:8q 10.-: 4J -:>0-1>8-:=.=4b

M1-B@
=: 5=13.>8?16
.S>8?48.2q=16 >1/.-3:c..
2JC:b 8179: ?=.@ 6
@ 012:D:b
45..8 M1-5; -:?=1S
19-.>8=1>8q6 =.=;2J ?=.
0.-.>.9:JB `

c;J>b > 9150:98=<5 5=13.>8?15 ⊂ @ `

5

H@ @ T @ @ Up VU
^^ UWY[ [ UT n[ YVo^^ V ^ U ∪U]\[_ mnÛ ^nYU [ ^ \ U W [^ ^W[\

. . ; &( ) > ?* > ? 4 ( ( '
$ $
&( # ( &( ( & # ( ) &( ) !
, @
/) ( &
E F → E @ ∩ @ F → E @ F ⊕ E @ F → E F →
F F F F F >
> ? > ?
Up [Z[ ^ U ,1>8-145 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

→
( ) &( #
I → E@ ∩ @ F −→ E@ F ⊕ E@ F −→ E F → I
,
F ∗ F F ∗ F
> ? > ?
>2./;Jc45
H E − 1C-:N15 M1-5< ∈ E@ M1-5<
F6 D/. ` 2bl -:>0-1>8-:=.=4. 5
∩
@ F 0121345
=: @ ` ,;>8qH
F
> ? ∗
@ F 4 ∈ M1-5< @ F ` ,121345 F =:H ?>G 5=1D11C-:N4.

6 D/.
>∗ 8 ?∗
∗
∈
F
E
-:>0-1>8-:=.=4. >
E ?
>
F
E
5=13.>8?: @
l 1=151-M=1>8q 4 817=1>8q ? >-./=.5 72.=. 17.?4/=< ` ,-1?.-45`
> ?

∗ > 8 ?

∗> > ? ?

∗
∗

a=40451-M=1>8q ` ,;>8q019-<84J E{@F 4@{} ` 1>48.2q D2:/91. -:NC4.=4. ./4B

}l
F
?2b.8
<6 01/74=G==1.
>1C1S 0.-.>.7.=4S
∈
9150:98=1D1

5=13.>8?: M1-5< 0-./>8:B

4 N:59=;81D1
>8 ?
>8 ?

5=13.>8?:
9150:98=1D1 6 01 815; 1= 9150:98.=
a 9150:98=1F ` =:7486
0-1>8-:=>8?: EN:59=;81. 01/5=13.>8?1
E@ F ` >=16

781 E ∗ FH `
> 8 ?
∈

! !"! * )* & !

('%* & ' )'

Hk<C.-.5 ? RF 911-/4=:8< 4 2bN:049-:891>84

.5 M1-5;81 C;/.5 E F ? ?4/.
N:04><?:8q

` a

E ∈ R
8:9 R H E F ` ,.-.S/b
8
H
H H
>8
∧
>
∧
9 /-;D1S >4>8.5. 911-/4=:8 E F6 012;745

H
5
He ` -:891 a 81 C;/.5 N:04><?:8q

H H H
> > 9
∧ ∧ H ∧ ∧ H

8:9 R H e ` k =1?<K 911-/4=:8:K H E F ` k=456

9:9 >?bN:=< M;=9 44 E F 4 E F ` >=16 781 E F H H E F H

H
H E Fe 6 01a 815; E F H E F e

` 781

H H H
1-5;2: N:5.=< 0.-.5.==<K ? 4=8.D-:2. 019:N<?:.86

H H H
Z
FE H Z E F e H ± Z E F

H

H H H
8
H
D/. N=:9 ± >118?.8>8?;.8 N=:9; 10-./.248.2b e ` 81 01N?12b.8
10-./.248q 4=8.D-:2 M1-5<4b ,;>8q
>2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 ,-./01213456 781 ?

`M1-5:

M49>4-1?:=:

=1>48.2.5 1-4.=8:
,121345 H ` R F ∈ 6 D/.
F > 9150:98=<5
ER ll >4>8.5: 911-/4=:86
`

R
1-4.=8: 4b10-./.248q
9181-1S >1D2:>1?:=:
R
E
> 1-4.=8: 4.S

H H H
81C<
Y\ ^ T W[ M1-5< R F6 D/.
l 1-4B

R R
.=84-1?:==1.

5=1D11C-:N4.6 01>8;045 >2./;Jc45

∈ E 1C-:N15
(
` k1Nq5G5

0-14N?12q=<S
>1K-:=bJc454 219:2q=1
1-4.=8: 91=.7=<S
4J ,;>8q :82:> {@ }01/74=G==1.
> 9:-8:54 .5;R @ D2:/91. 6
-:NC4.=4. ./4=4 < ` ,121345 { } l `

→R

6
Z
H XZ E F H XZ >
P

6 − ∗
1>48.2q M1-5<6 01 815;l 1=N:59=;81.

01/5=13.>8?1 9150:98=1D1 5=1B

R
3.>8?:

-;Jc4S :82:> 4 a 9150:98.= `

>24
L
{ }l
/-;D1S 1-4.=84B
} l 01/74=G==1. .5; -:NC4.=4. ./4=4 <6 81 4N

-:?.=>8?: P H >2./;.86 781 P RP H P RP ` 1>4B

{

8.2q M1-5< 2.348 ? @ ∩ L 6 01 a 815; RP H RQ `

2./1?:8.2q=16 P RP H P RQ H P RQ 6 01>912q9;

H ` 81 91--.98=1
1N=:7:.86 781 10-./.2.=4. 4=8.D-:2: M1-5< 01 5=1B
7

D11C-:N4J `
P

C1S ÛW^V [ Up [N:92J7:.8>b

M1-5< F k1 ? 8156
?81-15 781 R M1-5:2q=1
4=8.D-:2. H ± R >2./1?:21
/2b 2JBC<
E 6` D/. R → l .>8.>8?.==1. ?92J7.=4. h
( &

@

?5.>81 =:04>:8q
/-;D454?81-<5
∈
>21?:546

l 1D-:=47.=4. M1-5< 01>-./>8?15

=: ` >1D2:
8 N=:9:.=4b±
∗

0.-./ 4=8.D-:215 513=1 4NC:?48q>b ∗
1C 1-4.=8:
:S5G5>b44/19:N:8.2q>8?15
6 4=/; 4-1?:==1S 1-4.=8: 4.S `

8.1-.5< 819>: `

7
H

R ,

H ,;>8q ∧ H∧ ∧ ∧ H E∧− F ∈ ∧ ER∧F ` `w,11D/:a 815; H

>
> >
H H > −
> > −− >
H H H − H H
Z
H E− F Z Z
>
−
H
> >
H H −
∞
1>912q9;
HM;=9 F F H I6 01B
H
E ∞ − E
R −∞

=1>48.2q 44 9150:98.=
8 >8 8 >8
R
`
∞ >8 >8
H H H − −∞ H H −
−∞

H . H {E
F ∈ R | > I}
>8 8

R H H H ,
,;>8q H P ∧ ∧ c ∧ ∧ ∈ ER F ` w1D/: H

>
H P E− F ,1a 815;
>
` −
> H H H
− >
∧ ∧
H H
Z
H X E− F Z c

>
−
> ∞

H H
>
H H

H
F
R 6 −∞

E−
Z > ∞
− > >
H H H −
>24 6H 6 81 R H I6 9:9 4 ? >2;7:. ` ,-4 H 012;B

H
7:.5
H − 4=8.D-:2 H E F IF H
∞
H
∞ − E
−∞
IF =:7486 8 >8 8 >8

R
`
∞ >8 >8
E
H
>8 8 > 8
H −

H H H − H H −
H E− F E IF H E− F Z h

Z Z
>8 8 >8 > >
H H − H H −
0-4 N:04>4 01>2./=.D1 -:?.=>8?: 5< ?1>012qN1?:24>q 8.56 781 0-4
C
R R − R
1D-:=47.=44 =: M1-5:
1D-:=47.=44 =: RR 18 M1-5< 1>8:G8>b 812q91 1/=1

1C-:c:.8>b
? =;2q 01 a 815;
h >2:D:.51. 0-4 H

`513=1 4NC:?48q>b6 .>24 0-./012:D:8q6 781 1-4.=B

8

H ∧
N=:9:
8:>1D2:4b .=4.
>
∧
N:/:G8>bF

>
E− M1-51S E− F ∧ ∧ ` ,1B/-;D15; a 81
H −

513=1 0121348.2q=;J
>M1-5;24-1?:8q1-4.=8: >2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 `?.981-
,;>8q ?=.
C:N4>B >
>
R H H −
6=.S```=1-5:24
6 N:/:G8 4J 9-:b6

>
9
>
9-:J ` w 1D/: C:N4> 6 6 ``` 6 N:/:G8 l0121348.2q=;J
1-4.=8: 6 4J 1-4.=84-1?:=
5=1D11C-:N4b `8:9.S>8?48.2q=16 H −F 6 601 a 815; C:N4> 6 >
−
>
> 6 k```/:2q=.S
>
.5 5< C;/.5 3.6 9:9
0-./012:D:8q6 C:N4> ``` 6
E−1-4.=8: 4b R ?<C-:B
781 6
5
`
−

> >

=:78145.==1 8:965<64 ?4>K1/b

M1-5;2.4N /-;D4K
819>: >11C-:3.=4S6
N=:9 04>:8q =.0-4C;/.524 `9 815; 85.8456
− −

=: > `
>:515; >1D2: .=4J 1C 1-4.=8: 44 9-:b `

7
3.

:
mW UYZ U \ U ^ UWY^\ YW U [\\ U ^ V \ UTUU W[ZY^

4 # ) ( # "
,

,.-.K1/-:NC4.=4S
>-./>8?15 18 R 4 R./4=4
9 0-14N?12q=<5
< ,;>8q

@ 5=1D11C-:N4b5

/.2:.8>b:82:>
1-4.=84-;Jc4S 01B
` { }l

/2b01/74=G==1.
6 ? 9181-15 ?>. 5=13.>8?: @ /4MM.151-M=<

.5; D2:/91. -:NC4.=4. ./4=4 < 424 R M1-5;
,-./>8:?45

h{ }
l∈ E F ? ?4/. H P ` w.1-.5; 819>: `/1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q

R

>
/2b 9:3/1S

81. 18/.2q=1S
01/5=13.>8?1
−
M1-5< 5=13.>8?:
9150:98=1D1 ` 1>48.2q a 81S M1-5<

@ 6 l
01 N:59=;B1=
815;

7
a

9150:98.= ` ⊂

H U ^\Y_
n[\\ ^ ^ X Y\^W o \[U ^ YU U W[E ^\Y^Y E F n[ n _ ^F U >[n[I o Z[^^^
o R >
U V V 8 IF

. : ; &( ) 8 >
R → F
R 8 UT
× R R
4 # *
=
'
'
HR E
#& &
^noo YV U UV ER
$ H 7→ H H 7→ FH , >@ F > 1 G
&( # ( ! ( " * " +=
R → −
& += &# ! &( # ∗> ∗
Up [Z[C:N4>=<.
^ M1-5b

>
H E F 0121345
− ,
>
=: /?: 840: H I ` ,-4
` 45.=B
( ) &( # 5
E
∈ F R > R
∞
,
=16 0;>8q 911-/4=:8: =: 0-b51S 6 6 6 911-/4=:B

```

8<H ? R ` l1-5<6 6 ?: 9181-<. l

G> R

M1-5<6 ? =. ?K1/48
9181-<. 6
R H
?K1/48 C;/.5
>
6 1C1N=:7:8q
C;/.5 1C1N=:7:8q H
H

H JC:b M1-5: b?2b.8>b >;551S M1-5812qB

8:B

94K
∧∧ ∧∧ ∧
?4/1?6
H C
01 a

815;

` ;8?.-3/.=4.
8-.C;.51.
H C
H
/1>8:817=1
H − C

/19:N:8q

91 /2b =4K `

,121345 H I 4 H R ∧ ∧ `
>
8-GK :S5G5>b
>2;7:bK R 8.0.-q
/2b M;=90-1?.-91S -:?.=>8?: H − ?1 ?>.K

H C H − C

44 6 /2b M1-5< 4 /2b M1-5< `

∗> ∗
F H I 4 H R H E F − EIF H E − F `

>
∗> ∗
F HI4 H R ∧ ∧ HE − F `

>
F ,-.3/.F 4?>.D1 N:5.8456 781 H -:?=1 H I6 =;2J

01>912q9; 1D-:=47.=4.
∗> ∗
H C H
=: =:
?.981-<ER45.J8 =;2.?;J

F 813/.>8?.==1
ER B911-/4=:8;F ` :2..6 E
>

?>. 9:>:8.2q=<.
∗ ∗>
5

H X Z ∧ ∧ ∧
>

8
H H C H − C
H
H X ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ !H

H H C H − C
H
H − X Z ∧ ∧ ∧
>

H H C H − C
H

,1 a 815; H I`

Vp

[ \[_ X UW V [ I U]\[ ^ R ER [_F HZ[I mWY\ o [_ InYXX^W^\ Y

/ +" ( 2 '
F
) ' A
B ( * (
Up [Z[M1-5;21S
^ U F :>>518-45 181C-:3.=4. 6 N:/:=B?
G G , , G ,
=1.
( ) &( #
` w 1D/:
H de 4 R RH × R181C-:3.=4.

IF ` ,;>8q F ∈ 1 E ER 7→F 4 F H H I ` w1D/: ∗ E

, →R
8
F
H
6 01 H
815; E
H
H F HF6 8 .E M1-5:
>
F

` a ` `
∗> ∗
∗
∗
817=:E ` E E
−

∗
∗ ∗
∗

w.1-.5; "` ` 513=1 /19:N:8q=. 48-.C;.8

/19:N:8.2q>8?1
/2b =49:94K181C-:3.=4S
>;c.B
>8?.==<K
8 >
R ×4N5.=.=4S

R →

` h :9 >2./>8?4.6 012;7:.56 781 D151810=<.

181C-:3.=4b
:5: ` 4=/; 4-;J8 1/4=:91?<. 181C-:3.=4b 91D15121D4S /.

9
H
ER ∼ E ∼ RI mmWYWY 6H h
F H F H (
F F
. G
,
Up [Z[ ^ 817=;JU 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

>012qN;b /4MM.151-M4N5 R ≈ \ { } 6 513=1
G

01>8-148q
( ) &( #
,

H

I → ER F → E F → E F ER F → I F F F

F
/.>qBM1-5E 2.D91
91? F ER?<74>2bJ8>b
F
F l -1>894 > BM1-5
F
0151cqJ ? 8179.
2.55< 1D15121D44.S>8?4B
`,;:=9:-. -1>8B
` -:>01B
9
G H
8.2q=16
213.==1S /1>8:817=1
G
5:2;J 19-.>8=1>8q
6 01a 815;.G 817=1>8q
? IR>2./;.8 81794 513=1
4N N:59=;81>84 BM1-5< ? 5:21S 19-.>8=1>84

>748:8q H

5
H
0-4
,1 91-1891S
> G
817=1S `
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84 M1-5 513=1 012;745
01>8-1B
G
48q 817=;J F 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

F 0-4 91D15121D4S
-15. 81D16 k
012;7:.5 -.N;2q8:8.
` 817=;J 01>2./1B
ER F
?:8.2q=1>8q
H
∼

E
F
> `
G
9
I −→ ER F −→ E F −→ R −→ ER F −→ E F −→ I

>

>

,1 a 815;
>8:G8>b R
F H
∼
R
F ` k 7:>8=1>846
E ?<74>248q E91D15121D44
>

>
/.

:5: E 6 F ∼H >R ` ` ,-./>8:?45

>

>
H
? ?4/. 1C6 /4MM.151-M=<K

./4=.=4b 189-<8<K ,-4 5=13.>8?815 @@ H @ \ { } 4 @ 6 H:

` a
> > ?
H >
? > ?
\{ } H R ∩ ≈ ×R −

"
N=:7486
=1>8q E@kq.81-4>:
:S.-: @ F ∼H 019:N<?:.86781
F
E F ` ,1a 815; 0-4E F ∼HI 01>2./1?:8.2qB
F >
E F ` ,-4
> ?
∩ −
F G > F >
H I 4 > 012;7:.5 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

−

E F −→ ER F ⊕ ER F −→ E F −→ E F −→ I
G
> >

−

NN=:7486b/-15
817=1>84
R
? 72.=. R⊕R
181C-:3.=4b >2./;.86781 F ? a 815 R

72.=.F >2;348 H R 4 ,1∼H815; 6:
R` a

E E
R⊕R > ∼ >R

>
E F H
I ` →

−

81 1=:RJC:b2.348BM1-5: E F N:59=;8: `F >246 aN:/:==1D1

8: M1-5: M1-5;21S 817=:6

? b/-.
.S>8?48.2q=16181C-:3.=4b
∈

H I E:?.=>8?1

7→ `
?:.86 781 0-1>8-:=>8?1
5
817=<K
R ` →R
BM1-5 >1?0:/:.8 > b/-15

E F H aR81D1
019:N94S 92:>> 2JC1S BM1-5< 6 /2b 91B

` HaI6 b?2b.8>b =.=;2.?<5 a2.5.=815 D-;00<

81-1S81C< R
012;748q

=.=;2.?1S 92:>> 91D15121D4S ? E F H
F6 =;3=1 R`

?Nb8q
M1-5;
6
E F 6 /2b 9181-1S ER
l M;=9 4b

> 9150:98=<5 =1>48.2.5 4 R E H

>8
∧
8
H ∧ H
>
F
H
>8
6
H I`
H
8
H

H
>
H

! ! ! ) ' #$ & )* + & ' +*

R

,;>8q F 4 l 9150:98=1.
1-4.=84-1?:==1. 5=1D11C-:N4.6
F ` w1D/:
F
815;∈ 513=1
a5=1D11C-:N4.

E -:>>518-.8q
F
∈ E R ∧ ∧ ` k∈>2;7:.6
F
4=8.D-:2
−
F
−

E F691D/: F
01BF

F
F−

=.9150:98=1.6 8:91S 4=8.D-:2 513.8 19:N:8q>b

−

-:>K1/bc45>b` F 81C< a 81D1 4NC.3:8q6 C;/.5 0-./012:D:8q6 781
`

E 5=1D11C-:N4. C.N 9-:b6 81 01>8-1.==1. 8:945 1C-:B

F F
−
N15 >24
∈
181C-:3.=4. l E F × E F → R 0.-.=1>48>b =: 91D151B
−

F F
21D44 /. :5:F H` .S>8?48.2q=164 0;>8q H FI H4
5
−
H I ` w1D/:

F
6 01B −
F
E M1-5<
a=1S815;
−
F >
∧
−
F
∧

F >
4
F
F > − F− F E ∧ 817=<. `

F
± ∧4=8.D-:2 817B

F −> −
F >

F F >
− −
M1-5< > 9150:98=<5 =1>48.2.5F 01 5=1D11C-:N4J C.N=: M:9B

9-:b
− − − −
-:?.= =;2J ` E 81
∧
1N=:7:.86 781
∧
181C-:3.=4. 0.-.=1>48>b
81- N:59=;8<K M1-5 01F 817=<5` kF -.N;2q8:8.
181C-:3.=4.

6 8 . 012;7:.5181C-:3.=4.
24=.S=1. C424=.S=1.
` `
R E F → E E× F ` E → R
F F

−
F
F

− ∗

V \ UTUUUVUW[ZY_ V ^Z pW[_ U U W[ ^\Y^ R E_ UFWY^\

. E

YW U [\\
E
UTU
F

F (
F#
YZ WXYZ " " ( " ∗

−
→
4
Up [Z[ ^ U
H ` -;00<

,
( ) &( # 7
F =:7:2:
4 0-1?.-456
F 5< ;3. 781 ;8?.-3/.=4.
?<74>2b24 2.55: ?.-=1 /2b
,;:=9:B
-.0-47G5

4 0-45.-
R
,
ER 18 ER=;2b 812q91 D-;00< EER F 4 ER F6
F
" ` `" F ` 8247=<

F

C-:3.=4. 1C. 1=4 4N151-M=<

F ,1 815;
R` a
F /1>8:817=1 0-1?.-48q6781 181B
=.=;2.?1.

,;>8q F∈R EER F l→ M;=9E 4bF =:M1-5:6

6 `
813/.>8?.==1

-:?=:b92:>>6 ∗

H
>8 8
H

9181-1S 18247.=∧18 I∧` w1D/:∈ ER l

E H

>

R
H
91D15121D47.>94S

F
h E E
8 Fi H Z E
H
>8 8
H
F ∧ ∧ 6H I H
>8 8
H H
>
H
8
: N=:7486 F H I

E ` R
8<K 8?.-3/.=4. /19:N:=1 /2b 5=1D11C-:N4b

H R 6 : 8.5 >:5<5 4 /2b ?>.K 189-8?

81C< 0.-.=.>84 0-14N?12q=1D1 6 /4MM.151-M=<K

.D1 =: ?>. 189-<8<. 01/5=13.>8?: E: 8.5 >:B=:

R `

5<5 4
181C-:3.=44 =:

?>G F6 5< 0-45.=45 >8:=/:-8=;J 8.K=49;6 1>=1?:==;J

1/=1S

01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84:S.-::S.-: kq.81-4>: ?91D15121B
/-;D;J `
:>>518-45 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
D4S > 9150:98=<54 =1>48.2b54
kq.81-4>: /2b

E F ← E@ F ⊕ E@ F@← @ F
F F F
> ?
F
− − −
←
E E

F F >
> ?
40-1>8-:=>8?
/;:24N4-;.54 /?1S>8?.==<K
.G6 8 `. ` -:>>518-45 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q /?1S>8?.==<K
− − −
← ∩ ← ←
?:8.2q=1>8q :S.-: kq.81-4>: 181C-:3.=4S

/2b ` :8.5/.181C-:N45
91D15121D4S :5: ? 01>2./1B
/;:24N4-1B
?:==;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 01>-./>8?15 181C-:3.=4b R

−
→

E F −→ E@ F ⊕ E@ F −→ E@∩ @ F −→ E F
F

F
>
F
?
F
> ?
F >
−
→
  t t  t t C⊕ C  C∩ D
y y
F @ F @ F @ @ F F
y y
−
→

F
−
E −
→

,19:3.56155;8:84?=1>8q
∗
E
781 012;7.==:b2.?1D1

F
⊕ −
E
/4:D-:55:
> ∗
−
→ E
9155;8:84?=:

∩
F
> ?817=1>8qJ
−
−
→ E
? ∗
/1

F
− > ? ∗
F >
− −

∗
−
→
N=:9: `
012qN;J8>b 812q91 :S5G5>b
9
10.-: 440-:?<5 4 >-./=.D1
1D-:=47.=4b 9?:/-:8:6 9181-<K
M1-5< 4 -:>0-1>8-:=.=4b 4>B
M1-5<6k 17.?4/=:
0-:?15 `
9?:/-:8. ?.-K=..
9?:/-:815
181C-:3.=4. ` ;>8-1.=1 >2./;Jc45

1C-:N15 ` ,;>8q ∈ E@ ∩ @ F 4 H I ` ,-./>8:?45 M1-5;

F F
> ?
F

.8>b
F
? M1-5:
?4/. H − 6D/.F6 9181-:b F F F
E @-:?=:
F ` 1-5. =: @>101>8:?2bB
F F F
` 81C-:B
> ?
E
F > F > ∈ F
3.=4. ∈F
=.. 181C-:3.=4.E 9?:/-:8:6

F >
@ @
E ;>8-1.=1
F
F6 9181-15;
>2./;Jc45 /?1S>8?.==1
1C-:N15 =43B
,;>8q

` ? ?4B

− −
− > ?
→ ∩
F > F >
/.01>8:?2b.8>b
− −

H M1-5: E F
F >
4 H I ` ,-./>8:?45
F >
6 D/. @ @ F6∈ 9181-:b
− − M1-5;
@ F ` -:?=:
1-5. >1BH
F > − − F >
E
∈ F −> − F > F >
− − >− − ? − − − − − −
E -:?.=>8?1
F F F >
H/19:N:8q6
−
F >
? − −
781 RP P ∧ H ± R ∧ =: @ ∩` @>=16F ` w781
EN/.>q
−

F
01/-:N;5.?:.8>b
F
−
− >

∈
?
F >
>
F >
− −
?
∩
> − −
-.C;.8>b
C∩ D
Z F >
H Z F > Z F >
H
F > F > F >
P P
− − > − − ? − −
∧ ∧ ∧

HZ ∧
C D
Z F F > F F >
P P ∧
> > − − ? ? − −

C D
1-5: ∧ F H I 45..8 F F >
=:7486 9150:98=<S =1>48.2q ? @ 6 01a 815;
`

P E ∧
R F F >− −
− −

E− F ∧ HZ ∧

Z F > F > F > Z F F > F F >
P P ∧
− − > > − − ? ? − −

C D
M1-51>48.2q M1-5< 4 6 01 H815; F >

1= 2.348 2.348
? @ ? 0.-.>.7.=44
@
F >
=:7486 =1>48.2.S
8;815;M1-5;
513=1 -:>>5:8-4?:8q 9:9a -:>0-1>8-:=.=4. M1-5< ∩ ` a
> − ? − −
F > − F − >
>− − ? − −
,1
` a
> ?
−
F
E− F ∧ H P P ∧ − P P ∧ H
ZF > F >Z F > Z F F F F
− − > − ? −
HZ E − F∧ HZ
C∩ D C∩ D
F F F F F
P P P P ∧
> ? − − 8
781 4 8-.C1?:21>q `
C∩ D C∩ D
:=9:-.w.0.-q?.-=:4N "/2bB2.55< >2./;.86 781@ 6.>24

5=1D11C-:N4S @ 48.1-.5:
@ @ 1C814N151-M4N5.
6 1=: ?.-=: 4 ,;B
/2b
5=1D11C-:N4b @ ∪ @ H ` ∩
> ? > ?
2./;Jc4S E4 ?:3=.S 4SF 5=13.>8?:

:D l /19:N:8.2q>8?1 4N151-M4N5: ,;B
> ?
:=9:-.
0121D44 /2b
7
2JC1D1
0-1>8-:=>8?: 189-<81D1 6 >1>81bc:b 4N

@ ⊂R `
189-<8<K

,;>8q U l
C:N:
0-b51;D12q=491?6 81B
N:/:==<K
/?;5b =.-:?.=>8?:54
?:3=<54 /2b =:
R
4K .2.S 6 H
>?1S>8?:54

F` /2b8: 2JC1D1
C:N: 1C2:/:.8
5=13.B 8 8
RE

H
>8?: 4N ?.-=: 8.1-.5: 1C 4N151-M4N5. ,;:=9:-. F 0.-.>.7.=4.

2JC<K /?;K U
5=13.>8? 4N U >=1?: 2.348 ? U ` hE

U U U o U [Z[ Um U UT YY UTV \ UTUU W[ZY_UTU pU n _ UTU pU
U W^nY\^\Y_m V\_\ U ^_ YZ U [^W\[ Y ÛW^V [ U n[YZnUVU_ WXYZV ^ o\^]\

. ; &( ) * '
U 4 " ( "
[\ p [W^
( ! # + !
( & &# &( # A B A B +"
$ , @
"< &( # # ( " ;
Up [Z[4.S^ 01 U6 781 ,;>8q8.1-.5:

@ 6 ```1C6 @4N151-M4N5.
l 5=13.>8?: 4N U ` ?.-=: 19:3.5
,
4=/;9

@0-./>8:?45 @
( ) &( #
,-4 H
,
81 ?.-=1 >1D2:>=1
>
,;:=9:-.
>?1S>8?; F
F
,-4 /2b 5
` a `

>
∪
F
G
∪ -:>>5:8-4?:.51. 5=13.>8?1 ? ?4/. @
G

E@ 6 D/. @ H
G

` 2b 5=13.>8?4=/;9
H @ ∪?.-=:∪01@ 0-./01213.=4J @ 4 @4468.1-.5: 1C1>8:G8>b
4N151-M4N5. ,;:=B

0 F 0
∪
9:-. >
7811D2:>=1
1=: ?.-=:

F > 5
/2b 5=13.>8?:
−
01
@ 1C∩ 4N151-M4N5. a 815;
@ H E@ ∩ @ F,;:=9:-.
0
0-1?.-48q6
F
@?.-=:∩ @/2bF `

∪E
>?1S>8?; F 8.1-.5:
9:3/1D1 5=13.>8?: E@ ∩ @ 6 01a 815; 1=: ?.-=: 4 /2b @ ∩ @ `
7
F
∪ 0 F > F

F
F >
−
F
0
U U U o UU [Z[
U Um UUTUT YY V \ UTUUUTUW[ZY_ U n _ pUU
W UTUm U\_^^nY\^\Y_ _ 010:-=1 =. 0.-.>.9:Jc4K>b n[ n _ \^\ U _Z[ ^YZ \

. . ; &( ) 4 " ( " * '
(
pU\^]\
! #
$
( & &# ! &( # A B
V
, @
^
+" A " ( )
^W\[ ^ UW^V [ U YZ UVUWXYZV ^ o [\ p [W^

B "< &( #
U
# ( " ;
Up [Z[ ^ 1D/: .>8.>8?.==<.

U ,;>8q {@ }?92J7.=4b 6 0-47G5S @ ∩@ @F H Q∅ /2b 2JC<K
,

4-15L∈>2;7:.
8 ` w ( ) &( #
@ F
, ⊂U
@ F b?2bJ8>b E
∈
4N151-M4N5:54 @F
` k1 E?81B
F F
∈ C.-G8>b E → 0-b5:bE >;55:6

F
−

S F →
: =. 0-b51. 0-14N?./.=4.6 01815;
−
∈
∈ ∈
24781 q
C-:3.=4b
M1-5:
=: > 9150:98=<5
91=.7=15
012;7:.5 74>2.
4N151-M4N5
=1>48.2.5@ 513.8
5=13.>8? ` ,1>2. C<8q 18247=1S
/;:24N:
@ F 44 ?81-1D1 18 =;2b
@ 181BF
E `

/.>q ;3. >8148 0-b51. 0-14N?./.=4. ` E 48;: 4b ? 817=1>84

S
→
Q F
8:9:b69:9
−
∈ ∗
∈
F
−
∗

/2b91.0.S .0q 4513.8
=1>4502.9>1?
91 .0.S0-4=45:8q

R ? 9:3/;J=.=;2.?1.
.0q ?K1/48N=:7.=4.
91=.7=1.=: 2JC15
74>21 >4502.9>1?6 7
5=13.>8?.
`

21D4S6 ,.-.K1/b
9181-<.18 ?92J7:J8>b
M1-5 9 91D15121D4b56012;7:.5
? 9155;8:84?=;J /4:D-:55; 4N151-M4N5< 91D151B
S F

@ −−−−→ Q E@ F
∈
I
∼
∈

F

  I Q
 

@ @ F
∼
y y
E
∈
F I F
S Q ∼
=:7486 l 4N151-M4N5 `
∗
−
−−−−→∈ ∈
−

,;>8q @ ⊂? R?4/.l @0-14N?12q=1.

0-./>8:?48q H S L 6 D/.189-<81.

L ⊂ @ h ?5=13.>8?1
9:7.>8?. `5=13.>8? D1 513=1L

∞

I>

513=1 ?Nb8q 189-<8<.

54=1. 01/5=13.>8?1
.=8-:54 ,121345 :-<H L-: 41=:2q=1D1
-:=4 : -:/4;>: > -: 41=:2q=8?:
` @ 6 01a 815; .G` 513=1 019-<8q 91=.7=<5 l 9150:98B

5=13.>8?

L 6 6 L ,121345 H L L L
>
=:C1-15
=:21D47B
> >
01>8-145 d``` 4 8 `/ `>2./;.86

=1;>21?4b C`,1 01>8-1.=4J S ∪ H∪@ 4 ∪ `d ` N

781 >;c.>8?;.8

9150:98=1.
⊂
5=13.>8?1
? ?
∞

I>

C

>
6 /2b 9181-1D1 d d -4> F

E ```
>
⊂

"
>
⊂ ⊂ ⊂
4> ` " ` ` =13.>8?: 4
c454 ,19-1.5
? d 5=13.>8?1 \ 5=13.>8?:54
F ` N 9150:98=1>84
C:N2./;.86
5=13.>8?: 2.3:B
>
a 81D1E 019-<84b
7811C4N ./4=.=4. 513=1 ?<C-:8q 91=.7=1. 01/019-<84. ,;>8q @
−
`

> >
\ \
?>.K 5=13.>8?6 ?K1/bc4K ? 81 01/019-<84. 1D2:>=1
− −
l " ` ` /2b 5=13.>8?: @ ?.-=: 8.1-.5:a1C 4N151-M4N5. `,;:=9:-. `

2.55.
-15. j81D16H S01 01>8-1.=4J @ @H @ 41D2:>=1

@ ∩ @ 2.55.
H ∅ 0-4" | −8.1-.5:
7
`

,;>8q @ 4 j H ` ` `
9 S I>

|
∞

1C@ H4N151-M4N5. ,;:=9:-. ?.-=: /2b0-1?.-48q6
5=13.>8?781j 8.1-.5:
4 j ` 1C-15.4N151-B
81D16
> ∞SI ? > ? ∞ I> ? 7

M4N5. j j
,;:=9:-.
∪
> ,1 815; ? 1>8:G8>b
a /2b j j ` =13.>8?1 j j 0-./>8:?2bB
` ?.-=:
> ? 9
.8H >1C1S 1C ./4=.=4.

:3/1. 4N 010:-=1
84K =.
∩
0.-.>.9:Jc4K>b
5=13.>8? b?2b.8>b 1C 5=13.>8?
∩
./4=.=4.5 @91=.7=1B
@ 6> ? > ?
a ` ,1 a 815; >1D2:>=1 2.55. " ` ` /2b 5=13.>8?:

>
∩
D1@ 74>2:

5=13.>8?
8 8
4N 9
2.55. " ` ` 1=: ?.-=: 4 /2b1C 4N151-M4N5.

@ ?.-=: 8.1-.5: j ∩ j ` ,;:=9:-.6 : N=:7486 >1D2:>=1

U
>

∩
> ?
2b 0-14N?12q=1D1
,;:=9:-. 8.0.-q 513=15=1D11C-:N4b
0-1?.>84 /19:N:8.2q>8?1 4N151-M4N5:
0-45.-=1 01 81S>;c.>8?.==1.
3. >K.5.6 781

1824B4
5
/2b 189-<81D1 5=13.>8?: @ ⊂ R ` /4=>8?.==1.

I

74. >1>81485=13.>8?6
189-<8<K ? ?<C1-. D15.151-M=<K
C:N< 810121D44 U ` k4 019-<?:Jc4K 9:7.>8?. U ?1Nq5G5 =:C1-
6 4 ?>.K
4K10-./.2.=4J6
91=.7=<K 0.-.>.7.=4S
: >?1S>8?1 ` F 2b a 81S
?<012=b.8>b C:N<
R
5 >?1S>8?1 E 2JC1.
01815;6781 F ?<012=b.8>b 01
5=13.>8?1
4N5=13.>8?
513=14N151-M4N5
-:>>5:8-4?:8q E 9:9 189-<81. 01/5=13.>8?1 R 6: /2b 8:94K

U
:-1? -: 41=:2q=1D1 ,;:=9:-.> -:5<41=:2q=<54
-:/4;>: ;3. /19:N:24.=8-:54` -15. 81D16
=;3=1?5.>81
?Nb8q 9
01/K1/bc;J

>7G8=;J C:N;
/19:N:8.2q>8?1 0-1K1/48 C.N 4N5.=.=4S ` 810121D44 0-1>8-:=>8?: ` k 1>8:2q=15

w.1-.5:
1C-:N4b /. :5: ;8?.-3/:.86781F 4N151-M=<
91D15121D44 /. :5:
/2b N:59=;81D1
>45024 5=1D1B
4:2qB
=<5 E 424

>4=D;2b-=<5F 91D15121D4b5 E h F ` /.>q 45..8>b ? ?4B
E R

∗

/;;5=13.=4J
4N151-M4N5 :2D.C-6
M1-5=1 `?>..S7:> 8 `. ` B;5=13.=4. 91 .0.S >118?.8>8?;.8 ∧B
4N?.>8=1 5=1D1 -:N=<K /19:N:8.2q>8? 8.1B

∗

-.5<
>8?16 /.
9181-1. :5:6 ?1>K1/48 1=4
9 =.
7
48=4 17.=q 40-1>8<.

>5 < 0-4?./G5 /19:N:8.2qB
` d F ` ,1 01?1/; /-;D4K
8:93.
`

/19:N:8.2q>8? 8.1-.5< /. :5: >5 ` E 6 a 6 # 6 4 ` -1B

5. 81D16 5< /19:3.5 :=:21D 8.1-.5< /. :5: /2b >45024 4:2q=<K 9
91502.9>1? `
! !"! & * * )* +*

-4:=D;2b >4502.9>:
wB5.-=1D1
D13.>8?1 4J R | |
→ 91502.9>:

6
=:N<?:J8>;c.>8?;.8

T [npU 6 .>24

/2b 2JC1B
189-<81. 5=1B !

@
=: @ 6 <9181-1.
?
b?2b.8>b4 >;c.>8?;.8
D2:/945F 0-1/123.=4.
?213.=4.5 181C-:3.=4b
5=1D11C-:N4b @ ?
|

`
⊃
C;/.5
R
0-./012:D:8q6 E 781 M49>4-1?:=: D2:/9:b 8-4:=D;2b 4b
6
` k 7:>84 /19:N:=1 >;c.>8?1?:=4. 45.==1 D2:/91S 8-4:=D;2bB

E
44 5=1D11C-:N4b `F ,;>8q E F H E h RF ` :/:/45 181C-:3.=4.

F F
R E F → E F M1-5;21S h E F
i H R ` w.1-.5: 819>:

F F F F F
019:N<?:.86 781 H0-1>8-:=>8?

E F 6 01 a 815; 181C-:3.=4. 4=/; 4-;.8 D1B

8 7

5151-M4N5 24=.S=<K E → E h R F `
F

R
F F

m YVUWXYZV
∗

4
0.S6,19:3.56 781 a910451-M=1>8q 45..8 5.>81 ;3. =: ;-1?=. 91 .B

∗
,
8 `. ` 9:3/1S .04 F 513=1 >101>8:?48q M1-5;

E F H E` 2b 01>8-1.=4b M1-5< 01 91 .04

F F

F
∈ E
F
F6
/2b 9181-1S

∈

F F
5

=:5 01=:/1C48>b
84JC:-4 6 D/. >0.6 4:2q=1.
6 -:NC4.=4.
?.- 4=< ./4=4 <6 01/74=G==1.
91502.9>: 45.==16 019-8q
``` 911-/4=:8:6 ` ?.- 4=. 0-./B

.=8-47.>9:b

u l >118?.8>8?;Jc:b
>
l012:D:.8>b6 781 H I /2b 2JC1S 8179462.3:c.S ?=. >4502.9>1? E> ?.-B

{ }

H
4=1S F ` ,;>8q l 5=13.>8?1 ?>.K 817.96 /2b 9181-<K > 6

H >
: l 5=13.>8?1 ?>.K 817.96 /2b 9181-<K 6 E-4> ` " ` F ` ,;>8q

>
> H
?
% H
4> ` " ` ` =13.>8?: 4
l =.18-4 :8.2q=:b D2:/9:b =13.>8?:

M;=9 4b6 9181-:b 0121348.2q=: =:

%
48.2q=16

1C-:c:.8>b
>;55: ? =;2q =:
C:-4

`
.=8-47.>94K 019-<?:J8
911-/4=:8 2JC1S `
81794%
.S>8?4B

5

-:?=:F H 6 01aF815; 1/=: 4N F=4K0121348.2q=:

=. 5.=q . ,1` w815;

:945M;=9
1C-:N156
44

M;=9∈
6 4b
D/.
> H
` a
>
E E
H
>
E
E F H E F E F6 1C-:N;J8 D2:/91. -:NC4.=4. ./4=4 <6 01/74=G==1.
H H

{ }

019-<84J

H
,;>8q

{ H \ }

` 4 91 .0q6 /?1S>8?.==:b >4502.9>;
6
H

H

8 `. ` h
u i H u ` 101>8:?45 91l .04 M1-5;

F
%8 8
F

F
F F F
8 7
H X E− F ∧ ∧ d ∧ ∧
F

G I

k24=.S=1.
-.N;2q8:8. 012;745 24=.S=1. 181C-:3.=4. R E F → E F

F F
E
/1?:8.2q=1 181C-:3.=4.
>?1S>8?: /1>8:817=1
81D1 N:/:8q =:
181C-:3.=4.69181-<. C:N4>.F ` 19:3.5
01N?12b8 01>2.B
>/.2:8q ?=16 781

` F H F`
E F EH E EF ∧ ∧ ` k<74>245 8.0.-q E F `
∗
F

F

F
F

9 1 .0q 0-./>8:?2b.8 >1C1S >;55; 91 .0.S6 /?1S>8?.==<K >4502.9B

F

G

>:5 ?4/: ` ,1 a 815; 91 .0q f g E F -:?=:

8 8

8

>
F >
F
F
  F
X 0
 ∧ ∧ −

X
E− ∧ ∧ ∧ d ∧ ∧ 

I

8
D/. P 1N=:7:.8:5.8456781 >;554-1?:=4. .>24 01 ?>.5 E 6=1FB5.-=<5

=: ?.- >4502.9>:5
4=< 6 6
`
0
G
```.>246 =. =:8b=;8 >4502.9>6 81 ∧ ∧ H I ` .S>8?48.2q=16

8 8 8 # 8 8 F

6∈ { }
6 81 4=:7.
EE F H I ` 6H>24I63. 6H∈I6 ```6 681 6H6HI6I `01 a1815;
81D/:8179:H I

5
/2b =.9181-1D1

6∈H H H H H
2.348
3.>8?1 ?=;8-4
@ 6 >4502.9>:
>1>81bc.. 4N 817.9 F ` :>>518-45 189-<81. 179:

6 /2b 9181-<K
5=1B H

8 8 H 8 H H
0-4=:/2.348 5=13.>8?; @ 4 1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q =: @ 6 01>912q9;

∈ ` w

?

>
@ ⊂ ` 2./1?:8.2q=16 H I ` w:945 1C-:N156

H
7

H X ∧ ∧
%

X
∧
0

∧

k1>012qN1?:? 4>q a 845 >?1S>8?15 4 8.56 781 P E F H E: N=:7486

6∈{ }
P H IF6 012;745

H

E− F ∧ ∧ ∧ d ∧ ∧ H
F
X X 0

I

H X E− F X ∧ ∧ ∧ d ∧ ∧ H
F
0

I

H X E− F X ∧ ∧ ∧ d ∧ ∧ H
F

I

6∈{
}
H X E− F H
F
X
∧ ∧ ∧ d
∧ ∧
I
I
6
H E− F  X  H
F  
X ∧ ∧

I

I

∧ ∧ d
6
H X E− F − ∧ H
F
∧
I

∧ d ∧

H −X ∧ ∧
F

I

k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7:.56 781

E F H E F X ∧ ∧ H
F

G

H E F ∧ ∧ H E F G

F
` >24 h -:?=:b H /2b 9:3/1S ?.- 4=< 6 81 E F H

M;=9 4b6 813/.>8?.==1 F `

8
E >=16 781 H P 6 D/. 91 .0q6 /?1S>8?.==:b >4502.9>; `

i

,1 a 815; E F H P H ` l

>24 lF 813/.>8?.==1
91 .0q6 /?1S>8?.==:b >4502.9>;
H

H5=13.>8?: 6 81` M1-5:

F F

8 8

` E

F
-:?=: =;2J

? 19-.>8=1>84

F

,1 10-./.2.=4J

\
E F H X E− F ∧ ∧ d
F
F
∧ ∧
G I

;=9
6 01a4b815; 4M1-5:
M1-5: F 813/.>8?.==1 -:?=< =;2J =: 5=13.>8?.
E 813/.>8?.==1 -:?=: =;2J =: 5=13.>8?.

F
%
∪
∪`
%
` 81 5=13.>8?1 >1/.-348 19-.>8=1>8q 5=13.>8?:
F %

` ◦ 4JH de01` =:7:2: -:>>518-45 >2;7:S H I ,;>8q

\
,-45.=45 4=/;9

91H R .0q H/?1S>8?.==: ` ` w1D/: F H 4 F ` H

>4502.9>; 7
6 : ?=.E M;=9h 4bE -:?=:

G G
E F ` >24 6 H 6 81 6∈
8

i

=;2J ` -15. 81D16 E F H P E F H ` ,1a 815; 91 .0q E F /?1SB

>8?.==: >4502.9>; 6 8 `. ` E F H `
9

,-./0121345 8.0.-q6 781,;>8q> 4 >?1S>8?1 /19:N:=1 /2b >45B ?>.K

9102.9>;
.0.S
-:N5.-=1>84
H `
− 1D2:>=1 >?1S>8?;
91 .0q6 /?1S>8?.==:b
l M1-5: E F 1C-:c:B G

F
`

F G F
.8>b
C15 ?B5.-=15=;2q ?=.>4502.9>.6

6 01 a 815; 1=: 813/.>8?.==1 -:?=: =;2J =: 2JB
8 8 7
F
F
H ` ,;>8q
18247=15

91 18/?1S>8?.==:b
.0q6
` >8:G8>b 0-1?.-48q6 781
>4502.9>;
H
F

h E l
GF F F > F >

H91 .046 /?1S>8?.==<. 1D/: H 6 D/. 6 ```>2;348
6 l
8
` w B5.-=<5 >4502.9>:56

i
−
F > F F F F F
−
D-:=qJ 9181-<K
8 8 8 8 −

c
>4502.9>
E4 9181-<. 18247=< 18
F ` 1 5< 812q91 781 /19:N:246

F > G F
781 F
i H?1>012qN1?:?
I 0-4 6H ` =:7486 F
4 M1-5;21S
H F
819>:6

i`
−
/-;D1Sh E>81-1=<6 h E i h E
F F F > F F F
8
4>q >?1S>8?15

−
8

8
7
7

012;745
h E
−F
i H h E F
i H
F >
8
F

F >
8
−
F
H Z E F H X Z E F H Z E F H
F >

−
C

F >
−
C

F >

−

− −
E? >:515−91=F ` . 5< ?1>012qN1?:24>q >?1S>8?15 /2b 91 .0.S 91-:N5.-B

=1>84
845 /19:N:8.2q>8?1
.S>8?48.2q=16
G
4N

>?1S>8?: a 0451-M=1>84
>2./;.86 781 181C-:3.=4b
4=/; 4-;.8 N:?.- .=1 `
D15151-M4N5 ∗
R E h R F → F6 : 4N >?1S>8?: >2./;.86 781 H de `

5
∗
F
,1 a 815; l a 0451-M4N5

E `
F

◦ ∗ ∗
VU\ UVUWXYZV
∗

. 4
=4b,;>8q >4502.9> ? R 6 > ` 19:3.5 >2./;Jc4. ;8?.-3/.B

∗
,

l
` F6 I ,;>8q N:59=;8:b M1-5:6 10-./.2G==:b ? 19-.>8B

5
=1>84 E
>` `>24 H l 6 81 /1012=48.2q=1 0-./012:D:.8>b6 781
F
G

F
H I ` w1D/: >;c.>8?;.8 N:59=;8:b M1-5: 6 10-./.2G==:b ?

F G F
19-.>8=1>84
6 /2b 9181-1S H ? 19-.>8=1>84
`
R
F F
F6
E
6 > ` ,;>8q N:59=;8:b M1-5:6 10-./.2G==:b ? 19-.>8=1B

>84 F
G F >
l M1-5:6 l10-./.2G==:b ?
F
19-.>8=1>84

` ,-./0121B
3456H 781 ? 19-.>8=1>84
?<012=b.8>b -:?.=>8?1 H >24
``w1D/:
−
F F >
681 /1012=48.2q=1 0-./012:D:.8>b6781

H

F >
−
F
>;c.>8?;.8 M1-5: H 6 10-./.2G==:b ? 19-.>8=1>84

6 /2b
R R −
G F > F >
9181-1S H ? 19-.>8=1>84
4 H ? 19-.>8=1>84
−
F > F > − F > F

`
− − −

C: /1012=48.2q=<K
012=b8q>b 8.1-.5: 819>:0-./01213.=4b >?bN:=< > 8.56 781 /123=: ?8?:
781 E FC;/.8 H⇒ E 8:9:b
F 4 E` =:7:2:
F H⇒ E 5<F ` /19:3.5 E F6 :
7
7
/19:3.56 7
E=:F 9:3/1S
:59=;81>8q IBM1-5< EM;=9` 44F>24 1N=:7:.86 781 1=: 01>81B
F > F F F

b==: >?bN=1S 91501=.=8. 6 81 5=13.>8?1

−

>?bN=1 h M1-5: -:?=: 91=>8:=8. 6 4 5< 012:D:.5 H ` >24` k

19-.>8=1>8q a 81D1 5=13.>8?: 813. 513=1 >748:8q >?bN=1S
>
a 815H >2;7:.
6 81 5=13.>8?1

=.>?bN=16 =1 ? a 815 >2;7:. H 6 011D/:
a 81B

5;81 /123=1 ?<012=b8q>b ;>21?4. H I ` ,;>8q

H ` w

> G
;>21?4.M1-5:45..8 ?4/0-4=45:.8
E F H 1/=1E F640181a 815; =: 1C.4K 691501=.=8:K
8 >
a>?bN=1>84
R
C

012:D:.5 H `

3.

N=:7.=4.>
4 5< >=1?:

"
E F H⇒
E ` F 1D2:>=1
19-.>8=1>84 F > ,;>8q 2.55.l ,;:=9:-.
F N:59=;8:b M1-5:6

F
H 10-./.2G==:b
/2b =.9181-1S ? F F >
M1-5< B5.-=15; E5< 0-./012:D:.56 781 19-.>8=1>8q

/4MM.151-M=:
−
7 >−
F >
189-<815; F >

F >
:-;F
F >
:>>518-45
5;H 6 81HR − H R` w1D/:` R H −H R H I ` 12..R 81D16
>−
? 19-.>8=1>84
F >

M1-B
.>24 F F

− −
F >
>−
F >
−
H I`
F >

F F >
,1781a 815; 9 M1-5. 513=1

0-45.=48q F k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7456
− − >− >−

E `10-./.2.=: ? 19-.>8=1B
G F > −
−

>;c.>8?;.8
>84
H 6 0-47G5 1C2:/:.8 N:59=;8:b −
M1-5:
H H?>.54 8-.C;.5<54 69181-:b
? 19-.>8=1>84
F >
F >
>?1S>8?:54
` ` 1-5:
−
>−
F > F > F > F >
> − − >−
F > F > F >− −
− >− >−
E F H⇒ E
F ,;>8q N:59=;8:b M1-5:6 10-./.2G==:b ?

l
F
19-.>8=1>84

F
F
66 D/.F
D15.151-M=1.
H 189-<815;

` :>>518-45 5=13.>8?1
FB5.-=15; :-;18B`
8 8
E 13=1\>748:8q6 781 19-.>8=1>8q a 81D1 5=13.>8?:
> 8 8
E − D15.151-M=:

9-<815; B5.-=15; :-; ` k 8:9156 10-./.2G==;J

>2;7:. 513=1 =:0-45.=48q 2.55;

,;:=9:-.
>84 4 4 012;748q
;/1?2.8?1-bJc;J

M1-5;
-:?.=>8?; H k
F >
a 81S
7:>8=1>846 19-.>8=1B
` 513BH
−
F > F F >
H=1 0-45.=48q
F
? 19-.>8=1>84F 9
M1-5:56 D/.
4 H 4 >4502.9>;` ,-4
;3=1
>
−
>

> 8 8
−
24R q 0-1?.-48q6E 781 0-4 − H ?<012=b.8>b -:?.=>8?1 R ` H

− −

F F > >
F − −
F
H >4502.9> `.04,121345 H
? 19-.>8=1>846

` w1D/: H
4 2JB

F > G > >− C
C1S >1/.-348>b =: 9181-1S 10-./.2.=:

−
C − −

− −
M1-5:
` ,1R a 815;RR − R H R H
−

F > F F > F F >
H H H I ` ,-45.=4? E F6 012;745 M1-5;

− R
F F C C − C
−
− F
6 9181-:b 10-./.2.=: ? 19-.>8=1>84

6 0-47G5 H1=4 1C.?
R
−
F >
−
F > − C F >
> F >
19-.>8=1>84
` 1-5< 4 >1?0:/:J8 8:56 D/.
−
>− − >− −
> F > F >
10-./.2.=<6
/.2.=: ?
−
01a 815; 4N
=4K 513=1
19-.>8=1>84 4 >92.48q M1-5;-:?.=>8?;6 9181-:b 10-.B
;/1?2.8?1-b.8 >
>− −
H
`6
F >
>−
F >
81C< 0-1/12348q .G /1 M1-5< 610-./.2G==1S ? 19-.>8=1>84

− >− F
F >
-:>>518-45

-:?=: I ?=. M;=9C12q4J .S6 9181-:b

7;8q -:?=:
? 5:21S
19-.>8=1>84 1-5: 19-.>8=1>84
−
H
4
1C2:B

`

F > F >
/:.8 ?>.54 8-.C;.5<54 >?1S>8?:54 >8:G8>b -:>>518-.8q

` 10-./.2.=: ? 19-.>8=1>8bK ?.-B 18/.2q=1
− >−
>2;7:S H ` k
4= 4 h a 84 189-<815;
a 815 >2;7:. M1-5:
19-.>8=1>84 B5.-=15;

513=1 >748:8q =.0.-.>.9:Jc454>b
F

4
D15.151-M=<54
>
:-;F 1D2:>=1 2.55.
` ? a 84K 19-.>8=1>8bK ,;:=BE
9:-. >;c.>8?;.8
4 ;/1?2.8?1-b.8 M1-5: 6 9181-:b
-:?.=>8?; 6 >8-148>b 10-./.2.=:
F >
H `01 M1-5.
>−

1-5: 6 10-./.2G==:b
F > F
?
7
F >
19-.>8=1>84
9:9 4 -:=q . ` 18-.N9:

8 >
>−
817=1 8:9

3.6 −
F >
>−
1=151-M=1>8q 181C-:3.=4b ?<8.9:.8 4N >2./;Jc.S 2.55<6 91B ∗

81-;J 5< /19:3.56 4>012qN;b ;8?.-3/.=4b E F ` F
Vp UV V FH
n _ \^\[pU UoW Un _pUpU^m YUWZ[U \∈o [_HXEW Yh[R\[F UTF n[HmWY]o ^ E o ^ X UW V [
F F F >

; &( ) 4 ( * 0 −
F > F >
( ! 2 & = &( # (
EM49>4-1?:24 8-4:=D;2b 4J

F > −
F > − F , F @> F >
− * ( ! − −
Up [Z[ ^ U1-5;:015=4565< C;/.5 781 5<>8-148q

−
,

6
>84R | 1>81?:

|→
( ) &( #
,

F >
− 4=/;9 4.S 01 -:N5.-=1B
` ` 45.==16 5< C;/.5 >8-148q 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q M1-5

F >
− 6 ``` 6 8:96 781 R

F >
−
0-47G5H 8:56 D/.10-./.2.=:

F M1-5: F >
8: M1-5:? 19-.>8=1>84
10-./.2.=:6 B5.-=1D1 1>81?:
?<012=b.8>b -:?.=>8?1 6
a
−

F >
−
h
F
F M1-5: >1?0:/:.8 > ? 19-.>8=1>84 B5.-=1D1 1>81?: h

F >
− >
F >
−
F E F H `

F > F >
−>
,1>2./=.. -:?.=>8?1 =;3=1 01=45:8q 8:9 ` 81C-:3.=4. 5< 10-./.B

−
−
2b.5 812q91 /2b M1-56

5< 012qN1?:24>q 24 q 1D-:=47.=4.5 N:/:==<K =: ?>G5
BM1-5< 6 =1 ? /.S>8?48.2q=1>84
=: B5.-=<S 1>81? ` ,1B6

aD/.815; 513=1 >748:8q6 781 181C-:3.=4. 10-./.2.=1 /2b M1-5

G G F >
?Nb8q1-5: > − h
M1-5; 0-4 a 815 E F H E F6 8 `. ` ? 9:7.>8?. 513=1
F > F > F >
−

`
−> − −
G F > −

F >−
>8-148>b >2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 ` ,19-1.5` k?.-9:3/1S
4=< 4N6
``à 84K6 19-.>8=1>8.S
91502.9>: =.0.-.>.9:Jc454>b 19-.>8=1>8b54
− >
u

513=1 0-45.=48q

2.55; ,;:=9:-. 4 01>8-148qM1-5:
M1-B
5;6
01>8-1.=:/4MM.-.= ,-4 4:2 H 9181-1S
=;3=1 -:?.= `
.cG6781C< >24
?<012=b21>q 6 81 8-.C;.5:b
-:?.=>8?1
F
` E F H

> G
H>84 69:3/1S

8 `. ` E 81794

F H h 9i `M;=981D1442.D91 513=1

G

8 /1C48q>b60-4C:?48q
01>912q9; ? 19-.>8=1B
0-14N?12q=;J

91=>8:=8; `
1-5;
01.S>8?48.2q=16

F >

M1-5. 1Cc:b 513=1 1C2:>8q

>8-148q 10-./.2.=4b
F >

18/.2q=1 /2b01>8-1.=B
9:3/1D1
>4502.9>:
=<K 8:945
−
`
5
1C-:N15

M1-5 >1?0:/:J8
−>
−
>1/.-348>b> ? 19-.>8=1>84 FB5.-=1D1
1>81?:6 : 8:5 a 84 M1-5< ` ,1>8-1.=4. E −M1-5< F >

F >
1>=1?:=181C< =: ;8?.-3/.=44 E F6 9181-1.E 0-45.=b.8>b

0-45.=48q ;8?.-3/.=4. F6 =;3=1 0-1?.-48q69 M1-5:5781 .>B4
−>
−
−

`
F F
F >
24 H 6 81 R H R ` 1 R H E F H h
i H
−> F
− F > F F F F > F
H h
i H h E F
i H R ` >24 H − 6 81 =;3B
−> − 8
GF > F F −> F F >
=10<8:.5>b
.cG6 781C< ?<012=b21>q -:?.=>8?1 HM1-5. ,1B
8 F−> 8 −>
i`
−
− F > FG > F >

/1C48q>b a 81D16 /1C:?4? 9 01>8-1.==1S N:59=;8;J

− R
C F−> − 8
h −
−
−

M1-5;
1C-:c:.8>b 6?9181-:b
F >
−
=;2q ? 10-./.2.=:
19-.>8=1>84? 19-.>8=1>84 FB5.-=1D1 E FB5.-=1D1
1>81?: 4 1>81?:6
45..8N:/:==:b
N:/:==1.91 .0q N=:7.=4. /2b,19:3.56 E − >4502.9>:
6 8 `.` F
9:3/1D1
− R
G
− C
F >
−
EF6 D/.
G F > F >
l R E F → E F l 181C-:3.=4.6 ` F >
78110-./.2G==1.
M1-5: =: H> E 6 1C2:/:B F >− F >
−
` M1-5:
−
F F − −
.8 8-.C;.5<54

F 813/.>8?.==1 >?1S>8?:54
-:?=:=;2J` :015=456
=;2J? ?19-.>8=1>84781 >1D2:>=1
19-.>8=1>84 5=13.>8?:
>?1S>8?;
`

E 7:>8=1>846

F
k 2./1?:8.2q=16 1=:M1-5:
-:?=: FB5.-=1D1
E ? −19-.>8=1>84 E − FB` 1>81?:
\

F
7
5.-=1D1 1>81?:6 1C-:c:.8>b F >
? =;2q
: M1-5:1>81?: H E F 1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q ? 19-.>8B
−
F > F >
G

G

=1>84 E− G
FB5.-=1D1
`
− −
M1-5 :91=. 6 0-1?.-456

0.-.K1/48 ? 781 0-4 4N151-M4N5. /. :5: ∧B;5=13.=4.
B;5=13.=4. 91D15121D47.>94K 92:>>1? ` ,;>8q

M1-5:5
:>>518-45

> 4=: 5=1D11C-:N44

>118?.8>8?;J8 91D15121D47.>94.

?
M1-5;
92:>><
F 4 D/.`
F6

E=: 0.-?<S∧ E

5=1348.2qR

N
8.1-.5< l

.>8.>8?.==<.
;C4=4
×
>2./;.86 0-1.9
781 44
8: M1-5: 4 ?81-1S
>118?.8>8?;.8
# ∗> > # ∗? ?
` a
# > 8# ?
× →
91D15121D47.>915; 92:>>; ⊗ 6 01>912q9;

Z
E ∧E

F F
# ∗> > H u
Z ! Z

# ∗? ?
!

>

?

,;>8q RF H → 4× lF /4:D1=:2q=1. 181C-:3.=4. ` w1D/:
C× D C D

∗
E ⊗

E ∧E

∗F H
∧ `

# ∗> >

# ∗? ?

>

?
! ! ! ' ( ' ' * )* +*

D2:/94K 4MM.-.= 4:2q=<. M1-5<

5=1D11C-:N4bK6 =1 4 =: 513=1 -:>>5:8-4?:8q
>45024 4:2q=<K 91502.9>:K =. 812q91 /.b =:
01B
`
5
>8-1.=4b
?:3=;J 8:94K M1-5 ?1>K1/48 9 48=4 4 4 w 15; ` 1 =:4C12..

9181-1S/2b-12q1=-. ?0-45.=42
-:N?4844 9;>17=1B0124=154:2q=<.
a 81S 8.1-44 ><D-:2: -:C18: ;224?:=: 6

?M1-5< /4MM.-.= 4:2q=<. 7
5.012.581D16=;2.?1S
;224?:= .=4b01>8-142
=.9181-<K8.1-4J
N:/:7=:/D15181047.>91S
012.5 4 810121D44
?11Cc. =:/ ` -1B
2JC<5

9
7
K:-:98.-4>8494F6 : =. 812q91 =:/Q 012.5 E R`
,;>8q 6 ``` 6 l PC:-4 H.=8-47.>94.

h 0-./012:D:.8>b6 781 ;/.5 911-/4=:8<
=:N<?:8q =:UV >4502.9>.
m Y\ Y[ \ U B
U

M1-51S =:
?<-:3.=4. ?4/: `

H H
) !
H G
X
E C
F ∧ ∧

H
8

8
H H C H
8

D/.
=1.=8:54
8:93. C
l 5=1D172.= 4 > 5=1D172.=<
-:>>5:8-4?:8q

-: 41=:2q=<54 > 91 a MM4 4.=8:54
?.c.>8?.==<54
91 à 13B4B
MM4
H` I `/.>q >=1?: 0-./012:D:.8>b6 781 H 46 >118?.8>8?.==16

P
H
,15451T 0124=154:2q=<K /4MM.-.= 4:2q=<K=:M1-5 513=1

-:>>5:B=4
P
H
8-4?:8q
45.J8 ?4/ [n Y^ p /4MM.-.= 4:2q=<. BM1-5< >4502.9>. `

G

X
E 6 C
F ∧ ∧ 8 8
H C
8
D/.
l D2:/9:b M;=9 4b =: 189-<815 5=13.>8?. ? R 6 >1/.-3:B

H H H

c.5 ` UV
6 C

02.9>.
; U Y\ Y[ \[_ /4MM.-.=
012;7:.8>b >92.S91S
) 4:2q=:b M1-5: =: >45024
0124=154:2q=<K /4MM.-.=
4:2q=15
4:2q=<K915B
M1-5
/;Jc.5 =: >5<>2.
>4502.9>:K

.>24 ` 84 M1-5<
/123=<
>4502.9>< 4 C<8q1Cc;J
45.J8 >1D2:>1?:=<
D-:=q ? >2.B4
R N:/:=< M1-5< 4 6 81 1D-:=47.=4b M1-5

=:4 a 84K=: >4502.9>:K

/123=< >1?0:/:8q ` D-:=47.=4. M1-5< =: D-:=q H I
>
>
?
?
>?
>
0-14N?1/48>b
?
>2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 R =;3=1 0121348q H I 4 H I `
>?
H
[n p Y^
10-./.2bJ8>b /4MM.-.= 4:2q=<.C-:848.
:=:21D47=1 M1-5< ?=45:=4.6
=: >45024 7814:2q=15
D2:/94.91502.9>.
M1-5<
H H
`

=:94.8-4:=D;2b
M1-5< =: 44 5=1D11C-:N4b
5=1D11C-:N44 l a 81 >1?>.5
:0-45.-6D2:/94. =. 81
M;=93.

>:51.6
44 781
IBM1-5<F D2:/B=:
`

8-4:=D;2b 44 19-;3=1>84 l a 81 9;>17=1 D2:/94.

M;=9 E E1=4 51D;8
44
C<8q =./4MM.-.= 4-;.5<54 ? ?.- 4=:K 8-4:=D;2b 44F `

4=.S=<. 91502.9>.
0-1>8-:=>8?:5<0124=154:2q=<K 4 D2:/94K F 4BM1-5 =: F>45B>1B

024
4:2q=15
18?.8>8?.==1 `
C;/.5 1C1N=:7:8q
E E
F

G F

: 24=.S=<K8:93. 0-1>8-:=>8?:K E F 4 E F 10-./.2G= 10.-:81-

∞
F F
h =:/ >;c.>8?.==16781 M1-5 ` 2b 0124=154:2q=<K

10-./.2.=1 ?=. =.. 0-14N?./.=4.

M1-5
F ?<-:3:.8>b 7.B 5
∞
-.N 7:>8=<. Q
0-14N?1/=<. E ∧ 6 9181-<.
5=1D172.=: ∧
813.
C
b?2bJ8>b

H C H
5=1D172.=:54 > -: 41=:2q=<54 91 a MM4 4.=8:54 `

C
D47=<.19:3.5 8.0.-q/4MM.-.=
=.9181-<.4:2q=<K
>?1S>8?:M1-50124=154:2q=<K M1-56 :=:21B

5
>?1S>8?:5 =: 5=1D11C-:N4bK
`
pUUT\ o \[nH o W^nm U U pUYpUV \^]\ U U YVV m Y Y[ \ FpUVVpm ^p
n _ \^ U]W U XX UWW V[ ∈ ∈ E EZ[ F \ o [ >

; &( ) 4 ! & 2 ) ! &* 4
$ F F $
n[ ;
& * ( ( *
F , F > F > F > G ,
− ( ! − −
D/.Up [Z[∈ ^ 6 lU ?.-,-./>8:?454=: 91=;>:8179;4 I91=;>: ? ?4/. 181C-:3.=4. F6

@ $ ,

H
( ) &( #

,

6 6 ` :/:/45 E −

H

R × → M1-5;21S

E E

F FH E − F
E F
2b M1-5<
,;>8q =: 513=1
=.9181-<S
−
F
>4502.9> -:>>518-.8q
H
M1-5; M1-5<
D-:=47.=4.
−
E F =: F×=:` H
F

`
5
l
F E F6 D/.
∗
F

513=1 0-./>8:?48q ? ?4/.

F

E ?K1/b8
E 4 È =4∧ 10-./.B
∗

×F 4
F M1-5< =:
6 ? 9181-<. =.
P

E E
2bJ8 M1-5< 4 =: ?>G5 ` l
>

H H,-4
I 4 H,-4 HII6181C-:3.=4. M1-5< 813/.>8?.==1.6 01 a 815; .>24 5< 0121345

81H 4N 181C-:3.=4.

E 01>81b==1.6 01 a 815; .>24 5< 781
F 5< 012;745 ` 81 1N=:7:.86 01B
F F
` ∗
F
21345

181C-:3.=4. H
4 H I6 81 4N
M1-5<
E F 5< 012;745 I E01>81b==1.
F
>;c.>8?.==16 4=/; 781 4-;.8 =;2.?1. 181C-:3.=4. BM1-5H I0-4 > h N/.>q
∗

F ` 81 1N=:7:.86

781 ` N 81D1 G G

k1>012qN;.5>b 8.0.-q 8.56 781 M1-5: N:59=;8:

P

` a H

> G F
>
>2./;.86 781 E F H E F H I6 8 `. ` P ∗
F

F
HH I ` /.>q ,1E 815;F H H I 4 E− FF 4 F IH

∗

∧
E

> >

` a
E

∧
H

I /2b
?>.K
# −
∧
`
#

>

#

N 012;7.==<K -:?.=>8? >2./;.86 781 P E− F
∧ − >
H −

>
H P E− F H −P H H `

F >

>

>

_ UpU XUUWUV ∈
E U
F o ^
> >
F

U V
o ^ X W [ ∈ E W[\Y]^\Y^ W \[ F UT m [n[^

. +" ! & = '
F $
&( # (
* ( ! & # ( &

Up513=1
[Z[ ^>0-1. U4-1?:8q 4502.9>
H > ?<C-1 .==1S ?.-.S D-:=q 4=1S
,

4N ?.- 4=< =: 0-184?101213=;J
( ) &( # 7 8 8
,
>b M1-5;21S` k C:-4 .=8-47.>94K911-/4=:8:K a 81 181C-:3.=4. N:/:G8B

> 8 8

E F 7→ H
8 8
H

H
>

8 8

H

C1N=:745 81 181C-:3.=4. ,;>8q l M1-5; M1-5<` >24=:

1D-:=47.=4.

D-:=q a ` :
\ { } 513=1 ` -:>>518-.8q
− − H H

> 8
8 ∗
H X E F ∧ ∧
H
C > 8 8 C 8
D/. 6 ``` 6 l C:-4 .=8-47.>94. 911-/4=:8< =: 6 81

> > 8 8

H X
∗
C

H
>
∧
8
∧

8

H

H C

H

−H −H −H −H
" I

1 H f f g g ` ,1 a 815; 513=1 ?<C-:8q =:8;-:2q=1. 74B

>
>21 12.. 8:96 81D16M1-5:

781 M1-5: E −91--.98=1 F 10-./.2.=:H C;/.8 =:0124=154:2q=1S M1-B
> − >
D
51S ?>G5 >4502.9>.

− −
`
∗ !
H

R
?D47=1
?.- 513=1
4=. 1=: -:?=: =;2J6 01>912q9; ? 81S ?.- 4=. H =:21B

a `
!
4= 6 ```01>8-148q M1-5< 6 ``` 6 6 -:>>5:8-4?:b 0-1.9 44 4N

H
?.- -:=q 6 ` N:/:G8>b ;-:?=.=4.5 H I601a 815; =:1C-:c:.8>b

! > !
a 81S D-:=4

M1-5: >1?0:/:.8 > :945 1C-:N156 M1-5:

> 8 8
` w

H
? =;2q: =:: 91=>8-;9

D-:=4 4b 1C2:/:.8

` >2./;Jc45 >?1S>8?15
! !
− |
R .>24 M1-5:
> 8 8
1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q =: D-:=4 H I6 81 M1-5: 813. 1C-:c:B=:

.8>b ? =;2q =: a 81S D-:=4 ` -;D454 >21?:546

6 9181-:b 1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q =: =.>912q94K D-:=bK6 81 5< 513.5

.>24 N:/:=:
− |
5
H
M1-5: !

01>8-148q M1-5; =:
6 9181-:b 1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q =:/-;D1S ?>.K D-:B
8.K

3.=4 D-:=bK 4 .cG /1012=48.2q=1 >1?0:/:.8
! >
> =: 9:91SB81
` w.0.-qH 01I 0-1/123:.8>b
4=/;9 44 513=1=:
01>8-148q 8-.C;.5;J
1C-:N15M1-5;6 01>912q9;
M1-5:

17.?4/=<5 `

813.
?.-=1 2b D2:/94K M;=9
19:N<?:.8>b 1=1 4S =:817=1
01784
:=:21D47=1. ;8?.-3/.=4.
8:94J63.69181-:b
=;3=1-:?=: 24 q N:B?

`

5
5.=48q M;=9
5
19-.>8=1>84 D-:=4E −
4J F =: D2:/9;J M;=9
4 -:?=: I ? 19-.>8=1>84 ?.- 4=< `

> 8 H

8

Vp U UV UV V p
^W^n
U U[TW[[ o[ ] [_U R _ Z[\ oH I\ o\[ UT[_
n[m mY\WYH Y[H \[_n o_n^X\^VWpUn U[m\[UUW \YU Y X^mUW V^\ U

F

: ; &( ) 4 ( ) & '

& * " = += & # ) 3 " ( )
m m
F U W[ [ ^ _ \ \[
H I WY H I
( )* (
F

F G F >
− ( !
E
o m
F > F > , @ F $
− * " = += !& # ) A B
Up U ,-4 H I .>8q 812q91 =;2.?<. M1-5< ,;>8q H

−
G ,
H 4[Z[F H
I ^H/2bI ?>.K` >244 IFH I6H 81 ;F H=:>I .>8q=:7486 F6 /2b`?>.K
∈
( ) &( #
>
8 , 0124=15F H EI /2b

9181-1D1
` 01 ;>21?4J E R F ` H>24I `

E E E
G H
H 6 81 ; =:>R.>8q BM1-5: F 6 0-47G5

E F H F 4 IFHE F H I `
0 >
H H H H
,;>8q:2.. E 5<F H0-45.=45 F 4=/;9

H I ` w1D/:

E E 1 /19:N:8.2q>8?1
E E 450249: E 44
G H H H H

H

4J 01

` H H H

⇒ ED/. l ;8?.-3/.=4. 2.55< /2b

F 5< 012;7456 /19:B
5

N:? >
−
450249: 44 N:59=;8:b
,;>8q > 4 l ⇒

⇒

>
F −
6 D/. l >2./;Jc..
0124=154:2q=:b M1-5:
;8?.-3/.=4.
=:

h 0-4
R

H − C;/.5 /1012=48.2q=1 0-./012:D:8q6 781 R H I ` w1D/:

G >
H =:7:2: /2b/19:3.5=.9181-1S 0124=154:2q=1S M1-5<,;>8q =:
N:59=;B
−
GF
−
F >
450249: 4J ` ` F >
−

D-:=q l >45B
F
8:b 0124=154:2q=:b M1-5: =:

` :>>518-45
7 ⇒

>
−

> 8 8

"
02.9>:
=4.
H
?>.K D-:=.S

` ,;>8q H

6 9-15. D-:=4
8 8 4 l2.55;
,-45.=4? 1C ./4=.B
,;:=B
> 8 8
` /2b =.9181-1S M1-5<

9:-. E2.55: FF6 ,-45.=4?
012;7456 781 H

> 8 8
F F >
E /1 M1-5< =:
1 `0-1/123.=446
2.55; M1-5;N:59=;8:513=1

`
−
F > F | F >
0-1/12348q
−
513.8
∈
C<8q 18247=:

18

=;2b 812q91 1-5:

=: D-:=4
F >
! −
−
6 0-47G5
4 1=:=:

F F >
! −
−
H a 8: M1-5: 1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q ` >24 H − 6 81

> 8 8

> 8 8
G
IHZ HZ E − FHZ E − F
F

F F >
! −

F F >
! −

,15<a 815; ;8?.-3/.=4. 513=1 0-45.=48q 9 1D-:=47.=4J M1-B
C

F
F
=:F >
! − >4502.9>
H

/2b =.9181-1S k -.N;2q8:8.
>
` M1-5< =: >4502.9>.
−
012;7456
> 8 781 8
E − 6 |1C-:c:Jc.S>b

F − F
! −
>
C

F >
?=:=;2q
=:6 813/.>8?.==1` -:?=1S

−
1-5; =;2J =:513=1
F >
−
F >
0-1/12348q /1 M1-5<
> 8 8
> 8 8
`
−
F >
,-4 a 815 H E F`

! −
F F > F >
19:3.5 8.0.-q 450249: 4J ⇒ ` ,;>8q l N:59=;8:b 01B

! − ! −
F
24=154:2q=:b
5
M1-5: =:
6 1C-:c:Jc:b>b
H − /1012=48.2q=1 0-./012:D:.8>b6 781 R H I ` 7.?4/=16 ? =;2q
=:

h 0-4 H

F

G
781
8:915.>24>2;7:.H
I6513=1
81 0-45.=48q
H I ` ,1 a 815;2.55;C;/.5,;:=9:-.
0-./012:D:8q6 781 M1-5; k

> `

F
G

4 01>8-148q G

=:F6 /2b
h9181-1S
=;2qE 4b601>81b==:b H ` 1-5: 513.8 =. 1C-:B
F > F > F > F F >
c:8q>b∈ ?M;=9
− −
a 81 =;3=1
=: 4>0-:?48q
` ,;>8q H

` ,1 a 815; 513=1 >748:8q6781
4 > `w
−
1D/: −

F >
l ? =;2q =:
` ,;>8q 8.0.-q > ` >24 H 6 81
1C-:c:.8>b
−

G

G
G

F >
−
Z
HZ HZ HI F >
−
F >
−
F

,1 a 815; =.9181-:b
513=1 0-45.=48q 4 012;748q6 781
,;>8q H 60-1B D/.

F > F ?
F ?
/123.=4.
! − 012424=.S=:b
l M1-5< =:
` ,121345 H ` − l` w1D/: M1-5:
F ?
=: |

F > F >

−

!
F ? −
−
F ?
F >
− H H 4 | H | − H I`
F >
−
!
F − F >
−

F >
−

−
! −

F ? −
−
4w.0.-q
9.C-:3.=4. 5< ;3. 513.5V =.01>-./>8?.==1
/19:N:8.2q>8?; Y m Y Y[ \ U ^ UW^
0-4>8;048q
V n^
9 M1-5;24-1?B
[ V [` :/:/45 181B
R E F → E h Q F M1-5;21S h E F
i H R ` w.1-.5:
& 2 ) ! (
$
819>: 019:N<?:.86781
181C-:3.=4. :2D.C- 91D15121D4S `
7 H 601 a 815; 181C-:3.=4. 4=/; 4-;.8
∗

∗

8

∗

: U W[ ^\Y^ YZ UVUWXYZ V [ T ^ W
( " ∗ 4 "
,
"

M4N5Up [Z[?.981-=<K
^ U 0-1>8-:=>8? =:7:2: 5< C;/.516 781 /19:N<?:8q6
>1K-:=b.8 781 l 4N151-B
;5=13.=4.6 5< /1B
`w
( ) &( # 7 ∗
,
9:3.5 01N3. ` ∗
02.9>.,-.3/.
M1-5;
?>.D1 /19:3.56 H 781 l a 0451-M4N5 8: M1-5:` :>>518-45
N:59=;8:6 =:01815; >45B
781 =: HB5.-=15

>4502.9>. =.8
∧ =.=;2.?<K

` FBM1-5 >
` ,-1?.-456 78181

E H H
∧
I 2b D-:=.S6 N:/:==<K ;-:?=.=4b54 H I6 6 H I6

` /2b D-:=46N:/:==1S ;-:?=.=4.5 H I a 81 >2./;.8 ``` 4N 81D16 a

17.?4/=16

|
:
781B5.-=15 1>81?.6 9181-:b

5
H − >1?0:/:.8
H I ` ,1a 815;> 513=1 -:>>518-.8q M1-5; =: H

H
>
H

1>8:2q=<K
>
H
B5.-=<K
H
>4502.9>:K

=:
1D2:>=14:2q=<S
4 -:?=: =;2J =: ?>.K
H

2.55. 1 91502.9>
0-1/123.=44k a-.B8;

` >45024

M1-5;
N;2q8:8. 513=1
012;745 0-1/12348q
M1-5; =: ?.>q F6 /2b 9181-1S F

H 6
` 7

D/. 6H I l -: 41=:2q=1. 74>21∈ ` NEa 81D1 >2./;.86781h El a 0451-M4N5

`
8
i
< 012;7:.5 91-189;J 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

I → → E F −→ E h QF → I
/.>q2JC1D1 >4502.9>:
>1>8148 4N
M1-5 F6 /2b 9181-<K R 4N151-B HI
∗ ∗

∈ E /19:N:8q6 781

/2b
M4N56 /1>8:817=1

0-1?.-48q6? `
781 81C<
l
∗
E /2b ?>.K >4502.9>1?>21?:546

F H I ` =<54 .>B

∗
2481 H∈ E F6/2b =.9181-1S

H I 4 RM1-5< H I

? 6

∗

Ea 81 1N=:7:.86 781

∗
> >
5.?:.8>b6
R

H
781 I
/2b
> −
H 2JC1D1
IF >4502.9>:
1D2:>=1 2.55.
∈? h 0-4
/2b >4502.9>: H >;c.>8?;.8
I 01/-:N;B −
>

M1-5: ∈ E
` F6 /2b 9181-1S | H 4 | H I ` N
C −
−

−

> > 7 > >
M1-5 ? =;2q513=1 >92.48q M1-5;1>81?.=: 0151cqJ B5.-=15 1>81?. 61C-:c:JB

− − −
>
−
>

c;J>b =: E − 0-1/12348q /1 M1-5< =: ?>G5 0-1/123.B

FB5.-=15 2.55< 1
!
`
− −

=44
8:b M1-5;
M1-5: 513=1 >
1C-:c:.8>b

? =;2q

=: B5.-=15 1>81?.6 ` 8:59=;B 7

>
``. ` 1=:
! − −
>
1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q =:
D-:=4 . 2JC1D1
−
?: 0-45.=4? 2.55; 601>8-145 M1-5; E ∈ E

F6 /2b 9181-1S
−
FB5.-=1D1 >4502.9>:
=1B
>

> > 7
E48q −M1-5; F| =:H FB5.-=15 4 | H I ` N M1-5 513=1 >92.B

−
> > > − >
− − − −
E M1-5: 1>81?. 4 0-1/12348qF 1C-:c:.8>b

.G /1 M1-5<?
C C
>
=;2q
>
=:
8.0.-q?>G5 ;3. ` =: :59=;8:b
! −
FB5.-=15 1>81?.

− E

> >
` ,1a 815;H91=>8-;9 4J 513B

− − −
E

=18:01?81-b8q
>;55: ` k
91--.98=1 -.N;2q8:8. 01>8-145
10-./.2.=:6? =;2q M1-5;

01815;=: 781 M1-5:6FB5.-=15 9181-:b1>81?. 012;B

>
−
>
−

>
−

7:.8>b =: B5 :D.6 1C-:c:.8>b

E − M1-5< 6`

1-5:6 1C-:c:J8>b1C2:/:.8 ?8-.C;.5<54

G>

>?1S>8?:54601>912q9;
=;2q =: E − FB5.-=15 1>81?. `

G

>
```
− −
>
−

"
19:3.5 F8.0.-q6 :015=456781 781 92:>>>1K-:=b.8 ;5=13.=4. `F ,;>8q81

E h Q ⊗` 0-4 181C-:3.=446 4=/; 4-1?:==15 hQ l a
5
E/4:D1=:2q=<5
∗
1C-:N 92:>>:
8 ∗
∗
∈ ∈
181C-:3.=4.5 ,;>8q F6 l 8-4B

× | ` 9181-<. b?2bJ8>b

:=D;2b 4b R | >| →?.-| 4=:546

∈ E0-14N?./.=4b54

> 8 ? ∗
?.- 4=
1C-:N15 91502.9>:

| × |
JC1S ` ,1>8-145
M1-5;

>4502.9>

91502.9>: 2.348
∈

? E F >2./;Jc45
0-14N?./.=44

`
> ?
×

6 D/.
4
>4502.9>< :>>518-45 9:=1=47.>94.

`

0-1.9 44
l 6 H 6 6 4 01>8-145 M1-5; F∧E F
> ? > ?
R

×
=:M1-5:

` N 1D-:=47.=4S
×
# >
→ 8:94K M1-5 =:?
>4502.9>< E

>92.4?:.8>b

# ∗> > # ∗? ?
×
=: 6 9181-;J 5< 1C1N=:745
>
81C-:3.=4.
?
`
R E F → E h Q F 0.-.?1/48 M1-5;
> ?
×
? 91 .0q E × F6 /2b 9181-1S

E × F
×
i H
∗

∗
×
>

?
H R E F ∧ E F H R R h 0-4 N:04>4 ?81B

> ? > ? 8 > ?
h

-1D1 -:?.=>8?: 5<F 0-45.=424 8.1-.5; ;C4=4 ` w:9454N1C-:N156
# ∗> > # ∗? ? > ?
C× D C D
E ×
2.=4b
>

F H ? F
?4/=16 781 E E⊗ ×E `F H ∧ ` -15.
> 81D16

=.01>-./>8?.==1

? 9

10-./.B
∗ > ? > ?

!"!"! ) * *)

91? ,;>8q l >M.-: >781 -;79:546

0-./012:D:.8>b6

01?.-K=1>8q 4N 9181-1S ?<-.N:=1 /4>B
9150:98=:F ` w 1D/:> F H

E − ` >=1 8:93.6 781 01?.-K=1>8q D15181047.>94 a 9?4?:B E

H2.=8=: C;9.8; 19-;3=1>8.S S2.-1?: K:-:98.-4>849: C;9.8:9?4?:2.=8B

19-;3B
`

−
=1>8.S
=:9:7.>8?.-:?=:
C;9.8;1C-:N;Jc4K6 01 a 815; 01?.-K=1>8q
19-;3=1>8.S

:945 D15181047.>94
1C-:N156 F∼
a G
`k

` w H

− G

D-;00<

E
F 513=1 ?Nb8q D15121D47.>94. 92:>B
>
? >
−
>< 4921?6 4N1C-:3G==<K =: -4>E` ` `

− Z
>

4> ` ` ` :N4> D15121D4S

,-./01213456 781 01?.-K=1>8q ?213.=: ? ` w1D/: >1D2:>=1 8.B

""
1-.5.
>8?1 /?1S>8?.==1>84 2.9>:=/.-: E h ZF ∼H E \ 19-;3=1>8.S6
D15181047.>94 a 9?4?:2.=8=1 C;9.8;

>
F ` ,-1>8-:=B >
01=.>213=1
a 815; /19:N:8q E h ZF ∼H4Z=.01>-./>8?.==1
>
H E F ` N151-M4N5
? >
< 8:9 4
−
>/.2:.56E \781C<
F∼ H 012;B

E F

` ` ,-4 a 815 /2b =:> =:4C12..

> > >
∼ −
748q
?:3=1 b?=1.
816 781104>:=4.
C424=.S=:b a 81D1 4N151-M4N5:
M1-5: F

>101>8:?2b.8 /?;5 N:59=;8<5 R E

1-4.=84-1?:==<5 \ × E F →? Z69181-:b
9-4?<5
>
4?
>
4K 91 a MM4 4.=8 N: .02.=4b6 =.?<-13/.=: ` \

>24 74>21 ? I /1>8:817=1
01?.-K=1>84

0-./>8:?2b.8 5:216
>1C1S 81 N:59=;8:b
:-6 9 9181-15; B19-.>8=1>8q
0-492..=1 L
9?4?:2.=8=1>8qJ-;7.9 ` ,-4
815 ?92J7.=4. L b?2b.8>b D15181047.>91S
a L 0-./>8:?2b.8⊂>1C1S >M.-; >
-:S

-;7B
a9:54 `

−
k D-;00. L F 9:3/1S -;79. >118?.8>8?;J8
` ` /.>q E D-:=4 : 5:21D1 /4>9:6 8-:=>?.->:2q=1 0.-.>.9:JB /?. 1C-:N;Jc4K
9
−
4 >
c.D1

?
6 0
1/=1S

l 4 =. 0.-.>.9:Jc.D1 0-4 6H h l a2.5.=8
8179.

D-;00<4=/;E L4-1?:==15
21D4S6
6
F69181-<S?92J7.=4.5 0.-.K1/48 ? L 0-4LD15151-M4N5. 0-4 815 D-;00 D151B
6
D15151-M4N5.

6 0
E 781a E F H ` w1B
>
6
D/: 0.-.K1/48 F H?

IF ` -4.=8:
,;>8q6 4J
/:2..6 L ?<C.-.5 ⊂ 8:96
N:5<9:=4.

L ` w1D/: ?92J7.B
`
8
=4. L E
8
6

l
b?2b.8>b D15181047.>91S a 9?4?:2.=8=1>8qJ601>912q9;
0
\
6
?92J7.=4. 0
⊂
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84
\ L ⊂ L \ :S.-:Bkq.81-4>:
b?2b.8>b D15181047.>91S a 9?4?:2.=8=1>8qJ ` k

F L F → EL F ⊕ EL F → E F
9-:S=4. 72.=< E → E
?
=;2.?<.6
>
01a 815; :C.2.?<

>
L F ∼HD-;00<EL F ⊕:=D4ELD-;00
>
F ` k 7:>8=1BL F
0 >
>846 L F 4 L F >?1C1/=<. E
E l 01a 815; 012;7:.56 781` EL F ∼H Z E `
> > >
LE EF =:5 4N?.>8=<6
0
4 C-:N;Jc454
> > >
0
? >
a 81S4-1?:==15
D-;00< >2;3:8 1C-:N< La2.5.=81? 0-4 D1B
> >
0
−

5151-M4N5.6 4=/;
0:K EL F ∼H 4 E F 4 EL F ∼H8:96 781 ?92J7.=4.5 F 513=1
L 8:96
`?<C-:8q C:N4>< ? D-;0B

E \ E F H `
0
⊂
> > > >
0
6
>8
01>8-148q

0151cqJ
8 ? >
6 −
C424=.S=1S
C424=.S=;J
> 8
M1-5;M1-5<

8 ?
R

F
>
E − F
F
E F
>2./;Jc45
>
8
513=1
6
1C-:B

>

R 1-4.=84-1?:==<S
7

N15 ` ,;>8q 6 0121348.2q=1 E
E
\

>
l h l =1-5:2q=<S ?.981-6 /2b 9181-1D1 C:N4>

×
× →Z
→ Z C:N4> ? =.9181B
>
-1S6 8179. 01?.-K=1>84

6 /2b0121348.2q=1
> ?
1-4.=84-1?:= ` k<C.-.5 -:>>518-45

/1>8:817=1 5:21. 74>216

> ?
9181-:b

I64 9:3/1S
012;7:.8>b 9-4?1S =: 01?.-K=1>84
0-4 0:-:22.2q=15 0.-.=1>.

9:3/1S 9-4?;J
81794 9-4?1S

? =:0-:?2.=44
0-4 0.-.=1>. ? =1-5:24
0-184?101213=15 =: -:>>81b=4. h 9-4?;J6
=:0-:?2.=4461C1N=:745 9181-:b 012;7:.8>b
`^ ,121345

EH
8 F H E
H
F
−8` 424=.S=;J M1-5; =:N<?:J8 X UW VU X^W [`
−
! ! (
"
N4>.kHM1-5.9:7.>8?..SM.-8:
F
C:N4>: >118?.8>8?;.8
H F
E F >=1?: ?<C.-.5
H
>
FV [,;>8q ` k a 815F6 D/.

H 8 ? >
WY [ ^ X^W [ E C:N4>6 −
6
>8C:B
` ( 2 ( !
E F6 /?1S>8?.==<S
E C:N4>;E lM1-5<

18=1>48.2q=1
8 − 8 8 >8 8 ? >
6 6 −
E` w1D/:

6 6 6 6
>

\
HP 4 HP `
6
−

6

>8

8 ? >
6 6
−
!"! ! * & *% * '& '%* & * &) '*

,;>8q l 9150:98=:b
HC.>91=.7=124>8=<5
6 ?213.==:b ? =:9-<84.5
,1>8-1451-4.=84-;.5:b
0-1>8-:=>8?1 01?.-K=1>8q
6 > 9-:.5b?2b.8>b
9181-1. H
`

0-1>8-:=>8?: A ` 2b a 81D1 -:N-.B

3.5 >M.-; 01 ` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;745 B5.-=1. 5=1D11C-:N4.
∞
5
\

> 9-:.5 h 9:3/1S 8179.
4 ∪ ?1N513=1>8q ?<C-:8q

>118?.8>8?;J8 /?. 81794
N=:94 4 −F /2bk1Nq5G5

?>.K 817.9

E >2./;.8 4N 1-4.=84-;.51>84
−
∈ \
>1D2:>1?:==<5 1C-:N15 >7G8B

=1.
∈
5=13.>8?1
∈
a
−
9N.502b-1?
−
F 8:94K ` 4 1813/.B
5=1D11C-:N4S

>8?45 4 1813/.>8?2bJ8>b
E

E ∈81794
Z
4 6 4b>118?.8>8?;Jc4.

1/=1S 4 81S 3. 8179. F K.5:847=1 8: 91=>8-;9 4N1C-:3.=: =:

>
` a

> − −

-4> ,12;7.==1. 0-1>8-:=>8?1 =:9-<?:.8 ` 81C-:3.=4b

` ` `
−
7
−
4=/; 4-;J8 :?8151-M4N5

A R A → A \a 81D1 =:9-<84b `
-;00: >=1:?8151-M4N51? =:9-<84b 01-13/.=: a/.S>8?;.8

2.5.=815 =:4 =:9-<844
4N151-MB
∞
>
→

=:8-:=N484?=1
`Z 8:93.6 781 D-;00: :?8151-M4N51?
∞ ∞

`
4> ` ` ` ,-1>8-:=>8?1 A
< C;/.5 0-./012:D:8q6781 01?.-K=1>8q 1-4.=84-1?:=: 4 8179:

∞
>118?.8>8?;.8
18-4

:8.2q=15; 0121348.2q=15; =:0-:?2.=4J =1-5:246 : 8179:

`
l :9-<84. A → \ 5< 01>8-1424 > 0151cqJ 01?.-K=1>84 `
−
9:N<?:.8>b6 781 a 8: 91=>8-;9 4b =. N:?4>48 18 ?<C1-: 01?.-K=1>84

h 1=: N:?4>48 812q91 18 1-4.=84-1?:==1D1 N: .02.=4b 9-:b 01B

∞

?.-K=1>84 F ` .S>8?48.2q=16 =:9-<84. =:/ 1/=1N=:7=1 E N:/:B
G8>b 1C-:N15 M;=/:5.=8:2q=1S D-;00< =:9-<?:Jc.D1 0-1>8-:=>8?: ?

5
\

"
>
-<K F ` ,19:3.56
E 91\aMM4 4.=8 N: 781 a 818 >1C-:N
.02.=4b >1>8148 4N 8.K 0.8.2q 6 /2b 9181B
-:?.= I ` >=16 781 1= >1>8148 4N 8.K

0.8.2q 4N6 01/=b84b

?<S/.5
=.9181-1S 9181-<K

81794 ?A 4 N:59=;8<

C;/.5 4/84 =<54 01/=b84b

` ?/12q >21?:546 .>240;84 5<6

81>118?.8>8?;J8
? 91= . 91= 1?8179:5 5< /123=< ?.-=;8q>b ? ` ,.-.K1/< 4N ?
∞

N/.>q 818

3. >:5<S6

0.-.>.7.=4b
781 4 ? 9-4?1S 4=/.9>:
10-./.2.=44 > 01?.-K=1>8qJ
0.-.>.7.=4b h N=:9

>
`> 01B<
±
0-4K1/45
?.-K=1>8qJ 9 >2./;Jc.5; ;>21?4J R 4=/.9> 0.-.>.7.=4b
-:?.= I ` 1D2:>=1 1/=15; 4N 10-./.2.=4S 91 a MM4 4.=8:
9-4?1S

N: .02.=4b
2.=4b
9-4?<K E>5 ` 4, HF a 81 Ha 9?4?:2.=8=1

7
815;6 781 91 a MM4 4.=8 N: .0B
-:?.= I N/.>q 01/-:N;5.?:.8>b6 781 .>24

>1>8148 4N >?bN=<K 91501=.=8 E 6 81 F H P FF `

?8151-M4N5 =:9-<84b R A 0.82b54 →A

813. =.E N:?4>48
>8
18E ?<C1-:
8 8 8
01?.-K=1>84 ` = N:/:G8>b 8.54 ? 6 /2b 9181-<K 91 a MB

M4? 91=.4.=8 N:81D1.02.=4b > -:?.= =:7:21 01/=b84b 0.824 181C-:3:.8>b

∞ ∞

a 01/=b84bF

` E
\

=:b 2b 9:3/1D1

1-4.=84-1?:==:b
5 1-4.=84-1?:==1D1
01?.-K=1>8q N: .02.=4b >;c.>8?;.8 >?bNB
6 9181-:b ?213.=: ? 4 9-:.5 91B

⊂

81-1SU >2;348 E>5 `6 =:0-45.-6 , F ` 8; 01?.-K=1>8q =:N<?:J8 U

m
^ X^W [ N: .02.=4b ` 0151cqJ 01?.-K=1>84 513=1

^W \ '
#
01>8-148q
1
=:9-<84b6 =:9-<84.
&( ) +
9181-<.
!
A → 812q91
N:?4>b8

(
\
4 :?8151-M4N5 R
18

` 8:96 N: .02.=4J
7
A → A 513=1 a 81D1
>101>8:?48q781D-;00; F EA51/;2q F6 =: =:/ 9181-1S N:/:= :?8151-M4N5 81

∞ ∞ ∞
`
1N=:7:.86
81-1D1 >2;3:8 5=1D172.=< >
>
EA l 18 4 > .2<54 91Za MM4 4.=8:54 912q∞

15 >
6 2.5.=8:54
a ` 81C< 91B

−
>
8

∗

0-45.=48q a 8; :2D.C-:47.>9;J >8-;98;-;6 =:5 01=:/1C48>b 5:8-45:B:6

∞
−

>118?.8>8?;Jc:b
8-481S :5:8-4
0-./>8:?2.=4b N:/:=4J
51/;2bF51/;2b ,1 1C-:N;Jc454
815; 5< >.S7:> 4 >118=1
/:/45 .=4b54
10-./.2.=4. E

` a

a ,;>8q < 4 /19:3.5 =.9181-<. .G >?1S>8?:912q` 15 > ./4=4 .S

0-./012:D:.8>b6781 l 51/;2q

H =:/ 9155;8:84?=<5
/2b ?>.K ` 1/;2q =:N<?:J8 U
h
U>2./;Jc45
n\ V6 .>24>?1S>8?15
>;c.>8?;J82JC1S a2.5.=8<

2.5.=8
∈

69181-<. 1C2:/:J8
1/=1N=:7=1

0-./>8:?2bB
8
&# '
a
>8
R O a2.5.=8<
"
$ ∈

.8>b ? ?4/. H O =:N<?:J8 0-4

a.>24815 >;c.>8?;.8
[ZY UV 51/;2b
> >
h ∈
` 1/;2q =:N<?:J8 pU \^]\ U UW U n \\ V6
>8 8
" &
817=:b 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

m
0
$
I `F
E

8
→ −
D/. 4
C:N4><l
43.=4b >?1C1/=<.4 51/;24 E=:/,;>8q
− →
8.5 3.H912qF 15 5:8-4
→
F ` k<C.-.5
: 181C-:B ?
`

18=1>48.2q=1 a 84K C:N4>1?68 `. ` E F H P l ` :8-4 ; E8

> 8 8 >8

6 6
I >

6
"
=:N<?:J8
8-4>118=1 V [ WY ^ mW^n1C-:N;Jc.S
< >118?.8>8?;.8 ( 51/;2b 6:` 9:3/<S
[ ^\Y_ 51/;2b
2 ! :3/:b 4N4N >8-19
&( #
>812C 5:B1? 9

.=4J 5.3/; F1C-:N;Jc454
l01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q =. ./4=>8?.==: ` 2b9-15.
/:==1D1
81D16 51/;2b
C:N4>< 817=:b
?4

E ` >01>1C:54 ` h
5
513=1 ?<C-:8q -:N=<54
o UT n[Y U\Y m Un o^][V [ WY_ nW omTW^nYZ nW[o T [^\Y_

Y ^ UTU\ U ^ VU nWô U_ W[Z

; &( ) 0
m U
( 2
4 U n\UUTU
$
^nV [
# &( #
(
m

, @
U [\Y ^n o ^ TU Yn[ Y U W[ \ p \Y
+( & & # '
m ^W^V [\V U p [ W Up Y VY U U I

( ) &( ) + " # ! & # A += " ( B
$1
A B &( # &( &( " 2 # 3
Z[ ^\[ [ WY \[ [ WY o I

A B ( 2 ( 2 3
n U [ ^\Y^ p Vp[ WY Up^ UU [ U TUU_ ^TU YZUp \ o ^ U

$
B 2 &( " 2 * & &( = !3
Vo \ U ^\\mWYU [\[ ^\Y^

\^pU UW U ^W ]Y ^ U o nW o W Y [
A " # (
AB " # &( A&( " 2 B ! &( A&( " 2 B *
! ( &
,
Up [Z[ :5^ 4 U 6 513=1
5:8-4 2b 817=<K
( ) &( # 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8.S6>118?.8>8?;Jc4K
01>8-148q ,
9155;8:84?=;J /4:D-:55;
5
0

−−−−→ −−−−→

−−−−→
I
  
  
I
y y y
0
0 0
.S>8?48.2q=16
815 0-1/12348q D15151-M4N5<
01 24=.S=1>84 42.5.=8513=1 N:/:8q
F =: C:N4>.6 >2./;B
−−−−→ 0 −−−−→
10-./.245 : 01B −−−−→
`
5
E ∈
6
Jc45 1C-:N15 ` 81C-:3.=4. l a 0451-M4N56 01 a 815; >;c.>8?;.8

0
aD/:2.5.=8
E F H
∈
E
6 /2bF H9181-1D1
0
E `F E F H E F ` ,121345 E F H h 81B

2.5.=8 0 0
F019:N<?:.86
0
10-./.245 >2./;Jc45
0
E
0
1C-:N15
2.5.=8 `
0
:?.=>8?1
6

/2b E
9181-1D1F0
H 0

E
F HF H I 6 6
∈
F

,121345 781 F>;c.>8?;.8

H h 81D/:
0
a F H ∈ F H F` E 0
`

E E 4 5:8-4

6 0
6
0 0
6
E
E < 181C-:3.=4S 4 18=1>48.2q=1 8.K 3.

0
6 6 E 6 6 6 0
,;>8q
0 0 0
A l
6 6
6 6
>:5<K C:N4>1?6
?.=>8?1 18=1>48.2q=1
9181-<KH N:04>:=<

5:8-4 <>8-1b8>b
4 ` :B
6
C-:3.=4b 4 > 5:8-4 :54 A A4 6 /2b 9181-<K A H ` 181B

H 1N=:7:.86 781 ` =:21D47=1 0

0
6
0

N -:?.=>8?de F H 4 H H ,12qN;b>q >2./;.86 781845 >?1S>8?15

H H 4` 8.56
=:B
0 0
60 0 0 0 0
7486
781

E − >?1C1/=<S6
51/;2q

0⊂
513=1 ` 0
a
01>8-148q81 -:?.=>8?1

0
D15151-M4N5

0
r R →?4/ 6

0 0
/2b H9181-1D1 6 rD/.H − de5:8-4 ` 2b: 5:8-4 a

181C-:3.=4b r ` 5 0-4=45:.8
AA− l
0
0

"
4N;/.5
5:8-494>012qN1?:8q
=:1C-:8=<K 1C1N=:7.=4. ∼0-.1C-:N1?:=4S
<=45 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8qJ
>=16 781
6 .>24 5:8-4 : 012;7.B
E F l E F 424
`

f∼g I
?
I f g I A fg f g I A A 0 0 0 0
∼ ∼
748<?:b6 781 A H 6 012;7:.5

0
0
I A A f∼g I A I fg∼f g I A I AAA

0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0

:2..6 4>012qN;b -:?.=>8?1 AA H 6 012;7:.5

0 0 0
I A I AAA f∼g I A I A
0

0
0 0

,1 a 815;
0 0
∼ I A
I f g I A I >
A ∼ A ∼
0 0
08
781 4 8-.C1?:21>q `
0 0
,;>8q l>8-19
>1/.-348 5:8-44 :>812C
0-./>8:?2.=4b

1?681 4/.:251/;2b
912q =:/ 912q 15 ` >24
: 601-13/G==<S ?>.54V
54=1-:54UV 01-b/9:

51/;2b O
5:8-4 < =:N<?:J8

OB5
4 −1C1N=:7:J8 ` >24 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b >8:=/:-8B
V
^ ^\ [W\

Yn^[
(
Eu
$
=<54
>?1S>8?:54 10-./.248.2.S6
781H4/.:20-4EuO =. N:?4>48 18 ?<C1-: 81 4N 8.1-.5<
5:8-4 < ` ` 2.D91 012;748q6
` >21?45>b >748:8q6 781

Eu

4 Eu H I 0-4 O 6 I ` .D91 0-1?.-48q6 781 Eu ⊂ Eu `

>
p [p ZUVVU no T Upo [ Y U^ ]UppUU\^]\[_ [ ^ ^ [ TW omm [ [ VUU WYU V ^

−

UTU VU
]Y | | n^ | | m W_n TWnomm_ no _ Yn^[ E m W n \

; &( ) 4 " # && ( 0
% ,
' ) ( * ( ( > 0
,
& * 4
% % $ %,
!"! ! * )*

>=1?=:b 8.1-.5:6
-1S 51/;2b F >?bN<?:Jc:b
=:/ 912q 15 5:8-46 N:92J7:.8>b
; .SM.-8: ?>2./;Jc.5
>1 >8-;98;B
`

EA

>
> 8
Z −
VU no _ EA F \[n[ pUWY [ UV Z− _ _^ _ V [ WY ^ mW^n [ ^\Y_

∞

. ( 2 # (& ( 2 ! &( #
>
> )2 − 8
∞ ,
I
Up [Z[ ^ U ,-./>8:?45
01/0-1>8-:=>8? H 0-1>8-:=>8?1 A ? ?4/. 1C84K./4=.=4b
4 H ` ,.-.>.7.=4. 01/0-1B
a .SM.-8:
( ) &( #
,
>8-:=>8? 0-./>8:?2b.8 >1C1S >7G8=<S =:C1- 01?.-K=1>8.S

∞
`
0 ? > 00 ?
∪ ∪
k 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84 :S.-:Bkq.81-4>:

F F F F→
→ E → E ⊕ E → EA
0 00 0 00

∩
?>. D-;00< b?2bJ8>b 51/;2b54 =:/ 912q 15 Z 0.-.?1/48
` 8/.2q=1a 84=: D-;0B
∞
>
0:K F4 F /.S>8?4. =. 10-./.2.=1 D-;0B 8
/-;DE ? /-;D:6E 01a 815; =: E F ⊕ E F h/.S>8?4. 10-./.2.=1

−

0<81C-:3.=4b ?

01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84
0

:S.-:Bkq.81-4>: b?2bJ8>b
00
D151B`

0
00

51-M4N5:54 51/;2.S `

,19:3.56 781 ;7:>819 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84 :S.-:Bkq.81-4>:
E ∩ F −→ E F ⊕ E F −→ EA F
> 0 00
∗ > 0 > 00

∗ >
N:/:G8 0-./>8:?2.=4. 51/;2b781 EA F 1C-:N;Jc454 4 >118=1 .=4bB

∞
54815;6,-.3/. ?>.D1 0-1?.-456

` 781 H F6 8 `. ` lHaI ` ,1>2./=..` -:?.=>8?1 0451-M4N5 81 9?4?:2.=8=1
a a 9?4?:B
>
∞

2.=8=1 815;6 781 EA

181C-:3.=4.

R E F
>
E F
E F
∗

51=151-M4N5 -;00<
l0-b5<54 >;55:54` D-;00 EE ∩∩ F 4 EE F69:3/:b F 4 ∩ F→ F ⊕b?2bJ8>b
∗ ∞ ∗

E 4N 9181-<K
0 00 0 00

0
∗
00
0
00
⊕
4N151-M=:
/;24 6 01>912q9; 01?.-K=1>8q
Z F4 F .SM.-8: >?bN=: ` ,1a2.5.=8
F 4N151-M=<

815; 51B F F > F
E ∩ a2.5.=8:5E ∈⊕ EE ∩ F 4 ∈ Z E F `h ,-4

>118?.8>8?;.8
0 00 a 8:915
0
00

−
>
8

F
1813/.>8?2.=44
FE H 6H I6 181C-:3.=4. 0.-.?1/48 ? ` k 7:>8=1>846
F F > F
F F F >
01 a 815; l 51=151-M4N5 `

k<C.-.5 ? F H F C:N4> 6 : ? F H
∗

E E E

H=1 M1-5<
E F ?<C.-.5 C:N4> 6 /?1S>8?.==<S C:N4>; 18=1>48.2qB
∗ ∗
> > F F > >
∩ { } \ 6
>
K C:N4>:54 1/;24 2.5.=8<

` >2;3:8
F
E F 4
{ }
4 E F
,-4 E F >?1C1/=<. `
{ }
815 a2.5.=8:54
6
a ⊗ ` a
>
0 00 >
0
00
∩ ⊕
F 4 F⊗>118?.8>8?;J8 a 2.5.=8<

E .D91∩ 0-1?.-48q6∈ 781E

6 F
F H .S>8?4B
> >
` `
F F > F
E
6F ∈ ⊗ 6
8.2q=16 -:>>518-45 a2.5.=89-4?:b∈ >/?4D:.8>b F ` ,-4 1D-:=47.=44 =:

5
E
⊗ ⊗ ⊗ − ⊗ 6
6 6 −
012;7:.8>b ? =:0-:?2.=446 0-184?1B

∗
> >
01213=15

⊂
=:0-:?2.=4J 00
E
=1-5:24F6 : 0-4
∩
1D-:=47.=44 6 −
=:
6

6
012;7:.8>b
/.2.=4J F H E − F F h 0-4 a 815 E ⊗ F ∈ E F H ⊗ E10-.B
E9-4?:b >/?4D:.8>b
6
? =:0-:?2.=44 =1-5:24F ` ,1 ⊂
F 4
6
> 0
E 4>q` ?<-:3.=4b54 4 7.-.N 5:8-4 ; .SM.-8:

08 00 0 > > >
E k1>012qN1?:?
00
⊗ ∈ 6
∗
>

6
−

6 6

H E F6 012;7:.5

E ⊗ F H X ⊗ −X ⊗
∗

6

w:945 1C-:N156 1 5:8-4 5:8-4

: : 181C-:3.=4b81 4 .>8q
181C-:3.=4b a
? ?<C-:==<K
5:8-4 : C:N4>:K -:?=:
0-./>8:?2.=4b
− `

51/;2b F
∗
`

EA >
∗
2.5.=8:-=<S 4/.:2p Eu 51/;2b F =:/ 912qN: 15.02.=4b =:N1/.-3:c.D1 OBS 4/.:2` C-:B
1-4.=84-1?:==1D1 Z
>

−
>
8

N;Jc;J =:45.=q
2.9B
∞
&
>:=/.-:6 =:N<?:J8 OB5 U UVUV

m Y\ 2.9>:=/.-: p
^ [\n^W[ 1-4.=84-1?:==1D1 N:B

.02.=4b ` ,.-?<S 0124=15 =:N<?:J8 0-1>81

U
m Y\ UVUV &
^pC-:N;Jc:b
[\n^W[ h .D1D2:?=1D1
1C1N=:7:J8
E F `

4/.:2: 10-./.2.=: >912q

817=1>8qJ /1 ;5=13.=4b
&

=:b?2bJ8>b
./4=4 ;2.5.=8<

1C-:845<S a 2.5.=8F 912q : ` k
E ± 6 ∈ Z ` ,1 a 815; OBS 0124=15Z 2.9>:=/.-: . ./4=410-.B :54 >
8
a

−

/.2G= > 817=1>8qJ /1 ;5=13.=4b =: ± `

1D2:>=1 8.1-.5.: 45.==16
;4/.:20-./>8:?2.=4b6 ` ` 51/;2q EA F 45..8 9?:/-:8=;J 5:8-4B

− ` ,1 a 815; 0.-?<S a 2.5.=8:-=<S

7 >
N/.>q 4a 81D1/:2..51/;2b
1N=:7:.8D2:?=<S6 : N=:7486
F H e F h >45?12 H
∞

-:?.=>8?1 > 817=1>8qJ E /1 ;5=13.=4b E − =: ± `

·

·
!"! ! ( ' *& +*)

,-.3/. ?>.D1 N:5.8456 781 .>24
F H ` .S>8?48.2q=16 ? a 815 >2;7:.l

8-4?4:2q=<S
H 6 ;N.26
01 81
815;
EEA F H I `

· 5
A ×R a

?
<8-4k<74>2.=4. 0124=15: 2.9>:=/.-: >?1/48>b 9 ?<74>2.=4J 5:8-4B

∞
>
.SM.-8: H E F6 D/. H F k<74>2456 =:0-45.-6 5:B

∞
`

; .SM.-8: /2b 8-424>8=49: EE ` ` F ` .>213=1 ;C./48q>b6 781

-4>

8
6 6
9-4?<.
4 -:>01213.=<

> ? 8:96 9:9 019:N:=1 =: -4> ` ` ` ,1a 815;

H I − 4 − H − ` =:7486 0124=15 2.9>:=/.B

6 6

−
-: /2b 8-424>8=49: -:?.= − `

− ?
85.8456 781 0-4 ?<74>2.=44 5:8-4.SM.-8:< .SM.-8: 17.=q ;/1C=1

012qN1?:8q>b
9:b

01?.-K=1>8q 021>91S
.SM.-8: 01?.-K=1>8qJ
4N1C-:3.=: =: -4> ` 2b 8-424>8=49:
" ` ,1?.-K=1>8q .SB
8:B
` ` 5
M.-8:
1C-:845>b 8:91D1>=1?:?4/:9 -4>.>8q ; 2JC1D1
N: .02.=4b ` 81C< a.SM.-8: 81 /19:N:8q6
` ` .M1-54-;.5 01?.-K=1>8q 8:96
5

4> ` ` ` w-424>8=49
4> ` ` ` :>01213.=4. 9-4?<K 6

6 6

4> ` `" ` ,21>9:b 01?.-K=1>8q .SM.-8:

24781C<
=. -;7946 0-492..==<.
1C-:c:8q ?=45:=4b =: 9 816/4>9;6
781 >8:24 /24==<54
-;794 51D;8 C<8q 4 0.-.9-;7.=<
;N9454 ` >B
E-4> ` 8.0.-q
48>b ` 6 :F6 17.?4/=<5
81 8-.C;.51.1C-:N15
-:>01213.=4.
` 1 4N 01?.-K=1>84 .SM.-8:
1-4.=84-1?:==1>84 >8-1B
01?.-K=1B
>84 >2./;.86 ?7810-184?101213=<K
9-;74?:=4b 74>21 0.-.9-;74?:=4S
9:3/1S -;794
=:0-:?2.=4bK 7G8=1;=47813:J8B
?N:45=1 ` ?: 0.-.B
5
>b6-4>: /?:6 CF0.-.9-;74?:=4b ? 1/=15 =:0-:?2.=44 N:5.=bJ8>b =: 0.82J

E ` ` `

U Y\ UV ^p [\n^W[ oZ [ YZ U W[ \\ UTU
\[ WY

. /
&
]Y $
Y ^ m
& ( & * " 0
, , ,
UmT W UY U oZ^ [ E o OF V p [p mY UpOp[Z[\\^]

:
B ; &( ) # * 4 0(
$
&
UUTU\[ UWY\ ^ ]Y ]Y[ UTU[UT n[ VUO VU\ U
, @
Vo^\_ OF _ YWYm m[ ^W^^ pW\ Yp [ n _ ]Y[ nY ^ m UWYY\ UV[ ^ \^p [\n^W[ ]Y [ ZYZ[
&( () #88 * & A & # * * '
, ,
( " () ( 2 ( ) 3 ( 2 ( ) & '
E
$
+(& (
# 88
,
$
$
0 &( B /
, $
& ( &
o

4> ` ` ` ,.-.9-;74?:=4b -;794

4> ` ` ` 4:D-:55: ;N2: 9 N:/:7. ` `

5
UpUTU[ Y ^ ]U U UVm U Y\ UVp ^p [\n^W[pU oZ [ p Ep− " F W[ ^\UTU

Zo ^[ o U ooZZ^[ m\[ZY\ [ ;N215 ^ [\n^W[.SM.-8:
[ ^ [ o WY Y[ \
"B ( * ( & 8 8 # *

( ( & ( ! * ( # )
, ,
A ( ( # +( B
, - $ ,
4> ` ` ` 4:D-:55: ;N2: 9 N:/:7. ` `

5
5 19:3.5 8.0.-q =.9181-<. 1Cc4. >?1S>8?: 0124=15: 2.9>:=/.-: `

N >?1S>8? 10-./.248.2b
.02.=4b >2./;.86781
45..8 5.>81 >118=1 .=4. /2b 2JC1D1 1-4.=84-1?:==1D1 N:B

F H
F ` .S>8?48.2q=16
F H e F H F e E E >
E E − E− E − F H
E F `
· − 5
> >
· − · −
ZÛ UT n[U p
E F HV

[ o U o
Z[ ^ ^\Y^ _ ^^ m W[ \^ ^W^ YZ n o _Z

: B ; &( ) 4 ·
\ pUVom U\^\ UT n[m

E F H I
, @
"B ; &( ) 4 2 * & &( = ! ! # &# '
1
( ·
Up [Z[ ^=: .D1U 01?.-K=1>84

,;>8q l 1-4.=84-1?:==<S ;N.2 1C-:N;Jc4.
424 N: .02.=4.4B`
$1 , @ ,
k<C.-.5

92< 6 ``` 6
( ) &( #
.SM.-8: >8:=/:-8=<.
,

E;N.2 K:-:98.-4N;.8>b 8.56 781 /2b =.D1 H HF `

,1H 10-./.2.=4J
F H e 6 D/. H 6 8 `. ` H
> ? >

6 −
F − E E F H E F − E − F ` 81C< ?<74>248q
6
8;

a

E

·
−
-:N=1>8q 91 a MM4 4.=81? N: .02.=4b6 =:8b=.5 =: 9-4?<. 4 0121B

8 8 −8 8
6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
>9; 4 1-4.=84-;.5 .G 8:96 781C< .G 9-:.5 >2;342 492 ` w1D/:

−
6 6
-:>>5:8-4?:.5:b
0.-.>.7.=4b

-:N=1>8q 91
H .SM.-8:a MM4 4.=81? N:
6 D/. 01>2./=4S.02.=4b -:?=:
4=/.9> 4=/.9>;
0.-.>.7.=4b
−
6 6
?<74>2b.8>b
=: 4K >1D2: .=4bK 1 N=:9:K ? a 815 ?<-:3.=44 012;7:.8>b N=:978154=;>
=:
hh

01?.-K=1>84
ii ±hh ii
`
8
.>213=1
6
0-1?.-48q6 0-4 8
6 6
,-4

0.-.>8:=1?9. /?;K B5.-=<K

4921? 4K 4=/.9> 0.-.>.7.=4b 5.B `
=b.8 N=:9 ` ,1a 815; 5:8-4 : >1>8148 4N /4:D1=:2q=<K C2191?

I

4 .cG − =;2.S =: /4:D1=:24 ` >24 H 6 81 e H 6

I
: .>24 6 81 e H I `
−

,-4 01>8-1.=44
91=.7=1. 49247.>91. 0124=15:
=:9-<84.2.9>:=/.-:
E 6F 9181-1.
5< 4>012qN1?:24
>8-148>b C.>B01
F6>1>81bc.S A

01/D-;00.
N:5;8:=8 ? E
.02.=4b2b> N:-:?.=

I 2b ;N21? 4N 0.8.2q6
81
→ \
C;/.8 /2b 9181-<K 91a MM4 4.=8
01/D-;00: l 915B
∞
a
` 813. 513=1 -:>>518-.8q =:9-<84.6 01>8-1B
>
\
.02.=4S
> 8 >
`
5
.==1.
012;74501 -.D;2b-=1.
01/D-;00. =:9-<84.
5
` 8: 01/D-;00:

=1-5:2q=:b6 01a 815; 5<
> D-;001S :?8151-M4N51?
> 8 >
H Zu
6 D/. O l A → 91501=.=8
91247.>8?1 \
N: .02.=4b ` -;00:
:?8151-M4N51?
> > 8 >
N;Jc454
∼
6 a
6 81D1
6 =:9-<84b
9181-<. l >?1C1/=:b
>118?.8>8?;J8 :C.2.?:
5:2.=q945 D-;00: > 1C-:B
19-;3=1>8b56

=:/.8<5 =: ```
91501=.=8

/;2q =:/ 912q 150124=15:

/2b6 01>8-1.=4b u 64 5< 513.5
2.9>:=/.-:
4>012qN1?:8q
±
F
> 8
18
>
a 818 51/;2q6

0.-.5.==<K
>
8 ±
>
``` u `
Z

E u

>8

8

>

"
!"! ! # ' *
,124=151=?.b2.9>:=/.-:
,124=15 81 10-./.2G=
> 817=1>8qJ > 817=1>8qJ
/1 N:5.=< /1 0.-.5.==<KF
;5=13.=4b =:1/=1B ± u`
a

N=:7=1 10-./.2G==<S
9
l 0124=15 E 2.9>:=/.-:6 8 `. ` 0124=15 2.9>:=/.-:
?>5.3/;
M49>4-1?:==1S =1-54-1?91S ` ,124=15< 1=?.b -:N=<K N:12...02.=4S6

182474.0124=15:54
18 0124=151? 1=?.b 2.9>:=/.-:6
N: .02.=4S6
513=1 >92:/<?:8q
10-./.2G==<5
9
` /-;D
1C-:N15 81D16>
/-;D15 >?bN:==<K6
74>248q 0124=15 .>8q
1=?.b N:5.7:8.2q=1.
9
2JC1D1 N: >118=1 4>K1/b

.02.=4b6 .=4.6 01N?12bJc..

=.01>-./>8?.==1
?84
.02.=4b ` 10-./.2.=4b 1=?.b =:5 01=:/1C48>b

9
1/=1
=1>8.S
5
?>0151D:8.2q=1.
.SM.-8: 1/=1D1 ;8?.-3/.=4.
4 81D1 3. 1 1-4.=84-1?:==1D1
?N:451>?bNbK -:N247=<K N:
9
01?.-KB
.02.=4b
81 3. ;8?.-3/.=4.

01=:/1C48>b =:5 ?01>2./>8?44 /2b 0-1?.-94 91-B `
-.98=1>84

,;>8q 10-./.2.=4b
01?.-K=1>8q 4=?:-4:=8: .SM.-8: -M:1-4.=84-1?:==1D1
N: .02.=4b ` N: .02.=4b

⊂ `

l
,-./01213456 781 424=/-
?213.= ? 8:96 781
?

.D1

0.-.>.7.=4. F H > >1>8148 9-15. ? 817=1>84
81D16 ?
×

4N 1>=1?:=4S
5:21S 19-.>8=1>84

424=/-:6

1>=1?:=4S8 `. `

∩ E × 2.348 01 1/=;
424=/-
?
×

h 18 01?.-K=1>84 ` k<-.3.5 4N 1>=1B
>81-1=;

?
?:=4b =.9181-;J

2;745 424=/-: 4 01?.-K=1>8q

?5.>81 =4K ?92.45 .SM.-8: × ` k -.N;2q8:8. >=1?: 01B
?
N: .02.=4b ` ;/.5 D1?1B

-48q6 781 01?.-K=1>8q .SM.-8: 012;7.=: 4N 01?.-K=1>84 .SM.-8:

WY p ^Y [\Y^V W ] p Y`
0
m o
0
#
U U U
W U^W [\\\ U UTU^ Z[ ^^mX^W^\Y_o [ UTY n[ o T^n^m ^Wo ^H\ m UYY ^n ÛHX^W[ ^ [WY] \ UWY^\V nmYU_

E ; &( ) >
? 4 # &( ! ( ( '
1
# 2 & = &( # ( & # ( ) &( ) '
#
1
UTU
&( !
H ! (
, @
>*
,,, U
* F*
n\[ YZ
>
U U
m
>
^W
F
\
?*
^
0

Y

mmU o ]^\[ YZ
nW TU Y U mWY p ^Y [\Y^V W o ] p Y Y U YZ U Um Y^ \^m U n Y \ U \[
+" * * # &( ! >

o

,,, − 1
! " # * " ( ! A # !
B
Up [Z[ ^781 01?.-K=1>84

U ,1>2. 5:21D1 .?.2.=4b E=.01/?43=1D1 =: F 513=1
,

>748:8q6
=.7=15;
( ) &( #
74>2; N:59=;8<K
,
4 8-:=>?.->:2q=1
=.>:510.-.>.9:Jc4K>b
>

? 0.-.>.9:J8>b
9-4?<K 01 91B
0.-.>.7.=4.
01=: 9181-<.
813. 8-:=>?.->:2q=1.F ` ,;>8q 1/=1 4N N:5<9:=4S
l E 1C2:>8.S6
2.348 01 01?.-K=1>84
1/=; >81-1=; 4 -:NC4?:J8 ` ,-./01213456 781
18 9:3/1S 4N
>
01?.-K=1>8.S

?
4 6 8 `. ` .>24
-:N=<.
>81-1=; 7:>84
18 0-45<9:J8 9 424 9 F6 81 ?>. 1=4 2.3:8 01 1/=;
424 18 F h =43. 5< E019:3.56781 8:91. ?>.D/: 513B
> ?
> ?
=1 ?<C-:8q ` ,;>8q E H ∪ 6 D/. H ∩ ` JC;J

>

?
> ?

8-4:=D;2b 4J=: >M.-<

1D-:=4748q
` ,;>8q

6 /2b 9181-1S 4
1C ./4=.=4. l 01/91502.9><6
?>.K >4502.9>1?
> ? 513=1
?81-1B
l
D1 C:-4
69181-<. .=8-47.>91D1

0.-.>.9:J8>b 01/-:N/.2.=4b
> a 81S 8-4:=D;2b 44 5=1D11C-:N4b

424 > B5.-=<54 >4502.9>:54 4>K1/B

=1SB19-.>8=1>84
8-4:=D;2b 44?1-18=49:F ` .M1-5:2q=1
513=1 >
>9:N:8q6781 l 1C ./4=.=4.
? 4 B19-.>8=1>84 B5.-=1D1 1>81B

?:?5.>81

4>K1/=1S E
8-4:=D;2b 44 `

:5.=45

=: 6 ?<-.N:? 4 ?92.4?
>
/1?:8.2q=<5 =.D1 N:5<9:=4.

4N18104b5 4 \ ` 8: 10.-: 4b >?1/48>b 9 01>2.B

0-492.4?:=4b5

>
-;7.901?.-K=1>84
>0
.S>8?48.2q=16 5<
>
`
>
45..5
=.>912q91 /.21 >
-GC.- 10.-:
D-:M:6 4.S >2./;Jc.D1
0-47G5
?>. 1=4 ?4/: ` > 1/=1S >81-1=< 01B
0-492..=< 0-492..=1
9
5
?.-K=1>84
D-:=4 : :8.5 -:>>5:8-4?:.8>b
`` 4>K1/=1S 01?.-K=1>84 B19-.>8=1>8q
/1C:?2b.8>b 8: D-:M: 81S4 C.-G8>b
7:>8q D-:=4 .G
<6
a D-:M ;7:>8B

9181-:b
94:9:b4>K1/=1S 2.348
9
01 8;
01?.-K=1>846 3. >81-1=;
2.3:c4. 18
? 01?.-K=1>846
B19-.>8=1>84 781 4
D-:M:6 h `
;/:2bJ8>b

w -;7.9
=4b5 10.-: 4b >?1/48>b 9 01>2./1?:8.2q=<5 4N18104b5 4 0-492.4?:B
` 5< 4N5.=45 >2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 ` ,;>8q N:58q
` -;D454 >21?:546 1C ./4=.=4. 91=;>1? l
l4>K1/=1S 8-4:=D;2b 446> 1>=1?:B ?.- 4B
?
=:54 ?
=4b54 9181-<K .=8-:K
\
B5.-=<K
>2;3:8
5
>4502.9>1?
N?GN/<

E?1a 84K
?81-15 C:-4 .=8-47.>945 01/-:N/.B

2.=44F
:5.=45 .=8-1? B5.-=<K
=: 6 ?<-.N:?
D-:=.S
>4502.9>1?6 =. 2.3:c4K
4 ?92.4? ?5.>81 =.D1 N:5<9:=4.
? `

>
F ` 81 >=1?: C;/.8∩ 10.-: 4b 81D1 3. >:51D1 ?4/: ` .SB

? ?0 ?
\E ∩

>8?48.2q=16 0;>8q =.9181-<S B5.-=<S >4502.9> 45..8 B5.-=<K
? 5
D-:=.S6
D-:=4 =. 2.3:c4K ? ` w 1D/: /2b a 81D1 >4502.9>: ?92.4?:.8>b

?.-: B19-.>8=1>84
4=< ` 4 D-:M:6 >1>81bc.D1 4N -GC.-6 ?<K1/bc4K 4N
>
1/=1S.0.-q
>1?0:/:J8 ?=;8-4 4 H

w

H5<E51D24 ∩
> F
∪ E \
=:-;?
>0
48q>?bN=:b

=.1CK1/451. F ` 16
?0
> >/?4D:b
>?1S>8?1 01 ?1-18=49;
H ` 81 =;3=1 4>B
∩
> 6
>0
>
?0
0-:?48q
D-:=4 . ` :3/:b
5=1D11C-:N4b
9

91501=.=8:
6 24C1 =. 0.-.>.9:.8>b

∩
24C1 .24915 2.348 =:
>
> =45 ` >24 9:9:bB81

> ?

91501=.=8:
4N5.=45

N: .02.=4b 2.348 =: D-:=4 . 5=1D11C-:N4b 6 81 5<
6 01>-./>8?15 4N1810446 >/?4D:b =:N:/ 01 ?1-18=49;

/1 8.K8401-6 019: =. >1?0:/G8 > ` .SM.-8: 4 9:3/<S -:N

>0 >0
0-.1C-:N1?:=4b 01?.-K=1>8.S
>0
;5.=q
>M.-;

:J8 74>21 1C2:>8.S6=: 9181-<. 01?.-K=1>84 4 -:NC4?:J8
,1 a 815; 5< 513.5 /1C48q>b6 781C< 4 =. -:NC4?:24
> ?
`
> ?
6 8 `. `>1?0:/:24 `
> ?
>8:G8>b /19:N:8q6 781 ?>.D/: 513=1 ?<C-:8q 5=1D11C-:N4.

8:96 781C< 1=1 2.3:21

18=1>48.2q=1 2b 01 1/=;
81D1 >81-1=; 9:9C.>91=.7=<5
?1>012qN;.5>b 18=1>48.2q=149247.>945
6 8:9 4
` a 6 01>8-1.==<5 ? ` ` ` ,-1>8-:=>8?1
>
=:9-<84.5
513=1 >8-148qR #
\
? 5
A9:9→>0151cqJ 01?.-K=1>84 §
6 8:9 4 > 0151cqJ A01B

?.-K=1>84 ` ,1 a 815; ? .>8q /?: 4N>.5.S>8?: 01?.-K=1>8.S

∞ ∞
>
4>92.4?:.8>b

!?
?
A
9-:b 8-GK5.-=<K 5=1D11C-:N4S6 9181-<K /?;5b
E A F ` :> 4=8.-.>;.8 >2;7:S6 91D/: 4 0.-.>.9:J8>b
∞
>01>1C:54

!>
=.>45:2q=1.
812q91 01.21.
` >=1?=:b 4/.b >1>8148 ? 8156 781C< -:>>518-.8q 5:9B

74>21 6 /2b 9181-1D1 ∩ 6H ∅ E-4> ` ` F ` 81C<

∞

!? !
>
> ?

4> ` ` ` k<C1- 5=1D11C-:N4b

81 513=1
a>8?1 C<21 >/.2:8q6 C;/.5 >748:8q6 781 4N ?<-.N:=1 =. 5=13.B
6 : .D1 189-<8:b B19-.>8=1>8q6 8:9 781 ? -.N;2q8:8. 5< 012;B

7:.5 9150:98=1.01 0-1>8-:=>8?1
5=13.>8?:546 815; 8-.C;.51.` w.0.-q

74>21 5</.S>8?48.2q=1
45..5 /.21 > 9150:98=<54
>;c.>8?;.8 `
,1?.-K=1>8q a
-:N-.N:.8 =: /?. 7:>84 0;>8q l 8:813.
4N =4K6-:NB?

9181-1S 2.3:8 01?.-K=1>84

!?
h
Au 0-4 O I ` ,1?.-K=1>8q
!
-.N:.8 0;>8q ?4/.8q6
l 8: 7:>8q6 ? 9181-1S 2.3:8 F01?.-K=1>84
!?∞ >
0-4 O AI ` h .8-;/=1 781 0-1.9

4b 8-.C;.51. u
5=1B
!
>
D11C-:N4. `
∞

E ∩ l
#

=4K?. 513=1
4N/;Jc4K
5 9?:/-:8=<.
/?;K 8401? R
5:8-44N /-;D1S
012;748q < =:N<?:J8
>
0151cqJ p =.>912q94K
Y [ ^\ \ V10.-:
Y 6 .>244S1/=;
' # #
>2.B
(
$

F 7→ 6 D/. l .2174>2.==:b 5:8-4 : > 10-./.248.2.5 ± `

F ←→ II II II 424 ←→ I II III 6 D/. l >812C. 6 l

   

>8-19: `
(

(

Y UTU ^ UWY^\ YW U [\\ UTU Z[ ^m ^\Y_

^ n ^ V [p YWY[ ^\ ^ \X^W [ U n\ UTU
#
: +"
2
$
# ( 2
$
' # # (
! (
$,
Up [Z[ 012;745
M.-8: ^ U0-.1C-:N1?:=4.
>24 ? E h ZF N:5.=48q
F ,1 C:N4>681
815; /2b 5:8-4
>1D2:>=1 8.1-.5.< .SB
E ` > a5:8-4 .S .SM.-8: 0-4 0-4B ``
( ) &( # >
,
1>8:G8>b
92.4?:=44 01>518-.8q6
-;794 781 0-14>K1/48
` 13=1 >748:8q64 781 60-44N1C-:3G==<.

a 815 9 C:N4>;=: ?-4> È `h ZIF`

/1C:?2bJ8>b

1C-:N;Jc4.

>24 6 6 81 E F H I ` ,1N:C184? 4>q 1 ?<C1-. 1-4.=8: 4S 6

>
6
?
>

± ? 8
6 6
4> ` ` I ` 1012=48.2q=<. 1C-:N;Jc4.

5
9-4?<K F H4 6 24C16 513=1 >748:8q6F 781

> ?
H 24C1 E F H I FkH0.-B
4 I4
> 8 ?
`

E6 6
6
− > 8 ?
E
6

E I

6

> 8 ?
6

6
− > 8 ?
6 6
6
?15 >2;7:. =1?:b 5:8-4 : .SM.-8: 45..8 ?4/  ∗I ∗I I` ,-.1C-:B

N1?:=4b54 840: E F a 8: 5:8-4 : 0-4?1/48>b 9 ?4/; II II II ` =:B

 

21D47=1 ?1 ?81-15 >2;7:. 5:8-4 : 0-4?1/48>b 9 ?4/; I II III`

 

H
k?./G5 M1-5:2q=;JU 0.-.5.==;J 6 /2bU V9181-1S E UF H > ? > ? ?
6 F 4 10-./.245 m
>2./;Jc45 UV
Y\ 1C-:N15 p
^ [\n^W[
F H\ eW [ YZ[ YY \ ^_F6

2

E ∈lZ5:8-4 : .SM.-8: N: .02.=4b R ` >24E l E5:8-4−: 01-b/9:

& # #
> ? > ? > ? > ?
D/.
8

−

−
O6=: 81./4=4

F H u e F6 01 a 815; > 817=1>8qJ /1 ;5=13.=4b

−

E ; 912q : Z E − 0124=15 2.9>:=/.-: ? =1-5:24N: 44

?

> ? > ?

1=?.b >1?0:/:.8 > 0124=1515 2.9>:=/.-: `

− 8

9
[\n^W[ \ UW V

[ YZ[_ YYUWY^\U\ YW^_U U[\\W^nÛTU Z[\ U n\^m UZ\[]\
( ^\Y_ U mUU\ Y\\^ UVZ[ Y Y^p # 2 '
&
U UW[ V [ WY ^ X^W [ m
( # "
#
( 2
2
!

(
# 0 # & (
Up [Z[ ^ U ,-.3/. ?>.D1 N:5.8456 781

$
( ) &( #
$ ,
e E − F H e E − F H
> ?
,
> ?

> ? > ?
H Ee F e E − F
− −

? > ? > ?

I
−

,;>8q 8.0.-q H  II II I ` w1D/:

 

I > ? > ? > ?
H − I
> ?
 − > ?
> −
?

> ?
I − I
− −
− > ?
5=13:b 01>2./=JJ >8-19; -.N;2q8:8

a 81S 5:8-49 <1>8:2q=<5
=: 01/K1/bc4. a2.5.=8<
−

912q
;=4781348q : 4
>812C.
0-4C:?2bb
− 8
>
=:21D47=1 ;=47813:.8>b >8-19:56

>8-19: 513=1
` `

Z > ? > ?
,1 a 815;

−
−
e E − F H e E − Fe I I H

> ?
−
> ?

> ?
−
> ?
> ?
> ?
H e E − F −
−

> ? > ?
8
01>912q9; e I I H ` 2b 0-.1C-:N1?:=4b 840: E F /19:B

−

> ?
> ? 5
N:8.2q>8?1 :=:21D47=1 −
`
−
24=15:N /19:N:8.2q>8?:

2.9>:=/.-: ? 8.1-.5<
=1-5:24N:` 44` ?<8.9:J81=?.b R >2./;Jc4. >?1S>8?: 01B
9
F >24 l ;N.2681
E F ∈ Z 6
E F H 4
E F H
E F `
>
8
>
F 91501=.=86
>24 l N:81.02.=4.6 >1>81bc.. 01 9-:S=.S 5.-. 4N /?;K >?bN=<K
− −

F H I`

E
I
T VV pU U o U

; &( ) * Y 4 UWY^\
p UV VYW UUTU[\\ ^p Z[ ^m ^\Y_UV
nY[
nY ^ppW[^ [\n^W[ W [p p [mp[n[Up [Z[\ U n\[o WYW ^ [ UT nYn[ Y [ [U Y\ UV
( # 2 *
$
U
−
W ^\
( & # + ( #& + * & * # (
&
&
o \ UW V [ YZ[ YYm U\ ^_ _Z[\ UU \ U ^\Y^V m
&(
$
$
(
$1
*
2
&
, , , @
& (
1

$

H
E − F
E`F
# # &#
> ? > $?
−
− −
4> ` ` ` w-4 N: .02.=4b

Up [Z[ ^ U ,1>8-145 /2b N: .02.=4b 01?.-K=1>8q .SM.-8:

8:96 781C< ? -:>>5:8-4?:.515 /4>9. 1=: C<2: ;>8-1.=: 8:96 9:9
( ) &( #
,

019:N:=1 =: -4> ` ` ` ,-492.4?:b 9 0.-.9-;7.==;J 0121>9;6 513=1

4> ` ` ` w-4 01?.-K=1>84 .SM.-8:

012;748q
7.>8?. 01?.-K=1>84
C:N4>: .SM.-8: 4 /2b N: .02.=4S 4 ` k 9:B
F ?<C.-.5 92:>> N:59=;81S 9-4?1S 6 0-1K1/bc.S

E /1C:?2.= C:N4> E F ` >24 l 5:8-4 : .SB

01 0121>9.69 9181-15;
− −
> >
± 6
>
M.-8: /2b 6 81 5:8-4 < .SM.-8: /2b 4 45.J8 ?4/

−

4 − 6 D/. l =.9181-1. .21. 74>21 ` :>>5:8-4?:b 8.0.-q

10-./.248.24 5:8-4 − /2b 8-GK 5:8-4 .SM.-8:6 01B

> ? > ?

2;7:.5 8-.C;.51. ` ,-4 a 815 =;3=1 24 q ;7.>8q6 781 e H

−

H
H e 6 D/. =. N:?4>48 18 `

0124=15 118=12.9>:=/.-:
7 .=4. E ` F??5.>8.
> ;>21?4.56
=1-5:24N: 44 1=?.b781-:?.=
/2b 8-4?4:2q=1D1
6 01N?12b.8 ;N2:
?<74B
>248q
, F
` ,1F6/2ba 815;
2JC1D1 1-4.=84-1?:==1D1 N: .02.=4b 01/-1C=1>84,124B >5 `
9
?=15
0124=15 18 0.-.5.==1S H E `

∇ E

/2b 9181-1D1l ∇ E − F H
E F6 D/.
−l 0124=15 > ? > ?
−
> ?

> ?
2.9>:=/.-:
24=15

1=?.b? ;/1?2.8?1-b.8
=1-5:24N: 44 >118=1 1=?.b6=:N<?:J8
.=4J m U Y\ UVUV U\ ^_` ,1B

9
−

#
9
F FH F
∇ E − ∇ E ∇ E E`F
UppU[ Y ^ ] U ^ p Y Z[ ^m ^\Y^ W[ U U ^\ U U U ^
−

UW U \ U

E
m U Y \^ m ^W^
( *
^ [ ^ U Z[(
^ m m U ∇m E F H
^\Y^ & 2 & "
HI
&(
,
$
( & &( * & += ! ( 2 * (
:04 .5 0124=15 1=?.b ? ?4/. ∇ E F H E F E F E F

9

>

? ?

p [ Y ^ ] U Eo F H I]YmWYU pUV U\^\ eZ[ F^m ^\Y_ W[ \ U E F U

; &( )
( * (

≡ E
mF
E
&

(

2
,
#
,
'

Up

[ UpU[ Y ^ ] U ^ Y oUZ^ U E UF H U U
B ( * & 4 * (
pUV m U\^\ [ Y U^ ] E F H^ IY Z[ ^m ^\Y^ n^W [ ^^ ^^ n\

(
,
"B ( * ( & 4 2 * & = " !
*
( (
$ ,
p [ Y ^ ] U Eo F H I]YmWYU pUV mEUF\^\− Z[ ^m ^\Y_ W[ \ U E F U

; &( )
( * (

&

(

,
2 #
,
'

pUV

U Up [ Y ^ ] UU ^ YF H Z[ ^m ^\Y^ F U U_ ^^ W U \ U
YZ n o m \^\ Y ( * ( & 4 2 * & &( = #
#
1
( >
E E ?* ( > >8 ?
,
W^n U U Y V ] U Y
m [ Y ^ ] U UT n[Z[ ^mE^
o Z [

U
* & &( = U
\Y^F _F H^^ YZ Fm \^\ Y

;
pUV U

Up *
(
(
>

? −
4 *
$
( * (
4
(
2 '
?
− E E
? ,
> 8 ?
− ,

!"!! + * +' *)* ' * ' %' * '*

?:24 ,-4C.>91=.7=1.
01>8-1.=44 49247.>91. 0124=15: =:9-<84. 2.9>:=/.-: N: .02.=4b
5< 4>012qN1B
` N a 81S 91=B

>8-;9 44 >-:N; =. ?4/=16

781 D15121D44 A → \ A 012=1>8qJ
0-1>8-:=>8?:
10-./.2bJ8>b D-;001S H 8.1-.5;

E \ F1` 8156 E 2b 781 ;N21?/1012=.=4.
a 81 513=1;N2:01=b8q6
∞

0-45.=4? /1?12q=1 8-;/=;J b?2bB

∞
> 5
.8>b
012=1>8qJ 0-1>8-:=>8?15
10-./.2b.8>b 840: F6 : 01815;
E `F 19> 6 6 - 0-./21342
D-;001S 8 .D1 D15181047.>94S 840
;/1C=<S >01>1C ?<74>2.=4b 0124=15: 2.9>:=/.-: =.01>-./>8?.==1 01
9
>04>9; 1C-:N;Jc4K 4 >118=1 .=4S D-;00< 6 0-47G5 > 0151cqJ 91=B

>8-;9 18 4481D16
>48.=4b54 19>:
9:91. =.>213=1
45.==1 /19:N:8q6
N:/:=4. 781 0124=151C-:N;Jc454
D-;00<

2.9>:=/.-:4 =.>118=1B N:?4B

=:N<?:J8 ?<C-:=1
U U `n\ V818nYXX^W^\ 01/K1/ 9 ?<74>2.=4J V 0124=15:
V6 424 2.9>:=/.-:
Y[ \ Y ]Y ^\Y^ Y ]Y ^\Y

^V >74>2.=4.
Up [` &# " 2 ) & & & & '
$ $
.>8q
&
B5.-=<S j 19>: 1>=1?:=1

B91502.9> j > =:1/=1S>2./;Jc4K
IB5.-=1S >11C-:3.=4bK
92.891S6 0-47G5` ,;>8q
M:9B
81- D-;00<
?:j D-;00:

> O H E j
1C-:N;Jc454

F 01 9155;8:=8;
1D/: H
;=4?.->:2q=1. >?1C1/=:b
l :C.2.?1 =:9-<84. :C.2.B
8
` w
> 0
>bD-;00<
7.-.N j 6 B5.-=<.
>118?.8>8?;Jc.. 92.894 01/D-;00.
6 6 ⊂ a
6 MM.984?=11C-:N;Jc45
>118?.8>8?;Jc4. ?<-:3:.8B
```6 ``` 6 OE >118?.8>8?;Jc4. >118=1 .B
0
→
F
4
=4b5 5.3/; 1C-:N;Jc454F `
B5.-=<.
92.894 O H
>
E >
H

-4> ,1b>=45:a0.-.9-G>89:K81 =: 91=9-.8=15 5< 0-45.-.>2./;Jc4.

45..5 N: .02.=4b6>118=1 4N1C-:3G==1D1
.=4b F =:H
` ` `

HN;Jc4. 6 E6 F4 H?<-:3:J8>b 6 E F 7.-.NH 46 E F> 0151cqJ H 6>118=1 E" F H .=4S R È C-:B

> > > > >
F6 E F

− −
E
−
H H H− H H H−
41/=1E F `4,1/>8:?2bb 84 ?<-:3.=4b ? F 4 " F6 012;7:.5 ? 1C14K >2;7:bK

a
81 3. >118=1 .=4. H E 6 8E`. `

H
H` > > > >
:>>518-45 B5.-=<S 91502.9> j > 1/=1S IB5.-=1S 92.891S 6/?;B

− − − −
H H H H H H H H
5b>8?;Jc.S

B5.-=<54 >118=1 92.89:54

.=4J 4 4 1/=1S B5.-=1S 92.891S

H -4> ` 01/=b84b O6 >118?.8B
` F ` ,;>8q0.8.2ql

6 181C-:3:Jc:b>b ? 6 4E
H > > > >
=.9181-:b
4 > 8179:
=:7:215 ? j
185.7.==1S 8179.
− − − −
H H
6
H
O
H
l 92.894 O6 9181B
01/=b84.

! !

!
H
-1.-4>=:74=:.8>b

? 8179. 1C-:N;Jc4. 4 >118?.8>8?;.8 l
! !
1CK1/;
H
> > > >
` ` " F ` ,;>8q 4 D-;00< :?8151-M4N51? =:9-<B=:

! − − − −
E j → j 6 >118?.8>8?;Jc4.
84b

>
l 5:2.=q945 19-;3=1>8b56

?
=:/.8<5
H H H H
91501=.=8<
>8?;J8 4 N:6 =1.02.=4b
? 1Cc.S E?>48;:
-:>>5:8-4?:.51S
44 1=4 >48;: 44 =.9181-<5
>118?.8>8?;J8 4 >118?.8B 2.B
` :9 51/;24 a=:/
> ?

5.=8:5 D-;00< H

F ` ,;>8q6 /:2..6 H Z
8

±

> 8 ±

>
? 9
>

4> ` ` ` 4:D-:55: N: .02.=4b

5
4> ` ` ` 1502.9> j
9
6 D-;00< IB5.-=<K6
51/;2b54 6 B5.-=<K
4 4 B5.-=<K .0.S b?2bJ8>b >?1C1/=<54
O 6 01>912q9; ?>. 92.894 j 012;7:J8>b 4N

92.819 6 6 4 jO /.S>8?4.5

:?8151-M4N51? ` ,1a 815;6 781C< 6 ?<74B4
! ! 8 ! !
H
>248q D15121D44

! ! !
H
9:9
!
B51/;2q6 /1>8:817=1 ?<74>248q
O EN/.>q >=16l781D-:=4 H: B5.-=1SF 6 92.8946 : Fl 6 D-:=4 : B5.-=1S
> ! > !
H
92.894F
? !
`
>
=b84. 0;846 0-./>8:?2bJc.D1

E −>21?1 E − H : O 81 01/B
l a ?4/.8q6
?
` .D91
> ! > ! > ! ? ! ? !
H > > > >
− − − −
H H H H

4> ` ` " ` 1502.9> j

9
781
OH
? !
? ?
H
H E− F E F E − F E F
?!
! > ? ! > ?! > ? ! > ?! > ! !
H H −
− H − − H
? > ? ! > > ? !
w:945F 1C-:N156F C:N4>15 9:9 B51/;2b >2;348 a 2.5.=8 H

H
E 64 0-4 a
>
815 O H E F ` 2./1?:8.2q=16 EEj− F H

H E F 6 8 `. ` 5=1D172.= 2.9>:=/.-: /:==1D1 N: .02.=4b -:?.=

? !
H

> !
−
? !

> ? 7 >
` =:4C12.. 8-;/=;J 7:>8q 84K ?<74>2.=4S >1>8:?2bJ8 ? ?

1=.7=16 a
> ?

74>2.=4b
9
O ` 84 ?<74>2.=4b
0-14N?1/b8>b ? 1Cc.5 >2;7:. `
? ! =;3=1 M1-5:24N1?:8q 4 01=b8q6 9:9 1=4
r>21?: :7=G5
j F > 81D16j F 781D15151-M4N5
>/.2:.5 /?: N:5.7:=4b
;-.?47:6 6 ` 4 ,;>8q
R E? :2M:?48.

> 8
→ E l } 6 9181-<. 5< -:>>5:8-4?:.5 9:9 0.824l
>
> >
> ?
?=:7:215
j > =:7:2151D/:4 91= 15 6 : 6 4 l 01/=b84b a 84K 0.8.2q >
{ H± 8 ±
` w 0.824
!> !? !
F 01/=b84.5
!
R > =:7:215 b?2b.8>b 0;8q r E F
-4>
` `
E F 01/=b84.5
F > ?
h 0.824 > =:7:215 b?2b.8>b 0;8q r F

! !>

> !?
` F ` M1-5;2< 45.J8 5.>81 4 ? 1Cc.5 >2;7:. − E

>
E-4> `=:21D47=<.
− ! !
` :2D.C-<6

81C< 0.-.?.>84 a 84 D.15.8-47.>94. M1-5;2< =: bN<9

=:5
D-;00:501=:/1C48>b >2./;Jc:b 91=>8-;9 4b6 18=1>bc:b>b 9 >?1C1/=<5

`

"
4> ` ` ` ,1/=b84. 0;84

> ?
4> ` ` ` ,1/=b84. 0;84 −

>
,;>8q
U?4/:U pU
U l >?1C1/=:b
D-;00< D-;00:
=:/ 912q > 151C-:N;Jc454
>1>8148 4N 691=.7=<K
``` 6 ` >;55W om
^
> '
m P 6 D/. ∈ 4 ∈ Z ` 213.=4.Z ? D-;001?15 912q . 01911-B

#
)2

H H
/4=:8=1.691 :MM4;5=13.=4.
0-47G5
G
4.=8< N:/:G8>b
0-4 1/=15 M1-5;21S
4 815

3. E
2.5.=8.

F EP>;554-;J8>b
G
s rF H P s 81r6
7
a912q 1 5< C;/.5 1C1N=:7:8q a ` `

P
G G
D-;001?1.
2b 9:3/1D1 6 6

>;c.>8?;.8

Z ./4=>8?.==1. 181C-:3.=4.

6 1C2:/:Jc.. >2./;Jc454 >?1S>8?:54 R

5
R
6 6

→Z
F H h

F f g H `

81C-:3.=4. N:/:=1 =: 1C-:N;Jc4K D-;00< 4 =: 0-14N?./.=4bK

2JC<K

a 2.5.=81?
1818 >;c.>8?1?:=4.
81S D-;00<6 01 815; .D1 ./4=>8?.==1>8q 17.?4/=:
a 181C-:3.=4b a =. 17.?4/=1 0-./>8:?2bb 1/4= 4`

3. a 2.5.=8 ? ?4/. 0-14N?./.=4b R
-:N=<54 >01>1C:546 5<6
?11Cc.

D1?1-b6 51D24 C< 012;748q /2b =.D1 -:N=<. -.N;2q8:8< ` 81C< /19:B

N:8q >;c.>8?1?:=4. 181C-:3.=4b 6 5< 10-./.245 .D1 =: 012;D-;00.

>21? ? :2M:?48.
D/. .21. 74>21 6 ```>21?:
6 E9:3/1.4 >21?1>748:J8>b >1>8148 4N 9?4?:2.=8=<54
>21D1? ?4/: 6 F
a .>8q 8:9Bh
>
>21?: G l
F
4 h 813. >748:J8>b a 9?4?:2.=8=<54
H
F
H
>

H
?
h=.>912q91
> ?
H
3.0-1c.6
0;>81.01815;
>
>21?167819181-1.
H H
?
1C1N=:7:.8>b
/2b =4K >2./>8?4b
>
F
H
` 2b
?
>21? N:/:7:
=.8 >19-:c.=4S ` 1 >=:7:2: ?<?./.5 4N 5
;>21?4S E F 4 E F =.9181-<.
`

U W[ ^\Y^ U [n[^ ^no YV Y U [V Y " & += &# ! &( #
[ H I f g H −
( " (
> C >
B 3 "B − −
Up [Z[ ^ U :F >=16 781 H f g H · H `

,
> > >
,1 a 815; H I `
( ) &( # ·
> ,
CF N :F 012;7:.56 781 I H f g H 6 01 a 815; f g H

C C
C
H − `
− −
−
>
−
2b 9:3/1D1 ∈ 4 .21D1 74>2: 10-./.245 a2.5.=8

>2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 R
5
> G
−>
I 0-4 H I h
− ∈Z
− H 0-4 I h
F

 ? F > G

F 0-4 I

F F > − >
−E
G
− 
 − −
H
G
>

. −>
Up [Z[ ^ U ,-45.=45 4=/;9 4J 01 | | ` ,-4 H I6 6 − 012;7:B

− ,
.54N -:?.=>8?: H I6 H 4 g H − ` ,.-?1. 4 01>2./=..

f
( ) &( #
> , C G > G
a 84K -:?.=>8?4=/;9 /19:N:=< ? 2.55. ` ,-4 > 6 ?1>012qN1?:? 4>q

− −

0-./01213.=4.5 446 012;7:.5

G

H HX H −
F > F F F >
F F

I>

,-4 6 − 012;7:.5
H H H H H − H

G
H H −X − H −
F > F > > F >
− F − F F >
−
IF
−
H H
H H H − H
,;>8q l 012;D-;00:
181C-:3.=4.6 >21? >21?;
>101>8:?2bJc.. ? :2M:?48. 6 ``` 6 6 2.5.=8
>118?.8>8?;Jc4S R →>?1B

a
> #
lC1/=1S D-;00< ` 0-./.245 181C-:3.=4. R → Z 4=/;9 4.S 01

H H
74>2; >21D1? ? >21?. > 0151cqJ >2./;Jc4K >118=1 .=4S R

•
H I6 D/. l 0;>81. >21?1 h

•
H h

F
H
>
−>
−

E FH F
H
/2b 0-14N?12q=1D1 >21?: `

F
H H
F
84 >118=1 .=4b 1/=1N=:7=1 10-./.2bJ8 181C-:3.=4. 6 0-47G5 a 81

•
181C-:3.=4.

>19-:c.=4S 10-./.2.=1

,19:3.56781 91--.98=16
181C-:3.=4. 01>912q9; ? 012;D-;00.
4=/; 4-;.8 ? 8-.C;.51.
=.8

181C-:3.=4. ``

n o U ∈ YV ^^ V ^ U W[ ^\ U

_

+" # & #
8
( &( # &( #
F H
E F E`F
$1 1
E #
,-45.=45 -:?.=>8?1
4=/;9 4J 17.?4/=1
01 74>2; >21D1?,1 a 815;> >21?. >24 >21?1781 0;>81.6

C;/.5 `>748:8q6

81 8-.C;.51. H 6

`

F
D/. l R
/2b 45..5 =.0;>81.
F
H
>21?1 `w 1D/: >1D2:>=1 10-./.2bJc45 >118=1 .=4b
H

F H F H F

E E E
F F F
,1 a 815; 01 0-./01213.=4J 4=/;9 44 H H H

F H
E E F H E F
F F F
# #
H H
H

U p U UU U

\UVW[o Y\ UV oY n^ [ ^V ^\[ o TWYomm[ ^\ \ U Y^ U \YW[Z mWY^ U U W[o ^\YYn

. & # & # # # ( * ( & ( # ( &( # + ( '
$ , ,
( ( * ( " ( "
$ 1 $
#
w-.C;.8>b 0-1?.-48q -:?.=>8?:

$,

E F H E F 8
F H E F
H
k1>012qN;.5>b

E
8:9 R /2b a 81D1 -:?.=>8?15 E ` F ` ,.-?1. -:?.=>8?1 /19:Nb
E F HH E F FE H F H F
#

H
H H
81C< /19:N:8q ?81-1. -:?.=>8?16 N:5.8456 E 781E

#

− H

− H − H H 8
H
H − H − H −

: N=:7486 E F H E F ` ,1a 815;

E F HH E FF E F F H F H

H
H H
#

H
H H
H E E F E E # #

H H H H
8
781 4 8-.C1?:21>q ` H H

>8?15 w.0.-q 5<F H513.5 10-./.248q 181C-:3.=4. R → Z -:?.=B

/2b 2JC1D1 >21?: :D /19:N<?:.8 91-B

-.98=1>8q aE81D1 10-./.2.=4b ` .01>-./>8?.==1 ∈ ` 4N 10-./.2.=4b ?4/B

#

=16 781 H ` ,1a 815; =;3=1 24 q 0-1?.-48q -:?.=>8?1 f g H

H ,;>8q H F 4 H EF /2b =.9181-<K >21? ∈ `

w1D/: ` E
H
8
#

#

E F H E F H E F H

#

H H

H H

;c.>8?1?:=4. 181C-:3.=4b /19:N:=1 `

H H
7
,.-.S/G544 9,;>8q
91=>8-;9 D.15.8-47.>945
D-;00: H 0-4213.=4b5 a 81S :2D.C-:47.>91S6
F N:/:=: 1C-:N;Jc454

6 4 >118=1
```54=45:2q=:b `
.=4b54 O 6 ``` E6 O \6 8 `. ` H 6 D/. l >
H
>
6
H
O
>
2b =1-5:2q=:b
2JC1D1 01/D-;00: ? 6 >1/.-3:c:b
D15151-M4N5:

513=1 >21?: O 6
>
-:>>518-.8q

>

``` ` 4J
> >
R →

91501N4 4 01>8-148q B24=.S=1. 181C-:3.=4.

5
%
R Z → Z ` →:> C;/;8 4=8.-.>1?:8q /?:

Z >2;7:b6 >118?.8>8?;JB
>
−
→ %
c4. 0124=15; 2.9>:=/.-: 18 5=1D4K 0.-.5.==<K 4 18 1/=1S D15151-B

0.-.5.=B
>
%
=1S ` 2b 0124=15: 2.9>:=/.-: 18 5=1D4K 0.-.5.==<K

l
M4N5 ;-.?47:H4 6 :H >101>8:?2b.8
H Zu ` 2b0.82. 0124=15: 2.9>:=/.-: 18.02.=4b
1/=1S
5
0.-.5.==1S .G
8
91 a MM4 4.=8 N:
5
∼ %

> ,̀;>8q H Z 6 8 . ? 4=8.-.>;Jc4K =:> >2;7:bK H
%

424 H Z Z ` :>>518-45 `` .0=1S 91502.9>

8 − > %

Z
u ±
> 8

>

>
8 ±

I

D >
C 8
D/. 45..8 C:N4> O 6 ``` 6 O 6 45..8 C:N4> 6 ``` 6 6 181B

−→ −→ →
>
>
> >
C-:3.=4. 0-./>8:?2.=1 5:8-4 .S u

? 6 : 181C-:3.=4.
>
6 6
H H
> 0-./>8:?2.=1 5:8-4 .S k E F − k ` w1D/: D15121D44 a 81D1

H
>
6 6

>
>
6 6

>

=:/.0=1D1

`
91502.9>: l a 81 D15121D44 =:9-<84b =:/ \ 9:9 51/;2q
:4C12q 4S 1Cc4S /.248.2q 54=1-1? 01-b/9: 5:8-4 <

=. N:?4>48 18 N:/:=4b D-;00< 1C-:N;Jc454 4

u
>
6 6
>118=17;8q.=4b546 ::N:?4>48 812q91 18 >:51S845 D-;00< 81 5< /19:B

` 019:3.56

>
>
6 6
3.5
.>24

H
01N3.6 019: 4 ?1>012qN;.5>b
O 6 81 818 a =:4C12qM:9815
4S 4
1Cc4S 781
/.248.2q

-:?.= 0124=15;
Z
±

> 8
>
2.9>:=/.-:
>
8 ±

a
u >` ,1 10-./.2.=4J 0124=15 2.9>:=/.-: -:B
?.= =:4C12q181C-:3.=4b
.5; 1Cc.5; /.248.2J 54=1-1? 01-b/9: 5:8-46 : <C:N4>:
81D1

3. >:51D1
6 =1 18=1>48.2q=1 =. C:N4>:

>

H ` ,121345 /2b 9-:891>84 u H 4 E F − H ` k

?

9:7.>8?.
6 C:N4>: 513=1 ?Nb8q 6 − 6
>
∼ H

```18=1>48.2q=1 ` w 1D/:
>
a 2.5.=8< −5:8-4 < 181C-:3.=4b
> >
H
>
H
> > ?
H
?
H
>
a 81D1 C:N4>: =:K1/b8>b 4N >118=1 .=4S

> > ?
H − H
>
>> > > >

H H
>
H E − F >>
E − F

>
H
> >
H
>

>

>
H H
> 8
> > > >

H E − F
>
E − F> > > > > >
N a 84K781>118=1 .=4S 012;7:.5 H >8-19; 0-4 >6H=15.-15` 81 1N=:B

H H H H H H
7:.86 .>24 ? 5:8-4 . ?<7.-9=;8q 6 81

>

012;745 5:8-4 ; 6 ;5=13.==;J =: =:21D47=1 /19:N<?:.8B

` > =15.-15 6 81 012;B

k k
>b6 781 .>24 ? 5:8-4 . ?<7.-9=;8q >8-19;

>
k k
745 5:8-4 ; 181C-:3.=4b 18=1>48.2q=1 =.9181-1D1 /-;D1D1 C:N4>:

` ,1Ea 815; =:4C12q 4S 1Cc4S /.248.2q 54=1B

k k G
-1?
> F6 ;5=13.==;J

01-b/9:54=1-1?5:8-401-b/9: =:
< k k -:?.= 0-14N?./.=4J
F
?
=:4C12q4S.D11Cc4S 1Cc.D1
/.248.2b 5:8-4 < =: =:4C12q /.B6

248.2q 6 ``` 6 6 8 `. ` =: =:4C12q 4Sk 1Cc4S k
/.248.2q

F
E E − =:4B
F

```C12q6 E4SE 1Cc4SF − /.248.2q

F ` 1 ?-:?.= -:>>5:8-4?:.51S >48;: 44 01>2./=4S
>
> >
H
1C-:N;Jc4. 8:96 781 E F H ` ` .S>8?48.2q=16 5< 513.5 ?<C-:8q

>
H
5
19:N:8.2q>8?1 81D16 781 =:4C12q 4S 1Cc4S /.248.2q 54=1-1? 01B

F
H
5
-b/9: 5:8-4 48 18 N:/:=4b D-;00<
>
6 6

1C-:N;Jc454 4 >118=1 1C-:N;Jc4K

.=4b546 1>=1?:=1 =: 8.1-.5. w48 .6 104><?:B

>
>
6 6
Jc.S
4N151-M4N5:5 0-.1C-:N1?:=4b
4 >118=1 .=4S6 >118?.8>8?;Jc4.
>118=1 .=4S D-;00 2./;Jc4. D-;00<

/:J8 `4N151-M=<. /?: 0-.1C-:N1?:=4b 1C-:N;Jc4K 4
6D/.
7
=.9181-1. ` >118=1 .=4.6?<8.9:Jc..

`

h R i ←→ h R ∪ i
4N >118=1

.=4S 6 8 `. ` 2.3:c..l? =1-5:2q=1S 01/D-;00.6 01-13/G==1S

I
>21?:54 `
6 D/. 6 : 1C:?2.=4.

0-14N?12q=<S a 2.B
5.=8 ` >?1C1/=1S

h ∪ R i ←→ h R ∪

D-;00<
> 1C-:N;Jc454 −
`
>
l >118=1 .=4b
H
84`F /?: 0-.1C-:N1?:=4b =:N<?:J8 U U V
i 6∈
E 5

m W^ W[Z [\Y_ Y Y ^` 2
[ UW U W[Z
"
Y YU UUpU \ UUT n[^\Y pUTh n[R iU Y

#
@

h R i Z[n[ YZ

UVU WX\ ^

TW o
UT n["
Y " += & ( !
U n\ UTU YZ \Y VU \ U m ^W^ Y ommp nW o TUV o m U W^n UV mWÛ W[Z U [\Y

$ 1
+( ( ( ) ( * (
$ $
Y^
!( & &( # " # !
1
2
@
Up [Z[ ^ U :5 01=:/1C48>b >2./;Jc.. ?>0151D:8.2q=1. ;8?.-B
3/.=4.
,
`
( ) &( #
,
oF

; &( ) YF W^\^mW[^W^p Y_^p [ U YÛ n\_ V \ TUW ^ [ UUW[ZW[Z o YYV Y += += *
R E ∪ → E F H n _ ^ F omm n[ ^^ Uo W[Z
4 & & &( # "
1

∪ Y UU U ^ E
4 ( 2 &# " & " +=
∈ E oUT n[ _nW U pUV m UZY o YY

6 $1
T

Y^ Y \ ^\Y_ h R i Z[n[ W
A( #& B ; &( ) * * " +'
=
TUVUVUWXYZ VU & (
, , 6

ommo +(
1 ,
%, @
2
F → E F −→
#
E

mW^n [ _^ U UYn[\[YVE^\F o T n^\ UW ∈V [ \ o TW ommo U n^W [ o

∪ − %
Y ^ ^V ^\
&( # ( & " ! ) + ) + * & = +
>
#& ( # − *
Up-.8-:9
[Z[ ^ 4b ` U2./1?:8.2q=16
,;>8q O ∈ ` w1D/: OFOF HH O6 01>912q9; O ∈ HE F 6 401B
$ 6 ,
7 OF H E
l>912q9; l -.8-:9 4b ` =:7486 E E EE F F H` E E F E F F H E F H
( ) &( #
,
6
-15. 81D16 6
>
9
>6
?
6
6
H ` w19:3.5
:945 1C-:N156
6
8.0.-q6 781 `

:>>518-45 9:=1=47.>9;J
6

6
−
6

6
−
.9 4J R E ∪ F → E ∪ F ⊂4 .G ` 1D-:=47.=4. =: E F R 0-1B

⊂ 6
5
6
# #0

E ∪ NFNNN /E F

/ %
r r

rr
E ∪ F yr
NNN
NNN rrrr 0

N' r

>24 F ∈ F 6 81H E FFH F HE F 6H01 E815; F ` >24 F ∈H 6 F81 :945 F 1C-:N156

F H

H-:>>5:8-4?:.5:b
E E
H
# #
6
−
E/4:D-:55:
>
#0 #
a
E 9155;8:84?=:6E8 `. ` E H `
6 H
# −
6
> 0 H

#
` H
w E E
#0
6

#
# #0 −
6
>
H81 E2bEFb?2b.8>b
F2JC1D1 F 815;
45..5 EF E F F H>24 3.E E F F H6 #0 #
5
E F F H ∈ FH
E>

E `
∪
,1 a E 6 01 ∈815; ` F ` k∈ 8:915
#
6> −
>6
#0
6 6 −
>
#0
6
6 6
>2./>8?4.5
>2;7:.E H E F E F ∈ `
−
>
>118=1
#0
.=4S
a E ∈

6 −

6

−
6 6

w.0.-q
-.5< 4 . 513=1 0-4>8;048q
=:7:2: 5< =.01>-./>8?.==1
-:>>518-45 >2;7:S6 9 /19:N:8.2q>8?;
91D/: 5=13.>8?: 8.1B
1C-:N;B
w 4 ` =. 0.-.>.9:J8>b ` :S5G5>b 01>8-1.=4.5 >2./;Jc.S /4:B
Jc4K
D-:55< R
7

iiii

E ∪ F UUUUUU
iiiiii UUUU
EF E F
iii UUUU
iiii UUUU
t iii
i UUU*

h
O
R

io
s
h iR

h ∪ R ∪ E jUFUUUi

6
−
>
h ∪
iii
R ∪ E F >
H 6 H − i
U UUUU iiii
EF EF
U i
iii >
i
R
UUUUU i
UU > iii
− it
h ∪ ∪ ∪ 6 ∪ H 6 H − i
/.>qD-;00;6
=:M4N5 4 N:/:==;J
l -.8-:91C-:N;Jc454
446 4 4l>118=1
0-1.9 .=4b546
44 >?1C1/=1S
r D-;00<
4N151-B
l

6 6
=1-5:2q=1SD-;00 ` 1D2:>=1
01/D-;00.6 2.55. b/-1 D15151-M4N5:
01-13/G==1S ∪ >1/.-348
7 >1/.-348>b ?
F ` /-;D1S >81-1=<6

E
> 6

815; H r 4 F b/-1 D15151-M4N5:
>1/.-348>b ?
=1-5:2q=1S 01/D-;00.6 E

F 6 01B
6
01-13/G==1S
− 7
>
a ∪F ` E =:21D47=1 4>012qN;b 4N151-M4N5 r F 012;7:.56 781

6 6 > ∪ 6 H 6 H −
∪ E E01/D-;00.6 01-13/G==1S ∪ E F ` 81
H >6 H − >
∪ E

01N?12b.8
6
F >1/.-348>b
−
>
? −
>
5<S =:C1- 01>8-148q 8-.C;.5;J

4w . ` /4:D-:55;6 : ?5.>8. > =.S 4 8-.C;.B
−
6 H 6 H −
0-.1C-:N1?:=4S
>24 5=13.>8?:
-.>.9:Jc..>b > 48:96
6 0.-.>.9:J8>b681 ?<C.-.5 5=13.>8?1 6=. 0.B
781C< .D1 2.5.=8< =:K1/424>q ?1 ?N:45=1
a ` 81 ?N:45=1 1/=1N=:7=1.
!
1/=1N=:7=15 >118?.8>8?44 ∪
> a2.5.=8:54

>118?.8>8?4. 10-./.2b.8 4N151-M4N5< 4 ? /4:D-:55. > ?
F
E O GGcGGGGs !
D
s GGGGG# G E F
GG GG
C
swwwwwwwww; w
C D

C
F {ww s
E
ww ww D
,151-M4N5
;>21?4JD-;00>;c.>8?;J8 4 D15151-M4N5< 5 >118?.8>8?;J8r 4 r 6 D15151-M4N5<
4=/; 4-;Jc4. r4N1BH
`
> ?
h R i h R i
H=<.r =:C1-:54
4 r H r >21? ` ,;>8q 6 4 lr=1-5:2q=<. 01/D-;00<601-13/G=B
!>

6 4 ` w 1D/: F H r F H r F 4 r E FD1BH
> > !? ? ? !
H5151-M4N5<
r E F ⊂ ED-;00 F H ` ,1a 815; E
D15151-M4N5<
!
Er 4 r E4=/;⊂ 4-;J8 !> ! > > > !?
4 r r,-44 ra 815r 4=/; r r H4-;J8

r r4N151-M4NB
Hr r 4
! !> !?
h R i h R i `
? ? ?
r5<r D-;00
H r r ` 4 15151-M4N5< ! ! !> !? > >? ? > ?
6 01 815; D15151-M4N5< r 4 r 4=/; 4-;J8

!? !>
i h R i 4a
? ? > > > ? ? >
4N151-M4N5< h R D-;00
!> !?
h R i h R i `

w .1-.5;
/19:N:24 w 4
,-45.=4?. /2b .G=.0.-.>.9:Jc4K>b
/?:3/<6
!
0.-.S/G5
!
=:C1-1?
> 0151cqJ1C-:N;Jc4K 5< ;3.
0-.1C-:N1?:=4S
`

w4 . >=:7:2: 18 h R i 9 h R i6 : N:8.5 18 h R i 9 h R i `

! ! ! !
:56 >8:G8>b /19:N:8q6? >5<>2.

9?4?:2.=8=<5 781 0-.1C-:N1?:=4b
8.1-.5< w 4:>>518-45
. 0-4?1/b8>=:7:2:
9 5:8-4B
0.-B
a ` ` `

?1.

0-.1C-:N1?:=4.
5:2q=1S 4 .
w h R i → ah2.5.=8:54
01/D-;00.601-13/G==1S 6 D/. 2.5.=8
R ∪ i 6 8a `. ` H Q O ` 2.348 ? =1-B

>
w1D/:
FI > F F

−

H E O F O E O F

> C
C
>
−
>

> C
C
>
−
>

? D
D
?
−
>

H H H
E O F E O F

>
− > >
Y F F

−
FI > −

H

,1 ;>21?4J EO F H 6 01a 815;

H X E O F

>
F F
−
FI >
H H

,-4 a 815
O O
E O F H O −− − O
> F > F

F F
− F F F
−

H H H H

4 uu H ` 2./1?:8.2q=16

−>
>
F
7
E O F H E F O
−
>
F F
F F

−

w:945 1C-:N156

H H

HX O

F

8
H FI > H
D/.
012;7:.8>bH 4NE5:8-4
F ` 81 <1N=:7:.86781
2.9>:=/.-: 5:8-4
/2b : 2.9>:=/.-:
/1C:?2.=4.5 /2b1/=1S
h R ∪ i
>8-19 ` >8-1B
F
F F
946 9181-:b b?2b.8>b 24=.S=1S 915C4=: h4.SR /-;D4K

i
:>>518-45 8.0.-q ?81-1.4
0-.1C-:N1?:=4. w 4 I.

6 D/. F >=16 781 H

/2b∈ h E ∪` R ∪
i u-:?=:

h R i→h ∪ R ∪

>

4 E
F H ` :8-4 :i 2.9>:=/.-: −
> 6∈ >
I
− −
6 D/. l 5:8-4 : 2.9>:=/.-: /2b h R i 6 : l >8-19:

a2.5.=81? E
F ` >8:G8>b N:5.848q6 781 I ∼ I I 6

>
−
01>912q9;
4N ?>.K >812C0.-?;J 5:8-401>2./=.D16
; 513=1 0-.1C-:N1?:8q ?1 ?81-;J6 >812C?<748:b

1?6 9-15. 9-:8=<. 01>2./=.D1

:`

! !"! )' ) & +) '% )

8-47.>9:b
79:3/1SC424=.S=:b
?.c.>8?.==1SM1-5: 9?:/-:847=1S
F6 /2b M1-51S
9181-1S E F >?bN:=:
F H >455.B
F ` w011B
3/.>8?1 F F F H E F 01N?12b.8 E
?1>>8:=1?48q 8
E H
8
2b 012bE M1-5< − E − E E M1-5< 4 >?bN:==1S > =.S H H H H
`C424=.S=1S
5
Z

10-./.2.=4.
H

4N5.=b.8>b
? 9?:/-:847=1S

H
>2./;Jc4581C-:3.=4.

1C-:N15 ` ,;>8q

H
L l=:N<?:B
8
91=.7B
=15.-=1.
J8/2b p9181-1S0-1>8-:=>8?1 =:/ 012.5 ` L
R M1-5:
[nW[ Y]\ U XFUW VU 6F .>24 >;c.>8?;.8 C424=.S=:b F6
? ?
#
E
( !
F H
Z
F N=:94
!
N/.>q6
E 24 q E816 781E Eh F N:5.=b.8>b =: E F6
→Z
91=.7=16=.>;BE H
8
c.>8?.==<
01>912q9; h >;c.>8?.==1
=:/ 012.5

H
=.2qNb

/.248q =: M1-5:
H

H
8
` ?:/-:847=;J M1-5;
8 8
H H
=:N<?:J8 \^ W U n^\\
Z
U 6 .>24 C424=.S=:b ?
=.?<-13/.=: `4
9
.01>-./>8?.==1 4N 10-./.2.=4b ?4/=16 781 F H F

# !
E E 9:9
$

8
H H
F H E F 91>1>455.8-47.>94K
E/2b ?.c.>8?.==<K
E F H I ` ,1 a 815; 817=15:8-4
H

H
8:94.6 019:N<?:J86
3. -:>>;3/.=4b6 781 .>24
H
8 8
H

=.?<-13/.==:b
=1l?<C-:8q C:N4> 9?:/-:847=:b
6 6 M1-5:6
8:96 781 81 ? 0-1>8-:=>8?.F H LF H513BI4
```=:N<?:J8 YV ^p Y]^
F H
E 2b =.?<-13/.==1S h 8:91S C:N4>> 8 >
6
8
E
m M1-5< Y a2.5.=8
6
p V ` E 8 8
6 6
8
HN<?:J8
6

F

F 6 D/. 9?:/-:847=1S
6 6
&
>4502.9847.>94S
(
C:N4>6
&
E F=:BH
E ∈ UVZ WX[` ``` l
5
Y\E [WY[\

P I > ? >
6 6
# (
UW[ YV mU ^p Y]^ pUTU [ \ [WY[\ WX[ E F \^ Z[ Y Y U

^ W n^\\ o F p [nW[[ZYFY]\[T nô X UFW V o Y\VU[WY[\\ U mWY WX[^ Y p Yno

. B # ( # & ( (
# " & ( & " &
$ ,
"B # + # ( + # &( #
>>
$

?
EE
*
?
E 4 # (
Up [Z[F ^ U F H:>>518-45 >=:7:2:781>2;7:S H 4N` :?.=>8?1 F F6

H H H ,

>
( ) &( #
> >

019:N<?:.86 24C1
EF6 E E F -:?.= 6 : /?: /-;D4K -:?=< I6 24C1 ?>. 8-4 a2.5.=B
,
1/4= a 2.5.=81?
E E
>
>

E8: -:?=<
6
> >
6 6
6
>
`4N 2.5.=8< 6 ?Nb8q4 ? 9:7.>8?.

-:?=10-:?=< ? 815 >5<>2.6 781
2JC<.
01>912q9;

/?: =4K 513=1 >
6
> >
>4502.9847.>91D1
6
>
C:N4>:6
>748:8q6 781 E E F H ` F H8:96I 4? >2;7:.
>
6
> 8 >
6
>
E H F H5< `012;7:.5 >
6
,1 a 815; /?.513=1
> 8 >
=.BI
?<-13/.==<. 9?:/-:847=<.
>
4 H E F H4 E HF H ` k 911-/4=:8:K
6
>
M1-5< 4
R a 84 M1-5< N/.>q

F
h 513=1E N:04>:8qE 8:9 R
> H

F H >
6
>
` a>=16 781 E F H8 I. 4=. E012;7:J8>b F H ` >8:G8>b

> > > >
6 ? ?
/19:N:8q6

H
>>
4N 0-4=45:.8 781
/-;D: N:5.=1S
>
M1-5< H
>>
C:N4>: 4 H
2b
>
=. 9?4?:2.=8=<6
>
81D1 /1>8:817=1 ` `
N:5.848q6

781 /-;D
M1-5:
>
`-1?=1a 1/4= -:N6 : M1-5: 8-4 -:N: `

>

:>>518-45 N=:7.=4.
8.0.-q
5
0-14N?12q=;J

=.?<-13/.==;J l 9?:/-:847=;J >
M1-5;
=47.=4. k<C.-.5 =:>4502.9847.>94S

`M1-5< 01/0-1>8-:=>8?16 C:N4>=:8b=;81.6 ``` 6 =:` ,;>8q ?.981-<
> l 1D-:B6
4 `
w 1D/: H
⊕ ⊕ `
>

:3/:b 9 M1-5: a 9?4?:2.=8=: 424 `

>
6
UW V H ⊕ Y H ⊕ p Y [

[nW[ Y]\ ^ X

^\ \

# ( > > > # # '
$ $
(
Up [Z[ ^ FUH ,;>8qF H 6I 4 6 6 F Hl >4502.9847.>94S C:N4>6C:N4>/2b

$,
9181-1D1
( ) &( #
H.D91 0-1?.-48q6

,

6
>
6E H 781E 8186 C:N4>

6
> ?
>
6

?
H E >4502.9847.>94S
>
6
F
E 6 H H ` :>>518-45 6
0> >

?
6
>0 >
6
a
? 0? > >
6
?
6
? ?
60
>
`
>
,-1?.-456
6 6
?
781
EE F H FEH F HEI6 F8 `. ` EE FF H EE F 4 F H E F H EI HF Ì6 .S>8?48.2q=16
I H I6F H IE I I HE I6 FF HH
> > > > 5
0
6 0 0
6 0 6
HH E F F E F E F F H
> >
> >

?
>
> >
?

> ?
> 8 ?

> 8 ?

> > >
> >
?
6
?
?
6 6
>
E F H E E F E FE E
> >

?

?

> >
6
> >
6 6
6
?
?
6
> >
6
>

? 8 >
>
6 6
?8 >
6 6
?
FHI
6

6
> >

H I` E
"
24C1 NM1-5.
2.55< >2./;.86
F 781k M1-5:
911-/4=:8:K a 9?4?:2.=8=:
84 M1-5< 24C1N:04><?:J8>b
M1-5. 6
8:9 R F H I 4 E − F ⊕4 ` H >8:G8>b /19:N:8q6 a ` >=1 8:93.6 781

>
? ?

>>

>

EE − F ⊕ =.E a−9?4?:2.=8=<
H H

⊕ `` H
> 781 M1-5< 4
>>
H

H

F ⊕ XWUUW V\[U mWY\YV [^ W[ZW U \ U − W[Z [

UX W V [ E − \[]^\Y^
? > >

. − *
? > >( # −
> 4 # − −
,
Up [Z[0-1?.-b.8>b
2.D91 ^ U `,-45.=45
( ) &( # 4=/;97814J5<01;3.` /19:N:246
,-./01213456 ,
,-4 H 781;8?.-3/.=4.
M1-5:
0-4=45:.8 N=:7.=4.
N=:7.=4.F 0-4=45:.8 -1?=1
-1?=1 N=:7.=4.
-:N6 : N=:7.=4. −
I -1?=1 -:N 1-5: 0-4=45:.8
` -:N: ` ,1 a 815; M1-5:

? >
−
>
−

HN=:7.=4.

? >

E − -:N E5< ?1>012qN1?:24>q

-1?=1 8.56E 781− M1-5:F 0-4=45:.8H

? >
− −
>

? >
−

>
−
-1?=1

I -1?=1
-:N:6 :

N=:7.=4. I -1?=1 -:NF-:N` ,11-5:815; 0-4=45:.8

? > >
N=:7.=4.
F` a − -:N ` ⊕ 0-4=4B
M1-5:
− − >

5:.8 N=:7.=4. -1?=1 E

? >
−

>
−

? >
− −
>
>
! ! ! )' ) )'* ') *(

*'

,;>8q ⊂0-./.245
.SM.-8:
1-4.=84-1?:==1. N: .02.=4.6
l 181C-:3.=4. F
l 6.D1012134?
01?.-K=1>8q
FH
` D/. a 81 M1-5: .SM.-8:

H:0-45.-6 F6 R E 6 h0-4?./G==:b

01 51/;2JE
`
> ? ?
E .>24 D15121D47.>94S
l

Z →Z H

?
H H
510.-.>.9:Jc.S>b
8
9-4?1S
?
92:>>
=: 01?.-K=1>84 0-./>8:?2.=
6 81
N:59=;81S
F .>24

74>21 =.>:B
012=<K

1C1-181? 01 51/;2J F 0121>946 9181-:b 012;7:.8>b6 E l ?Nb8q =: 01B

H

?.-K=1>84F E B19-.>8=1>8q
H
F 81S 9-4?1S
a F6 01 a 815; ` >=16
781 E F H E F ? 8
E
?
H E F FE F H F
8

? 8
H
? 8
FH E F
H H H
D/. E E

E
E

E ? 8 ? 8 8 8
E F lE M1-5: 0.-.>.7.=4b6 0-4?./G==:b 01 51/;2JF ` .SB

H H H H 6 H
>8?48.2q=16
6 H
F781` 7G8=1>8q
.01>-./>8?.==1F
8
4N F H
E 10-./.2.=4b
H
8 F
8 F H
E 91 a MM4E 4.=8: N:E .02.=4b ?4/=16
H

H E−8

− 8
H

H −8

5
8
H

817.9 0.-.>.7.=4b 74>2:9-4?<K6 F E F >1?0:/:.8

E 0-./>8:?2bJc4K
4 ` > 7G8=1>8qJ 74>2:
H−
8

8
H

5. `8:96C-:845>b
l 9?:/-:847=:b
9 -4> ` ` M1-5:6
=: > ` ">118?.8>8?;Jc:b C424=.S=1S M1-B
H
` 818 -4>;=19 019:N<?:.86 781

6

M1-5:
?.-K=1>84 0.-.>.7.=4b
.SM.-8: =.?<-13/.=:
>?bN.=6 8 . 5<81D/:45..5 4 812q91
/.21 > 81D/:6
;N215 91D/:
k >?bN49-:S> 845
01B
10-./.2.=4. 4=?:-4:=8:

-M: ` `/2b ;N2: 0-1c.6 7.5 /2b` N: .02.=4S a >
=.>912q9454 91501=.=8:54 R Y\` [WY[\ WX[ ;N2: l a 81 4=?:-4:=8

-M:
=.=8:54 9?:/-:847=1S
10-./.2.=4. M1-5<
4=?:-4:=8: 2b N:
-M: .02.=4S
=.
#
>812q
5 > =.>912q9454
0-1>81
(
C12..
91501B
81D16
4=?:-4:=8 -M: 10-./.2G= =. /2b ?>.K N: .02.=4S `

h
=;3=1 81C<
4N M1-5<
0-1M:981-4N1?:8q 0.-.>.7.=4b
0-1>8-:=>8?1 012;748q =.?<-13/.==;J
h F 01 01/0-1>8-:=>8?;6
M1-5;6

01-13/G==15; 492:54 6 ``` 6 E6 >118?.8>8?;Jc454

Z
> ?
91501=.=8:5
9-:b6 D15121D47.= 9-:b ` 4926

>118?.8>8?;Jc4S ?
6
>;55. a 84K 4921?F ` w:9451C-:N156

>
1>8:? .S>b >

?
6 −
91501=.=8.

=;3=1 -:>>51B
−

8-.8q M:981-0-1>8-:=>8?1
.>8.>8?.==1. ?92J7.=4. E h E h

F6 D/. R → l

`
> ? > ?
Z Z
1-5: =: 815 M:981-0-1>8-:=>8?. /123=: C<8q 91--.98=1 10-.B
∗
/.2.=: 2b a
81D1 =;3=16781C< /2b 9:3/1S
` a F H I6 8 `. ` F H I ` ,1?.-K=1>8q .SM.-8: =. 0.-.B

91501=.=8< 45.21 5.>81
-:?.=>8?1
>.9:.8 601
5
E a 815; 01 51/;2J

E 91a MM4 4.=8 N: .02.=4b 4 -:?.=
−

8

91MM4
a MM44.=8;
4.=8;N: N:.02.=4b
−

.02.=4b 4 4 − ,16 :815; 1=6 ? 5<>?1JC;/.5

17.-./q6
-:?.= 91B
0-./012:D:8q6
−

a781 N: .02.=4. 1C2:/:.8 >2./;Jc45 − ` >?1S>8?15 a

−

R

F I e F /2b ?>.K `F
E
1D/: M1-5: =: FM:981-0-1>8-:=>8?.

E 8
91--.98=1 10-./.2.=: ` \

E
w[WY[\
−
≡
WX[ N:
.02.=4b 6 1C2:/:Jc.D1 >?1S>8?15 ` F6
E 9?:/-:847=1S M1-5< =: M:981-0-1>8-:=>8?. E l
'
a 81 4=?:-4:=8 A-M:
# (
E hZ F E h Z F`

> ? > ?
\ [WY[\ WX[ A E F UWY^\ YW U [\\ UTU Z[ ^ m ^\Y_

∗
U W^n^ \ pUWW^ p \ U ^ U\ \^ Z[ Y Y U UW[ m U ^W \ U Y

. . # ( ( # 2
m 0 ( * ( # & ( ( # " # &(
Up [Z[ ^ -M:U =. 1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. ` ` /1>8:817=1 0-1?.-48q6 781

, , $ 1 ,

4=?:-4:=8
>8?.
( ) &( #
>4502.9847.>91D1

,
7
4N5.=b.8>b
C:N4>: 0-4 0-492.4?:=44
6 6 ``` 6 6 9-4?<K 9
/2b M1-5< -;794 ` k 9:7.B

=: 0-1B
>8-:=>8?.
>2. 0-492.4?:=4b F F ?1Nq5G5 0.-?<.
E -;794E 9 =45 513=1 /1C:?48q 4 6 9181-<.
> >
>
6
=:
>
-4> ` ` ` ,1B

6

?<C4-:J8>b
9-4?:b =:8:96a 8159:9-4>;=9.6 019:N:=181 =: -4> `F H` II ,1=: >815; ` ` >24 F l aF81H
∗
> >
6
H P E F E F`
>6
FI > F
?
F
E ` a >

P

E E
>
FI > F F
6
>=16 781781.>24.>24 l 8-4?4:2q=<S ;N.2681 81 AFE HF H I `.S>8?48.2q=16

.D91 8:93.
6
0-1?.-48q6

l 8-424>8=496

AE `

5

0-4
>8-1424?<74>2.=44
C:N4> 0124=15:
6 2.9>:=/.-: 8-424>8=49:
.01>-./>8?.==1 4N 10-./.2.=4b E >5 `M1-5<
> ` F 5< 01BF
` ` -15. 81D16

?4/=16 781 E F 6
H I >
6
?
E F H 6 01>912q9; 4 E 0.B 6 H
8
-.>.9:J8>b ? 1/=1S 8179. ` 2./1?:8.2q=16 A E F H E F E F H `

8
6 H H
9
7
>8 ?
6 6 6

> ?
6
>

6
?
Z [ [ n n opWpUV

UV\^\UTU
\nYU ^pZ[[ [^m ^\YÛV nYnY[opTW[^ VV W UpUY^\ UW [p npU[[pmo[n[
6 6

. : ; &( ) 4 # *
o
4 #
UV ^
1m [ UT n[ ('
Up U
−
[Z[\ \[ WY
2 * ( & # + ( #& + *
& * # ( & &(
$
Fo F mF e F $
$1
( * &
, , , @
T n^ Y pUVA E m U\^\≡ A E Z[ ^m ^\Y_E E

> 8 ? 8
−
> ? 4 ( 2
$ ,
4> ` ` ` 4:D-:55< /?;K ;N21? 4 N: .02.=4b

5
Up [Z[ ^ 4 6U9181-<.
M.-8: ( ) &( # 2b =:/4 -:>>5:8-4?:.5<5
,
5 513=1 01>8-148q
01?.-K=1>84
5:2<5
/4>915 .SB
;>8-1B
.=< 8:96 9:9 019:N:=1 =: -4> ` ` 6 : ? 1>8:2q=15 >1?0:/:J8 ` 4K

−

0151cqJ 513=1 01>8-148q 01?.-K=1>8q /2b N: .02.=4b ` >24 a 8:

−
7
01?.-K=1>8q
.SM.-8: /2b 19:3.8>b =.>?bN=1S6 81 5<6 781C< 012;748q 01?.-K=1>8q
6 91 ?>.5 8-G5 01?.-K=1>8b5 0-492.45 -;79;6 9181-:b

>/.2:.8
,;>8q 01?.-K=1>8q
6 6 >?bN=1S `
``` F6 ` 1012=45
6 >4502.9847.>94S C:N4> /2b M1-5< =:4B

0-1>8-:=>8?. >
6
>
l .D1

/1 >4502.9847.>91D1

C:N4>:
E hEZ-4> ` ` F h N/.>q 492 0-./>8:?2.= 9-4?1S `
6

92:54 4
,121>9461C1-18156
>118?.8>8?;Jc4.
> ? 5
01a 815; E9-4?<5 F − E 4 F H ` 18247:J8>b

2./1?:8.2q=16-1?=1
> > > >
6
1/=45 > >

±
6 6
> > − 7
AE
F − A E F H E F E F − E F H 6
> >
6

−
>
H E F H E F H E − F H E F

− 6 6 −
> > 8
− > >8 > >8 ?

4> ` ` ` w-4 01?.-K=1>84 .SM.-8:

F oF e F o
T Z^ UTFn[ pU U
[ n^ XXY Y^\ WY m Y

. E ; &( ) 4
AUE ≡ E F E E m
, ? @ ?
UV
?
\ [ \ ^_ ∇ E
B * 4 2 ( '
#
,
"B
(I F E e Fh
AE
F H ^ Y
E
^ Y
E− F ≡ ± E e F
8 &
− ≡±
8 & 8
T n^
E F m U Y\ UV ^p [\n^W[ \ UW V [ YZ[ YY U\ ^_
4 & # 2 #
UpN:[Z[ .02.=4.
^ ` U 1D2:>=1:F >24N:/:7.
4 ;N2<6 81 lF /?;K91501=.=8B
,
=1.
( ) &( #
,

l F
` ` ` E 1D2:>=1
− E

H E F6 D/.
4 91501=.=8< N: .02.=4b 8.1-.5.

− ? ?
` ` A E
7 >8 ?
F;N.26≡ A81ElF F HEI H F E F e2./1?:8.2q=16

F ` -15. 81D16 .>24F l F8-4?4:2q=<S
−
> ? 7
2JC1D1 ;N2:E ` A E ` E e F /2b

>8 ? 9
AE ≡ E
−? ?
7
H ∇CF E,1−,1 10-./.2.=4J

FH F6 01 a 815; FH

F815;
` 1D2:>=1 N:/:7.E ∇ E
F H
−
F
` ` ∇ FE e F ` E>24 FE 7G8=16

E−
F−
> ?

> ?
?

F " ?
a
7

∇ E− ≡ − E
81 ∇e FE− F ≡ E e F6 : .>24 E F =.7G8=16 81 ∇ E− F ≡ −
E ?
?E

?

E `

! ! ! $ * * ' )

0151cqJ >?1S>8?
N:24 >2./;Jc.. 4=?:-4:=8: -M: 1=?.S 4 1-/1= /19:B
;8?.-3/.=4.

`
7 9

U ^ U ^\Y^ TW[X[ R U n^W Y \^ WY Y

[ \ oZ^

. +" # # & ( ( # '
) !
Up [Z[>2./;Jc45
^ U 1C-:N15
2b 9:3/1D1H P?213.=4b D-:M: ? R ?./G8>b
10-./.24501
$ ,

?>.5

∈Z
?
I H
( ) &( #
492:5
,
/24=<
5
R 6 0-1K1/bc45
AE
F6 D/. >;554-1?:=4.
7.-.N ?>. ?.- 4=< D-:B

M:?213.=4.6 JC1. ?213.=4. D-:M: ? 513=1 0-.1C-:N1?:8q ? /:==1.

` .>24 /10;>9:J8>b 0-.1C-:N1?:=4b

?
-GC.-6 4N1C-:3G==<.
=. 4N5.=b.8>b=:`

R
-4> ` ` I ` ,19:3.56 781 0-4 8:94K 0-.1C-:N1?:=4bK

4> ` ` I ` ,-.1C-:N1?:=4. -GC.-

k11Cc.0.-.>.7.=4.
9-G>891? D1?1-b6 =;3=1
-.C-: -:>>518-.8q
> >:545 8-4 840:
>1C1S6 0-.1C-:N1?:=4S
0.-.>.7.=4. /?;K 0.-.B
>5.3=<K
-GC.-6 R
0.-.>.7.=4. /?;K-.C-:=.>5.3=<K -GC.-513=1
` 1 -4>N:5.=48q
` ` 019:N<?:.86
781 1/=1
-.>.7.=4S 0.-.>.7.=4.
-:N247=<K -GC.-6 > >:545
01 >1C1S
815; /1>8:817=1 =: 0b8q
-:>>518-.8q

0.B
812q91

0.-.>.7.=4b -:N247=<K -GC.- E>5.3=<K a 424 =.>5.3=<KF `
4> ` ` ` ,.-.>.7.=4. -.C-: > >:545 >1C1S

4N,1/8:>94?:b
54/4:D-:55; ?.-9 4=<
=4K -GC-:54F 0.-.>.9:Jc4K>b0.-.9-G>89;6
-:>>5:8-4?:.515;
-GC.- E?5.>8. > ?<K1/bc4B
513=1 012;748q
8:91D1 ?4/:6 9:9 =: -4> ` ` ` /.>q -4> ` ` E:F 18=1>48>b

I
9=.>5.3=<K
0.-.>.7.=4J-GC.->5.3=<K
>:5 -GC.-6 : -4> ` 91=.7=16
0.-.9-G>8196 ` ECF 18=1>48>b
513.8 9 0.-.>.7.=4J
0-4
0-184?101213=1D1E840:F ` a 815 C<8q 4

4> ` ` ` 0-1c.=4. 0.-.9-G>89:

,1>518-456
C1N=:745 9:9 4N5.=b.8>b4N5.=.=4.
>118?.8>8?;Jc.. AE
F 0-4 4N5.=.=44
F >24 840:
492 0.-.9-G>89:
=. >1/.-B `
348

K18b C< 1/=1D1 4N /?;K -GC.- =: E `
-:>>5:8-4?:.515 0.-.9-G>89.6

818.1-.5. F H I ,;>8q 492 >1/.-348 1C: 84 -.C-: 1D/: >1D2:>=1

` a
E ` ` E F ≡ E F E e F6 D/. 4 l 91501=.=8<
` w N:BF
.02.=4b 6 01>8-1.=4. 9181-1D1 4N1C-:3.=1 =: -4> ` ` >5 >

E -GC-:``
` `
>8 ? > ?
:>>518-45 >=:7:2: >2;7:S6 91D/: 0.-.>.9:J8>b >5.3=<.

k a 815 >2;7:.
-4>

01>8-1.=4. N: .02.=4b H 4N1C-:3.=1 =:
` ` E:F ` :5.8456 781 0-4 a 815 91501=.=8: ∪ C;/.8 1/=1S 4 81S
> ?
>
4> ` ` ` ?. 91501=.=8< N: .02.=4b

5
3./2b ?>.K
F H 4921? F66 >1/.-3:c4K

D/. -:>>5:8-4?:.5<.
>;554-1?:=4. ?./G8>b 01 -GC-:
?>.5 =:7486
`-GC-:5
E E

>8 P ? >8

492: 6 18247=<5
91247.>8?1 18 /?;K=: -:>>5:8-4?:.5<K
0.-.9-G>891?6 9181-<K -GC.-6 : F l a4K81
0-1K1/48 =:/ 6E > ;7G815
>8
N=:91? :2..6 014N5.=.=4. -:?=1 F E e F6 D/. 0.-?:b

`C.-G8>b
>
>;55: 5
492:5 6 >1/.-3:c45
P P

1C: E-:>>5:8-4?:.5<K -.C-: `
>8
,1=1.a 815; /1>8:817=1

18 /?;K>2./;Jc4. /19:N:8q6

-:>>5:8-4?:.5<K 781 9:3/1. -.C-1 D-:M: 6 18247B

>2;7:4 ` -GC.-6 ?K1/48 ? 7G8=1. 74>21 4921? `

k1N513=<
?.- F4=<6.C-124C1 41C-:N;J8/?: -:>>5:8-4?:.5<K -.C-: 24C14921? ?<K1/b8=.84N 1/=1S

492 ` w1D/: 8-.C;.5<K `
F .C-1 45..8 1Cc;J ?.- 4=; -1?=1 > 1/=45 4N -:>>5:8-4?:.5<K

-GC.- ` w1D/: .>8q -1?=1 8-.C;.5<K 4921? `

F .>8q.C-1-1?=1=. 45..88-.C;.5<K
1Cc4K ?.-4921?4= > -:>>5:8-4?:.5<54 -GC-:54 `

1D/:

w `

k-4>a 815:>>518-45 8.0.-q >2;7:S6N: 91D/: 0.-.>.9:J8>b =.>5.3=<. -GC-: `

>2;7:.
CF 01>8-1.=4.
.0.-q FHP
.02.=4b H
F6 D/. 4N1C-:3.=1 =:
>;554-1?:=4. ?./G8>b
` ` ` w
> ?

E
01 ?>.5:7=G50:-:5=;5.-: E
-GC.-4J ?.- 4
>8
E
`
?
∪
> 8 ?
⊂ >
4=
5<K -GC.-6 0-47G5 8:96 9:9 019:N:=1 =: -4> D-:M:
⊂
>
> 91= 1? /?;K
? ?
-:>>5:8-4?:.B
>8-.294 ;9:N<?:J8
`` h

4> ` ` ` ;5.-: 4b ?.- 4= D-:M:

=:0-:?2.=4.
-GC-: 4 1CK1/: 492: ` 817=1>8qJ
60-4=:/2.3:c4.
4 /1 0.-.=;5.-: 44 ?.- 4=F6
6 51D;8 C<8q >2./;Jc454 R :F
7
" F h CF F6 E" F h ?F51D;8

E F6C<8q DF E F6 E" F ` .D91 0-1?.-48q6781 ? aE84K
E " F h >2./;Jc454

> ? > ?
E>2;7:bK E 492<

R

:FCF E " F6F6 E " FF6h

F6 F

?F EE " " F6 EE " " F h E " E " h

DFk 9:3/15 F6 E 012;7:.8>b

E " >2;7:.
"F `

7G8=1. 74>21 4921? 6 01a 815; =.

4N5.=b.8>b ` 0-1?.-9: 019:N<?:.86 781 /2b ?213.=4b D-:M: ? 6

.>213=:b

4N1C-:3G==1D1 =: -4> ` ` " 6 ?>. 492< 6 9-15. 1/=1D16 =.N:;N2.=<R `

4> ` ` " ` ,-45.- ?213.=4b

,-4
:=8 815 -:?.=
a-M: N:;N2.==<S:9454921C-:N156
l 8-424>8=496
/2b 2JC1D1 : /2b?213.=4b
8-424>8=49:H 6 4=?:-4B
01
` w a 815;

1CbN:8.2q=1 =:S/G8>b N:;N2.==<S 492 `

! !"! ' * )* ' ' * '

k 7:>84 : 45.==1
D-;3.=4bK6 5< /19:N:24

2JC1. >2:C<. 8.1-.5<
B5.-=1. 48=4 1C.N?213.=4bK
5=1D11C-:N4. 9-:b 0-4 4 01B

513=1 01D-;N48q ? R 4 ?21348q ? ` /.>q 5< /19:3.5 >42qB

?

? > >

=;J
?21348q8.1-.5;
? 48=4 1 ?213.=4bK R N:59=;81. 5=1D11C-:N4. 513=1
R R

`

?
7:2: 19:N:8.2q>8?1
>8-148>b
R
T >42q=1S
U 8.1-.5< 48=4 1>=1?:=16 8 =:. 01D-;3.=4.6
01D-;3.=4. 8156 781 >=:B;
W^ _W\ ^ ` `
5
9181-1D1 =.8 o 817.9 E4=<54 >21?:546

8-1S=<K
R →=49:94. R 6

8-4 U-:N247=<.
?
81794 =. 181C-:3:J8>b
p ^ [VU mF^W^ ^]^\Y_ F H? 1/=;
F H8179;F
F6 4
D/.? 9:3/1S
H 6 n U \ U
?<012=b.8>b ] p ^ E U]
-:?.=>8?1 # ! ! ( ( '
F H E ` E:8.5 /?1S=<. 81794 ;=47813:J8>b

& &
6 E

⊕ E 6 R
6 H ? 6

6

H

01>-./>8?15
;=47813:J8>b 8:90 :-:54
=:N<?:.51D1
12.. 8-J9:.>2448=4 ` ,-4
81D16 a 815 /?1S=<.
1-4.=84-;.51 4 81794
7G8=16
` 817.9 /123=: C<8q 10-./.2G==<5 1C-:N15 >1B

81D2:>1?:==1S
;=47813:.5:b 0:-:
` ,1a 815;817.94=1D/:
=.>912q91 /?1S=<K `
C<?:.8 =;3=1 0-./?:-48.2q=1 /1C:?48q

o

: ; &( ) 4
UT UT Z[
UTU Vp \ oI U ^ V \ UTUU W[ZY^T R U →UTR
?
m W o R ^\Y^ n[n n_ _pU UW UTU k E Fo− ^ E Fko ^ W^mWYo _W\^ ^ ∈m W o

( " *
6
^\Y^
4 +"
& = &( # ( '
, @ ?

* ( H
#&
→R 6 H 1 H ,
0-4 Up [Z[ ^ U >;c.>8?1?:=4b

/19:N:8.2q>8?. < ?1>012qN;.5>b01D-;3.=4S
81S 3. >:51S7:>8q91=>8-;9
6 4.S6781" F64
8.1-.5: `
( ) &( #
=1 8.0.-q ?5.>81 N:5.=<

,
E F H F E 4>012qN;.8>b
E 01>81b==<S ?.981- ` ,1B N:5.=:
6
F H >=:7:2:6
E>518-45 E F 6781
6 −
> D/. 0-14>K1/48
l /1>8:817=1
5:2<S 6
? 5:21S 19-.>8=1>84

6 −
>
1C-:N:@81794

` 13=1 >748:8q6781 F H I 4 1C-:N ? 19-.>8=1>84

219:2q=168
H ∈

`.
` ? =.9181-1S E
19-.>8=1>84 L 6N:/:G8>b
R
6 H
;-:?=.=4b54 H I6
3
?

>
H
``` 6 H I ` 2b 5=1D11C-:N4b EL F -:>>518-45 91501N4 4J 181C-:B

5
>

>
3.=4S
H18247=1. E LF F −→-.D;2b-=1.
>
L −→ R 6 D/.N=:7.=4.E

81S F91501N4
H E 44 181C-:3.=4S6
6−
F ` ,;>8q H 8 ? 8
l /?1S=<K 817.96 a2.3:c4K ? L ` w1D/: B5.-=1.

# >8 >8 0
E 18 1C-:N1?
>8
6−
8

01/0-1>8-:=>8?1 6 N:/:==1. ;-:?=.=4b54 H 6 ``` 6 H 6 =.

0-1K1/48 7.-.N /?1S=<.
8179. ∈ ∩9 E6 8 F.∩4KL 9:>:8.2q=1.

81794
1C-:N: 6 2.3:c4. ? L 6 4 ? 9:3/1S
0-1>8-:=>8?1 f g /1B
> >

012=48.2q=1 0-b5:b >;55: 45..8 -:N5.-=1>8q ` 816 ?

7:>8=1>846 1N=:7:.86 ` 781

` 4 F L 0.-.>.9:J8>b ? 4N124-1?:=B
6 6 −
C

=<K 8179:K ` E ∩
6

w:945 1C-:N156
I IF6 .>24
: ?>. /1C:?48q
1>8:2q=<. 9 7:>84
9:3/1S 8179.F 1C-:N:
L @ ?.981-
1>8:?48q=: @=: `5.B
>
E 81 5< >513.5 -:>0-1>8-:=48q -.D;2b-=1.E 01D-;3.=4.
>8.6
> 8

8 8 8

8
∩ 6
< 1C@ b>=4246 7810-.3=456

/.2:.8>b>8-148>b
? @ ` 21C:2q=1. 181C-:3.=4.6 9181B
>
-1.
M;=9

?=. 44 1>8:G8>b

6812q91
9:9 a 81?<C-:8q

?
/.2:21>q?.981- >
0-4 /19:N:8.2q>8?. 0151cqJ 912191211C-:N=1S
>2:C1S

>
8.1-.5< 48B
=47.==1.
` ;3=1

181C-:3.=4. C<21 01D-;3.=4.5 ` /1>8:817=1 5:2<56 781C<

0 012;B
74>21>24/?1S=<K
N:59=;81. 817.95=1D11C-:N4. -.D;2b-=1 01D-;3.=1 ? 6 81
?

91=.7=1 ` .S>8?48.2q=16 0-./01213456 781R 74>21
5

/?1S=<K81794
N1? 817.9 C.>91=.7=1
.>8q ` ,;>8q @ 6 l1C-:N0-./.2q=:b
19-.>8=1>8q 9181-1S 8179: 4K 0-11C-:B
=.>:510.-.>.9:JB
` ` ,;>8q

H
c4S>b
/?1S=<K

{ }l
817.96 2.3:c4K>K1/bc:b>b
H
?

@ k>. 9>118?.8>8?;Jc4.
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
45 0-11C-:N1?
81794 2.3:8
`

H H
?=. @
=1>8q6 ,;>8q
` 1C-:N 9181-1S4K 0-./.2q=:b
8179: k<C-:? /2b 81794
l 0.-.>.9:.8 1C-:N `19-.>8=1>84 @ =. C12.. 7.5 ? 19-.>8B

1/=1S 8179.6 0-4K1/45 9 0-184?1-.74J `

,;>8q8179:R >24
/?1S=:b ?
l -.D;2b-=1.
→ R5=1D11C-:N4.
01D-;3.=4.6 4H 7G8=16
1-4.=84-;.51 E F H 81E 817B
Fl
9.:/:/45
6
`
513=1=: >101>8:?48q
Y\n^p [VUm ^W^0121348.2q=1
^]^\Y_ >2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 `

6 H 6

1-4.=8: 4J 4 ?<C.-.5 1-4.=84-1?:=B

& & &

=<. C:N4>< E6 N:04>:?
>8-:=>8?: F 4 F ` N a 84K C:N4>1? >1>8:?45 C:N4> 0-1B
?6

>=:7:2:

E 0.-?<S C:N4>6 : 01815 ?81-1S ` >24

6

1-4.=8:
/.9> 4b 012;7.==1D1-:?.=C:N4>: 0121348.2q=:
R
>:510.-.>.7.=4b F =/.9> E 18-4 :8.2q=:F6
>:510.-.>.7.=4b =. 81 4=B
N:?4>48

E− ` 781 .>24 1/=1?-.5.==1 4N5.=48q

181-4.=8:
?<C1-:441-4.=8: 44 6 01815;
C:N4>1? =.E4N5.=48>b

F 4 E F6 81 1-4.=8: 4b >1>8:?2.==1B

D14 0-4
4N =4K0.-.>8:=1?9.
C:N4>:

R
817.9
? 6
4 . 5.=b.8>b 4=/.9>
`` .S>8?48.2q=16 >:510.-.>.7.=4b
781C<
6
015.=b8q

5.B

>8:54
8-:=>01N4 0.-?<.4S ` ?.981-1?
4 01>2./=4. H
?.981-1?6 =;3=1
5
>/.2:8q
?
\n^ p UV [VU m ^W^ ^]^\Y_ -.D;2b-=1D1 01D-;3.=4b C;/.5 =:N;55;424 4=/.9>1?
& &
5=1D11C-:N4.>:510.-.>.7.=4b&
/2b ?>.K /?1S=<K 817.9 ` >24
=.1-4.=84-;.516 81 5< =. 513.5 10-.B

6

/.248q N=:9 4=/.9>:

84K >2;7:bK 4=/.9>15 >:510.-.>.7.=4b
>:510.-.>.7.=4b /2b01D-;3.=4b
/?1S=1S 817946
C;/.5 01=:N<?:8q
a 815; ?
a1>8:819
-.>.7.=4b18-.D;2b-=1D1
/.2.=4b =: 01D-;3.=4b
1Cc.D1 74>2:C;/.5 /?1S=<K 817.9 ` =/.9> >:510.B 6

1C1N=:7:8q `
T U o UT Z[ Vp\ o U ^ V \ UTUU pUW[ZYÛ UTUUT n[ o ^

6
V [^ o ^ VUWÛ ô Z[n[\\
_W\ ^ Um^ Z\[]^\Y^
W o ^\Y^ W^n R U→[TR[^ n_ _] U ^W Y mUWY\Y

: . ; &( ) 4 ( " & = '
? , @
YW o ^ Y ] \ U U ∈ Z [m U m ^ U [ \ o ][_ ∈WY^\
&( # ( *
( '
+
6

( " A (& * ( & '
0( * ( * &( ) & ? B
Up U =:7:2: 01>8-145 -.D;2b-=1. 01D-;3.=4.

( # #&
[Z[ ^ Z 1 $1 1 ,
?

> 1/=1S 81791S >:510.-.>.7.=4b ` ,-4 H 0121345 H R −→ R 6
( ) &( #
,
7
?
H >:510.-.>.7.=4b
-4> ` ` F ` w1794 H ± :0.-.K1/b8 ? 8179; EI F h181C-:B /-;D4K >
> D
E
> H
817.9
? > D
=.8

` :8-4 91C4 -:>>5:8-4?:.51D1
H
8
3.=4b 45..8 ?4/ − − h 1=: =4D/. =. 1C-:c:.8>b ? =;2q `

> D ?
D 8
>− > D

"
4> ` ` ` w179: >:510.-.>.7.=4b

6 N:/:/45
0-4H 62bH 66 >```6 D/. 6 D/.HA H181C-:3.=4. M1-5;2:54 H 6 − H 6 H0-4 ?
F F6 H
5 > > C
E E H
? ? >H
F F ,-1?.-456 781 81 181C-:3.B

"
=4.:8-4l ```-.D;2b-=1. E ` 81791S >:510.-.>.7.=4b a

> > C

A 01D-;3.=4.
E > ./4=>8?.==1S

H
? H
>

H
? H

`
" "
: 91C4 a 81D1 181C-:3.=4b 45..8 ?4/

g g g
> D
f f f
 
I I
> C C D
> C
>
−
− D D D
" C " D
"

` ` ` `



` ` ` ` `



I I
 
 
 
g g g 
 ? ?  ?
f f f

 −> C D
−> D D

 f g f g
 −> D
" > CD " > DD
g g g

"?

 
 f`
D >
f ` ` ` ` f ` 
− DC

C >− DD

C
− > D D
`g ` ` g 
 " C " D
"

ff g ff g

f g
 > D ? > D
− DC
> − >C D D C >
− D
C D
,1>2./=4. 2.5.=81? 0.-?1D1 >812C : -:?=2;7:. − f g H − 6H I ` =:7486

> D
5:8-4 : 91C4 ? 2JC1S 8179. 45..8 -:=D `

> >
− C
D
H H C
"
:S/G5 8.0.-q ?>. 0:-<H 817.9 F019:N<?:J86
HE F6781/2b 9181B

-<K
H :?.=>8?: 6 H E
```` 6 ` :2..6 H 6 01a```815; H 6 : N=:7486 HF H 6 6 6 >8 8
H0 H0 H
>8 8
H
0-4 H 6

0
H 6H8 `. ` 6 HH± 6 ` w:945

?
5
1C-:N156 H
0 >
H
A 6H IA` w.0.-q -:?.=>8?1
>
E 0
H 0 ? H
H0
>
``` 6 H6 019:N<?:.86 781 H H H I ` =:7486

> > > > >
H H0 H − H0 H
H ,1 815; 4 H − ` =:7486 H I 4 H
C ?
a

AH ` k 481D.` 012;7:.56

? ? H H ?
">
? 1/=; 4 8; 3. 8179; ` 781 812q91 81794 E± I IF 181C-:3:J8>b

> > > CD 0> > > >
H − H C H
8 8 8

:8-4 < 91C4 ? 8179:K E± I IF 45.J8 ?4/

8 8 8
I I

I I 
 

 ` ` ` `` 


 `
 I
` ` `


 II I


 I I

 
∓ 
 ` ` ` `

`
 
 ` ` ` `
± 
I I

 

N a 84K /?;K 5:8-4 >92:/<?:.8>b 5:8-4 :

±


I I II I I
II 
 ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `


 `
 I
` ` ` ` `

` ` ` `


I I I

 
I I I I

 
 I I I I

 ∼
− 
 ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `

` ` ` `
 
 ` ` ` ` ` `
−


I I I I

 


I I−
II I I

II 

` `






` ` ` `






 
∼
 

 
```

 − 
 
I
 
 

8: 5:8-4 : =.?<-13/.==:b6 01a 815; 01D-;3.=4. -.D;2b-=1. `

−
.01>-./>8?.==1 4N 10-./.2.=4b 4=/.9>: >:510.-.>.7.=4b ? >2;7:.

7G8=1D1 4 1-4.=84-;.51D1 F ?4/=16 781 .>24 4N5.=48q E1-4.=8:B

4J 812q91
N;b

R
6 817814=/.9>
?

>:510.-.>.7.=4b
01>8-1.==1. -.D;2b-=1.4N5.=48 N=:9 ` 4,1.D1a 815;6
01D-;3.=4. 4>012qB
91501N4 4J
>-.D;2b-=<K
>455.8-4.S01D-;3.=4b
18=1>48.2q=1
?
D40.-021>91>846 513=1 01>8-148q /?:
1/=1D1 181C-:3.=4b 45..8> 1/=1S

4=/.9>81791S6 : >:510.-.>.7.=4b6
/2b /-;D1D1 − ` 9181-:b /2b
R

817=1,;>8q5:2:b R19-.>8=1>8q6

6 →R l
-.D;2b-=1.

9181-:b
?
01D-;3.=4.64@1D-:=47.=4.
D15.151-M=: ⊂

l /1>8:B=:

9181-;J b?2b.8>b
6>:510.-.>.7.=4b60-47G5?213.=4.5
9181-1. >1?0:/:.8 > ?=.4=/.9> ` .D91 >8-148>b -.D;2b-=1.
@ 6 : >:510.-.>.7.=4b
R
01D-;3.=4.
1C-:N E@F 45..8/2b./4=>8?.==;J

8179;
6
0-./04>:==<S N=:9 /2b 7G8=1D1 4

6
1-4.=84-;.51D1 a 81S 81794 45..8

F ` ,-4 a 815 01

>-:?=.=4J > E
01D-;3.=4. 45..8 -1?=1 1/=; /1012=48.2q=;J

;8?.-3/.=4. ` 8179; `

8: 91=>8-;9 4b 01N?12b.8 /19:N:8q

6
8-.C;.51.

81C<;=47813:8q
;748q>b
/19:N:8q >42q=;J
0:-; 8.1-.5;
817.9 48=4 1 ?213.=4bK6
>:510.-.>.7.=4b 1>8:G8>b =:B?
5=1D11C-:N4b

R E
>b6 .>244=/.9><
?
781 5=1D11C-:N4. 1-4.=84-;.51 4 7G8=16 81 0-./012:D:.8B

>:510.-.>.7.=4b /2b 8-J9
84K /?1S=<K

817.9 45.J8 0-1B
a

84?101213=<.
>2;7:S N=:94F
H ` 18/.2q=1D1 /19:N:8.2q>8?: >5 ` > ` I F0-4` k
85.8456
8-.C;.8 781 48=4 -:C18:.8 24 q
> h

/:2q=.S

.5 5< C;/.5 0-./012:D:8q6

781 > `
E
,;>8q 4 l /?. 81794
3.=4b

>:510.-.>.7.=4b
:>>518-45 F H /2b -.D;2b-=1D1
4 F H 01D-;B
→R ` E E {H }F ``
#
1./4=45 R =: 5=1D11C-:N44
6

8179; E > 81791S
?

{ }
0;8G5 6−
>
# # > 8# ?
6−
>
> 8 ?
,;>8q 0-47G5
7
Jc4.>b6 H E F ` 1=413=1

6
>748:8q6 781/-;D9-4?<.
0.-.>.9:J8>b

> /-;D154812q91=.>:510.-.>.9:B
? 8179:K 4
#
>

?
8
` ,-.3/. ?>.D1 019:3.56 781 =: 4 513=1 =:8b=;8q ?213.==<S

#
/4>96 8-:=>?.->:2q=<S
1C2:>8q ? R > /?;5b 8179:54E F ` w4N215:
17=.. D1?1-b6 0;>8q
l N:59=;8:b
> ?
E ` ` l 189-<8:b
-4> F6 .G
? 6
0
4> ` ` ` C2:>8q
B19-.>8=1>8q>?1S>8?:54
>2./;Jc454
` w1D/: >;c.>8?;.8 ?213.=4. R ?
6 1C2:/:Jc..
R
0
→R
F 81794 4N215: 0.-.K1/b8 ? 4 h

#

F E F ∩ E F H ∪ h

> ?
F >8?1
/2b 2JC1S 81794 ∪ 618247=1S .2491518? 4 69:>:8.2q=1. 0-1>8-:=B
6
E F =. >1/.-348>b F`
> ? #
,1>8-145 =:

?.981-=1.

012. ? 6 E
8-:=>?.->:2q=1.

F6 D/.
6

l9:K 4 ?1Nq5G5 9:>:8.2q=<. ?.981-< 9 9-4?1S 6 =:0-:?2.==<.? 817B

5:2:b 19-.>8=1>8q 9-4?1S
>
R
? E
` k 9:7.>8?. ?.981-1?
?
6

>

>
?>8-.7; /-;D /-;D; -4> F =4 8-:=>?.->:2q=<

>
=:B
F6 01>912q9;
` ` `
# ?
F 8-:=>?.->:2q=1
E-:>>21.=4. E E F ` :>>518-45 =:/ 9-4?1SE >2./;Jc..

6

>
R >21S 8-4?4:2q=16
=:/ 81791S 01>912q9;
l a 81 0-1>8-:=>8?1 `
? > >
6 6 ? >
81 -:>>21.=4.
9-4?1S24=.S=1
N:/:=1>?bN=16
>.7.=4. -:>>5:8-4?:.51D1 .D1 C:N: >8bD4?:.5:
R \ k ∼91=
-:>>21.=4b
H
` :K
,-1>8-:=>8?1
−
`

?>J
>
9-4?;J
>
k 01a 815;012;745
-.N;2q8:8. N:/:==1.8-.C;.51.
>.7.=4b 513=1 0-1/12348q
?.981-=1. 012. =:
=:B
−
`
21D47=1 01>8-145 ?.981-=1. 012. =: 9-4?1S `
> ` ?

4> ` ` ` k.981-=1. 012. =:

>
/: k=.EM49>4-1?:==1.
F65:2<K
D/. 19-.>8=1>8.S 6
/1>8:817=1
>
817.9
F ?
4 -:>>518-45
01>8-1.==<S

91=? 8179.
?.981- < ?.981-1?
#
E l 5:21. 0121348.2q=1. 74>21F ` |?| 5:B 6 ?4B

E2<Kl19-.>8=1>8bK∈ 817.9

H ∪H
49-4?<5
-:>>518-45
H
7:>84 021>91>8.S6=:8b=;8<K
6 H

=:012.S9:>:8.2q=<.
? 8179:K ?.981-<
4 5< 9
C-:24 9:9 -:N
#
4 `

,-4
9:>:8.2q=<.01>8-1.=44
?.981-< ?.981-=<K
9 9-4?<54N
> ?
4 6
=4K 19-.>8=1>84
> 01
?a 815;6 >2.D9: #
513=1 >92.48q9-:b01?.-K=1>8q601 .?.24?

-:>>5:8-4?:.5<.
0-./>8:?2bJc;J
01?.-K=1>846
>1C1S ?213.=4. 5:B
21S
0-4 a 815 ?<012=b.8>b /4>9: E -4> ` ` F ` >21?4. 8-:=>?.->:2q=1>84
`
513=1?=;8-.==.S
9
0-492.48q 7:>84 012;7.==1S
/4>9
513=1 0-1/12348q 6 01>912q9; 0121>94
2JC1.
? E9-4?:b =:181C-:3.=4.
=.0-.-<?=1.
/1 =.0-.-<?=1D1 181C-:3.=4b →513=1

-4> ` ` F
R `
> ? ? ?
,12qN;b>q
→ R 8.56 781 " 6 01>8-1.==1. 181C-:3.=4.

→R

?

?

4> ` ` ` k213.=4. 19-.>8=1>84 9-:b /4>9:

:00-19>454-1?:8q
012qN;b>q 8.56 781 ?213.=4.56 6=.513=1 4N5.=bb;>8-:=48q
.D1 ?C24N4 ?>. ∪ `
?1N=49 4.:8.56
0-4 > ?
815 0.-.>.7.=4b
a ,.-.S/G5 8.0.-qE 9 >2./;Jc.5; :D;
F
> /4>915

` 01>8-1.=4J 1-81=1-54-1B

?

l =: /4>9. E F6 1-81D1B
6
?:==1S
=:2q=<K >4>8.5< ?.981-=<K 012.S 6 ``` 6

E F ` ,-4 a 815/2b/2b817.9 =:7:2:4 5<45.J8 C;/.50-184?101213=<.

0-./012:D:8q6 781N=:944=B
?
/.9>< >:510.-.>.7.=4b

`
:>>518-45 1D-:=47.=4. =: 9:>:8.2q=1D1 -:>>21.=4b 5=1D11C-:B
#
N4b
.=4J

4 ?1Nq5G5 1-81D1=:2q=1. /1012=.=4. 9 9:>:8.2q=15; -:>>21B

k -.N;2q8:8.01>912q9;
>
012;745.D1E −C:N:FB5.-=1. -:>>21.=4.

>21.=4. > `8-4?4:2q=16 >8bD4?:.5:

` ,1 a ` 81513=1
815; -:>B
?<C-:8q
>21.=4. 24=.S=1
=:21D47=1 =.N:?4>45<.
513=1 >.7.=4b?.981-=<.
?<C-:8q 6 ``` 6
012b 012;7.==1D1
6 6 -:>B=:
>
9-4?1S `
,-4 8179:K
` 84K a 815 ? 1=48179:K 4 0-184?101213=<.
.>8q ?>. − ?.981-1? ``` 6 ``` 6
? ?
6
5:2q=1D1
? =1 ?
?
a-:>>21.=4b /4>9: N:/:J8F
#
.S>8?48.2q=16

.>241-4.=8:
5<

44
0.-.=.>G5=1-B

`

?/12q 9-4?<K 4 9:>:8.2q=<. E 9 =45 ?.981-<6 81 ? 8179:K 4

5
012;745
>8-:=>8? 0-184?101213=1
> ?
1-4.=84-1?:==<. C:N4>< 9:>:8.2q=<K 0-1B
E F 4 E F E-4> ` ` IF `
#
2b ;/1C>8?:C;/.5 0-./012:D:8q6 781 9-4?<. 4 =. N:/:=< 0-1>81

8-:=>?.->:2q=<
5
?.981-=<. 4 6 : 1-81D1=:2q=< ` : 9-4?1S

012b =:/ 6 81791S

> ?
``` 6 `>2;348 :>>518-45 FB5.-=1.

-:>>21.=4.01/0-1>8-:=>8?16
=:/ 9-4?1S 6
? > >
>21.5 9181-1D1
1-81D1=:2q=1. ?.981-:5
>
E −E F 4 9:>:8.2q=15; 0-1>8-:=B
>
E F6 ``` 6

H
>8?; E F ` k 8179:K 4 N:/:=< ?.981-< 6 ``` 6 l 1-81=1-B

54-1?:==<. >.7.=4b:>0-1>8-:=45
H
>
H
a 81D1 -:>>21.=4b ` 841/=1>.7.=4b =;3=1 0-1/12348q

# ? ?
=:=1 ?>J 9-4?;J

>/.2:8q6 `
01>912q9; >
-:>>21.=4. >=:7:2:
8-4?4:2q=1 4 >.7.=4.
>21S

` I 81 513B ?
> ?
>?bN.= ` :8.5 C;/.5 -:>0-1>8-:=b8q >.7.=4. 1-81D1=:2q=1D1

R \{ }∼
/1012=.B − −
II
4> ` ` I ` N5.=.=4. 1-4.=8: 44

=4b
>21.5 81D16
C;/.8 781 012;7421>q6
I 4 81D/:
`/ ` ,-4
5< -:>0-1>8-:=.=44
010<8:.5>b >.7.=4b >.B
-:>0-1>8-:=48q ? >
7.=4. 6 >21.5
R \{ }∼
?
`
C;/.8 =.>?bN=1.
>
5=13.>8?19
I ` 81C< 4S6 >.7.=4. >
−
513=1 C<21?
-:>0-1>8-:=48q6
=: .5 >2;7:. 1-4.=8: 44 >1D2:>1?:=< ` =;3=: >1D2:>1?:==1>8q
R \ { }1-4.=8: =1 ?
w.0.-q =: 9-4?1S .>8q ?.981-<8.56 6 781

``` 6 L6 : =: 9-4?1S F .>8q

?.981-<
?.981-=<. 012b
?6 ``` 6 6 ` 6,12qN;b>q >
513=1
?
-:>0-1>8-:=48q E =:−?.>q /4>9 H I6F ? ?
``` `
> 8
k81-:5
9:3/1S 8179. F -:>>518-45
?
1-81D1=:2q=1.
∈ 4 E9 9:>:8.2q=15; 0-1>8-:=>8?;
?
/1012=.=4.
−
9 E
?.9B
N:/:=< 6 ```
>.7.=4b 6 H

E `
F8179;: 9-4?1S
6 ``` 6 81D1 -:>>21.=4b :3/;J /4>9:
? ?
a `

>
F 513=1 0-./>8:?48q ? ?4/. F6 D/.
E 6 ``` 6 6 N:/:==<. ? E8179. E6F6 =: 69-4?;J E F6 D/.
>.7.=4b

>
` :>0-1>8-:=45
8

9

M49>4-1?:=16
>21.=4b k : 5.=b.8>b6
-.N;2q8:8. 012;745 9:9 8-.C;.5<.
>
01>81b==<.?.981-=<.
>.7.=4b 8-4?4:2q=1D1
012b -:>B
>
` 6 ``` 6

=: /4>9. E F ` 513=1 =.01>-./>8?.==1 0.-.S84 9 /19:N:8.2q>8?; >42qB

>
w .0.-q ;3.

=1S 8.1-.5<?213.=4.
,-1/12345 48=4 1 ?213.=4bK `/1 ;/.5
>748:8q6 5:21S
181C-:3.=4b 781 19-.>8=1>84
⊂R ⊂R `
? ?
R →` R2b H

?
? R >2./;Jc45 1C-:N15
?

E

5 F 0121345
H H
>8

8 ?
H
E F H E F X E F D/. H E F
?
8 >8 ?
H H I H
H H H H
N 81D16 781 ? 8179. F ?.981-< 60-1>8-:=>8?;

``` 6 1C-:N;J8 C:N4>

∈ E
1-81D1=:2q=1D1

/;.86 /1012=.=4b
781 ? 8179.>1C1Sb91C4:= 9 9:>:8.2q=15;
H

181C-:3.=4b=.9181-1S

18247.=19-.>8=1>84 E F6 >2.B
18 =;2b ` ,1@ a/4>9:
815;
?

0-./>8:?2b.8 /4MM.151-M4N5
H

I
:24>qE F :=:/?..2q1C2:>8q ? R ` ,121345 H? 1C2:>84E @ F8:96781C<

4 H ;=478134B E F `
? > >

0-1/.M1-54-1?:8q
81794

>
?

l 0.-.>.7.=4b > 4 0-4 a 815 =. 01b?421>q C< =49:94K

−
6
>

?
−
6
?
=1?<K81C< 817.9104>:8q
0.-.>.7.=4b ` /.M1-5: 4J6 ;/1C=1 >748:8q6 781 0-1B
8-.C;.5;J

>
1C-:N
81D16

9-4?1S
5< C;/.5
> 0-4 181C-:3.=44
>748:8q6 781 9-4?<. 2.3484 =: 1>4.>8.>8?.==<5

E-4> ` ` 1C-:N15

F ` 12.. H
>
0-1/123.=<
0-1/123.=4bK /1?.981-=<.
?<K1/: 4N012b5:21S6 19-.>8=1>84
6 /4>9: 8:9E 3.6
01>8-1.=<
>
F 4 9:9
=: a484K=:
?
```

>:54K 9-4?<K ` ?
4> ` ` ` :>01213.=4. /4>9:

k 9:3/1S
>8:?2b.8 >1C1S8179.
021>91>8q EE F 9:>:8.2q=1.F6 010-1>8-:=>8?1
>
815; 0-./B
5:21 18247:B

a
> >
∈ H −

.8>b 18 81S 021>91>84 ,1>2. 5:21D1 .?.2.=4b6 813/.>8?.==1D1 ?=.>

8 >
a `
>8 8 >
H H H
5:21S 19-.>8=1>84 9-4?1S F6 513=1 >748:8q6781 >1?0:/:.8

7:>8qJ a 81S 021>91>84 E /2b a E ?1N513=16 ?5.>81 @ 0-4/G8>b ?Nb8q

81D16
−
>
>

>
=.9181-;J 5.=q >1?0:/:.8

;J 19-.>8=1>8q 9-4?1S E FF ` 9181-1.
=:21D47=1012;7:.8B
513=1

>
>748:8q6 781 > 7:>8qJ 5=1D11C-:N4b6

>
−
>b 0-4?.981-1?
?>.K 0-1?./.=44 4N 9:3/1S 81794 9-4?1SF :>>518-45
?
0-1>8-:=>8?:

E F 4 .G 0-1.9
0-1/123.=4b
4J
>
E F I`
?
−
8 ? ? 8
RE
>8 ?8 8
H
8 ?
H
7→ E
>8 8 8 8 ? F
>=16 781 EF ,1F H815; 5=13.>8?1
H H H H

4 E F 2.348 ?F 2.348
H

H H
0-1>8-:=>8?.
=: 1>4

` a
> > ?
E`
H H
> 8 ? 8 8 ?
H

>
∩ E

?
,-45.=45/4>9: 9 >2./;Jc;J /.M1-5: 4J6 813/.>8?.==;J ?=. B

>
H
19-.>8=1>84 ?
` k1B0.-?<K6 ?>. 81794

=1 1>4 6 01a 815; 5=13.>8?1 E F =. 4N5.=b.8>b ` -4?:b E F 4

?

>/?4D:J8>b

0:-:22.2qB

?
>
?

? 9
−
H
I
.G 0-1/123.=4. >/?4D:J8>b ? 1C2:>8q H

? I E-4> ` ` F ` 2b 1>8:2qB
5
4> ` ` ` w-J9 48=4

=<K
81- 817.9 E/2b 81794 F ∈ I ?.981-
>/?4D: >8 ?8 8 ? ?
IF >/?4D: 10-./.2b.8>b
;5=13:.8>b

=: 8:9 R ?.9BF6
D/. ,-4EIF 0-1.9
HH H
H 4 44E F H I81794
H HE
0-4

>8 ?8 8
?
8
` E ?
H H
?
?
0.-.>.7.=4b 4 0.-.K1/b8F =.8? 81794

0.-.>.7.=4b
0.-.>.7.=4b

>

44

E a F6 01
/.M1-54-1?:==1D1
815;
?.>24 ? 021>91>84
5=1D11C-:N4b E 6 81 ; =4K 817.9
>
?11CB81

?
>8 ?
H H
c.1C-:N=.8 B19-.>8=1>84
817.9 0.-.>.7.=4b >=1 8:93.6 781 .>24 /1>8:817=1 5:216

` 0-4 181C-:3.=44 =. >1/.-348 /-;D4K

> ?
/4>9:

7:>8.S
01b?2b.8>b5=1D11C-:N4b E F ` ,1a 815; =1?<K 817.9 >:510.-.>.7.=4b =.

k >2;7:.6` 91D/: 4=/.9>< >:510.-.>.7.=4b /2b 817.9 4 45.J8

6
0-184?101213=<.
7:.6 91D/: N=:946 8.1-.5:
5=1D11C-:N4. 48=4 012=1>8qJ
=.1-4.=84-;.516
24C1 /19:N:=: ` k >2;B
5=1D11C-:N4.

#

1-4.=84-;.51
C<=;3=16
.G 0-45.=48q64 =.7G8=16
?1N513=1
1>=1?=:b
0-4/G8>b 91=>8-;9
4N5.=48q 4b 8: 3.
9-4?<. >:5:b 4 1
` ` :5 781B
81794781C< 0-4 0.-.=1>. 0:-< =1-5:2q=<K 0-1>8-:=>8? 9 4b4 6 > ?

4NN:/:==:b ?1-4.=8:
8179; ?/12q
4b54 9-4?<K
81S 4
;01-b/17.==1S 4N5.=b2:>q
0:-< 1-4.=8:
0-1>8-:=>8? R>24
> ?
?
a `
# > ?
8: 1-4.=8:
a1C-:N4b 4b =. 4N5.=b.8>b6 81 ? >2;7:. =.1-4.=84-;.51D1 5=1D1B

9 1/=1S 4N 9-4?<K 4 513=1 /1C:?48q ;7:>8196 0-4

1CK1/. ?/12q 9181-1D1

9:>:8.2q=1D1 0-1>8-:=>8?: 4N5.=b.8>b
?2.7G8 1-4.=8: 4b1-4.=8:
4N5.=.=4. E4N5.=.=4.
>
44 1-4.=8: 44
?
=1-5:2q=1D1
0-1>8-:=>8?:F
-:N5.-=1>84 k >2;7:. 1-4.=84-;.51D1
` 9-4?<. 4 =:/1 N:5.=48q5=1D11C-:N4b
=: 9-4?<. =.7G8=1S
4 9-4?1S
6 D/.

?<K1/48 4N 81794
01 9-4?1S 6 :
>
0-4K1/48 ?
? 8179; 01 >0 ?0 >0
E ?<K1/480-1>8-:=>8?
01 6 : 0-4K1/48 01 F ` k0:-.6
-.N;2q8:8.
: a 81 ? 0-14N1S/G8 0.-.B
# > ?
>8:=1?9:
?0
? ;01-b/17.==1S
?
>2;7:. =.7G8=1D1
>

I
0-4?1/48 9 4N5.=.=4J 1-4.=8: 44 `

2JC1.

=:21D47=<54
=.0-.-<?=1. -:>>;3/.=4b54513=1
181C-:3.=4. 6D/. /19:N:8q6 781 0-4
1/=1>?bNB
=1.

5=1D11C-:N4.6 D151810=1 ?213.=4J →1 19:N<?:.8>b6 781
`

l =. 2JC1.
? ?
181C-:3.=4.
?213.=4J ` 118?.8>8?;Jc4S
→
D/. ?
1/=1>?bN=1.
l0-45.- 0-4?./G=5=1D11C-:N4.6D151810=1
? `

7
513=1 19:3.5
?21348q 8.0.-q6
? 781>=162JC1. 781 N:59=;81.
>M.-; > /?;5.-=1.513=1
-;79:54 5=1D11C-:N4.
?21348q
R `
5
/:3. ?
` >=1 8:93.6 781 .>24
R813. 513=1 ?21348q ? ` ,1 a 815; /1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q6
> >

4 513=1 ?21348q
>
? ? R
678181
?
?
?
513=1
?
?
?21348q ? R `
R
8-45k213.=4. ?./4=47=1S 513=1 >M.-< 01>8-148q >2./;Jc45 1C-:N15M1-5;21S

` :>>51B
R ?
181C-:3.=4.
R R
F 7→ E ? −6 8 .F ` ,19:3.56 ⊂781
?
81 6 N:/:==1.
181C-:3.=4.
?
4=/; 4B

E-;.8 ?213.=4.
H
88
H
8 8
81
?
181C-:3.=4.
? R
a R
` ` a ? 817=1>84 4N /?;K /4:5.8-:2q=1
8
?H H

b?2b.8>b 01D-;3.=4.5
40-184?101213=<K
0-11C-:N 9:3/1S R
81794
817.9
R
>1>8148
>M.-< ` 1 0-11C-:N. >24 H I6 81 4N -:B
?.=>8? 19:3.5
5
H >=:7:2:
6 H 6 ;8?.-3/.=4.
H >2./;.86 781 H `
p 6 H6 6H `

>24 H H HI6 81 /?: 4N 74>.2 -:?=< I6 : 8-.8q. -:?=1

± `

H H ± H H H

>8:G8>b
8q.74>.2 -:>>518-.8q
74>21 18247=1-:?=1 18 =;2b

>2;7:S6 91D/: /?: 4N 74>.2 -:?=< I6 : 8-.B
H
88
` /?:818/-;D4K
>2;7:S18247=<>118?.8>8?;.8 815;6.0.-q
781 1/=1
8 8

4N=;3=1 0-4?2.7q -:?.=>8?1

I6 : H 424

18
9?4?:2.=8=1.=;2b ` w .5; =:5
-:?.=B
a 4 H ` >24 H I6
88
>8?1 ?
H
H
F?
` >24 H
− I6 81 E
H H
?

?
81 H ±√ 4 H ` >24 H I6 81 H ±± √− 4 H ` b?2bB
√
H H >
19:3.5 8.0.-q68781. ?01>8-1.==1. 181C-:3.=4.

R R5:8-4
?
H H H ?H
.8>b5
81D1 01D-;3.=4.56
181C-:3.=4b `
45..8 ` 9:3/1S
-:=D 8179.
,-1.984?=;J E F 021>91>8q
→R : 91C4
513=1 01B
6?
a9-<8q 8-.5b 9:-8:54 > 911-/4=:8:54 `

88
∈ H
8:K6>118?.8>8?.==16 H I6 H I 4 H I Ek F6
0.-?1SE

F 4
9:-8. E F
5:8-4? 84K
h a : 91C4
9:-B
`
8 8 8
H H
181C-:3.=4b 45..8 ?4/ 6

6
6 6
H

D !

−

− D H

−
:8-44 :6812q91
81D/: 1C-:N1?:==:b
81D/:6 0.-?<5 4 01>2./=45
91D/: H I6 8 . >812C
H 156I ?<-13/.==:b
H
H
4 >812C
H ± ` 1561

− −
` `

? ?
?=.?<-13/.==:b
8:915 >2;7:. 5:8-4 :6 1C-:N1?:==:b ?81-<5 4 8-.8q45 H

H

` k1 ?81-1S 9:-8. 5:8-4 : 91C4 181C-:3.=4b 45..8

6
I
?4/
D !
− D − H

,-4 a 8155:8-4
=:> 4=8.-.>;J8 24 q/?;5b 8. 817946 /2b 9181-<K H I k 8:915
− − H
>2;7:. :6 1C-:N1?:==:b 01>2./=454 >812C :546` =.?<-1B

3/.==:b
/?;5b 0-4 6H>812C
0.-?<54 I ` :546

.>24 =.?<-13/.==:b
H I 4 H I6 812b5:8-4 8-.8q.S :6 1C-:N1?:==:b
9:-8< =.?b

H H
-13/.==1>8q
:=:21D47=1 ` 5:8-4 < 91C4 ? 8179.

H ± H
5

! ! ! ) *(* ( )$ * '

,;>8q R 5=1D11C-:N4b
84-1?:==1D1
6 →R

l` 01D-;3.=4.
N
>
N:59=;81D1 >?bN=1D1
1-4.=84-1?:==1>84 >2./;.86 1-4.=B
781 ?
9:3/1S 8179.
=<S?.981- E 8.0.=q F 1/=1N=:7=1 10-./.2G= ./4=47=<S =1-5:2qB
F∈` ,1E a 815;
H
181C-:3.=4.
6

4=/; 4-;.8U V181C-:3.=4.

R 01D-;3.=4b

` H
a 81D1
:/:7.S 181C-:3.=4b
1 8156 9:91S =:N<?:J8
513.8 C<8q \U ^
\ W [=1-5:2q=:b 6

^\ `
7 ) ! &( '
→

m 01D-;3.=4b 6 N:=45:24>q6 ? 7:>8=1>846 10M 6 4

>8.0.=q)+
6

42=1- d ` /.>q 5< 4N21345 =.9181-<. 4N 4K -.N;2q8:81? `

6
,-.3/. ?>.D1-:?=:N:5.8456 781 .>2401D-;3.=4b

=1-5:2q=:b 6>8.0.=q 01D-;3.=4b

R >455.8-4b
>
18=1>48.2q=16 81 >8.0.=q
D40.-021>91>846 -:?=:D/. RFR ` →.S>8?4B
> >
l8.2q=16
6 →R
E R 6
81>912q9;6 .>24 6 6 6``` 6 E F6 l4N5.=b.8 F l 0121348.2q=1 1-4.=84-1?:==<S C:N4>6 5
```181C-:3.=4. >
E 18-4
:8.2q=1 1-4.=84-1?:==<S
H
−
C:N4>6 01B
1-4.=8: 4J =:7486 /2b 181C-:3.B

`
>
H
=4b =1?1. 181C-:3.=4. → 4 181C-:3.=4b 0-./>8:?2b.8 >1C1S 91501N4 4J

>8:-1D1
6
45..8 181C-:3.=4b
>8.0.=q 6 R :=8401/:2q=1.
: →
181C-:3.=4.

− | `
81C-:3.=4.
45..8

>8.0.=q E− F `

|
> − →
2b /?;K 1-4.=84-1?:==<K 5=1D11C-:N4S 4 513=1 01>8-1B
−

48qVVU1-4.=84-1?:==1.
5
5=1D11C-:N4. 6 =:N<?:.51. 4K _Z\ U
> ?
` 81 /.2:.8>b >2./;Jc45? 1C-:N15 ` ,;>8q ` k<-.3.5 4

> ? &# !
ol ./4=47=<.
& !
:-<6 ?213.==<. a 84 5=1D11C-:N4b ⊂
4N⊂
a

84K

>

>

?

?
:-1? >:-<>1K-:=.=4.5
>92.45 -:/4;>: 1-4.=8:

6 : 1>8:?44 4.>b -4> 424=/-<
F 04 .5 8; 491=>8-;9B > >
` ` ` a
>− ?−
× ×
4J C12.. M1-5:2q=1 E
` ,;>8q 4J6R : → 4N5.=b.8 4 R 1-4.=8:

l ?213.=4b6

0-47G5 IF >1K-:=b.8
4 1-4.=8:
IF 4 1813/.>8?45 8179; F >
→
>
81791S 4J ` k1Nq5G5
> ? ?
E − F
> ?
\ E \ E E

> > ? ? > ?

I"
4> ` ` ` ?bN=:b >;55:

7
/2b 9:3/1D1F ./4=47=1D1F ?.981-:

3.=4. >1K-:=b.8
4 9:3/1D1 6 D/. I
1-4.=8: 4J6 01 815; ? ` 012;7.=B
81C-:B
E 7→ E − 513=1 ?<C-:8q 1-4.=8:a 4J6 >1D2:>1?:=B

=15
=;J 5=1D11C-:N44
>

?

> 1-4.=8: 4b54 5=1D11C-:N4S 4 ` >=16 781 ≈ h
> ?

? 7:>8=1>846 ≈ `

> ?
VU U UT UV
\V [V Y\ U ^m ^\_^ ^\V Y YY YU \VUm \WU omZYUTW oZY R R \ W \[UW
>

: : & > ? () # & )'
>
&( > ?* ( > ? () # & '
$
) ! &(
m )+ > ?
Up [Z[ ^ 5=1D11C-:N4.
U k1Nq5G5 0-14N?12q=<. 4
81794>1C>8?.==1D1
− ,
`
,.-.5.>845

/?43.=4b
( ) &( #
>
8:96=:?>8-.7;
,
01>-./>8?15
781C< =1-5:2q=<. ?.981-<
∈
?F 8179:K
? .?924/1?:
∈
4 /2b
H
> >
H
? ?
C<24 =:0-:?2.=<
>1D2:>1?:==1>84
R
1-4.=8: 4S /-;D
,1>2./-;D;
81D1 -4>
E513=1 a
` ` >/.2:8q 81 =;3=1
h 0.-.>8-1SB H
>
H
?
9;=1-5:2q=;J
4 012;748q>8.0.=q01D-;3.=4. ` a
5=1D11C-:N4b/1>8:817=1
` 81C< ?<74>248q

a
91 -:N0-4=45:.8>b/1C=19:91.B8181D1 01D-;3.=4b6
10-./.2G==1. N=:7.=4. 0-1>2./48q6
0-4 >912qB
181C-:3.=44
> ?

8.2q=1
>

01
?
→ `
.?.248q

0-1>2./48qN:681N=:7.=4.5
5=1D11C-:N4. 513=1 E F ` >24 ?0-./?:-4B
>748:8q6781
8179. H
>
N=:7.=4. F 0-4 181C-:3.=44 /:G8 ?92:/ 81 >118?.8B

`
> >
>8?;.8 E 781 ? 19-.>8=1>84 81794→ 5=1D11C-:N4. ?<D2b/48

815;6 H
>
>

H
9:9 >M.-: 4 E =1?<K F l ?=.N=:7.=4S

=bb =1-5:2qF9=.a 81S01b?2b.8>b
>M.-. ` k 8:91S >48;: 44

> >
H
0-4 0.-.>8-1S9. H
>
1>8:J8>b ?>. N=:7.=4b E F 181C-:3.=4S

E → 4 → 6 9-15.
>
` w :945
H
1C-:N156
>

> ?
H
I
4> ` ` ` ,1D-;3.=4. >?bN=1S >;55<

N=:7.=4b
01>8-1.==1D1 ? 8179. ` k -.N;2q8:8.
01D-;3.=4b -:?=: 012;7:.56 781 =1-5:2q=:b >8.0.=q
− `
>
H
> ?
WY \^] \ UV X^W VU \ U m UTW oZY

#
>
& U U
# ) !
U 0( U
mW YZ \ \^] \ \ W [ \ ^m ^\

: E ;
U V U o!

0( &
) ! &(

)+
()
Up [Z[01>8-145 U ,-45.=4? >455.8-4J 18=1>48.2q=1 D40.-021>91B

R ,
>846 ^ 01D-;3.=4. ? > =1-5:2q=1S >8.0.=qJ k1NqB

− `
( ) &( #
, >
5G5 /?:
k -.N;2q8:8. 9N.502b-: 8:9 01D-;3G==1S
a 012;745 01D-;3.=4. R >M.-< 4 0-45.=45
> =1-5:2q=1S
8.1-.5; ```
>8.0.=qJ

F E− F −F H − F ` :8.5
E>8.0.=qJ

H 01>8-145
01D-;3.=4.
" 4 8 `/ `
≈

> =1-5:2q=1S
E− E−01D-;3.=4b

−
7G8=<54 < 01>8-1424

>8.0.=b54
− −
,-45.=4?

? R >1 18=1>48.2q=1
>455.8-4J

?>.54 18-4 :8.2q=<54
>
=.B
D40.-021>91B
` >1 ?>.54 0121348.2q=<54 =.7G8=<54 >8.0.B

>846
=b54 ` 012;745 01D-;3.=4b
UU\ VW V [ U\ U o ^m ^\ \^]V UT\ Un[YV \ UTUU U\V m UTWoZY mU UTW oR ^\UU R U
VU W[ZY^
>

; &( ) 0( "
> #
\ W [ \ ^m ^\ Y ^ ^ o ^ [ o ] \ ] Y
& ) ! &( )+ () # & +" !
, @
) ! &( ) *
+ += ! ( & + 0( &( ) * (
Up 4[Z[01>8-145
^ U01D-;3.=4.
k1Nq5G5 01D-;3.=4. ? =1-5:2q=1S >8.0.=qJ
,

> =1-5:2q=1S >8.0.=qJ
( ) &( #
, G

`

≈
VU \ U m UTVUW oZY RY Z[Vp \\oo Û Û UWY^\ U\ W V [YW U\ U[\\ U ^^mV^\\ UTUU W[ZY^
G

: &
> (
U m [
( # "

W[ ^ YZ o ^ () # & # ! ) ! &( )+ * ( '

,

I
Up [Z[ -:>>21.=4.
8.2q=1. ^ U .D91 4=/;
( ) &( # 0-1?.-48q6
,

4-1?:=1

7814N 9:>:8.2q=1D1
H E F6 8 `. ` 9:>:B
-:>>21.=4b

01>-./>8?15 181C-:3.=4b .S>8?48.2q=16 F >1B
∗
→ `

>8148 4N 0:- E F6 D/. ∈ 4 ⊥ E F ` R

E
5

>24 >8.0.=q 181C-:3.=4b R → -:?=: =;2J6 81181C-:3.B

>1D2:>B
∗
8
H H H
=1=4J8.1-.5. 10M: 181C-:3.=4. D151810=1 01>81b==15;

` 81C-:3.=4.6 D151810=1. 01>81b==15; 181C-:3.=4J6 4=/; 4-;B

.8 8-4?4:2q=1. -:>>21.=4.

`

U W^n
UT m U U YV ]VUU V \UUTUUUT W[ZY^ \^ m [W[U TU^ VUYZ o ^VUU
Y UTW\^]ZY \ n[ ^ YU \^] \\U m\ UWWVoZY[ \ U R ^ ^\ ^ \ U \^ \Z_

; *
( "
>
0( & () # * (
mm UTW ooZY RR \Y p [pU ] \ U \ UW V [ \ U ^mm ^\

() #
() #
, @ >
> &
+" !
& !
0(
0(
!
!
) ! &(
) ! &(
)+ *
)+
)
Up [Z[ 8.1-.5<
^ U `,15451 8.1-.5< ` `" =;3=1 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b >2./B
,
>8?4.5
( ) &( #
`` ,

UT ^ Z[Vp \ o U ^ UWY^\ Up [ Y ^ VU] UV^ UTUU Y X^W[ V U
m [W[pU ^ UYZUo ^ VU[ U U

W oZY R U ^YWm [W[ o ^ ^^ YZ\ o ^VU W[ZY^ W^ \ m

: ( * ( & & * ( +'

" ( ( " * ( '
>
() # * (
k213.=4. 5=1D11C-:N4b ? b?2b.8>b6 ? 7:>8=1>846 01D-;B

,
>
3.=4.5
>8.0.=q ,1 a 815;
`` 1-5:2q=:b /2b ?213.=4b
>8.0.=q 813.
R
513=1 -:>>518-.8q
?213.=4b ;/1?2.8?1-b.8 =1-5:2q=;J
/1?12q=1 >42qB
=<5 ;>21?4b5
F H

81C< >M1-5;24-1?:8q
` ed F6 D/. ://484?=:b a 84 ;>21?4b6 ??./G5 ?.2474=;
D-;00: 0-14N?12qB
E h

=1D1E 012b `
P

>
UV U
^\Y_ R U ≡ E F E Ye F Y\| W| 6[ \[_E F ^m ^\

:

. & 4 ) ) # '
> > > &(
# * ( ? ?
Up [Z[ 1/=:
^ 4NU9181-<K =13.>8?1 >1>8148 4N /?;K >?bN=<K 915B
,
>
01=.=86

8:8q6 781
( ) &( #
,
1D-:=47.==:b

R \
h 1C1N=:745 .G ` 13=1 >74B
1-4.=84-1?:=1 8:96 781 =1-5:2q=<S ?.981- =:0-:?2.=

=:-;3;
9:N<?:.8>b 01 18=1
817=1 .=4J
8:9 9 9:9
3.6 ` 1-5:2q=:b
4 1>=1?=:b >8.0.=q
2.55:
4N-:?=: E F ` 81 /1B
/19:N:8.2q>8?: 8.B
1-.5<
10-./.2.=4S,;:=9:-.?4/=16 10M: 7:>8q 6 8.1-.5: ` F ` .01>-./>8?.==1 4N
781 EE F ≡ E F E e F 4 − E F 6 E F 6 E F `

12.. 81D16 ed E h F H 6 01a 815; − E F 6 E F `
19:3.5 8.0.-q64b781 E ,121345 F H E F ` ,;>8q 1/=1817.7B

l >
>
=:b
-.5. /?1S>8?.==1>84 R2.9>:=/.-: E F ∼H \ E \ F 8.1B
5
9150:984M49: `

H
>

` 1D2:>=1 ?
0-4
!

F
>
!
F
7
>
−
I
IH 6ed 6 ` >24 6 F 6H ed − 6 81 edF ed E F HF ed N -:?.=>8?: E FH F

F
EE F H ed E FE H I` ` 2./1?:8.2qB

ed=16 EF HFEH I F>2./;.86

G > G
F
781 ed F F
−

− \
E E F Eed EE F6F ` 01>912q9; ed E F ed2.9>:=/.-: FH H

! −
− 7
H=1ed0-45.=48q
w 6 =1 4 9 ` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7456513B
.1-.5; /?1S>8?.==1>84 E

=. 812q91 9 781

!F F
H
H4 EED15181047.>94
!
F F
F∼` >=1 E8:93.6\9?4?:2.=8=<H F
781 E F EH k E481D.
>
0-4 I
F6 01>912q9;
6 6
!
6 :
F N=:7486
0-1>8-:=>8?: E F H

G

a ` 012;7:.56 781 E F H
− −

H E F `

! !"! # * (*)* *%* '

,;>8q 01/5=1D11C-:N4.
02.9>=1. l B5.-=1. 91502.9>=1.-:N5.-=1>84 5=1D11C-:N4.6
81 A
1N=:7:.86 l 781 915B
` 781 ? @ 5=13.>8?1A

⊂
019-<81 189-<8<54 ? 5=13.>8?:54 @ −8:96

A N:/:G8>b ;-:?=.=4.5 H I6 D/. 13=1 D12151-M=:b M;=9 4b6 0-47G5

l

e
9-<?:J8

6 H
F H I /2b ?>.K @
E 6 E.>24 @ ∩ A∈H ∅∩6 A81` 513=1 0121348q H 6H IF `@,1/B
H
6
>748:8q6781

5=13.>8?:

6
01B

5=1D11C-:N4J
>21.=4.

A

F =:/ >513=1
M;=9

>101>8:?48q
4b54 0.-.K1/: B5.-=1.F H91502.9>=1.
F F -:>B>B 6

`

24 ∈ A 6 EA81 01/-:N;5.?:.8>b6 781 E F H dE E EF E EF h a 818

> ⊂

H 6 H 6 H

0-./.2 -:?.= 91 a MM4 4.=8; 0-101- 41=:2q=1>84 ?.981-1? e E F 4

H H
6∈ " → 6 H 6 H
e F
E `
F =. N:?4>48 18 ?<C1-: M;=9 4S ` .S>8?48.2q=16

6 H

:>>21.=4.

6 H
0;>8q

? @ EA A N:/:G8>b ;-:?=.=4b54 H I 4 H I ` w1D/:
5=13.>8?1
6
5
M;=9 44 r H =. 1C-:c:J8>b ? =;2q =: @ 4 H ss `

!

6 6
:>>21.=4.=:
5=13.>8?.
EA F 45..8 D12151-M=1. >.7.=4.6@ 1C-:c:Jc..>b ? =;2q
! !

6 6
?M;=9817=1>84 : 5=13.>8?. 81 >.7.=4. N:/:G8>b

4.S ` .S>8?48.2q=16 ` 5< 012;7:.5 91--.98=1

A 8:9 a 10-./.2G==1.

>.7.=4.6 01>912q9; H `

6
5
6
\^ U\^\Y^
U [_ VTYm ^W m U ^W \FUH I ^m ^\Y
6
#

C
* Z[n[\\[_
E ; &( )
Uon\ UW U A
n\ V o W[ $
4
E # ^m ^\Y
& "
8
#

1
8
&( ) &(
&(
,

!

I
@
UT n[
EA F ∼H ⊗ ⊗ ∗
>

>

,
| {z }
.5Up [Z[E ^ U k 9:-8.

( ) &( #
8 8 8
,
8F H I6@ D/.D40.-01?.-K=1>8q A N:/:G8>b ;-:?=.=4B

6

H E

8
F
8 8 8
8

8
6
=:7486 -:>>21.=4.
EA F N:/:G8>b M;=9 4b54

0.-.K1/: H H

H ` 9:=1=47.>91. -:>>21.=4. =:/ C N:/:G8>b M;=9 4b54 >
0.-.K1/: H E0-45.- " ` ` =: > ` F `

=<5 k ;-:?=.=4.56
7:>8=1>846 /2b-:>>21.=4.
D40.-01?.-K=1>84

F 4N151-M=1
C
6 N:/:==1S104>:==1B
⊂-:>>21.=4J6
C
24=.SB >
EC −

5; ? .>213=1
0-45.-. 0-1?.-48q6
" ` ` =: > ` `
781 1D-:=47.=4.

-:>>21.=4b-:>>21.=4.5

F =: b?2bB
.8>b .S>8?48.2q=16

=1-5:2q=<5 E?-:>>518-45 >5<>2. a -5481?1S 5.8-494F EA A9 A ?
=:/
` @ >2;3:8 ?.981-<6 0-101--:>>21.=4.
5
41=:2q=<. =:/ A 6 >21b54 9181-1D1
e ` >24 e H

H e 6 81 H ` ,1a 815; -:>>21.=4. N:/:G8>b M;=9 4b54

6

6
0.-.K1/: H 6 01` 815; :>>21.=4. 91502.9>=1 >10-b3.=1 =1-5:2q=1B

6
5; H-:>>21.=4J -:>>21.=4. N:/:G8>b M;=9 4b54 0.-.K1/:

a>1?0:/:J8 > M;=9 4b54 0.-.K1/: /2b -:>>21.=4b

6 6
F`
6 9181-<.

EA
6
6
UT o A \^ U U [_ T Y m ^W m U ^W \ U ^m ^\Y
n[
E . ; &( ) 4 & " # &( ) &( #
1
C , @
EA FHE F E − !
>
F !
? ?
! ! 8
T n^ VVUTW[\Y]^\Y^ p [\ U\Y]Û pUpU p U W[ZHo I ^ TW omm EC h ZF \[

−
> ?
A Up [Z[o ^[ Zn^ U ,;>8q

! 4
pU \^]\[_ m o *
& !
& )
"
!

+= !
B
$

.>8.>8?.==1. ?213.=4. `w,11D/:

A& &)
H 4
EA F H lR A=1-5:2q=1.
,
→ C l -:>>21.=4. 9

? 81B
F ` 748<?:b6AF 781CH
EA FFa H
`
( ) &( #
,
5;H E FHF H 4 ⊕ F HH ⊕ F
EA6 012;7:.5
! ∗ ∗
"
∗ ∗
− E
F6 : N=:7486 EC E E EA E

C>
" " "

> >
!

!
EA F HH E FF E F H F
> >
! ! −

E E−
> ? ?
! ! ! !
−

C
I

UT n[o
E : ; &( )
A \^ U U [_ T Y m ^W m U ^W \ U ^m ^\Y
4 & " #
1
&( ) &( #
C
EA F H X E− F
, @ >
− F F >

FI
Up U k 0-45.-. 5< ?<74>2424 012=<S 92:>> 3.=b

G
[Z[ ^ ` k 7:>8=1>846` `
− −

5=1D11C-:N4b ( ) &( #
A ,

F H F
>
EA E−
X − F F >
> ! −
− FI
81C< ?<74>248q EA F H h EA F A i 6 1>8:G8>b ?<74>248q

− − G
> 8
A hi ` A i -:?=1 74>2; 817.9 0.-.>.7.=4b ? C 492:6

>
4>21
! − 8 −
h >
/?1S>8?.==1D1
81

91502.9>=:b 60-b5:b
> A E> ;7G815k 1Cc.5
! − 8
>
N=:9:F `01213.=44
4926 /?1S>8?.==<S
0-b5:b 0.B6
>
a `
− −
l-.>.9:.8 01?.-K=1>8q >8.0.=4C ? 8179:K6 01>912q9; 1D-:=47.=4. >

C
=:
>
0-b5;J
=1-1/=<5 1/=1-1/=1D1
5=1D172.=15 5=1D172.=:
>8.0.=4 18
18 /?;K 0.-.5.==<K
0.-.5.==<K6 b?2b.8>b
9181-15; 1/B
>1B

18?.8>8?;.8
k>. N=:94 =.1/=1-1/=<S
/2b 817.9 5=1D172.=
0.-.>.7.=4b N/.>q >8.0.=4 18
0121348.2q=<.61/=1S 0.-.5.==1S
01>912q9; 5< `
45..5
D47.>94S/.2192:>>
> 91502.9>=<54
-:?.= 5=1D11C-:N4b54 ` w:945 1C-:N156 D15121B
A
C
` >

k012;7:.5
7:>8=1>846 /2bF H D2:/91S :2D.C-:47.>91S,19-4?1S >8.0.=4 ?
−
?
H
EA H − 6 8 `. ` H f− g f` g a` A l
815; A ?
>M.-: > ?
-;79:546 D/.
>
C ? > ?
=:21D47=1
-:98.-4>849;

−
=.513=1
812q91

?<74>248q
−

=.1>1C1S

012=<S 92:>> 3.=b=1 44 a0.-.>.7.=4b
D40.-01?.-K=1>846 S2.-1?; K:B
− ? −

=.1>1C<K
U H\V mD40.-01?.-K=1>8.S V =:N<?:J81Cc.D1B5.-=1.
01213.=4b69:9 a 81 >/.2:=1
91502.9>=1. ? `
5=1D11C-:N4.

;
$
^W^ ^]^\Y^

&
6 D/. 6 ```H I66 6l D40.-01?.-K=1>846

N:B
/:==<. 1/=1-1/=<54
∩
>
∩ ⊂ C

>
;-:?=.=4b54
```
81-< e 6 ``` 6 e 24=.S=1 =.N:?4>45< ? 9:3/1S 8179. ∈ `H I6 /2b 9181-<K>
6
?.9B
>

H U \ U ^ m ^W^ ^
6 6 H
* V
0 &(
o
E E ; &( )
T U ∩
U
∩

⊂ C
#
m
]^\Y^W^nmWY]U U YV ^m] ^\YU T YY m^W^W mU ^W^W \\U Y^ \^W[U U \ ^ UT n[
>

&( ! >*

*
4

# >*
& '
*

;
, m * (
m m #
1
1
&( > *
,,,
,,,
*
& "
$
$ , @
,,,
E F H X E− F

!Y F #
F
8
FI I>
− G

T n^ H P
F
C

IF >C

,
Up [Z[ ^ U F ,;>8q9:=1=47.>9:b .>8.>8?.==1. ?213.=4.6

( ) &( #
R → C 1C-:N;Jc:b

l 4 H ` w1D/:

E
?
F H

,
hZ F l 4 H 6 D/.
! ∗
=1-5:2q=1.
EC 9E ? C ` >=16f 781g ∼ l ⊕0-b5:b >;55:l -:>>21.=4S
C

∈

>
-:>>21.=4.

F6 01 a 815; F H

∗

C

F E F ` 2./1?:8.2q=16

E
E

FH

E
> !
F E F E F

! 7
E E

> > >
! > ! −
! −
k 7:>8=1>846

FH X F

!
E E−
F #
F !
FI
>8:G8>b /19:N:8q6 781 H 6 8 `. ` B5.-=1. 01/0-1B81

− G

>8-:=>8?1
513=1

>/.2:8q 1Cc.D1

-:N=<54 01213.=4bh
>01>1C:54 0.-.>.9:.8
i
k1B0.-?<K6 ?
! 8
513=1 8179:K `
?1>012qN1?:8qB
>

#
`
>

C
>b 8.560.-.>.7.=4.
781 492 D15121D47.= .S>8?48.2q=16 -:>>51B

8-45
a 9N.502b-1?
C `
1Cc.D1 01213.=4b ?

>

> −
5

E 4=/.9>; 0.-.>.7.=4b CC F ` 4 C=/.9>

a?.=81 0.-.>.7.=4. -:?=1 0.-.>.7.=4b 4 C -:B
#
−

6 ;5=13.==15; =: ` k1B

C
?81-<K6 513=1 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b 5.81/15 4>92J7.=4b 0.-.5.==<K6 91B
>
C
81-<S 1>=1?:= =: ?<74>2.=44 -.N;2q8:=8: /?;K 5=1D172.=1? ,-45.B

=bb 5.81/ 4>92J7.=4b 0.-.5.==<K 9 1D-:=47.=4b5 1/=1-1/=<K ` M1-5<

>8.0.=.S
72.= >8.0.=46 ``` 6 =:` B5.-=1. 01/0-1>8-:=>8?16 5< 012;745 5=1D1B
>
>

12..781:99;-:8=<. -:>>;3/.=4b 019:N<?:J86 781 0-./B

01213.=4.

1
18C-1>48q R >5 ` `8156
D40.-01?.-K=1>84

6 ``` 6 =.1>1C<.6 513=1 >
! ! ! '' '(*)( *) '

? C,;>8qD40.-01?.-K=1>8q
6 ``` 6 l =:8;-:2q=<.L 6 N:/:==;J 74>2:6;-:?=.=4.5
HE F ` :>>518-45
8 8
>
H

k ;9:N:2 :5? L?<74>242
1=?<74>2bJ8>b

/.M1-5: D-;00<
41==<S D15121D4S
-.8-:98 @ 0-1>8-:=>8?:
6 D15121D44

L ` 2b a2.D91

9181-1D1

81D1

5
` k d 019:N:=16 781 0-1>8-:=>8?1 @ D15181047.>94

9?4?:2.=8=1 C;9.8; E − F E − F >M.- -:N5.-=1>84 ` w:945

a1C-:N156

LE F H (I ff g f g 0-4
!F

0-4 6
Hh
H > > G

−
,1/0-1>8-:=>8?1 @ ⊂ L 10-./.2b.8>b 8:9 R

Z −
G
@ H { ∈ L ∩ R | > I /2b H I }

>
8 8
.M1-5: 41==:b -.8-:9 4b L =: @ 6>8-148>b

H
>2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 `
H

5
:>>518-45 181C-:3.=4.

N:/:==1.

M1-5;21S
> >
E
F C
7→ E
→C
8 FH
E
8 F 8 8 8 8
C-:N15 L;-:?=.=4.5
N:/:==:b 0-4 a 815 181C-:3.=44H>2;34881C-:3.=4.

D40.-021>91>8qL A ? Cb?2bB6

>

.8>b -:N?.8?2G==<5

FB24>8=<5 ` =:9-<84.5 > ?.8?2.=4.5

R → A =:/
#
E
0.-.>.7.=4b54

? A 6 > D40.-021>91>8b54
N:/:==<S =.-:?.=>8?:54 H I ` 8:=/:-8=<S
I6

6 I >4502.9>
4 ;-:?=.B
> ```
7
> >
=4.5
91>84
R ⊂C
H 6b?2b.8>b /.M1-5: 41==<5 -.8-:9815 >
D40.-021>B

` =:.S>8?48.2q=16 >=:7:2: 5< >8-14541==;J

/.M1-5:-.8-:941==;J -.8-:9B=:

4J A
>

6 N:8.5

5

>8-145
>
/.M1-5: 4J
>

D40.-021>91>8q
C R
4JH D40.-021>91>84 A =: 6 : 01815
>4502.9> >8-145 /.M1-5:
>
41==;J -.8-:9B
R

6 9:9 019:N:=1 =: -4> ` ` " /2b

F
∩ R
E

4> ` ` " ` .M1-5: 41==:b -.8-:9 4b

5
,-4 8:91S81791S
/?43;c.S>b /.M1-5:1>8:G8>b
41==1S=.4N5.==<56
-.8-:9 44 840 ?.8?2.=4b
01a 815; =:/ 41==;J
/.M1-5:
9:3/1S

-.8-:9 4J A
=:
0-4513=1
=:8180-11C-:N 01/=b8q /1=:9-<844

-:N?.8?2G==15 /.M1-5: 41==1S
L -.8-:9>=1644781L
R →A`

a 0-11C-:N >1?0:/:.8 > @ `

#

T U U H U U@

_ _^ _ TW[X UV _ Y m ^W m ^W \ Y mW W[\

E # &( > &( &( #
1
# ( &
Up [Z[ >4502.9>15
^ U 118?.8>8?;Jc.. -:N?.8?2G==1. =:9-<84. =:/ B
,
5.-=<5
( ) &( #

/2b H 6 H 4N1C-:3.=1 =: -4> ` ` `
,
7
>

4> ` ` ` :N?.8?2G==1. =:9-<84.

19:3.5 8.0.-q6F 781 0-1>8-:=>8?1

=1513=1
C;9.8; F >M.- @ D15181047.>94
-:N5.-=1>84 a 9?4?:2.=8B@
,-1>8-:=>8?1
`
5
E − E> 0-1>8-:=>8?15

1813/.>8?48q =:C1-1? F6 D/.781

P HE ` 81 1N=:7:.86
−
91-.=q 4N ./4=4 < >8.0.=4 6 I 4

8 8
l@ l /31S= Z ∗ Z ∗ ∗ Z 6 D/.>Z l /4>9-.8=1. 0-1>8-:=>8?16

>1>81bc.. 4N 817.9 ` 1 Z H | ∨ {z ∨ } 6 01 a 815;

C

>

−

8
f g f g
Z ∗ Z C ∗ ∗ Z ∼ | ∨ {z
∨

> >}
01>912q9; | ∗ {z ∗ } H h N/.>q 5< 012qN;.5>b 8:93. 8.56 781

− −

>
EA ∨ A F ∗ ∼ EA ∗ F ∨ EA ∗ F
> ? > ?
V V p p T pU
YZ ^nY\Y oUTn^n[ @W[ H Z[ ∗WY [∗Z Z [ V ^W\W ommo YVW\^m Y Y[ ^m\^\Y

E && ( # () ! &(

2 4 ' ! & 2 ) !
$, @ $ $

pUVUV m ^p V mUWY]U VU ^TU UVV ^W\UU ^ YV m ^p \[ VU n_ V_ T ^ ^ ^\H

H\ Z Z[Y⊕ V\ ⊕ ZVn\ Z\[]\T^ p [ n ^ VV^W\YYp YVÛUm ^\^p [ m UY oW][ômm _Zm U n
&* 0 & & ' ( & # &( &( # '
$ $ 1
# & ( # ( &( # & (
$
n^ UV Y^ ^V ^^\ ^\ T[W W omm Z \[ Y m ^ ^ ^V ^\o TYW ^nY

* ( ! ' ! & & (&
, , $ $
\Y]\
! &( # ( & & * & ( # ( &( # + = ! '
UU o ^ oo YômmU W[ZZ o oYV TW omm Z Z omm

$
( ; &( ) * * 4 (
$ , ,,, $ $
[ UpUp [ Y ^ ] UU H UE − U FU E − F T UY pU T
* & ( # ( &( # + = " += * *
Z ,,, ,
B ( * ( 4 2
[ YUTU^ X]UW V _nWU

W[ ^\Y_

^
"B
_ Z[n[\\
( * ( ( "

F W omm F U[W U ^ n^\

,
# ! " W UZ Z^
o 7→ E − E − m $

V ^\ [V Y
# & " * ! * '

T n^ H I
(
? >

− 8 8 8 8
Up [ Y ^ ] U ^V ^\

#B ( * ( (
T n^ I 6 6 −
$
F F F
>C 8 8
U W[Z o [ZY ^ U]Y ^\\ TUVU UTY mW U W[\ [ @

G
" +( " & 2 & ! &( &( #

$1 ,

! !"! *& ) * )$(( '

.8>b omm U Y =:N<?:J8

WD-;001S60-47G5
! 5=1D11C-:N4. 6 9181-1.
181C-:3.=4b 4 1/=1?-.5.==1
6N:/:==<. b?2bB
M1-B %
5;2:54
>b>91S? 81=91>84

rF8 r
E 7→8.1-44 D-;004 7→
6b?2bJ8>b
46 =.
D2:/9454
× →
45.Jc4. −
>
18=1 81C<
→
=. ;D2;C2b8qB
` .=4b 9 :2D.C-:47.B % % % %

%
9181-<. 810121D446
b?2bJ8>b 5<01/5=1D11C-:N4b54
1D-:=4745>b -:>>518-.=4.5
? 5:8-47=<K
0-1>8-:=>8?.

D-;00 5:B46
9?:/-:8=<K

3.=4. 6 0-47G5 ;5=13.=4.

8-4 =:/5:8-4012.56 : R./4=47=<S 2.5.=8 ? D-;00. ./4=47=:b
D-;00< l a 81 1C<7=1.
5:8-4 ;5=1B
: `
a

l
:3/1S 9?:/-:8=1S 5:8-4 . 513=1 >101>8:?48q 5:8-4 ; H

H9:N:8.2q>8?: E/19:N:8.2q>8?1 >K1/451>84 a 81D1 -b/: 4 /1B

9

D

5.-6? , F ` =;2.?1S 1>=1?=<K

?
81C-:3.=4.

>?1S>8?
181C-:3.=4b 0-4?./.=<6 =:0-4B
/4MM.151-M=1 181C-:3:.8 =.9181-;J

19-.>8=1>8q 5:8-4 <=: 19-.>8=1>8q ./4=47=1S 5:8-4 <9:>:B

` :B

>:8.2q=<S
8.2q=1. ?.981-
0-1>8-:=>8?1 9 9-4?1S
9 5:8-47=1SF
F 0-4 H I
-:?.=
E D-;00. 4 ? ./4=47=15 a2.5.=B
`,1 a 815; 9
8. l a 81 24=.S=1. E
0-1>8-:=>8?16 =:8b=;81.

=: 0-11C-:N 19-.>8=1>84

./4=47=1D1 a 2.5.=8: 0-4 181C-:3.=44 h a 81 24=.S=1. 0-1>8-:=>8?1

=:N<?:J8 [ T ^ W U Y 6 >118?.8>8?;Jc.S /:==1S D-;00. 4 ` ?bN=:b
!

" 7

"
D-;00:
815; 4 012=1>8qJ
1=: N:/:G8>b N:/:G8>b
>?1.S 19-.>8=1>8qJ
:2D.C-1S 4 ./4=47=1D1
=:015=45 .cG a 2.5.=8:6
-:N6 781 01B
N/.>q
a-.7q 4/G8 1 5:8-47=<K D-;00:K 4 :2D.C-:K

E 4F `
:2D.C-<-;00: 4 010:-=1
4 9155;8:84?=:
9155;84-;J8 81D/: 4 812q91 81D/:6 ?>. 5:8-4 < .G
`

TUUTm U nmW U U W[\pU UpUT[[ LY pUT^mW ]U UW[\U W[Z m^WYV [U WYVU W[_ _^^\YY _ TWLommY\^

( * (
UV \ UY
" ( " ! '
[ n[ Y H − n[^ Y n[ nL_ n o [ WY ∈ [ WY

&( &( # # &( &( # ( 2 # (& !
( ( ) ( * +" # ( 2 8 ( '
$1 1
2 8 ( #
-;00; 4 H | × {z × } H R Z =:N<?:J8 UW UV `
,
> >
(

#
×R

_Z\[_ pUVV o [ Y \[_ TW omm [ Y YZ UVUWX\[ ( ( #
%
Up [Z[ ^ U 2b 9155;8:84?=1S D-;00< 4 181C-:3.=4.

,
R → b?2b.8>b D15151-M4N515 D-;006 01>912q9; .>24 H

( ) &( # 5
, %

H 6 81 0451-M4N515

b?2b.8>b
%
H ` 2b >?bN=1S D-;00< 4 a 818 D15151-M4N5
%
a 01>912q9;` ,1 a 815;/4MM.151-M4N5 H 6 D/. ? 19-.>8=1>84

H ` -;00:

5
/4>9-.8=:6
=:7486 8: D-;00: b?2b.8>b l
∼
/4>9-.8=1S 01/D-;001S ? =;2b `
% %

k R a513=1 H `

?<C-:8q C:N4> 8:96 781
I IF6 D/. ∈ Z ` ,1a 815; R ∼H × R ` a 2.5.=8< C;/;8 45.8q
∼R
?4/
%

E >8 8 8 8 8

pUV p pUVV T
G G G
_ UW UV _Z\[_ m [ \[_ o [ Y \[_ W omm [ Y _ _^

# ( ( ( # # ('
& (
V \ UTUU W[ZY^V [Vp \ o [_ m U nTW omm [ TW omm Y _ _^ _ m U n

,

. ( # (& '
$ %
"
Up [Z[=:0-45.-6
^ U :/:/45 ? 0-1>8-:=>8?. 5:8-4F ,-./01213456
9:9;JB=4C;/q =1-B
,

5;6
?7810-1>8-:=>8?.
( ) &( #
H
k k N:/:=:
,

6 D/. H
| |01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
`
E 5:8-4 8:96

781

∈ 6 k k → I 4 k k → ` ,19:3.56 781 81D/:

%
781

∈ `

,1>912q9; k1D/:

k → I6 513=1 ?<C-:8q .2<. 74>2:

4
1 8:96H

` w `

H E ,;>8q
F ∈ 6 : D-;00: N:59=;8: ` ,1 a 815; ∈ `

k k→

j l 0-1>8-:=>8?1

→
?>.K 5:8-40.-.K1/15
→

?4/: 6 D/.,19:3.56

5:8-4 :781 01Bj

2;7:.8>b ;9:N:==<5 ?< . 0-./.2q=<5 `

24l 24=.S=1. 0-1>8-:=>8?1j` k2b5:21S a 81D119-.>8=1>84

/1>8:817=1./4=47=1S
0-1?.-48q65:8-4 781 .>B<

∈ j 6 81 `
5
8
∈

181C-:3.=4.
>8?1 1C-:84516 01 a 815; /2b 5:2<K 45..8 5.>81 -:?.=B
H f g6 D/. F D2:/9:b 9-4?:b ? 6 0-47G5 IF H I `

H E l F E

748<?:b6

0-4 781

I

:>>518-45 E F
6
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q012;7:.565:8-4 781 E H →E F ` %
`

>=16 781 k k → I6 ∈ 6 01>912q9; ∈ /2b ?>.K 6 4

→
F6 D/. H d ` =:7486 j

∈ `
>
k k → E
> >
19:3.56 781 5=13.>8?1 j >1/.-348 19-.>8=1>8q ./4=47=1B

−

D1j a2.5.=8: ? ` ,-./>8:?45F H0-1>8-:=>8?1 ? ?4/. 0-b51S >;55<

→∞
5
181C-:3:.8
⊕
j 4
0 0121345
=.9181-;J E 19-.>8=1>8q =;2.?1S 5:8-4 <? /4MM.151-M=1

` 8 81C-:3.=4.
0 0
=: 19-.>8B

%
=1>8q
4181C-:3.=4b ./4=47=1S
? =;2. /4MM.-.= 5:8-44:2 < ? `
181C-:3.=4b 81 >2./;.86 4N 81D16 781 E F ⊂

%
>1?0:/:.8 > /4MM.-.= 4:215

% % %
6 01>912q9; 0-4817.9
5:2<K 4 F6 `/2b,-./B

01213456 781 >;c.>8?;.8 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 91B

0 0
I 4 6H I ` w1D/: E ∈ 6 01>912q9;
0
≈
81-1S E 4 F ∈ 6 E k<C.-.5 8 0 F → 01/01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
8 0
8:96 781B
8 0
∈ `

0 0
C< 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
0
j
∈
4

H I

/-;D1S

45.2:
>81-1=<6 0-./.2 ` 1/=1S
j ,-4K1/45 9 0-184?1-.B >81-1=<6 0

` 0
∈ `
0
0 7
k k
74J `

0 0 0 7 0
∈ 6
9181-1S 8:96>5< b?2b.8>b ;C./424>q601/5=1D11C-:N4.5

781 ? .>8q 19-.>8=1>8q ? @ 2b @ 3 6 81794
2JC1S 0.-.>.7.=4.
r∈

513=1 -:>>518-.8q 19-.>8=1>8q r@ `

` %
5

L UT L o UW pn^ Uo ^ U\[ ^p UW\ UV mW U W[\U

U \Û Y ^ n[\ U n^ o pY_^ U UUoW[^ [^L_W\ ^ HmW YZ ^n^\Y^ Y\ UTU[WY[\^V\^\^

: ; &( ) ( ! &( # ( # ( &( '
&( # # & = &( # ( &
F F n _ # * # (
^ W ∈ E E
, @
[∈ Y
( & ( ) ! &( # ( * ( 8 8 +" '
, ,
( + " # ( # 8
=4.Up [Z[ U k1Nq5G5M;=9? L4J 0-14N?12q=1. >9:2b-=1.F 40-14N?./.B

$1 ,
^ 6 -:>>518-45

FEH R
F
( ) &( #
,
F 6 D/. H =: 81-. E F H E 0121345

l >/?4D1? 81-:6 =:01 a 81B
9:=1=47.>9:b 5.-:
8 > 8 >
-.5;E .>24` 8: F E5.-:

6
8
6

H

4=?:-4:=8=:
F6

81 18=1>48.2q=1.
F H F
H
>
:945
H

81B
1C-:N156
E EF H R F E H R F E H `R w F

F H
R R
E F H E F ` E

E E E
6 6
8 R 8 > 8
E
6
> 8

! ! ! '' * ) '

-:N48q 9 1D15121D44
? 8.-54=:K /. .G:5::2D.C-<
>?bN=1S49150:98=1S

6 781 >?1/48 :2D.C-<
?<74>2.=4. 4 513=1 ? 91 a MM4 4.=8:54 R 9 74>81g :2D.C-:47.>91S N:/:7. ` /.>q 5<

%

104 .5 a 8; 812q91
>5:8-4?:8q 91=>8-;95:8-47=<.
4J ` :9 D-;00<
4 ? § `" `4 6:2D.C-<
5< C;/.5 4/2b 0-1>818< -:>B
`
9

:9 ;3. ;0154=:21>q
9:>:8.2q=1. 0-1>8-:=>8?1 =:? ./4=47=15
> ` 6 :2D.C-: 2.5.=8. 4 g D-;00< 1 8:91.
4 l10-.Ba 81
a9:9 24=.S=1D1 ∈ ` 0-1>8-:=>8?:
9
%
/.2.=4. D1?1-48
81C< N:/:8q 812q91
>8-;98;-; 1 >8-;98;-.
:2D.C-<6 =;3=1
g
/2b 9:3/<K /?;K 5:8-4 `
%

∈ g 10-./.248q 4K 0-14N?./.=4.6 2.3:c.. ? g h a 81 0-14N?./.=4.

1C<7=1
8
1C1N=:7:J8 4 =:N<?:J8 pUVV o [ UW`
8
155;8:81- 10-./.2b.8>b U>2./;Jc45 U1C-:N15 :3/1SU 5:8-4F H.
( (
9
513=1 >101>8:?48q ^ 2.?<S
Y\ [WY[\ \? D-;00. p U` U
^ ^ W\` ,1>912q9;
^ m ^ E 9
H01>81b==:b
∈g
E F 6 D/.
∗
5:8-4 F H
E :6 ? 5:8-47=15
H l H
>/?4D
?4/.
#
2.?14=?:-4:=8=1.
#
?.981-=1.l
( # (
%

012.
513=1 N:04><?:.8>b
10-./.248q 8:9 R?.981-=1.
9:9

E
F H 012.
` .?14=?:-4:=8=1.
=:
6 4=?:-4:=8=1.

?.981-=1. 012.
18=1>48.2qB

=1 2.?<K ?.981-15
N:/:G8>b >/?4D1? ` w?1D/:8179.2.?14=?:-4:=8=1.
818 ?.981- ?.981-=1.
-:N=1>48>b 012.
01 1/=1N=:7=1
?>.S D-;00.4
%
2.?<54 >/?4D:54 2b /?;K

` 4K 9155;8:81- R a
2.?14=?:-4:=8=<K
?.981-=<K 012.S
513=1 -:>>518-.8q
-1. 2.?14=?:-4:=8=1.
5
?.981-=1. 012.9155;8:81- ` 81 >=1?: C;/.8 =.9181B

` :8-4 : 6 8 `. ` ?.981- 012b

8

8

? 8179. ∈
6

la 81%
4 .>8q 5:8-4 4 `

U ]\ pUVV o [ U_W VV [[ WYWY]\ U [ T ^ W Y H −

E ( ! " 8 4
$
" ! ( ( ( 2
$ $ ,
Up [Z[ F ^ D-;00b,-401/D-;001S
l ?.981-=<K 012.S =: C;/.8 8.5 3. >:5<56` .>24a 8155< 915B
( ) &( #

E R /?;K
5;8:81-8
,
-:>B
%

>518-45
3/.=4. 4K 9:9 ?.981-=<.
/1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q 012b /2b=: F ` ,1 a 815; 8-.C;.51.
E RF ` k a 815 >2;7:. 5:8-47=<.
%
;8?.-B
8
2.5.=8< :> 5:8-4

a/4=:8< < 513=1 E R
-:>>5:8-4?:8q 9:9 219:2q=<. 911-B
8
` 4=8.-.>;.8 9155;8:81-
>
?.981-=<K 012.S > 911-/4=:8:54

H k k H
F H 4 >;554-1?:=4.F
E ?./G8>b
/.9>:5

E
F H E,101 1/4=:91?<5
?.-K=45 4 =43=45 4=B

` 10-./.2.=4J E F E F H E F6

H H H H
8
H H H

D/.
FE H E F − E F H
F F
F

H

H
H H H
H

H

F

H

H
F
H E − F
H H
−
F

w:945 1C-:N156 E F H 6 D/. H − `

H
F F
H H

e e
=1>84 :>>518-45
./4=4 < =: D-;00.
.D1 513=1 4 0-.1C-:N1?:=4.
0-./>8:?48q 9:9
`6 kD/.19-.>8B >
A l4
% 7→ H H − >
a2.5.=8 :2D.C-< 4 .D91 ?4/.8q6 781 0-14N?1/=<. 01 18

g`
"
7→ " −
D/. >
0-46 b?2b.8>b
H I -:?=<
A 4 A :2D.C-<
181C-:3.=4.5 ` ,1 a 815; 4181C-:3.=4.

? >.Cb
>
A
81 7→ A
181C-:3.B 6
"
>
" −
=4. 1C1N=:7:J8
% ∈

e `

g
−
`
−
8-.8q 2b181C-:3.=4.
:2D.C-< 4 g /2b M49>4-1?:==1S
H 5:8-481<181C-:3.=4.
∈ g 513=1 -:>>51B
1C1N=:B
A 7→ A A − A `
5
7:J881C-:3.=4b
e `
8
0-14N?1/=:b e fe g4A e01>?bN:=< 0-4 H>2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 R e A l a 81

I ` .S>8?48.2q=16 5
A H E FA E − pUVF H Ap E AT − A F U

−
e e H n _ UTUY ∈ _Z\[_ m [ \[_ W omm [ Y

& 4 &# ( * (
%
+"
>b,1UpD15151-M4N515
[Z[ ^ U D-;00< .D91 0-1?.-48q6 781:?8151-M4N51?
181C-:3.=4. 0-1>8-:=>8?: e b?2b.8B
%,

( ) &( #
815;
,

181C-:3.=4. e ? D-;00;
e b?2b.8>b D15151-M4N515
7→
D-;00< g`

a
?=;2b5;2q840249:84?=;J
%

D-;00;
7→ /.S>8?48.2q=<K
74>.26 18247=<K181B18 %
`
C-:3.=4.56 >=1 8:93.6 781
01 a 815; >1>8148a 818 D15151-M4N5
R
.D1 1C-:N812q91 b?2b.8>b ∗
=.0-.-<?=<5
l >?bN=:b 9150:98=:b 01/D-;00: ? R `

1 8:9:b 01/D-;00: 4N a2.5.=8: `

∗

4MM.-.=
U 6 4:2q=;J
.>24 BM1-5; =: D-;00. =:21D47=1
H /2b 2JC1D1
4 =:N<?:J8 ^ UY\
10-./.2b.8>b
[WY[\ \ `
5 # '
G %
UY\ [WY[\
mW[4MM.-.= \[_ BM1-5: H 6D/. E F H \ U l6 .>24
0-:?<S1=:>/?4D `
!
R
# (
∗
∈ %
#
4:2q=;J
#
M1-5; =:N<?:J8
(
YY\ [WY[\
?-.5.==1 2.?14=?:-4:=8=:b 4 0-:?14=?:-4:=8=:b `
5
G
1/=1B
∗

"

#
H H
( !

[ _Z\ U pUV mU[pV \ U TW omm ^ Y W[ZV ^W\ U Y
U\^\
]\ Uo ^ [_ n UYY\mW Um[WY[\UW Y U\[\[_ \ U X YW [ o ^ o ^ Y ^nY\ ^\\[
&# ! ( ! &(
%
# " # ( ' & = &( # ( &( # &
&( ) + 2 )
Up [Z[ ^ 0-1>8-:=>8?. U ,;>8q ? ./4=47=15EA A aF2.5.=8. l =.=;2.?:b BM1-5: ? 9:B

( &(
,

>:8.2q=15
=15; N:/:G8
( ) &( #
2.?14=?:-4:=8=;J
,

∈ `
=:
>8
1/=1N=:7B 8
45.==16 ? 2JC1S 8179. ∈ 45..5 R EA AM1-B

M1-5; 4 0-:?14=?:-4:=8=;J

%
` FH
H ;5=13.=4b F 4 EA 91=>8:=8;6 A F H EAEA AA FFl` a817=1>8qJ

>8 8
E A =:A =.=;2.?;J
%
/1248.2q

5:8-4
>8
<6
8

>1>8:?2.==1S

4N

911-/4=:8

>8
?.981-1? 6 816 10-./.B

8 > 8

8
7
` ,1B

```
>8 8
815; ?.981-
a/bc.D1 H e F 6 D/.

10-./.248.2q
E H A ? A Hl 6 8 `. ` H e ` w:945 1C-:N156 =:

A
0-.1C-:N1?:=4b6 A
0.-.?1B >

>
2JC1S
>;c.>8?;.8 D-;00.=. C12..
4 -:N5.-=1>84
1/=1S
6 > 817=1>8qJ
=.=;2.?1S

/1 0-101- BM1-5<6
C44=?:-4:=8=1S 41=:2q=1>846

−

0-4B

7G5 8:9:b
/2b4 ?>.K BM1-5: >;c.>8?;.8
1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. 81D/: 4 812q91 81D/:6 91D/: e
" `" /2b >?bN=1S 9150:98=1S D-;00<
e H
` `

a 81 ;>21?4.
∈
?<012=b.8>b `
%
7
N 8.1-.5< >;c.>8?;.8
-:N5.-=1>84 `" ` >2./;.86./4=>8?.==:b
781 =: >?bN=1SC44=?:-4:=8=:b
9150:98=1S D-;00. BM1-5: 4 6
%
/2b 9181-1S
M;=9 44 R → RH513=1
R ` >012qN;b

10-./.248q
a 8; 4=8.D-:2
BM1-5;6 /2b 2JC1S
H =.0-.-<?=1S
F ` 818

4=8.D-:2 1C2:/:.8 >2./;Jc454 >?1S>8?:54 R H 4 /2b 2JC1D1 ∈

6 %
R
R R
E
6
∈ 6 H

%
Z
E FHZ E FHZ E F 6 H 6 H 6 H
Up U U V U pU n _ U

W[ \ Y n _

U

*
( *
+ " ! &#

[U Y ^ ]U

pUV ^ ∈
_Z\ m [ \ W omm YW^ p [ U

T ^W\[ \^ (
!
∈
(
( !

, ,
∈
#

( ) ( '
$ ,

N=:7.=4b54
.?14=?:-4:=8=:b
=: =:C1-:K /4MM.-.=
?.981-1? 4:2q=:b
9:>:8.2q=1D1 M1-5:0-1>8-:=>8?:
10-./.2b.8>b? >?1454

./4=4B
.6
-4:=8=<K
01 815; 1=: 10-./.2b.8>b 8:93. N=:7.=4b54
a ?.981-=<K 012.S ` >24 2.?14=?:-4:=8=:b /4MM.-.= 4B =: =:C1-:K 2.?14=?:B
:2q=:b BM1-5:6 :
6 ``` 6
l l
2.?14=?:-4:=8=<. ?.981-=<. 012b6 81

F H 6 01 a 815;

F H I /2b 2JC1D1 ?.981-=1D1
> F
012b

E ` k 8:91S >48;: 44 M1-5;2:E /2b /4MM.-.= 4:2: M1-5< ;0-1c:B

>8
G
8 F >8 8 F
.8>b 4 0-4=45:.8 ?4/

E

F H X E− F E

F E F

8 8 F 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 F

F
6 6
I
2b F:2D.C-<
5
9:9 4 g D-;00<
0-1>8-:=>8?1 4 10-./.245 0-1>8-:=>8?1
91>1>455.8-47.>94K
B24=.S=<K 91 .0.S
181C-:3.B
F
Eggh R× × g → R ` 81C-:3.=4. R → N:/:/45 M1-5;21S E F `
=4S1D15121D44
%
F F > G
012;7.==1D1 914.=8:54
.0=1D1 91502.9>: =:N<?:J8 pUTUVU91D151B
UT Y

V21D44 T > 91 MM4 81 81 3. >:51.6781

_ Y [ 91502.9>: a
^ W Y g2.?14=?:-4:=8=<K R`
9 '
"
$

/4MM.-.=

l 4:2q=<K M1-5 ` k11Cc.
D1?1-b6
4:2q=<K 1=4M1-56
=. >1?0:/:J8
8 . > > 91D15121D4b54
91D15121D4b54 /. 91502.9>:
:5: D-;00< ?>.K4 /4MM.-.=B
91D15121D44 >1?0:/:J8
` ` ? 815 >2;7:.6 91D/: 9150:98=: 4 >?bN=:F ` 1 a 84`
E %
T [ Y pUTUVU_Z\[UTYY_ V n^m [ [\[V [ V \UUTUU

pUV p pUTUVU U
%
TYY ^ [ T ^ W Y gYYZWUVU

&
0 "
$

ommWX\
$
%
&#
W[ZY_

( * (
"
'
Up [Z[ ^D-;00.U 4 < C;/.5 012qN1?:8q>b 8.56R 781 =:F6 >?bN=1S 915B
%,
0:98=1S
( ) &( #
>?1S>8?:546 ;9:N:==<54 =: > ` ` >;c.>8?;.8

,

%
4=8.D-:2 E 1C2:/:Jc4S ∈ 6
,-.3/.
H ?>.D1=.9181-1S
/2b N:5.8456M1-5< 781 .>246 M1-5<
81 H 4 2.?14=?:-4:=8=<

/2b =.9181-1S 2.B 4 !
?14=?:-4:=8=1S

−
H-4:=8=:
!
H M1-5< 1-5: 2.?14=?:-4:=8=:6

`
` >=16 781 M1-5: H R

−

01a 815; H

2.?14=?:B

!

R
∈
` E
∗
R

∈
∗
∈
∗
19:3.52.?14=?:-4:=8=:b
>;c.>8?;.8 5 8.0.-q6 781 .>24 M1-5: l 0-14N?12q=:b N:59=;8:b M1-5:6/2b81
6 /2b 9181-1S H

=.9181-1S M1-5< 0;8q

>;c.>8?;.8 ` -;00:F > =:7:215 24=.S=1 >?bN=:6
IF H 40191=a 815;15 /2b F2JC1D1

E H`

0151cqJ
%
a 81D1 0;84 012;7:.5E >.5.S>8?1 EM1-5 H g 6 >?bN<?:JB

%

7
` >=1 8:93.6 781 M1-5: f

∈
c.. M1-5<
01>912q9; M1-5: H 4 H
N:59=;8: ,1 815; 4N D15181047.>91S N:59=;8:6
4=?:-4:=8B
∗

` a
>

∗
∗
=1>84
/2b 91D15121D4S
=.9181-1S M1-5< /. :5: 1-5:

E >5 ` > ` =.F 1CbN:8.2q=1

012;7:.56 781N:?4>48 H
18 =.B01
` .G 513=1 ?<C-:8q 4=8.D-4-;.51S

−
∗
0-.-<?=16 =16 ?1 ?>b915 >2;7:.6

EH R9;>17=1 =.0-.-<?=1SF

` >=16 781
∈
∗
` :>>518-45 2.?14=?:-4:=8=;J
M1-5; H
HZ FH H H
E−
Z Z
8
− ∗

D/. H R `
∈ ∈ ∈

∈
pU UW \[pW [^Y nWY o T o U_Z\ E^ pUVh RFm∼H[p \E ^ ThWRommF Y U n\[ YZ

(
$1
&
$
#
%
(
>
%
? 4 &#
+* (
$
∗
%
>
(

∗
$
%
?
,
$
*

U V _ UW[ pUV m ^p ^ ^ UY\U [WY[\UV \ nYXX^W^\

F YF
[ \W U X W[\W ^ UnYXX^W^\ Y[ \ ^ ^ H
( & # 2 '
pU U YVV ^ WY]ô p Y mX UW V oR E h R ER
# # (
F $1 F
) #&
2 # * (
m $1 ∼ $ $
4 &( &( # & & ( & ' #
2b =.9150:98=<K D-;00 4 8.1-.5: " =.?.-=: ` :B

1 G ,
4 R 45.J8 4N151-M=<. :2D.C-< 46 =1` ` 0-1>8-:=>8?:

0-45.-6

5

E h RF 4 ER h RF =. 4N151-M=< `

∗ ∗

pUTUVU UT Y n^ [V [ YV \TWUTUU

&
omm [W[ZY_Y YZ_Z\[ UVU YWX\[pUV[ mT[^p W^\[ YY\U [WY[\

%
[ T ^ W[
&# ( * ( "
\ nYXX^W^\ Y[ \ X UW V
! " " " # ('
%
2 )
Up [Z[ ^ U 4N151-M=: 1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. `" ` :2D.C-: 91D15121D4S /. :5:

$1 $1 ,
5=1D11C-:N4b

-4:=8=<K /4MM.-.=
( ) &( #
4:2q=<K :2D.C-.
%
,
7
91D15121D4S
M1-5 ` 4N2b/19:N:8.2q>8?: 91502.9>:
91502.9>: 2.?14=?:-4:=8=<K 2.?14=?:B

M1-5
0-45.=bb513=1
=: 01?81-48q -:>>;3/.=4b
8.1-.5< 5
`"` 6
-.N;2q8:8. a 781 :2D.C-: 91D15121D4S /. :5: 5=1D11C-:N4b` k

818
012;7456 -:N ;>-./=.=4. 01 0-:?<5 >/?4D:56 : =. 01 2.?<5
-.= 4N151-M=:
4:2q=<K :2D.C-.,191D15121D4S
M1-5 815; 1>8:G8>b 91502.9>: C44=?:-4:=8=<K
/19:N:8q6781 =: 815 /4MM.B
91502.9>.

%
/4MM.-.= 4:2 =;2.?1S6

` a 8 `. ` H I /2b 2JC1S C44=?:-4:=8=1S a M1-5<
` :>>518-45 181C-:3.=4.

6 N:/:==1.? M1-5;21S F H6

H01 815;` 819:>:8.2q=<S

>
181C-:3.=4.?.981- 0.-.?1/48R →9-4?;J 9-4?;J

%
E %

>
a H
−
:945 H A .>24
1C-:N156 ? 8179. C44=?:-4:=8=:b

1=1 0.-.?1/48 ?B " − " −
`w FH

−A l E− A
> > >
M1-5:6
H,1 815;
−
81−
E F FHEA

− −
F HE A F F H F6 8 . H FFH
> > G
` ` E− `
>8 C >8 C > − 8
a E−A E−A E− EA
> ∗ − ∗ F − − F
> − 8 >8 >8 ∗

F H H H E− F

E
F > F
∗ ∗ 8
: N=:7486 H I ` −

! ! ! & ' * )

UT ,;>8qpU Ul 810121D47.>9:b D-;00< D-;00:6 `

.>24 2.5.=8
N:5<9:=4. =:N<?:J8 01-1B
01/D-;00<6 Um U
Y]^ a2.5.=815W[Z o 6^ >1?0:/:.8 >1 ?>.S D-;001S ` ( '
% ∈ %
3/G==1S
& ! " += !

%
UW Y V ^^ Um U UT Y]^ p o U W[Z o o
%

( ( & + " += +
@ ,

Up [Z[ ^ :N1?G5U ,;>8q

3.>8? p UV ?@ 6 @1C-:N
6 ```9;C:
l >7G8=:b
? C:N: 189-<8<K
6N:/:==1D1 =.-:?.=>8?155=1B
` 6 0-4 9:=1=47.>91S
( ) &( # > ?

,
o "
0-1.9 44 ` R

>=16F /24=1S
781 9;C-.C-:l 9150:98=1.

01/5=13.>8?1 81-: :N1?G5 74>21 d 9;C: ` >24

` 6 81 1= >1?0:/:.8

H
E > `

| − |6
/24=: -.C-: 9;C: -:?=: 8

>8-1424k1Nq5G5 0-14N?12q=<S 9;C9;C1? ? ` ,-./01213456,1>8-145

01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

781 5< ;3.

9;C 01B
` ` k<C.-.5

>2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 ,;>8q /24=: -.C-: 9;C: -:?=:

`
> F > F
⊃ ⊃
74>21
? >8.0.=qE F 8:96 781 E F> `,1w1D/: 1C-:N 9;C:?<C-:8q0-49;C?1N?./.=44

F −>
FE >1?0:/:.8 815; 513=1

−
` a

F >
G G
8:96 781 f Tg ⊂ @ `
−
F F >
GF ⊂
,;>8q ∈81-: ` w1D/: f g ∈ @ 6 01a 815; l 810121D47.>9:b

−
F F
F
1C-:N;Jc:b

`
FI
∞ F F

,;>8q 01/D-;00;
=:N<?:J8 l >?bN=:b ⊂9150:98=:b
%
6 9181-:b D-;00:
b?2b.8>b 481-15
` [p 4YV0-4[ a\815V 5:9>4B UW UV & )
$
(
5:2q=:JC1S? >2./;Jc.5
81- >5<>2. R .>24? =.9181-15
⊂ >1/.-348>b
6 D/. l 81-6 81 H `
%
5:9>45:2q=15 81-. .SB

⊂ ⊂ ⊂ `>8-1B
0 0 0
⊂ ⊂ %
>8?48.2q=16

.>24
D1.8 4N?1N-:>8:Jc:b6 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
%
81 4KB5.-=1.-:N5.-=1>84 81-1?
>8-1D1 ?1N-:>8:J8b?2b.8>b
5
` 81 >2./;B
> ?
%
81D16
5=1D11C-:N4.5 781 ?.>24B5.-=15 N:59=;81.
01/5=1D11C-:N446
5=1D11C-:N4.
81 1=1 b?2b.8>b 01/B
01/5=1B

3.>8?156
>8-1D1 9181-1. 1/=1?-.5.==1
?1N-:>8:Jc:b

189-<81 81-1?
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 4 N:59=;81 ` ,1` a 815; 2JC:b
91=.7=:
( UW,;>8q ⊂ l D-;00;
UV =:N<?:J8 0-14N?12q=1. 01/5=13.>8?1 D-;00< ` UW V [ YZ[
% %
'
E FH
{ ∈ | }
H 8
: ^\ W[ YZ[ UW UV =:N<?:J8 D-;00; %

2 ( (
E FH
{ ∈ |
H ∀ ∈ }
>24 D-;00: 01/D-;00:6 8101/D-;00:6

=1-5:2q=:b 01/D-;00: F >24
%
`

⊂ l l E

46
l 01a 815;>1D2:>=1
01/D-;00<6
%
%
: .G 81
l 8.1-.5. `" ` 1=4E b?2bJ8>b F 4 F N:59=;8<.
E lD-;00:54 4 `

2b 2JC1D1? a2.5.=8: F ?=;8-.==4S :?8151-M4N5 7→

∈ E
>
0.-.?1/48
5
a
6 01 815; E F /.S>8?;.8
=: `
H H−
⊂ V [ p Y V [ \ UW UT n[

U T

; &( )
o
[ X[W[ZV ^W\W UW omm [ W UE W[\ pU\^]\[
p F %
4 & )
$
! (
, @
[ E F ] \[ E F H Y
B ( 3
E F H | E F | m

"B &( ) &( &( # 0( *
% %

% ,

-1.Up [Z[
^ U a:F2.5.=8;
>101>8:?2b.8
( ) &( #
,
:>>518-45 181C-:3.=4.
E F /4>9-.8=:6 01>912q9; ∈2JC1S

E F → E F6 9181B
E :?8151-M4N5 81-:7→ N:/:G8>b` -;00:
F :?8151-M4N5 .21B

H

H −
>

74>2.==1S 5:8-4 .S > 10-./.248.2.5 :?8151-M4N5 81-: 0.-.?1/48

?=1D1>.Cb2.5.=8:.2174>2.==;J -. G89;F ,1 ± E >?bN=:b 91501=.=8: ./4=47B

815;
` a

a F 181C-:3:.8>b ? 813/.>8?.==<S :?8151-M4N568 `. `

E F ⊂ E F ` E
,;>8q 601-13/G==;J
l 9:>:8.2q=<S 4?.981- 9 E ?4/:
F ? 8179.6 ` :>>518-45 01/B

D-;00; 2.5.=8:54 ,1/D-;00:

N:59=;8:6
01 a 815; 1=: b?2b.8>b a 01/D-;001S 4 ` -15.∈ R81D16 ` D-;00:

>?bN=: 4 9155;8:84?=:
N,1 5:9>45:2q=1>84 81-:` ,1 a>2./;.86
815; 1=:781b?2b.8>bH 81-156 ? >1/.-3:c45 `
7:>8=1>846
9
h ∈ `

HD-;00:6815;
` 2./1?:8.2q=16
F H 1 F
a E ` F ⊂ H E ⊂F E F a/4>9-.8=:bE 9150:98=:b F 6 01 815; F

H E F H
7
01 a 815; 1=: 91=.7=:E ` E E l

54 CF>/?4D:54 :>>518-45 /.S>8?4. 2.5.=8:=: M:981-0-1>8-:=>8?. F 2.?8?4.5 92:>> E

a 01>912q9;E ⊂ E F ` ?
F 0.-.K1/48
E F ` 2:>>R E F 1>8:G8>b =.01/?43=<56

∈

%

-.=1>48>b :>>518-45
9
? /.S>8?4. 0-1>8-:=>8?1
9:>:8.2q=1.

=: 2.?<54 >/?4D:54 k<C.-.5` 81? /.S>8?4. 0.B
>9:2b-B

=1. 0-14N?./.=4.6 4=?:-4:=8=1. 18=1>48.2q=1` a 81D1 /.S>8?4b ` ,;>8q

%
% %
E F l 1-81D1=:2q=1. /1012=.=4. 9 E F ? ` w1D/:

⊥
f g E F ∼H E F ∼H E F h
%
⊥
9:3/<S a 2.5.=8
/.S>8?;.81D-:=47.=4.
=: f g 181C-:3.=4b E F 9:9 1-81D1=:2q=1.
% %
0-.1C-:N1?:=4. ` :>>518-.?

=: 0-1B

%
>8-:=>8?1 E F 6 513=1 01>8-148q ? E F :- 6 D/. H

H ed E5=13.>8?: F 6 > .=8-15 ? 8179. E F 8:96 781 >2./;Jc4. 8-4

⊥
%
N:59=;8<K
%
6,19:3.5

H

4 H

C;/;8 4=?:-4:=8=<
F d 18=1>48.2q=1 /.S>8?4b R

−
>
8.0.-q6

781 92:>>

%
`
E E\ F b?2b.8>b ./4=>8?.==1S =.01/?43B

=1S
91>91S/2b81791S /.S>8?4b =: E F h C12.. 81D16 a 81 ?.-=1 =. 812qB

/.S>8?4b ?>.D1 81-: 6 =1 4 /2b F /.S>8?4b .D1 810121D47.B F

%
1C-:N;Jc.S F /2b` .S>8?48.2q=16 H F

E ;>21?4.E a⇔9?4?:2.=8=1 ∈ E
>
⇔
5;6:91=.
>
∈ E
781 6;>21?4.
− >

H 5
6 6 ``` ,1>2./=..
⊂ E F6 01>912q9; 5=13.>8?1 { } ?>J/; 0218=1 ? `

81B

−
−
⊂ E F a 9?4?:2.=8=1 815;6 781 H 68 `. `
> >
F
./4=47=<S a2.5.=8 E` F H 6 : 5=13.>8?1 >?bN=1 4 >1B
.S>8?48.2q=16

`

∈ E
− > −
/.-348

5
−
k 81-. .>8q 0;8q 4N 81794 ? 8179; 6 01a 815; /.S>8?4. =:

0-1
%

E F 4D15181044
.>>. =: D151810=1 /.S>8?4.
%
813/.>8?.==15;
=: 181C-:3.=4J6 0-47G5 ?
>1K-:=b.8 ?<C-:==1. 8:5 >9:2b-B
=1. 0-14N?./.=4.6 01 a 815;6 5< 012;7:.5 D1518104J ? 92:>>. 181C-:B

%
3.=4S6
C-:3.=4b 0.-.?1/bc4K >
4 4 ? >.Cb ` w :945 1C-:N156 .>8q 181B
C.N =.01/?43=<K 817.96 9181-<.

>
−
>
D151810=<
.M N .M1-5;2<
813/.>8?.==<5
−
→
: >2./;.86/2b781S2.-1?1S 181C-:3.=4b5
→
4 E F`Hk I8:915
−
E F H IK:-:98.-4>8494 >2;7:.
N=:7486 4N 8.1-.5<
74>21 7G8=1j B`
h 1C ./4=.=4b /?;K
>
91502.9>1? 012;7:.5a
−

E F H E F E F − E F H E F H
−
>

>8.>8?.==:b
=:9-<84.56
%
0-1.9 4b F H → F E F b?2b.8>b
01a 815;

| E
F |B24>8=<5

E | E | E | E F | ` F H

%
%

k1>012qN1?:?
>2./;Jc.. 4>q 8.1-.51S `" ` I 4 8.1-.51S .M . :6 2.D91 /1B
% %
9:N:8q ;8?.-3/.=4.

`
TU ^V ^\ [ ∈ VUo \ U ⊂ W[ V [p^VY^\V [ \∈ UW[p ]UT n[U n∈ _ U

; &( )
(
%
4
# " ( )
& )
(
$
! (
, @
( * (
+" '
>
Up [Z[H ^ ,121345 U :>>518-45 0-1>8-:=>8?1 2.?<K >5.3=<K 92:>>1?

% $ H % H H− ,

%
>912q9;

{ 0-4} `N:5.=. =: E 6 D/.

( ) &( #
H
,

6 H
F
H
H
E
6 a92:>> N:5.=48>b =: 01BH
81 10-./.2.=4. 91--.98=16
H=4b 6F8` ,-./01213456
. H
H H
781
1D/: 92:>>
∈
l =.01/?43=:b 8179: 181C-:3.B
,1a 815; /1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q6
H H
H
781 ``
181C-:3.=4. ` w ∈ 45..8` =.01/?43=;J
H >

8179; ` 2b a 81D1
6
5< ,-4
H
?1>012qN;.5>b
H
6 % R → .M . : `
8.1-.51S

%

H H−
5
4>012qN1?:8q ?<74>2.=44
2JC1. 74>2:
D151810=1. .M ..5;: 181C-:3.=4.

E F ?5.>81 181C-:3.=4b ,1 815; 513=1

2.5.=8
` a D-;00: a

6 6
513=1
>?bN=: N:5.=48q
k<C.-.5 ? =: 2JC1S
9:7.>8?. /-;D1S a 2.5.=8
./4=47=<S 2.5.=8 6 01>912q9;
1D/: F HdeH I
6

` a ` w

∈ % %
4,1 E815;F H E F H F ` 1F H>1D2:>=1

I6: 8.1-.5.
N=:7486181C-:3.=4. " I
F
` ` E 45..8 =.01/?43=;J

H | E `
6

a

8179; ` E E 6
6 % |6 %

6 6 6
VpU[p UYVUTU[ \ ^V UW[p pUV

& YV [ [\p ^\ U UWTW UmW_ Y ^\ U ^ H^ Y Yn _ \^
) ( & * ( & 4
W ^ ^\ [ ∈ m omm
0
$ $ $ , , >
& ) ( ( ! * ( '
$ $ $ % 0 −
( (
Up [Z[ 2.5.=8
C.-.5 ^ U ,;>8q 6 /2b l 810121D47.>9:b
9181-1D1
%,
1C-:N;Jc:b
1D/: 81-: ` k=1
a ∈ l 81- ` ,1 a 815; 4N∈5:9>45:2q=1>84 ⊂ >2./;.86` 781
` w
( ) &( #
,
0
> > 0
8:93.6
H `
781 >
> %
−

0 − 0
0
−
0 −

"

_ pUVU m [p \ U U _Z\ U T TW ommU Y U W[Z U U W[
^\Y_ m[n[^ 5:9>45:2q=<S^ W omm
. ! &# ! '
R
( " ( "
$ %
! !
Up U ,;>8q 81- D-;00< 4 ` 0-4B2b
& # ( & #&
[Z[ a2.5.=8:
^
% → % %,
2JC1D1
( ) &( #
,
513=1 l ?<C-:8q a 2.5.=8 8:96 781
%
5
=:/2.348 81-; ∈ ` ,-4 /19:N:8.2q>8?. 8.1-.5<∈ `" ` 5< ;C./424>q6

H >%
781 /2b 81-: 181C-:3.=4. b?2b.8>b a 0451-M4N515 `

−

%

H
>?bN=1S:N5.-=1>8q

D-;00< 5:9>45:2q=1D1
4 `
81-: =:N<?:J8 W[\ TUV 9150:98=1S

U
%
U o Up pUV m [UpU \[_ U _Z\[_ U TW omm [ Y \[

n[\\oW[UTU\ XÛW]YV o U E F[H Y ^ U] m [n[^W[Z U ^ W[TW omm^\Y_U R → Z[

. ; &( ) 4 ( &# * 4 '
%
( ) & ( * ( " ( " * '
, 6 % %
! * & # ( & #& ! !
6 %,
! ! ! * $ ) * * *

J8.>24,;>8q
WâT2.5.=8
o _W\
lV6
%
9150:98=:b
.>24
>1/.-348>b
$
1= >?bN=:b D-;00:
>1/.-348>b
? C12.. -1?=1
7.5 ?
1/=15
4 ` 2.5.=8
1/=15 5:9>45:2q=15
5:9>45:2q=15
∈
=:N<?:B
81-.6 81-.81h
%
.D1
D;J =:N<?:J8
K:-:98.-4N: Y\4JTo _W\a2.5.=8

V ` .D;2b-=<.
a2.5.=8<
-.D;2b-.= 81D/: /10;>9:J8
4 812q91 481D/:6
/-;B
R =1-5:24N:81-:
&
$
91D/:
>45:2q=1D1 -:N5.-=1>8q
81-: .D1
81C<

/19:N:8q
∈
E F -:?=: a-:N5.-=1>84

9?4?:2.=8=1>8q
%
84K 10-./.2.=4S6 5:9B

=:5 01=:/1Cb8>b /?. 2.55< ` ` a
Y ^ [ ^ ^Vo^\UW ∈ U n^W[pUVV

; &( ) 4 " # ^ ^ [ mYWU nT^W ommU[ pUV^VmY[p ^\VU^\ [_Z\V YU TW ommUT n[ ( ! &# !
oUp o U :>>518-45[ o Y? o Y01/D-;00;

$
* ( ( ( & #& (
% % , @
& = &( # ( ( * & = !
[Z[
-;00: ^ :C.2.?:6
,
01 815; .G

N:5<9:=4. 6 9150:98=:b
01-13/G==;J:C.2.B4
?:0: ` D-;00:6 a

( ) &( #
l< E F l 81- ` -;0B

, %

: N=:7486 >?bN=:b 91501=.=8: ./4=4

3/.=:9150:98=:6 01 a 815; FM:981-D-;00: F 91=.7=:>2./;.86 ` =: 01-1B

1/=45 92:>>15 E 6 01>912q9; 4N E

>?bN=1>84

781
⊂E
,;>8q F ` w :945 1C-:N156
810121D47.>9:b E F

1C-:N;Jc:bH

/2b
81-: =.9181-1D1
F =:8;-:2q=1D1
>=16

781 F `
`

F
l F ` -;00: E F /.245:6 01a 815; E H /2b =.9181-1B ∈E

∼Z F G
4D1 2.5.=8: ∈E
F
F 5=13.>8?1

F

F

a F H 6 01∈a 815; ` :>>518-45>8.0.=.S a2.5.=8r r?>J/; H ∈0218=1 ` >=16 781F ,-4B

rH

E
− −
F
H5.=bb

E >/?4D =: r u 6 012;7:.56781 5=13.>8?1 >8.0.=.S r ?>J/;E 0218=1 ?
F
? `

>5.3=150192:>>.
92:>><6 01r E 810121D47.>9:b
F 6 >1/.-3:c.5 1C-:N;Jc:bu ` w:9 012;7:J8>b ?>. >5.3=<.
r 2.348 ? =.9181-15l 5:9>45:2q=15 81-. 4 { } ∪ ⊂ ⊂ ` ⊂2.5.=8
a 815; D-;00<

`

U pU U o UTU EV F _Z\[_ UTpUV m U\^\F [ ^nY\Y U \ UW VV[ pYZ[

V [ W[\ \^ UW WU TW omm^ ^\ [ U n^W [ Y n[ E ^nY\^\Y^ [ Y

. ; &( ) 4 &# ( 2 '
$
( ( ( 4 "< & '
∈%, @
) ( # * & =

Up [Z[ ^ 5:9>45:2q=15;
U ,-./0121345 >=:7:2:6 781 a2.5.=8 0-4=:/2.348
$1 $ % 1 ,

=.9181-15; ( ) &( #
/2b 5:9>45:2q=1D1
,
81-; ` w1D/: E F ⊃ E F ` -15. 81D16
81-: E F H ` ,1 a 815; E F >1/.-348 ?>. 5:9B

9
>45:2q=<. 81-<6 >1/.-3:c4.

,-./0121345 8.0.-q6781 ` F :>>518-45 5:9>45:2q=<S 81-

∈ E `

D-;00< F 6 >1/.-3:c4S
815; 513=1E ?1>012qN1?:8q>b 2.551S ` JC1S ak2.5.=8 9155;84-;.8

-.N;2q8:8.

012;7456 > 6 01B

781

>;B
ac.>8?;.8 5:9>45:2q=<S 81- 6>1/.-3:c4S ` 4 ` 818 5:9>45:2q=<S

81- >1/.-348 4 `

pUTVn[ W[ZUTUV ^W\UU ^TU^V \^\UWTV [ ∈YZ[UTUWÛW[T o V_W^\

.
-

FE W[UT\[n[VW[ZY VU ^W\U UpU U YVUTV [n[p
(
%
( ( ) ( *
Z[Y [UW[\ U ^W[W[ZV ^W\_ UY\ Yo V_W\[p YV [ ^\ UTU^\ [UW[W[Z ^W\ \ W [ Y

&( ) ( # &( '

& ) ( & ( &( ) '
,
( " ) &( & ) (
1=Up2.348
[Z[ ^-1?=1 U? 1/=15
,-./0121345 >=:7:2:681-.781 a2.5.=8 -.D;2b-.=6 8 `. `
,
( ) &( #
,
5:9>45:2q=15
FE H 6 01 a 815; ed E F H ed E F H ed ` w ` 1D/: >1D2:>=1 2.55.

,-./0121345 8.0.-q6 781 a2.5.=8 2.348 ? /?;K -:N247=<K 5:9>4B

5:2q=<K 81-:K 4 ` w1D/: >1D2:>=1 2.55. E F >1/.-348 4 `

,1>:8.2q=<K
a 815; 9:>:8.2q=1.
0-1>8-:=>8? 0-1>8-:=>8?1
> ?
E F ? 8179. >1/.-348
4 ` 84 0-1>8-:=>8?: -:N247=<6 >;55;
01 815;9:B

> ?
4K -:N5.-=1>8q >8-1D1 C12q . -:N5.-=1>84 5:9>45:2q=1D1 81-:a`

> ?

,;>8q l? 9150:98=:b
4>518-45 >?bN=:b D-;00: 0-14N?./.=4.
46 g H l .GF :2D.C-:
` k<C.-.5 0-14N?12q=1. >9:2b-=1. 4 -:>B81

=1?1.
%
>9:2b-=1.
g
0-14N?./.=4. F H
E 18=1>48.2q=1 e Ee F
E e 6 8 `.`` /2b
%
8 >
=1?1. >9:2b-=1. 0-14N?./.=4. 4=?:-4:=8=1

R 8 8 >
∈
2JC1D1
=<5 a2.5.=8: ∈ ` k181C-:3.=4.
0-.1C-:N1?:=4.5 /:2q=.S

.5 C;/.5
% g
b?2b.8>b
e R g →>748:8q6 781 1-81D1=:2qB
? ?<C-:=1

45.==1 8:91. >9:2b-=1. 0-14N?./.=4. ` g

W[\ U W[ p o
[n [^
⊂

: ; &( )
_ W_ V m W UYZVVU \ H L UW P UT n[L mWT nÛ
4 # ) ! ( '
L e L V gL LY\ [WY[\ \ U \mU Y o^ U\oUpnô gU Y_ U⊕ m U uW^n u U LUV

% $ , @
&( &( # & # (& # + & I > *
$
mWY] \[ n^ Y^ WY Y[ \ [ n ^ mW W[\ u
* >* * # ( ( & ( ) ! &( # & &( #
,,, $
* 0 ! &( # ( # ) * &( &( # *

O n oV ^W\ U Y n^ Y^ ^V ^\ [ ∈ \[ L uF \^pUd UW UV FUW

* ! &( # '
UTU\[ \ UV [ZY ^ Z[n[ _ V [ WY ^ d u E F − u EF

# ( # (
6 6

T n^ u R → R Z \^ WY Y[ \ TUVUVUWXYZ V u E uE
( ) " & 0( & ( 2 ! 8

4 ( # ) !
Up [Z[ ^ U k<C.-.5 ? 81-. 810121D47.>9;J 1C-:N;Jc;J

$ ,
,-.1C-:N1?:=4.
( ) &( #
e 1-81D1=:2q=1.6
,
01 a 815; .D1 5:8-4 : ? =.9181B `

-15 1-81=1-54-1?:==15 C:N4>. b?2b.8>b 0-b51S >;551S

d ./4=47=1S 5:B
8-4 < 4 =.>912q94K 5:8-4 ?4/: d u − u >=16 781

u N:?4>48u 18 ` ,1 a 81B

e 5:8-4
H E e: 181C-:3.=4b
F 4 181C-:3.=4. e =.0-.-<?=1

F
5;45..8
8-.C;.5<S ?4/ `
e ? ?<C-:==15 1-81=1-54-1?:==15 C:N4>.
/.2G= :C1-1/=1N=:7=16
74>.2 {± 01 815;± =:C1- ? /19:N:8.2q>8?.
D15151-M4N51? 8.1-.5< `" ` 10-.B?
a 813. 10-./.2G= 1/=1N=:7=1
>8 8
}
M1-5;24-1?9. 81S 8.1-.5< k >2;7:.6 91B

a `
> 8 8
{± ± }
D/: 81- 5:9>45:2q=<S6 a 84 D15151-M4N5 D15151-M4N5:54
6 /2b 9181-<K u 7:>81 -:>>5:8-4?:J8
9155;8:84?=: /4:D-:55: 24=.SB

u Rt→R

t −−−−→ R
 
 
y y

81C-:3.=4.IF Hu N/.>q
9181-1D1 I >8-148>b
:91. 01/=b84. 9:9 >;c.>8?;.8
01/=b84. 181C-:3.=4b
4
−−−−→ R Z
u 6 /2b
./4=>8?.==1601>912qB
u E ` 0-1>8-:=>8?1
w

◦
9; 810121D47.>91.
813. =:N<?:J8 pU V 1/=1>?bN=1 ` 4=.S=<. 181C-:3.=4b
W\_ Y`

u Rt→R
t
L Ht

E

@
UW V [p YV [ \ UT n[ Y U pU UT n[ pUT n[
& )
$
! ( ( ) ( *
81-:UpD-;00.^ U >=16 781H 68/2b. 2JC1D1 81-: L ,-./01213456781

,
[Z[
5:9>45:2q=<S
( ) &( #
4 L
` ` 513=1 t⊂ `
?<C-:8q L 8:96781 A 6∈ t `
6 A ∈ 6 81- /.S>8?;.8
,
8-4?4:2q=16 6
01>1>81bc.S
815; 4N
6 t
01/D-;00:6a 2.5.=81?

?4/:
01-13/G==:b 4∈ R6 b?2b.8>b >?bN=1S

a "

:C.2.?1S
781 81- 01/D-;001S6
5:9>45:2.= >8-1D1 >1/.-3:c.S ` 81 0-184?1-.748 815;6
D/:,-./0121345 8.0.-q6 781 L H 4 81- 2.348 ? 81-. ` w1B

8-4?4:2q=1 /.S>8?;.8 =: t 6t 01 a 815; t ⊂ L ` 2./1?:8.2q=16

0 0 7
0

N156 81-L H5:9>45:2q=<S

t ⊂ t0 ⊂

t
6 : N=:7486 ed H ed ` ,1 a 815; H ` w:945 1C-:B
`
0 0

* T n^ [Z^ VW[\^W\TU pUV]Ym [p U \pUU W\^ _Z\ U TW omm Y W[ \[

4 0
&( )
* 4 &
( ! &#
!
!
$

%
#

81-1.62bD/.5<9:3/1D1 91-=b@ u R >=16 → R Z 513=1 -:>>518-.8q .D1 b/-16 91B

,
5
1C1N=:745
H ed -:=D u ` D-;00< 7814 @ u F⊂ l 01/D-;00: -:N5.-=1>84

E V

`
@ u U ed E F H Y ^ ^\ ∈ mWY\[n ^ Y W U \ U TW omm [V
− %

& ( ( #

* (
=<S Up [Z[2.5.=8

^ /.S>8?;.8

U ,;>8q L8-4?4:2q=1
,
⊂g l
01/0-1>8-:=>8?16
1D2:>=1 =: 9181-15
8.1-.5. /:=B
LH
a ` ` "`

( ) &( #
,
H/19:N:8q6
L ⊕ PP781 LLu 6H01a 815;F ed L H ` w:945 1C-:N156 /1>8:817=1

7
` > 6 01a 815; H /2b 2JC1D1 a2.B

2.5.=8< 3
F E
9155;84-;J8
E: N=:7486 8-4?4:2q=1 /.S>8?;.8 =: E F ` ,1a 815;

>
5.=8: F6

−
∈ E

E F⊂L `

,-./0121345 8.0.-q6 781 A ,1∈ L815; ` w1D/: A FH/2bA 6 ?>.K : N=:74866

>
H /2b 2JC1D1

>
: N=:7486 A ∈ E F ` ∈ R

" −

" ` a ∈ E ∈R "

−
V T UT U pU UT n[ pUT n[ U\
\^ mWY\[n ^ Y ^ \Y^\ U n\ ∈U YZW^m UonT_W^\ W omm @ u n[ Y

( ( ( ) ( *
-
( !
Y\Y \^To V_W\^\^^^ ^V ^\UV V U ^W[Z]o U U Vm\UUnV \^ U Û

,
UU pUW[ZT V ^W\pUTUU pUV

$
(
$ %
" +( #
%
'
ed W[Z− mWY[n T [npUV mU [pU W[\ UTU^\YY V \ UTUU W[ZY_ W[Z V ^W\ U Y \^ U ^^
&( # &( * # ( & & * ( ( &( #
$
4 " ( " &( "
( "
Up [Z[ ^ 1C-:N;Jc;J
%
D47.>9;J U ,-.3/.G ?>.D1 >?bN=:b019:3.56781

91501=.=8: D-;00:
./4=4 @b
` ? 81-. ` ,-4 M:981-4N: 44 81-:E01u 81-; 012;B
( ) &( #
,
81-15
7:.8>b 91-:N5.-=1>84
>?bN=:b 9150:98=:b 9155;8:84?=:b D-;00: 46 8 `. ` 81-@` ,1@a 81BF

5;b?2b.8>b
E@ u F l 81- -:N5.-=1>84 6 8 `. ` 19-;3=1>8q ` -;00:

91=.7=1S 01/D-;001S ? E@ u F ∼H 6 01 a 815; @ u E@ u uF E∼H uZ

>

>

/2b =.9181-1D1
81-: @ F 6: =:8;-:2q=1D1
@ 8:91S ` ,;>8q lD-;00:
2.5.=86781 810121D47.>9:b
01-13/.=:1C-:N;Jc:b
92:>>15
F
@E u @FE `Fu 6:9/2b4 9181-1D1

∈ ul
0-4
/19:N:8.2q>8?. a 2.55< =:
G
> ` Z

" 6 ?<C.-.5 a 2.5.=8

F

∈E u
>:5<.

9
-:>>;3/.=4b 019:N<?:J86 H 67814 -:>>518-45

r
F
a2.5.=8 r1C-:N;Jc:b
F
810121D47.>9:b
H ` w. 3.

l
−
D-;00< @ u `

5.?>.K,;>8q
` .2<K
"
redl 810121D47.>9:b
` 6 01Ea 815;
" rF
1C-:N;Jc:b
>24
9155;84-;.8
D-;00<9155;84-;.8

@ u ` 1D2:>=1> r8.1-.B
` ∈ E>1 ?>.54 a2.5.=8:54 @ ` /2b
rF6 81
7

u
>
:>>518-45 181C-:3.=4. @@ 6 81 6 N:/:==1.H 6M1-5;21S

F H >24 rFu R
4 × u →
01a 815;
EE F H E `F ` w:945 ∈1C-:N156

6
8
−
>

E ? /.S>8?48.2q=1>84
∈ u

6

%
5< 012;7:.5
%
−
>
181C-:3.=4. rF ×6 @>10-b3G==<K C-:N 181C-:3.=4b >1>8148 4N

→ `
8 8
6
?>.K a 2.5.=81? u R 6
D-;00< E u
a 2.5.=8:5 @ `
u :N5.-=1>8q
u
6 % % 6
5=1D11C-:N4b rF @ -:?=:

E ×
ed − ed ErF ed u@ u 6 ed − E F E − F H ed −
%

%

2.5.=81C-:N;
D-;00<=4 1/=1D1-.D;2b-.= 81D/: 4 812q91 681D/:691D/: 1= =. 0-4B
% % %
=:/2.348
=16

-:N5.-=1>8q =1-5:24N:81-: 4N 181C-:3.=4S

;
%
?>.K >10-b3G==<K 6
``` a2.5.=81? .S>8?48.2qB
` 1/=: 4 6
>
6
5
8: 3.6 01.5;
3G==<S a 815;a2.5.=8
a2.5.=85:9>45:2q=1D1
-.D;2b-.= 81D/: 4 812q91
81-: =. 81D/:6=491D/:
2.348 ? >10-bB4N
1/=1S
01/D-;00 @ 6 ``` 6 @ ` >

E FHI

?
,;>8q 4 6 l 5=13.>8?1 -.D;2b-=<K a 2.5.=81? >?bN=1S 9150:98=1S

%
D-;00<
45..8 ? H
%
91-:N5.-=1>8q =.
% %
\
1D2:>=1
5.=.. 8.1-.5.
%
"
%
75=13.>8?1
` ` ,1 a 815; >912q` ` ;D1/=1 5:2<5 .B
%
?.2.=4.5
1C-:N D2:/91D12.348
9181-1D1
%
181C-:3.=4b
? 81 →
513=1781012;748q
1N=:7:.86 -:?.=>8?1181C-:3.=4.6
?
FHI

/2b >?bN=1S 9150:98=1S D-;00< ` 4 ?<8.9:.8 4N >2./;Jc.D1E;8?.-B

%

%
?
%
3/.=4b `
%
U ^ \^pUVmW^W p \ U ^ U T U W[ ^\Y^ U n\U U _Z\pUUTUU mUTUW U

^ W[\Y [ A TUVU_Z\Uom \ U m U m [U_\\\ oUV o W ommo Y W[Z W

+" # ( " &# '
$
&( &( # # &# + ( + * " (
%
( # * ( &(
C-:Up [Z[4F `H^ :>>518-45

U ,;>8q181C-:3.=4.
l 5:9>45:2q=<S 81- ? 6 t l .D1 :2D.B
% ,
R × t → 6 N:/:==1. M1-5;21S
( ) &( #
, %
E A

>8?48.2q=1>84

8

5< ` >24
>
012;7:.5
" −
4 A ∈ t 6 81 R E H F ×6 t01→a 815;6 D/.? /.SB
∈ 181C-:3.=4.
%

" −

>%
"
l 0-1>8-:=>8?1 2.?<K >5.3=<K 92:>>1? `

% % %
,;>8q81D/:t l
4 5=13.>8?1
812q91 8.K A91D/:
81D/:6 6 /2b 9181-<K /2b∈ 2JC1D1 ` >=16 781`
"
A,1∈a 815;
∈t > %
t
5<
012;7:.5 181C-:3.=4. R E ∈ F × t → 6 0-47G5
" −
∈ % %
a 81 181C-:3.=4. >J- .984?=1.6 01>912q9; 181C-:3.=4. >J- .984?B

% %

I
=1.
817=1` ,19:3.56
0-1?.-48q6781781 b91C4:=
l 219:2q=<S
181C-:3.=4b

D15.151-M4N5 ?>J/; ` 2b a 81D118/1>8:B
18247.= =;2b ` 5

U] p [ E UTA F _ _Û pU_ WÛTT o _W\pUTU U] pU U U W[ ^\Y_

RE

%
F @
%
n[ Y
(
8
n[ n[ A ∈ t
# ( &
( ) (

*
! ( !
,
( "
Up [Z[ 012;7:.5
^ U k1>012qN1?:? 4>q 8.56 -15. 781 81D164 A 9155;84B
×t→
-;J86
( ) &( #
H − E F ` ,1a 815;
> >
,
H "

" A `
"

"
E F H 9
"
−
>
E F H FE F − F H
− −
> >
" " −
F H
" −
E E E A
> > > >
H " −
>−
E F
" −
>
" − −"
− "
E
"

A F −
−" " −
>
H/.>q 6 D/.l a2.5.=8 9:>:8.2q=1D1 0-1>8-:=>8?: ? 8179. 601a 815; H

−
−

2.5.=8 :2D.C-<
l a 1C1N=:7.=4b54 `8.1-.5< 4 w :945 1C-:N156 H `
>
k1>012qN;.5>b ` "` ` 81C-:3.=4.

−
e =;2.?1.
de-13/.==<5 81D/: =:4 812q91
L H t 6 81D/:6
: =: L u91D/:
6 O H F H6 1=16 8C;/.8 . =.?
−
8 `. ` A>=1∈ t8:93.6
` 781 1D-:=47.=4. 181C-:3.=4b e =: b?2b.8>b :?B

"
8151-M4N5156 01 a 815; 1=1 ?>.D/: =.?<-13/.==1. ` t

,1>8-145 >2./;Jc;J 9155;8:84?=;J /4:D-:55; R

E tt9 F × t %

/ E F×t

⊂
%

tt
t
A
ttt
tt ⊂
/.>q l 01/=b84. 181C-:3.=4b =169:94N 185.7.==1S

4 /2b =:9-<84S6>8-148>b
/ / %
`
%
01>-./>8?15
!
01/=b84S
.N:?4>451>8q 0;8.S6
01/=b84b 18 ?<K1/bc4K
?<C1-: 0;8.S6 >1./4=bJc4K 81794> 81791S
∈A`

H

6 >2./;.89155;8:84?=;J
012;7:.5
H
4N 1/=1>?bN=1>84/4:D-:55;
A ` >012qN;b .>8.>8?.==<. ?92J7.=4b6

H

Euu: F × t %

u
uu
A uuu
u
/ %

,-1>8-:=>8?1 t >8bD4?:.51601
3.=4J F I 1 a 815;IF H181C-:3.=4.
./4=47=<S D151810=1
2.5.=8 181C-:B
D-;00<
× { }` a
!

A →E 181C-:3:.8 E l
%
6 01 a 815; %

E ×{ } F I ?
./4=47=<S
%
a
2.5.=8
8
`

! ! ! () ) ' * ) (

w10121D47.>91.
=:N<?:J8 B W U 0-1>8-:=>8?1
W[\ UV6 .>24 A > 185.7.==1S
N:/:=1 =.0-.-<?=1. 81791S181C-:3.B
∈ A

=4. R A F×D151810=< m
A

→ A
6 813/.>8?.==15;
/2b 9181-1D1 181C-:3.=4b
&( &( #
7→ E
F4
H
>b6V7→781 E E F H F ` 81C-:3.=4. =:N<?:J8 0-4 a 815

H H
8
H
181C-:3.=4J 0-./012:D:.8B
E oV \ U ^\Y H
8
H H
^ ` >8.>8?.==<54 0-45.-:54 B0-1>8-:=>8? >2;3:8 D-;00< 4 4 81B

8 '
H H H
0121D47.>94. D-;00< ` 1 .>8q 4 /-;D4. 0-45.-< `

U V W U W[\ [ C Y R _ _ _
mW W[\ [ Y
; &( &( # ∞ ∞ # + ( & '
&( &( #
=1?6Up [Z[>101>8:?2bb
^ U 8179.813/.>8?45 C \I{I} F> 5=1D172.= 0-1>8-:=>8?15 5=1D172.B
,
( ) &( #
E
∞
,
5=13.=4. 5=1D172.=1? 4=/; 4-;.8 ;5=13.=4. =: 0-1>8-:=B

8 > 8 8 8 8 >
>8?.

` I 6 9181-1. 45..85=1D172.=<6
./4=47=<S012;7:.5
a2.5.=8 E;5=13.=4.

I I F ` =:813/.B

>8?2bb
>8-:=>8?.
C \{ }
∞
0-101- 41=:2q=<.
> ./4=47=<5 2.5.=815 I I F 2b 0-1B
91=B
8 8 8

a `

>8-;9 4b :=:21D47=:

C ∞
` E R R R R

5 ∞
. X^W[ _ _^ _ mW U W[\ UV # (& ' &( &( #
Up [Z[ ^ =1-51SU ,-./>8:?45 >M.-; 249:94=/;5=13.>8?1 74>.2 a24=.B>

,
./4=47=1S
:>>1 4:84?=1.F =: `>M.-. `

( ) &( #
5=13.=4.
,
74>.2 a 4-;.8 ;5=13.=4.
9
E
9
* ( U TW omm [ EA YF A[ ^ ^ [ mW U W[\ U U V ^]^\\ U U] pU

&
> 8
4 '
" #
&( &( # & ( ! ( !
Up [Z[ >2./;Jc45
^ U 1518104J6 >?bN<?:Jc;J 0.824 -15C 4 =:6 513=1 01B
H H ,
>8-148q

01>-./>8?15
( ) &( #
181C-:3.=4b 1C-:N15 ,

81C-:N45 ?=;8-.==4S
` F F F ` 81C-:3.=4b 1>8:?B
-4> ``

4K>b 7.8<-GK 8-.;D12q=491? E 01>8-145

7→ E > 0151cqJ
E D1518104S6 >?bN9:.8 >2./;Jc.. 1C1Cc.=4. `

H

4> ` ` ` ,1>8-1.=4. D15181044

U ^ mW U W[\ U A TUVU Um Y]^ p Y mW U U
+" ' &( &( # ( & &(
Up [Z[ ^ U >=16 781 A × E F ∼H EA F × E F ,
4 0-4/.S>8?4S6
a 815 /.S>8?4. D-;00< F 0.-.K1/48 ? 0-14N?./.B
( ) &( # 8 8 8 8
A × FE
, H H
=4. 8 `. ` F
5=13.=4. R AE × AE→ A 4=/;

F H `
E 4-;.8 9155;8:84?=;J /4:D-:55;
8 8
> 8 8
8

H
EA × A F × EA × A F −−−−→ EA× A F

>
 
F × EA F −−−−→ EA F
y y ∗× ∗ ∗
D/. ,;>8q EA
D1-4N1=8:2q=<.F6>8-.294 l /.S>8?4.
>
D-;00< ./4=47=<.=: ` 2.5.=8<

8
D-;00 F EA F ∈4 F EAEAH F ` w1D/:

∈ EA F
F6 F 4H l F H

F a,1a 815;
>
`
> >
E 8 >
>
8
E E E E
E E F6 : N=:7486 H `

8
8 > 8

8 > 8
,;>8q l ://484?=:b
∗ ∗
D-;00: =.9181-1D1 012b6
∗
: A l >?bN=1.
J8>b 91=.7=15.-=<54 0-1>8-:=>8?:54 =:/ EA` h,;>8q∼H EAH hLF b?2bB
B0-1>8-:=>8?16 /2b 9181-1D1 ?>. D-;00< F
6

D/. H EA h F6 l :2D.C-: 91D15121D4S ` 4:D1=:2q=1. 181C-:3.B

=4. A × A N:/:G8 ;5=13.=4. ⊗ → ? :2D.C-. 91D151B

>
5
21D4S ` R A →;5=13.=4. R A × A → A 4=/; 4-;.8 181C-:3.=4.

H
H R
→1C2:/:.8
3.=4. ∗ ⊗ ` 81 181C-:3.=4. =:N<?:J8 pU o V \ U ^\Y^V ` 1;5=1B

>2./;Jc454 >?1S>8?:54 `

9
F
81C-:3.=4.

FE H ⊗ 4
.>24R →
EF⊗H Pb?2b.8>b
D15151-M4N515
4
F H P
:2D.C-68
6 81 `. `

E > ? >

?

F H X F F F

⊗ ⊗
E
E−

E

⊗E
C D > >

?

?

81 >2./;.8
.=8:54
? 012.4N4 8.1-.5< J==.8: /2b? 91D15121D4S
4N N:91=: ;5=13.=4b :2D.C-. EA> ×91Aa MM4
F ` 4B
9

F ,;>8q R 4 ⊗ → Il0-4181C-:3.=4.6 N:/:==1. M1-5;2:54

∗
0.-.?1/48

?
#>
1D/: ?

I h 181C-:3.=4.
/4:D-:55.

R ⊗ →
` w

#?
⊗ 7→ ⊗ 7→

⊗
⊗
−−−−→
 
y  C
y

D
⊗
1C. 91501N4
54>?1S>8?1 44 b?2bJ8>b
>21?:54691;5=13.=4b

FH
813/.>8?.==<54

P u
181C-:3.=4b54
6 D/. O ` ` =<B81
−−−−→

E >2./;.8
⊗ ⊗

4N 81D16 781 ⊗? /4:D-:55. >

8
A ←−−−− A ×xA
x
  f g
g
f A
  ·
1C. 91501N4 44 D151810=< A × A 813/.>8?.==15;

←−−−−
181C-:3.=4J `
·
F 5..8 5.>81 ?92J7.=4.

E F ⊂ L ⊗ ` 81 >2./;.8 4N
81D16 781 4.=8:54

EA × A? F012. F ⊗ EA F /2b 91D15121D4S

HL

I
EA

> 91a MM4 ∼
`

I

N:/:=1 -:/;4-1?:==;J

91;5=13.=4. :>>1 4:84?=;J :2D.C-; H L 6/2b 9181-1S
>

61C2:/:Jc.. >?1S>8?:54 FB F6=:N<?:J8 [ T ^

E E 10M: =:N<?:J8

U U Um X[`81 ;>21?4.
W _Z\ >24 H>118?.8>8?;.8
1>=1?=1. 012.F6 81 :2D.C-;
'
>
" !
Ea E

24=.S=1S >?bN=1>84 0-1>8-:=>8?:

A`
&#
F !
HI Y _Z\[_ [ T ^ W[UT n[Um^ X[Y

V o YUm Y pU[ YH \U moUW U

. ; &( )
n \\[_ ^ V ^\ UV 4 &#
F
" *
] \ [ T ^ W[ m U Y\ UVU ∈ >
)( ( # 0 ( * &
H G , @
0( * ( 4 " #
G
Up [Z[ 0121348.2q=1S
5.=81? ^ U >=16-:N5.-=1>846
H
781
E F H >8-1D1 5.=q 6.S01>912q9;
,;>8q =.87G8=1
a2.B`
,
`
( ) &( #
, H ⊗ ⊗ H H
wH1D/: 4N 81D16 781

C-:848. D15151-M4N5 :2D.C-6 >2./;.86 781
E >118B FH
` l ?=45:=4.6 781 ? >2;7:. =.7G8=1D1

G G
u u ⊗ -:?.=>8?1u E 45..8 >1?>.5 /-;D1S ?4/ ` :0-45.-6

F H
H
?.8>8?;Jc..
P I
H ⊗
H H ⊗
?

H
?
H −
601>912q9; ? a 815 >2;7:. /?: >2:D:.5<K ⊗ ?K1/b8 E >

H H
G
H
?

−

∈

∈

0-184?101213=<54 N=:9:54 `F ,-./01213456 781 H I /2b =.9181-1B

6 0-47G5C<8q
D17.D1 >=. 513.8 8:91. 74>21 54=45:2q=1 ` w1D/: I H Pu u ⊗ u 6 H >
`
I
−>
H H −
>24 =.7G8=16
:2D.C-: h1=: >1>8148
81 ?4/:
4N a2.5.=81? H I ` ,1 a815;6 D/. H E F l ?=. =bb
?
∈ `

G H 8 H
X^W[ \^ VU ^ mW U W[\ UV
H
?
: ( " () ' &( &( #
Up [Z[ ^ U ,-./01213456 781 >M.-: F b?2b.8>b b?2b.8>b>?bN=1SB

$ ,
?
0-1>8-:=>8?15

`
( ) &( #
w
:2D.C-1S 10M:F `,12D.C-: 1D/: :2D.C-:
,
H E h R ?

5;2q840249:84?=1 01-13/.=: a 2.5.=815

∗
E h R ` aH815; I ` >1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. `" ` I 6H I /2b ?>.K `

? ? F
/-;D1S
H ∈

>81-1=<6 ?

H G
7
k >2;7:.6 91D/:781K:-:98.-4>849: 012b -:?=: H I6 8.1-.5: `" ` I

H
=.?.-=:6
81C< 01815;
/19:N:8q ?.->4J -:?.=>8?1
8.1-.5< H I 513.8
I /2b ?<012=b8q>b
012.S
6
=.=;2.?1S

0-4K:-:98.B
H ` #
-4>84946 =:5 01=:/1C48>b >2./;Jc..` ` ;8?.-3/.=4. `

#
H
"
o

; &( )
e HFP Y O H P O T n^ I 6 O 6 − UT n[
# #* 8 #
uUp≡ u E U ,;>8q
Q

, @
#
,
1D/: /.248>b =: ` ,1a 815;

[Z[F ^ 6 6 − `w

EE e F `≡ =:7486 E e F ` =/;9 4.S 01 012;7:.5 E F ≡

( ) &( # # F #

, G

#
H H G H H
#
E F HH E FF H

C
E F E FF E F F ≡

H H

C
H H H
≡E E E

C
H H ≡ H
E eF

F

YX #
≡ I FI H
G
,1 aF815;01 51/;2J
91a MM4 4.=8 -:?.=0-4u u Hu u u u ` u /-;D1S ? ?<-:3.=44
>81-1=<6 1=/2b-:?.=

#
H H
C

C

E

u ` N 81S 2.55<6 ? 7:>8=1>846 >2./;.86 781 I e F /2b

7
H C

I O a ` ,1a 815; Pu u ⊗ u H I /2b H ` ≡12..E 81D16 .>24

F #
>
u H I 4 0;>8q
u 6H I /2bH 6 O 6 − 6 81 H 6 0-47G5 /2b =.9181-1B
# I
−> #
D1 u ` u.S>8?48.2q=16
> H H −
HI4
P I
−> #
H ⊗ H − H
5 ># #

6

"
24C1
1D/: H I /2b e6 24C1 F 4 HH ` kk10.-?15 ?81-15 >2;7:.
>2;7:. 0121345
0121345 O HO H `
w u ≡ u E u ` `
#
6 6
1D/: O 6 e F 4 H 6 0-47G5
# #
w >012qN;b u a 84≡ >-:?=.=4b6

E

>
012;7:.5
#

>2./;Jc;J
>
6 6 − `
?.->4J 8.1-.B
#
5< `" ` I `

H T n^ \^] \ U ^ ]Y U VY UV
&# _Z\[_ " T * U o

)( V ( # p U
[ ^ W[UT n[m^X[ Y o \^] Y m \YU [ UY\H m W F [n ^\\[_Y ] ^ \^\U U

. ; &( ) #* # 4
U U 0(
0
& *
(
4
H
"
F
Y∈ U H > Y U H E F
*
G

, * @ "
&
G

0( * (
E H
* &
G
0( * (
k >2;7:. ;3=1 H 8.1-.5: M1-5;24-;.8>b 4 /19:N<?:.8>b ?1 5=1D15

H H H ,
:=:21D47=1
/2b =.7G8=1D1 24 q >/.2:8q
` -:?.=>8?1 H I =. 1CbN:=1 ?<012=b8q>b
#

/?: ?
N:5.7:=4b k1B0.-?<K6
` ` k1B?81-<K6 8.0.-q
FH
5<E `" ` I ?<D2b/48
H

H E F ` ,1>2./;Jc45

H
a 815; /2b 1C-:N15
?G
012b K:-:98.-4>8494 :=:21D 8.1-.B
H
`

H Y _Z\[_ [ T ^ W[UT Um X[U

V oH Y m Y p [U Y H\ UmoUW U

. . ; &( )
n \\[_
F V UV
^ ^\ ∈ > n[ Y
4 &#
F
" *
Y
)( ( # 0 ( * "
* " ?
E H G , @
[W[\T ^ W[ U Um
H H H ,
\[nUVm U^W\^VU n _\ o ^ UTUU [W[pUT n[^WY[ o T ^Y pW[Y mWY]YZ UVUV_Z\[_

X[pU\^]\

.:

# !
1
; &( )
( &( *
4 &#
0 &(
"
&( #

'
U
WWX\[
m p [p [ T ^ W[
U U UV U UV \^ U \^ [T T ^ W U U U U W[Z o Y \^
]\ m X[\W[Z VW[Z^W\^\ZVU^W\W\U^ o ^mW YYZm U ^n^\Y
+" " A "
, @
Y\ Y[ \ [ ^ W W[Z o Y ]
B ( # + # ! " ( " += '
$ 1
0( &( ! ) ! " ( " += 0( '
$1 $ 1
&( !
Up [Z[6 >2./;.86
^ U781 N513=1 81D16781?<C-:8q 0-1>8-:=>8?1 91=.7=15.-=1 /2b 2JB
$1 ,

C1D1
( ) &( #
8:96 78101/:2D.C-:
ed 6 ed? 6 01-13/G==:b
,

01/-:N;5.?:.8>b6 1C-:N;Jc4. 781 6 6 ``` :2D.C-<

F ` ,;>8q
> ?
l

H E

H
>
a 2.5.=8:54 ∈
H
6 .S>8?48.2q=16

``` 6 ` =:
H

H

b?2b.8>b
FH

01/:2D.C-1S 10M:6 8 `. `
F

`
D/.E ed⊂ u ed⊗781 ed ` ,14=:7.
60-./012:D:8q6
H
>
H

a 81B
5
E5; ∈ ⊗ ⊂ ⊗` ;/.5P 8:93.
u 8
E
u
H H H ⊗ H
1C-:N;Jc;J
8
1D2:>=1

513=1
>
4>92J748qF
8.1-.5. :2D.C-1S

` 6∈ H
>
`" ` I :2D.C-:6 01-13/G==:b a2.5.=815 6 b?2bB

−
−
H
.8>b
7G8=:6
7
0124=154:2q=1S
4 ,1?=.815; =.S 4N:2D.C-1S

? >2;7:.6
F ? >2;7:.6 91D/: -:N5.-=1>8q
91D/: -:N5.-=1>8q H

=.7G8=: ` a

81D16 781 E :2D.C-: 9155;8:84?=: E? D-:/;B
H

H H
H

4-1?:==15
>8?.==<S a 0451-M4N5 >5<>2.F 4 :>>1 4:84?=:6 >2./;.86-:N5.-=1>8q
781 45..8 5.>81 7G8=:F .>8.B
424
⊗ >
− → H E

H

F -:N5.-=1>8q =.7G8=:F ` 1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q6

⊗ E E
781
>
818
?:8q>ba 4=/;9
−
0451-M4N5
H →

a 4.S 01 F ` b?2b.8>b

51=151-M4N515 E : N:8.5 ?1>012qN1B
H
5
:>>518-45 -:N5.-=1>84
4/.:2 601-13/G==<S a 2.5.=815>1>8148 4 a2.5.=8:54

?
0121348.2q=1S
?4/:

64D/. -:?=<
F
` =<54 >21?:546
6 0-47G5 91501=.=8< 4N
=;2.?1S2.5.=8<
?<-:3.=4S
-:N5.-=1>84
H
>
−
a 6 45.Jc4. -:N5.-=1>8q ` ed 6 /123=<6∈ 2.3:8q ? a 4/.:24/.:2:=.

2.5.=81? ∈ I >=16 781 6 01>912q9;
P F F >
H >
−

>1/.-348 a2.5.=81? ?4/: 6 D/. ∈ F `

H

E H
>
:>>518-45 91501N4 4J 181C-:3.=4S

−
H

−→ ⊗ −
→ ⊗ E
F

8
D/.
=1S2.5.=8
#
l .>8.>8?.==:b
-:N5.-=1>846 81 0-1.9 4b ` >24 ∈ P l a2.5.=8

FH

6 D/.
0121348.2qB >
a5.=8: 0121348.2q=1S E -:N5.-=1>84

⊗

` ,1
⊗
a 815;

FH
⊗
E

⊗ E
∈
/2b

a l
2.B

−

>
8:91. -:?.=>8?1 813. 45..8 5.>81F ` -15. 81D16

F H
# −
H-:N5.-=1>84

∈
⊗,1 815; u
⊗ FH
6 D/. ∈ l a2.5.=8 E
0121348.2q=1S 9
H

5.=8: ? ` à

6 D/. l 1C-:N a2.B >
P
H ⊗ H
E
⊗
#
H ⊗

H
−

H

H
:>>518-45 >=:7:2: >2;7:S691D/: -:N5.-=1>8q 7G8=: ` ,-./0121B

H
3456
5.=45

781
9 .>8q
815; =.9181-1.
>118=1 =.8-4?4:2q=1.
.=4J 181C-:3.=4. >118=1 .=4.

` 748<?:b6 781 H I6
H I ` ,-4B H

F F
a
P
H ?
012;745 #
H
I H XE ⊗ FE ⊗ ⊗ F H F
F
HX ⊗ X
H H
F F F F >

H G H − H
1 01781;>21?4J H I601 815; P 9:9 5<⊗;3. H;0154=:246 I ` N a 81D1 >2./;B6
⊗

.86
P
H I
F
F F > H
` .=4. P aF
.S>8?48.2q=16
F F >
G H −

H

017.5a 815; H I ` 118=1 H I 45..8 5.=q ;J >8.0.=q6

P 5
G H − ∈ F > H
4>K1/=1. >118=1 .=4. P5< 45..5 H I ` /.21>=1> 8:93.6 781 a 81K:-:98.-4B

>118=1 .B
F
7 −
6H F FG H
=4.
>8494 =.8-4?4:2q=1601>912q9;
012.5 =;2.?1S
H

>8.0.=46` >2481 =.5./2.==1

5< ?<C.-.50-4/G5 4>K1/=1.9 0-184?1-.74J
>118=1 .=4. 54=45:2q=1 ?1N513=1S
` =.7G8=: ,-./01B

213456 :>>518-45
781 .>8q 8.0.-q >2;7:S6
=.9181-1. 91D/: -:N5.-=1>8q
=.8-4?4:2q=1. >118=1 .=4. ` H I` H

,-45.=45 9 =.5; 181C-:3.=4.

` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7456 781 >
H
#
IH ⊗ ⊗ E ⊗ ⊗ FH >
HE F⊗ ⊗

H H
> >

H H

1 01 ;>21?4J
>2;7:.6
H I6 01 a 815;
H6 I ` 2./1?:8.2q=16
>
H I6 : N=:7486H I ` H:9I 4 ? 0-./</;c.5
>

7
H ⊗
>
` H
9
TWTomm [U UY UUT n[ [ T ^ W[ pUTUVU UT Y

H

F o
V ^W\E Uh R ^ _ _^ _ \^ \^ [ ^ W W[Z o Y \^] \ W[Z
; &( ) 4 " !
% , @

∗ # ( & # ! " ! ( " += 0( '
% 1 $1
&( !
Up [Z[ ^ :2D.C-: U ,124=154:2q=:b :2D.C-: C.>91=.7=15.-=:6 01a 815;

,
91=.7=15.-=:b

C-; `
( ) &( #
,
=. 513.8 >1/.-3:8q 0124=154:2q=;J 01/:2D.B

o
. ; &( ) U n\ U _Z\[_ TW omm [ Y UT n[ E h RF H I
4 &#
?
5;>84Up?[Z[:2D.C-. U N 1/=1>?bN=1>84F .>8q >2./;.86 781 E812q91 F H-:N5.-=1B

I ` ,1 a 81B
% , @ % ,
^ 91D15121D4S
( ) &( #
1C-:N;Jc4. h >
hR

> `
,
E
∗
%
R %

18=1>48.2q=<K w-.C;.5<S
:
.0.S4N151-M4N5617.?4/=1645..8
`
5.>81 ;3. =: ;-1?=.
?:8q 9:9
: . :==;J
91-189;J
5 9155;8:84?=;J
817=;J /4:D-:55; 513=1 .0=<K
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q -:>>5:8-4B
915B
02.9>1? I → → → → I6 D/. l .0=1S 91502.9>
I .8-4?4:2q=<.
I → →D15121D44 I h 91502.9>< 4 10-./.2bJ8>b :=:B
0 00 0
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
21D47=1
4 ``
→ → → −

0
91502.9>: la 81 9:9 -:N
∗ ∗
0
∗
00

4N5.=.=4S 19:N:8.2q>8?1
D1/48>b 4 ? 8.1-.5<
815 >2;7:. ` ` C.N 9:94KB24C1
;3=1 24 q >21?1 >;c.>8?.==<K
4N151-M4N5
a 424 a 0451-M4N5
`
: : 5
N:5.=48q =: 51=151-M4N5 `

D1G8>b?4/:0-1?.-48q6
,;>8q=:7:2: /19:3.56 F781 >=16 4=/; 4-;.8 D15151-M4N5 8:91B
781 1 I ∈H 6 01H a 815; 1>8:B
` `
: E 7 ?
781∈
∈
EH
H

`
?
` >24
?
H
?
6 81
∈ H I :945 1C-:N156
6 01 a
?
815;
H
181C-:3.=4. ∈ `
>
10-./.2.=1 >24
?
91--.98=1 6 81
?
H
? ?
H

` w D15151-M4N5 ` ` >=1
? > ? ? > ?
H
∈ H
H ∈ H
8:93.619:3.5
?
H
781 l 781 l a 0451-M4N5 ` ,;>8q ∈ ∩ `
8.0.-q6

1D/: >;c.>8?;.8
wa 815
5
H aH2.5.=8H I6 01>912q9;
∈
6 /2b 9181-1D1H H =:7486 ` ,-4 ? >
`
? ?
H H

H ∈
19:3.56

?
F `
H
?
? ?
H
?
E =:91=. 6 781 l 51=151-M4N5 ` ,;>8q a2.5.=8 ∈ > ?
E∈ F` 8:91?6
1D/: 781H ∈ 6 D/.E ∈F6 8 `.` ` ,1Ha 815; /2b =.91B
5
H
81-1D1
∈

w
? ?
H
? > ?
H
? >
`
> > ? ?
H ∈ H
?

:F :>>518-45 4N151-M4N5 H ` w-.C;.51. -:?.=>8?1

:
6
>
−
>
?

9?4?:2.=8=1
a?.=>8?1 513=1-:?.=>8?;
0.-.04>:8q ? ?4/.HE de6− deF8 `.E` − deFdeHHI ` ` ,1>2./=.. -:B
6 6−
>

6
?

6
19:3.56781
N<?:.8>b 8:9 E deFH H I 4 H E − deF HHI ` ,.-?1. -:?.=>8?1 /19:B 6 6
R ?1>012qN;.5>b 8.56 781 H ` 6 8 `. ` H ?81B

81C< /19:N:8q
5 ?
− >6 > 6 >

-1. -:?.=>8?16
H H
> ? ?
−
H H
>
− ??
R
>
− > ? ?
>
`
> − >
> > > > >

8:96 deF H 4 ⊂ E − deF6 01a 815;
> ? − > −
> ? − ?
E
− −

deF H I `
E −CF ,-./0121345 ?−

6
⊂ ? ?
6
6
>8?;.8 ,121345 >=:7:2:6

H 781,.-?<.
;9:N:==<S
/?: D15151-M4N5
;>21?4b >;c.B
1C.>0.74?:J8
` ` 01>2./=.. 816 781 D151B

9155;8:84?=1>8q
51-M4N5 912. /4:D-:55<6
,19:3.56 781 : ? >
l ` >24l E F H
51=151-M4N5

>
`
?
HH I6 81F H I6E F01>912q9;

l
H − E F 6 01a 815; H H − E F6 : N=:7486 E FH ? ?
H

>
− Ea 0451-M4N5 ` ,;>8q ⊂ 4 H F `⊂w1D/:

? H
>

H
` ,19:3.56
781
F H
H
?

H

H
l H
H − E F − E F− E F H E FH `
?
∈ E ?

− E >
H
?
H

H
,-./01213458.0.-q6 781 >;c.>8?;J8 /4:D-:55< > /?;5b -:N=<54

> > >
H H H H H
4N151-M4N5:54 4 ` w 1D/: 513=1 0121348q H de ` .D91

0-1?.-48q6 781 1C2:/:.8 ?>.54 8-.C;.5<54 >?1S>8?:54 ` −
> ? >
−
>
?
?F 155;8:84?=<. /4:D-:55< E H F

9 8
I −−−−→ Z −−−−→ Z × Z −−−−→ Z −−−−→ I ?

? ? ?
  
  
y
I −−−−→ Z −−−−→ Z × Z −−−−→ Z −−−−→ I
y y

? ? ? ? 8
D/. H de6 E F H E F6 E F H E F 4 E F H 6 /:J8 8-.C;B

.5<S 0-45.- `
> ? 8 8 8 8
H H H H H H H
02.9>1? ,-./>8:?45
4 4 81- ? ? ?4/. 1C ./4=.=4b
?<C.-.5 F >45024 4:2q=<K
1C-:N;Jc4. 4
?
-4> 915BF
` `
:
N 817=1S 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84 E ∩ E
> > >

E
> F −f−−−−→g E F ⊕ E F → E F → E ∩ F → I
>
− C > > > >
? !
>
012;7:.5 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
∩
I → → E F → Z → I >
?
8
D/. H,-4E D15151-M4N5.

F -;00: ∩ 2.5.=8 F >1>8148 4N a2.5.=81?
? 0:-;?4/: E F
` F − `F F E8:91S 0.-.K1/48
a
8 > > >

E − E − E ` 1 E F H EF 4 E F H EF ` ,1a 815;

8 > > > >

I
4> ` ` w1-
?
45..8 ?4/ E F 7→ E − − F ` =:7486 H Z 4 H Z`

w 17=:b 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
8 8

I → Z → E F → Z → I >
?
-:>c.02b.8>b6 01a 815; E F ∼H Z ⊕ Z `

N 817=1S 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84 >
?
I → E F → E ∩ F −f−−−−→g E F ⊕ E F
?
?
> >
− C > > >
012;7:.5 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
I → E F → → I ?
?

=:7486 E F ∼H ∼H Z `
?
?

815; 1D2:>=1 N:/:7.F I ` 4N 7:>84 × F∨ ≈ F` 0-4 ,1B

H
a ` E × ∨ ∼ × ∪ E ∨ ∼ E H
: 7

F 8 F F

G
:04 .5 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 0:-< E,12;7456 F
>

4 ?1>012qN;.5>b
:
F

-.N;2q8:815
0-4

H I6 N:/:74
6 6 ` ` ` .>24 H 6 81
× ∨
781 8
H

EE ×× F ∼H Z ⊕ZZF h 1>8:2q=<. D-;00< =;2.?<. ` E

F
∼ # # #

G

:F ,;>8q N:59=;8:b B19-.>8=1>8q /:==1D1 ;N2:/?;5.-B

6
N:5<9:=4.
:
l=<S 81- ` :5 =;3=1

`lw 1D/:
H 4 H

l< 0-./01B ?
>
2:D:.56
\
?<74>248q ∪
D15121D44

∩

` > >
8-4:=D;2b78144>M.-: 4 8-4:=D;24-1?:=: 8:96 781 .G 8-4:=D;2b 4b /:G8

>
\ ∼
` ,-.3/. ?>.D1 N:5.8456 781 0-1>8-:=>8?1

> >

D15181047.>94
5;>< >4502.9>1? a 9?4?:2.=8=1 >45024
-:N5.-=1>84 4:2q=15; 91502.9>;6
.S>8?48.2q=16 8-GK5.-=<. =. >4502.9B
45.Jc.B
> `

1C-:N156 E F H I 0-4 > ` ;=47813:8q

513=1 01>2./1?:8.2q=1 =:74=:b > D-:=4 < ` w:945
5
>=1 8:93.6 781 F H

:04 .5 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q :S.-: kq.81-4>:E Z `
>

> >

>
E F ⊕ E F −→ E F −→
> >

> ∗
F −→ E F ⊕ E F −→ E F
∗
−→ E
? ∗
∗ >

,-4 H 012;7:.5
∗

I → Z −→ Z → E F → I ∗ ? >
N/.>q ;>8-1.=>;551S
15151-M4N5 F 0-./>8:?2.=: >2./;Jc45 1C-:N151-4.=84-1?:==<K
` C-:N;Jc:b

D-;00< >1D2:>1?:==1

E
>4502.9>1?6
7:>84:=:R;8.69181-<. -:NC48: >M.-: ` 6 4848.6>4502.9>< -:NC4?:J8>b
∗

=: /?.-:=4 9181-<. 0-4=:/2.3:8

84K /?;K 7:>8.S 1Cc:b ` 8: D-:=4 9181-<. 0-4=:/2.3:8
: 4 .>8q ` w:945

`
1C-:N156 a4N151-M4N5 ,1 815; F H I

,-4 H l012;7:.5 ` a E `
>
∗
? >
∗

I → Z ⊕ Z −→ Z ⊕ E F → I ∗ > >
,-4 181C-:3.=44 0:-:22.2q 81-: 0.-.K1/48 ? ?1C-:N;Jc;J D-;00<

> F H 6 01
E E ZF ` =:7486
0<0-./>8:?2.=:
a 815; 5.-4/4:=
F H 81-:
6

0.-.K1/48
0-47G5
∗
1C-:N;Jc:b 1C-:N;Jc;J
D-;00< D-;0BF
> >
5:21S E Z ? 021>91>846 8-:=>?.->:2q=1 0.-.>.B

19-;3=1>8qJ
> >
E > >
9:Jc.S ;N.2 E-4> ` F `
4> ` ` C-:N;Jc:b D15121D4S /1012=.=4b ;N2:

CF :9 4 0-4 -. .=44 N:/:74 :F6 012;7:.5 817=<. 01>2./1?:8.2q=1B

9

>84
I → Z −→ Z → E F → I ∗
? > 8
I → Z −→ Z ⊕ E F → I ?
∗

> >

,-40:-:22.24
a 815 E F H81-1? F6 01a 815;? 1C-:N;Jc4.
E 0.-.K1/b8 ` ,-4 181C-:3.=44
E F H Z D-;00<8
FHZ 68 ? >
>
E
−
01a 815;F 5.-4/4:=< 84K 81-1? 0.-.K1/b8 ? 1C-:N;Jc4. D-;00<

a F H 6 0-47G5 1C-:N;Jc4. a 81S D-;00< 0-./B

∗
>
=:7486
∗
`

>
E 5:2<54 19-;3=1>8b546=:/.8<54
>8:?2.=< >
E Z
=: 91501=.=8< N: .02.=4b `
> >

H \ d :044 .5H01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

:

R F

>
:S.-: kq.81-4>: /2b H

F
E
>
F E d F
E F → E F → E F

F

F

F >
>
>24 > F6 H81I 0-4E HF H 513=1

I6 : .>24-:>>518-.8q 6 81 ED-;00< F H ID1B4
− −
→ \ ⊕ − >

5121D4S
F
− E ` h
>

G >
−
F
6 6 −
G
0-4?./G==<.

G
F
−
4:2q=1D1 ,;>8q 91502.9>:

:
l ` C:-4 .=8-47.>91.
,1>8-145 >45024
0 01/-:N/.2.=4.
4:2q=1. >45024B
181C-:3.=4.
ELF 4N>2./;Jc45 1C-:N15 ` 101>8:?45

:3/<S >4502.9>
91502.9>:

R →1/=45

019-<8
6
0
>:.>8q
>4502.9> 01/91502.9>1?
=:45.=q >4S?.-4N 8:94K

4=/.9>1? C:-4 .=8-;

` ` ;3=1 0-1?.-48q6 781 .>24 >4502.9B
?01/B
9
7

91502.9>< 4=:54
6 6 ``` 6 6 81 ?

6 6 6 6 9181-<5 >118?.8>8?;J8
``` F .>8q >4502.9> > ?.- 4=:54 6 >

F
0
6 68 `91502.9>.
```4:2q=15 . ` ∩ ∩ 8179: H 13=1
6 ∅`

EL >748:8q6781 ? 4>K1/=15 >45024B
C

?.- 4=:6 l6 81>.-./4=: -.C-:6 l

l

.=8- B5.-=1S D-:=4 4 8 / 1D/: .>24

` `w `
> ?
,1 a 815;

19:3.56

∈781 ∩181C-:3.=4.
`
∈
4=/;,-44-;.8H 4N151-M4N5
∈
D15121D4S

8

8
−
>
`

∩
,-45.=45 /2b 81D1 4=/;9 4J 01 91502.9> H : 4B

a `
5
6
9247.=
=:H ` 19:3.5 4 EL8.0.-q
F H ∗ l :D1/=:4=/;9 8179:44` w,;>8q
:9 781 C:N:H 4=/;9 44 17.?4/B

6 HH
>
`

4 H :>>518-45 ? F 01/91502.9><

8
`
5 > >8 >
H 181C-:3:.8
EL∪ F 4∪ l N:59=;8:b
>
N?.N/: ?.-
?
4=<
L
EL F ` ,1 01>8-1.=4J
E
{
>
}
>
? 4N151-M4N5
6 : 01 0-./01213.=4J 4=/;9 44 1D-:=47.=4.

> ?

=:3. 4=/;4=/;4-;.84-;.8 D15121D4S D-:=47.=4. =: H 81B

`
>0 >
6 6
4N151-M4N5 D15121D4S6 01>912q9; 91502.9>

>0 ?0
6
: 49247.=6 : l 91=;> > ?.- 4=1S E F `

?

? >

,;>8q6 9181-1.
H ` w1D/:
1C2:/:.8 8.54 3. H { ,1815;
>?1S>8?:54 } l
019-<84.
4=/; 4-;B
>
` a ` :04 .5 8.0.-q

>8 8
∪ M
.8817=;J
4N151-M4N5 D15121D4S 4 F H

> ?
∩
EM R ∩
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q ∩:S.-: kq.81-4>: > ?

>

?
6

F
E ∩ F −→ E F ⊕ E F −→ E F −→ E  ∩ F −→ E F ⊕ E F
>
I
? F >
I
F ? F F
−
> >
I
? F
−
> > F
I
−
> ?
    
F F F F F F F
y ∼ y y ∼ y y ∼ ∼
F
E ∩ ,:-<−→ 9-:S=4K
> ?
E ⊕181C-:3.=4S
E −→ E 4N151-M4N5<6
F >
E ∩01a 815;
F ?
E
>1D2:>=1 "B E F F > > ? F > > F > ?
2.55. >-./=.. 181C-:3.=4. 813.l 4N151-M4N5 `

−
→ −
→ ⊕ − − −
k >2;7:. CF 01>8-145 /4:D-:55;

E
I −−−−→ −−−−→
−−−−→ −−−−→
I

  

y
 
I −−−−→ −−−−→ ⊕ −−−−→ −−−−→ I
y ⊕ y
8
D/. E ⊕ FhE/2bF H a 81D1
5;8:84?=: E F E F ` .D91 0-1?.-48q6 781 a 8: /4:D-:55: 915B

>1D2:>=1=;3=1 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b 8.56 781 H I 4 H

8
H dek `>2;7:.
,1a 815;?F 01>8-145 " B2.55.
/4:D-:55;⊕ l 4N151-M4N5 `

I −−−−→ −−−−→
−−−−→ −−−−→
I

x x x
  

I −−−−→ −−−−→ ⊕ −−−−→ −−−−→ I
 
8
D/.
9; E H I 4F E F HH deE `F E F ` 8: /4:D-:55: 9155;8:84?=:6 01>912qB

8

:F 81C-:3.=4. ,-4E F −→H E F −012;7:.56 → E

F 813/.>8?.==1.601B
a 815; lF a 0451-M4N5 ` 781817=;J

181C-:3.=4.
E . F ∗ F ∗ F

R E
>
#
→ E
∗
F =;2.?1. ` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7:.5 01>2./1B G

?:8.2q=1>8q
∗
5: .>8q 0-:?<S I → 1C-:8=<S

E F −→ E `F −→ E F → I6 0-47G5 ; D15151-M4NB

∗

∗
5; CF l81C-:3.=4. E` F,-4−→ EH F −u−→ 012;7456

E F 813/.>8?.==1.6 01 a 81B
#
∗
51=151-M4N5
∗
781 181C-:3.=4.

F ∗ F ∗ F

R E

∗
F → E F =;2.?1. ` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7:.5 817=;J 01>2.B

G

/1?:8.2q=1>8q I → 1C-:8=<S
E F −→ OE` F −→ E F → I6 0-47G5 ; D15151-B
>
∗ −
M4N5: .>8q 2.?<S

∗ ∗

∗ ∗

?F ,-1>8-:=>8?1 >8bD4?:.51 ? 6 01 a 815; 2JC1S F >M.-14/F

?=;2.?1.
>8bD4?:.5 ? ` 2./1?:8.2q=16 181C-:3.=4.
` k -.N;2q8:8. 5< 012;7:.5 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
7
E → E
I → E45..8
M4N5 F −→ 0-:?<S E F −→1C-:8=<S

∗
E F `→ I ` 19:3.5 8.0.-q6 781 D15151-B
∗ > 5
49>4-;.5 D1518104J R → 6 /2b 9181-1S | H de 4 E F H

−
H>M.-14/ 1/=: 8179: 513=1 >748:8q6 781 ∈ 9:9` ,;>8qB5.-=<S

∗
>
l ? ` w1D/:h 513=1 -:>>5:8-4?:8q R → l >6

6 6

>M.-14/ ?
−
`? 6151810=<5 >M.-14/:5 ? >118?.8>8?;J8 D151810=<. >M.-14/<

6

01a 815; 5< 012;7:.5 b?2b.8>bD15151-M4N5
0-:?<5 1C-:8=<5 E/2b F
→ E `
F >=16 781
a 818 D15151-M4N5 D15151-M4N5:
`
>
−
:3/15; D15151-M4N5; ∈ E ZF 513=1 >101>8:?48q

∗
D15151-M4N5
E : 9
3.?.-48q6
>:5:b781M1-5;2: ∈
N:/:G8 F >2./;Jc45
E 4 Z1C-:8=1. >118?.8>8?4. 1C-:N15 R ;3=1
E F H 24 E q F0-1B

h 8: 8
!
`
! 8
.>24
I H E F H 6 01a 815; H I `

H

I6 81 E F H I ` ,-./01213456781 E F H ` w1D/:

G
G G
1C-:N15 ,1>8-145
2.5.=8 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
0-14N?12q=<S 2.5.=8 8:91?6
∈ Q 781
>2./;Jc45
H h
> 8 ? 8 8
` a
E E
2.5.=8 8:91?6
a 6 .>8q ?:-4:=81? ?<C1-:
781 H 6
>
4 8 h
/ ,1>2. 81D1 9:9
Z
?<C-:=
` ` ` ,1a 815; 5=13.>8?1a 8:94K 2.5.=8
? ? >
2.5.=8:
?
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8.S
>

=.>7G8=1 a .S>8?48.2q=16
` ?<C1-: /:3.81 .>24 =: 9:3/15

:D. .>8q 812q91 /?: ?:-4:=8: 2.5.=8:6 ;3. 012;7:.8>b

−
a 5=13.>8?1 ?>.K /?147=<K

5

=.>7G8=1.
/-1C.S =.>7G8=1F `5=13.>8?1 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8.S E
JC1S 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84
D15151-M4N5 6 012134? 513=1 >101>8:?48q
H∈ Q` Z.S>8?48.2q=16 -:?.=B
> 8 ? 8 8
>8?1 H REQF→?<012=b.8>b6
>
01>912q9; H >=1 8:93.6 781

5
.>24 N:/:=1 4 l D15151-M4N56 81 N:/:=1 ` H E − F 6

> Q Z
6 6 >

6 6> > >
: N=:7486 N:/:=1 /2b 2JC1D1 .21D1 `

6 6 6 6

6
2b D-;00< .>8q >?1C1/=:b -.N12q?.=8: ?4/:

I → Zu −→ Zu →-;00: → I6 D/. E F H /2b >8:=/:-8=<K 1C-:N;Jc4K
E 5
D-;00< ` F a 81 M:981-D-;00: F H 01

F F F
Zu EZu 4-1?:==15
Z ∼ Zu

EZE ⊕ZZulZF 0-4 181C-:3.=446 4=/;

1C-:N;
181C-:3.=4.5D-;00<
F
8 8
EI4-1?:==15
F6 8 `. ` 01 181C-:3.=4.5
1C-:N; D-;00< ,;>8qEZu ZF 0-4 181C-:BF
8
3.=44 2.5.=86 6 4=/;

/?1S>8?.==<S
8
6 8 . F H ` ` w1D/: ∈ F H EZu Z `
8
a ` `
F 8
l,1 a 815; M:981- EZu ZF 01 1C-:N;E 181C-:3.=4b 4N151-M.=

∗
8
F
E
F

`
F

∗
F FF
∗
"
I=1→01>8-148q >012qN;bI 4>?1C1/=<.

9:=1=47.>94S-.N12q?.=8<
4N151-M4N5 I → → → →6 513B I4
H
E
0
→
0
→ →
9155;8:84?=;J /4:D-:55; ⊗ ∼ ⊗ % %
I
I I E↓
F 8
I → ⊗↓ → ⊗↓ → ⊗↓ → I 0 0 0
I → ⊗↓ → ⊗↓ → ⊗↓ → I 0 0 0
I → E F → ⊗↓ → ⊗↓ → ⊗↓ → I
8
I
↓ ↓
I ↓
I
-.C;.8>b
w817=1 8:9 01>8-148q
3.69:9 4N151-M4N5
>8-148>b >?bN<?:Jc4S F → E F?` 817=1S
E D15151-M4N5 81 /.2:.8>b
01>2.B
8 8
/1?:8.2q=1>84 0:-<
/2b D-;00 4 D15151-M4N51? ` 2b ;/1C>8?: ??./G5 5 ./4=11C-:N=<. 1C1N=:7.=4b
R
I I
I → A↓ −→ A↓ −→ A → I >>
>>
CC >?
>?
CD >
>
I → A↓ −→ A↓ −→ A↓ → I

?> DC ?? DD ?
?> ?? ?
A↓ −→ A↓ −→ A↓ → I

↓ ↓ ↓
> C ? D
I I I
w-.C;.8>b
,;>8q 01>8-148q 4N151-M4N5
` ,12qN;b>q a 0451-M=1>8qJ
→ `
6 ?<C.-.5 aF2.BH
> >
5.=8
Hc.>8?;.8 >?
∈A
H
∈
6 /2b
>
9181-1D1
F H E F H2.5.=8
>
I6 01a 815;6E /2b

>? F H
/2b 9181-1D1 ` w 1D/:
?<C-:==1D1 a2.5.=8:
E >;B
>? >? >
>?
?? >? >?

H
E ./4=>8?.==<S
> >? >?
H
a ` 1 .>24 /-;D1S a2.5.=86
>
H
>
E F H/2b 9181B
E F`
H H H
H
>?
:5
-1D1 a 2.5.=8 F H =. ./4=>8?.= l01a 815; − H E F H
?> ?>
H
?> >? >?
H
6 81 F H I6
7 >? 0>?
E
/2b,.-.S/G5
=.9181-1D118 ∈2.5.=8:
>?
H
>?
A `
H
E −H
> >? >?
H
>?
H0
H
H
>? >?
H0
>>
H
>>
a 9 a2.5.=8; H EE −F ∈ AFH`
>> >>
H
818 a 2.5.=8 10-./.2G= 1/=1N=:7=1

H E − F H E F H E F ` 1 l 51=151-M4N56
>? >?
` .S>8?48.2q=16
>? >> >>
H
?>
5
?> >> >>
H
?>
> ? > ?>
H
?> ?>
H H 0? >
>
>?
H H0 H H

01H Ia 815; − H E F6 : N=:7486 E − F H E F H

H
?> ?>
H0
>>
H
>> ?>
H
?> ?>
H0
?> >>
H
>>
H ,̀-1?.-45 E F H 8.0.-q6 781F H ∈ F `H ,1I 01>8-1.=4J E F H

E E `:=:21D47=1 ` >=16 781 0-4
H
> > >
H
>
81C-:3.=4. >8-148>b
> ?>
?> ?? ? > ?> ?? >? >?
H H H
815 a2.5.=8
a3.=4b
?N:45=1 1C-:8=< ` F 0.-.K1/48 ? 6 8 `. ` 01>8-1.==<. 181C-:B

H H
>

E →
>
?> ?>
H
>
H
>

2b 0.-41/47.>91S D-;00< >;c.>8?;.8 -.N12q?.=8: ?4/:

I →0;>8q I6 D/. l >?1C1/=:b :C.2.?: D-;00: ` .S>8?48.2qB
E 5

=16
5.=8 01-b/9: a 0451-M4N5.

0-4 R → 1C-:N;Jc:b 0.-.K1/48 ? a7812.B

5
−
→ − → →
` w1D/: 5< 012:D:.5 F H ` ,-./01213456
#
E ZF H I ` w1D/: 181C-:3.=4. EE ZF −→ E ZF b?2b.8>b 4N1B

6

6 6
51-M4N515
8
,1915a 815; 4N ,;>8q781 ∈ 4N151-M4N56

` 81D16 E F 4 F H ` w 1D/: F H
E >2./;.86 781 H E

1 ?
8
`
8:B
8
`
8 !
>2;7:. l 4N151-M4N56

l : N=:7486 H I `
!
Z
±
6 G

6

G
H19:3.5 :>>518-45
I6 81 H8.0.-q6I601>912q9; D15151-M4N5< R → 4 R → ` >24 H
l 51=151-M4N5 ` =:7486 l 51=151-M4N5 `
E
% %
4 812q91

81D/:6 91D/:781 HHI >24` 8 `H. ` H6 81 /2bH =.9181-1D1 81D/: !
H I6 01>912q9;
!
`
5 !

H I ` >24 E F H I6 81 E F ∈ H 6 8 `. ` 51=151-M4N5
F H E F6 0-47G5

aa2.5.=8
10-./.2G=

1/=1N=:7=16 01>912q9;

l E
` ,1B

815; 513=1 ∈ 0121348q FE H E F `

>

−
:F :/:7: ` ` 019:N<?:.86 781 =;3=1 24 q /19:N:8q6 781

a 0451-M4N5
l513=1 ?<C-:8q` D15151-M4N5
E
-;D454 >21?:546 /2b 2JC1D1

8:96 D15151-M4N5:
781 H ,;>8q R
!
`
5
C:N4> ` ,121345
R
F H 6 D/. 0-14N?12q=<S a2.5.=8 D-;00<

{ }l
→

E E F H E F h 8:91S la 2.5.=8 >;c.>8?;.86 01>912q9;

→ 6
6 /2b0451-M4N5
9181-1D1 15151-M4N5
6
>?1C1/=1S D-;00< /1>8:817=1 N:/:8q =:

a `

l1C-:N;Jc4K `
6
CF w.1-.5: -;D454
0451-M4N5 ` ` 019:N<?:.86
>21?:546 781 =;3=1 2401/D-;00:6
.>24 q /19:N:8q681 781 D1Bl
2JC1S
a5151-M4N5 ` 513=1 0-1/12348q
!
⊂ l
,;>8q R
5
,-1/12345 D15151-M4N5 /1 D15151-M4N5:

=: D-;00;6 R → `
01-13/G==;J
`

→ % %
H
4 >2./;Jc45
H∈ \
1C-:N15 R
•
.>24 6∈ /2b ?>.K ∈ N 6 81 0121345 E F H I h

H

H

/2b =.9181-1D1 ∈ N 6 81 ?<C.-.5 54=45:2q=1. 74>21

•

6
H ∈
2.5.=8 1C2:/:Jc..
D-;00< 6 a 8459181-1D1
/2b >?1S>8?156 H4 0121345
F E

F H 6 D/. l
a E `

∈N H

w-.C;.5<S D15151-M4N5 8.0.-q 513=18101>8-148q 01 4=/;9 44 E.>B

% H
24 D-;00: =. 91=.7=1 01-13/G==:b6

4=/;9 4b 8-:=>M4=48=:bF `

< C;/.5
6` 01 a 815;
74 ` 9155;8:84?=:b =.1/=19-:8=1
??./G5 /2b 012qN1?:8q>b
9-:891>84 >2./;Jc4. -.N;2q8:815 ,;>8q
1C1N=:7.=4b N:/:B
`
E
l

/4:D-:55:
> −−−−→
?
 
 C  D
y y
> ?
,121345F ,-4 H8:94K F EN:/:7:

E 1C1N=:7.=4bK F 4 HM1-5;24-;.8>b
E F E 8:9 R
−−−−→
` ` `
? ? ?
∩

∼ > 6 D/. l.>242.?<S
H ?=45:=4.6781

C-:848.
>

5< 9?:/-:86
N:04
?
.5 8;
> :3. >:5;J
l 0-:?<S 9?:/-:8 `
9155;8:84?=;J

?
/4:D-:55; 01B/-;D15; R

C

>
−−−−→
>
 
 
y y
D
? ?8
81 012;745 8. 3. >:5<. 4 6 01>912q9; H ` −−−−→
>812C:>>518-45
:54 R 9155;8:84?=;J /4:D-:55; > 817=<54 >8-19:54 4
> ?

E F −−→ E F −−→ E F −−→ g E F

8 8
%
8 8
    ? >
   
E F −−→ E F −−→ E F −−→ I
y y y y
8 8 8
%
  
  
E F −−→ E F −−→ E F
y y y
8 8
%
8
 
E F −−→ I
y y
8

=:b6?: =;2b
5 ? a 81S /4:D-:55.
:.D91D-;00: /.245:b
0-1?.-48q6 781
01b?424>q 4NBN: 81D16 781 D-;00: >?1C1/B
` H F 4 H F ` .SB
gE E
%
>8?48.2q=16 ? 1C14K >2;7:bK 5< 45..5

/.21 > /4:D-:551S ?4/:
> 8 8 5
>
−−−−→ ?
 
 C  D
I
y y
> 8
D/.
/2b l 51=151-M4N5 EN/.>q l a 81 g
8:91S /4:D-:55< H 6 E F 424 E FF ` 1
01>912q9;
−−−−→
HI 4 H
> ? 8 8
H I .0.-q6 4>012qN;b N:/:7; > ? >
ẁ F H H H H H ` ` 6H 012;7:.5 F ` R
gE E
0< 85.8456 781 010;8=1 5< 012;7424 .cG 1/=; 4=8.-0-.8: 4J D-;0B
8 > ? 8
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼

E F6 :8 45.==16 E F H ` 8

I →0151cqJ k1Nq5G5I 4 4=/2b.984?=;J

D-;00< -.N12q?.=8;
A 0-1.984?=;J
I -.N12q?.=8;I
→A → → → `
E
→ →A →
7

/4:D-:55<

a 84K -.N12q?.=8 513=1
01>8-148q 9155;8:84?=<. %

I −−−−→ E F −−−−→ E F −−−−→ E F −−−−→ I

8 8 8

  
  
I −−−−→ E F −−−−→ E F −−−−→ E F −−−−→ I
y y y
4
8 8 8

I ←−−−− E F ←−−−− E F ←−−−− E F ←−−−− I

8
%
8
%

8
%
  
  
I ←−−−− E F ←−−−− E F ←−−−− E F ←−−−− I
y y y
> 817=<54 >8-19:54

8 8 8
w 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84
17=<. `
I F F F F I
I →→ EEA A F →→ EE F →→ EE F→→ EAE A F→→ I
8 8 8 8 8
8 8 8 8
019:N<?:J86 781 b/-1 4 91b/-1 181C-:3.=4b E F → E F

%
l E F → EA E F l aEA81 E A F 4 91b/-1

a 81 F 4 F6 : b/-1 4 181C-:3.=4b 8 8

012qN1?:? 4>q N:/:7.S ` ` 6 012;7:.5 8-.C;.51.E` A a 815;6 ?1>B F ,1

`
8 8
8
%
8 8 8

1D2:>=1 M1-5;2. ;=4?.->:2q=<K 91 a MM4 4.=81?

E . 7
E h ZF ∼H E F ZF ⊕ E F ZF

>
> 8 8
=1 1 8:93.6
E F 781=. 45..8 9-;7.=4b6 01 a 815; F F H I >B
l 91=.7=:b D-;00:6 81 E ZE ZF H` I 4

.>24 8
E ⊕ Zu ZF ∼H Zu `
> >8
> 8
1D2:>=1 M1-5;2. ;=4?.->:2q=<K 91 a MM4 4.=81?

E : 7
E h ZF ∼HH EZ ⊕ ZF ⊕ EZ ⊕ ZF ∼H

8 − C
>8
−
>8
01>912q9; EZ Z⊕ ⊕ ZF ∼H >1D2:>=1 N:/:7. ` `" `

∼
−

− C
>8
>
>518-45 /?. 19:3.5 >=:7:2: ;8?.-3/.=4. 1 9-;7.=4bK ` 2b a 81D1 -:>B

− −
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84
E E 5
D15151-M4N51? 5
> C >8

−−−→ −→ −
>
I CI >
∗ C − ∗ 8
D/.548: l>5>?1C1/=:b F H ` 1D2:>=1

D-;00:, F4 5:8-4H ; 181C-:3.=4b 8.1-.5.
−
←−−−−− ←−−−−−
F
` 6 =:0-45.-6 E
E>0-:?: =: .2174>2.==<. 5:8-4 < > 10-./.248.2.5 ± 513B
Z ∼
;5=13.=4.5
F
F8 F 7
>2.?: 4

7 >
=16 0-4?.>84
6 6 9 >2./;Jc.5;
F6 : ?>. ?4/; R =: /4:D1=:24
1>8:2q=<.

2.5.=8< >81b8
=: a2.5.=8< 46 ```?=.6
/4:D1=:24

``` a

/4:D1=:24F
>
E > ` .D91 ?4/.8q6 781 81D/: ∼HE Z ⊕ ⊕ Z ` 2b
=;2.?<.
?<74>2.=4b
181C-:3.=4b =;3=1 0-4?.>84 9 =1-5:2q=1S M1-5. 548: 5:8-4 ;
H 01` 815;=: 012;7:.8>b

>

4N 5:8-4 < 181C-:3.=4b

C
7

5

8-:=>01=4-1?:=4.56 a D-;00: 6 9181-:b ?<74>2b.8>b > 0151B

− ∗

cqJ 10.-:81-: 6 4N151-M=: D-;00. 6 9181-:b ?<74>2b.8>b > 01B

51cqJ19:3.510.-:81-: `;8?.-3/.=4. 1 -:=D:K D-;00 ` 85.8456 781 9-;B

∗
>

8.0.-q
−
7.=4.
-:=D:
5
012=1>8qJ 10-./.2b.8>b 10.-:81-15 6 : /2b ?<74>2.=4b
BS D-;00<

D15121D4S =;3=< 1C:10.-:81-:
10.-:81-: >81b84 `=.=;2.?<K
,;>8q =: >

/4:D1=:24 =1-5:2q=1S M1-5< 548:

>
a2.5.=81? ` w1D/:

7
H −
H h 8 > >
H − H

>
> 8 −
,1 a 815;

E FH − − H E
> F

> −
>

" I
5 .S>8?48.2q=16
=:/4:D1=:246 0-4 M:981-4N:
/4:D1=:246N:5.=b.8
;C4?:.8 0-b51. 44 01 1C-:N;6 :9:3/:b
>2:D:.51. 74>21 ./4=46 >81bc..
:6 >81bc:b=:
9:91D1 ?92:/: ? -:=D ` >2:D:.51. Z

=: >2:D:.51.
Z
Z
6 9181-1. =. /:G8 =4B

E -;00< F 4 F =. 45.J8 9-;7.=4b6 01 a 81B

EA F Z H EA E F ZE H I ` w:945 1C-:N156 M1-5;B
5;2: ;=4?.->:2q=<K
F

91Fa MM4 44.=81? F/:G8 .>8.>8?.==<.
8

8
F `
4N151-M4N5<
;2.?1S D1B

>
EA → R EAEA FZ→ E FE 4=/;→ 4-;.8 =;2.?1S
5151-M4N5 > 8
E Z D15151-M4N5
>
> 8

E
> F 6
8 ∗
Z →

>
EA F Z
6 01 a 815; 01>2. .>8.>8?.==<K 181B
3/.>8?2.=4S 5< 012;7:.5 =;2.?1S D15151-M4N5 E F → EA F `
>
>
8

>

>
kq.81-4>:6 :>>518-45
781 4 0-4 8;-. 3..=44>:5;JN:/:7401>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
I >24 :S.-:N:B
` ` ` D15151-M4N5

59=;81. 1-4.=84-;.51. 5=1D11C-:N4.6 81 >?bN<?:Jc4S

l

E F → 92:>>
/:5.=8:2q=<S

E F0.-.?1/48
>
6
>
01 M;=/:5.=8:2q=<S
815; 1= b?2b.8>b 92:>> ? M;=BN
4N151-M4N515

>2./;.86 781 181C-:3.=4.a E \ d F → E F b?2bB `

−>
−
81D14N151-M4N515
a.8>b
−

> >
`

:59=;81>8q >;c.>8?.==: ` ,;>8q6 =:0-45.-6 H B6

− −
5.-=<S :-6 >1/.-3:c4S 5.=q

4S :- 1D/: d l
>

01a 815; E \ d F H Z 6H I H E`w F ` \ ∼

>

−
HH RH-4.=84-;.51>8q 813. >;c.>8?.==: ` ,;>8q6 =:0-45.-6 H

> >

` wH R F\` ∼ 6 01a 815; ER \ d F H E F H

1D/: d
− −

? ? ? > ? ? >
> >
Z6 Z
?
ER >
?
5..8 5.>81 9155;8:84?=:b /4:D-:55:

.
E F −−−−→ E F I
> ∼
f g 
F F
y y ∗ ∗
E E I
> ∼ 8
24D/. D1-4N1=8:2q=<. >8-.294 4N151-M4N5< =:/>8-1S94=: ` ,1 a 815; .>B

−−−−→
l
6∗
;5=13.=4. =: 6 81 l
E l F 813. ;5=13.=4. 6 ∗
`
? =.1-4.=84-;.515 >=16 781 >2;7:.H Z 6 :2..6H Z ? 1-4.=84-;.515 >2;7:. 4 H I
`
:
?
?
E h Z F ∼H E F ⊗ Z ⊕ E F Z ∼H E F ⊗ Z
>
>
8
>
8
"
01>912q9;
H Z ` E F H Z ` ,1a 815; E h Z F H Z 4 E h Z F H
>
>
?

?

>
?

−
>=16 781 H Z ` :2..6

E

5
F H E F Z ⊕ E F Z ∼H E F Z

E h>
01>912q9; F H E F H :91=.
> 8
:945 1C-:N156 E h ZF H Z 4
8 > 8 8
Z` w
Z ∼ > ? ?
>
E hZ Z F H

?
`

>
6

F Z ⊕ E F Z
−
E h ?
,1 a 815; F E h ZF F ∼H FEZ ZF ∼H Z
Z ∼

? ?
E ? 8
4
> 8

H H H `
8
E h Z ∼ E Z ∼ EZ Z ∼ Z

? ? ?
> 8 ?8 ?
,1>2./;Jc45 >=16 781 ∪ A H :S.-: 4 ∩kq.81-4>:

A H l/2b>M.-: > ?<D2b/48
-;79:54 `
a 815; 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 4

A

1C-:N15 R
F F → EA F ⊕ E F → E F →
E
/.>q EF F H E=:7486
→ → E
?
F H I6 01 a 815;
> >
F ∼H EA F ⊕ E F6 8 `. `
> >
H EA ⊕EZ F` 4 EA F 4N151-M=<6 F H
EA ∼ Z ` >118?.8>8?.==16 b/-; 4 1C-:N;
? > > > >

?
Z ∼
-;00<

D15151-M4N5:
>
>

F → E 0:-:22.2b54
>
>
F ` /-1 01-13/.=1

5.-4/4:=:54
R E: 1C-:N

9-:b 8.2: > -;79:546 ,1 815;

` 8.2:a ` 1C-:N;Jc454
> >
>
E F >2;3:8 19-;3=1>846
∗
l
=:/.8<. =: -;794
∗
1813/.>8?2.=< w1- >118?.8>8?.==<.

513=1 0-./>8:?48q

81794 9:90-184?101213=<K
B5.-=<S 9;C6 D-:=.S
; 9181-1D12b
` H

B5.-=1D1 81-: B5.-=:b D-:=q N:/:G8>b

H ± ` ,1 a 815; 91247.>8?1 B5.-=<K D-:=.S−-:?=1 ` ,1>2. 181B

G
;-:?=.=4b54 ?4/:
G F H
5
3/.>8?2.=4S /2b81-:6
81-: ?>.012;7:.5 92.819 -:N5.-=1>84=;2.?<.` :9` ,14 a?815;
>2;B
− F
G
7:. /?;5.-=1D1 D-:=47=<.
D15121D44 B5.-=1D1 81-: l a 81 D15121D44 .0=1D1 91502.9>:D15151-M4N5< F
G
9
F → Z E F → Z → Z

Z → Z → Z E →

> =;2.?<54 D15151-M4N5:54 ` 2./1?:8.2q=16 E F H Z E F `

D D

7 F
-;00< 91D15121D4S > 91 a MM4 > 4.=8:54 2.D91 ?<74>2bB

J8>b6 .>24 4N?.>8=<

D-;00<
7: ` ` F ` ,1 a 815; 0-45.- `" ` 019:N<?:.86 781D15121D4S 91 a MM4 4.=8:54
Z
Z E
N:/:B

 /2b H I 4 H 6 D/. =.7G8=1 h
F H Z /2b 7G8=<K 6 I

ER h Z ZI ? 1>8:2q=<K >2;7:bK 6` h

F  G G
?
G G
"
01,;>8q
92.894.0=1S >21?:5 4 l 4 B5.-=<. 92.894 ` ,-492.45 9 =45 /?. B5.-=<.
E F ` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;745 j B91502.9>

?
91502.9> /2b ?<74>2.=4b 92.817=<K D15121D4S 45..8 ?4/

A` " A
− −

? ?
I6 D/. D15151-M4N5 N:/:G8>b 5:8-4 .S − ` 0-.B

/.248.2q 81S 5:8-4 < -:?.= 6 01 815; 4N151-M4N5 ` 2./1?:B

a a
Z − →Z →
8.2q=16 j B91502.9> A : 49247.= `

− l
− 7
81C< /19:N:8q6 781 A =.>8bD4?:.56 /1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q6 781

D-;00:
45151-M4N5
4 >118=1
F
>=.8-4?4:2q=: -;00:
EA .=4b54 H ` H E F ` ;c.>8?;.8 EA F N:/:G8>b
1C-:N;Jc454
=.8-4?4:2q=<S
?
>
D1B

81S D-;00< ? D-;00; >1C>8?.==<K /?43.=4S /1/.9: /-:

a 01?1-18 /1/.9:a /-: =: ;D12 " ?19-;Da 1>46`
7
45.==16
0-1K1/bc.S 0;>8q
7.-.N l D-:=46 l 01?1-18 /1/.9:a /-: =: ;D12
.=8-
?19-;D
=4b 1>46 0-1K1/bc.S
01?1-181? ;9:N:=< =:7.-.N

-4> ?.-F 4=;1D/:E91=9-.8=<. 1>4 =:4 =:0-:?2.B

01?1-18 ?19-;DH

` >.-./4=;
` w -.C-:F

l
1>46 0-1K1/bc.S
H1C-:N;Jc4K
H F
7.-.N 8179;
813/.>8?.==1. E0-.1C-:N1?:=4.

:945 1C-:N156
`,1w a 815; 181C-:3.=4.

?

`
E l7→ 6 7→ 513=1 0-1/12348q /1 D15151-M4N5: D-;00 `
4> ` ` ,1?1-18< /1/.9:a /-:

"
N M1-5;2< ;=4?.->:2q=<K 91 MM4 4.=81? >2./;.86 781

a
F > 6 8 `. ` F H F 4 H F > ` k 7:>8=1>846 H H
H

F
F >
H5;I ` 7F 1D2:>=1
Z ⊕ ∼ Z ⊕
/?1S>8?.==1>84

,;:=9:-. ∼
F H F 4 F H F
` ,1
∼
a 81B
H∼ F ∼H F > 4 F ∼H F ∼H F > `
− −
∼ −
−
− −
− − −
0:6 ,;>8q E F H ,-45.=4?

l 01/D-;00: 9-;7.=4b
6 D/. l >?1C1/=:b :C.2.?: D-;0B

N:/:7;
` `"` /2b 5=1D11C-:N4b
F F F F
⊕
6 012;745 H 0-4 H 6 6 ``` 6 4 H 0-4 /2bH
F

H5=1D11C-:N4b
6 6 ``` 6 − `,-45.=4?

F
6 012;745
N:/:7;

F
−
` " ` 4 4N151-M4N5
G

−
=:/>8-1S94
H I6H 6 6H 0-42./1?:8.2q=16

H 6 ``` 6
F F >
− − G

−H
6
H H I6
?
H
I 4 H 0-4 >
```
H H H I ` -15.−81D16 H I /2b
F > F > − ` G
F
−
>

F
−
7
G

2JC1D1 N:59=;81D1 1-4.=84-;.51D1 5=1D11C-:N4b `

> ? >
− −
> > − − 9
− − −
>84 /4:D-:55< :>>518-45

4 ./4=47=<S
=:0-:?2.==<S ?.981-68179;
??.-K69:9 0.-0.=/49;2b-=<S
>M.-< 021>91B
1794 81-:6
`w

?
181C-:3:Jc4.>b
?.8>8?44 > 8.54 ? a 8; 8179;6
0.-.9-G>89:546 =:K1/b8>b
=: 9181-<K ?1 ?N:45=1
9-4?:b 1/=1N=:7=15
0-1K1/48 >118B
01/
4> ` 019:N<?:.86 781 -:N=<5 840:5 0.-.9-G>891? >118?.8>8?;J8 `
-:N=<. N=:94 b91C4:=: 181C-:3.=4b `

6
4> ` ` 81C-:3.=4.

6
81C< =:0-45.-6
?<C-:8q6 ?<012=b21>q>2./;Jc45
-:?.=>8?11C-:N15
e H :N4>
E F6 1-4.=8:
6 D/. 44 4513=1
`
8
9:>:8.2q=<. ?.981-< 9 4 6 N:/:G8 0121348.2q=;J 1-4.=8: 4J l

81B
6
> 8 ? > ?
-: ` :N4>6 D/. N:/:G8 0121348.2q=;J 1-4.=8: 4J >M.-<6 .>24 C:N4>

l ?.981- ?=. =.S =1-5:246 0121348.2q=1 1-4.=84-1B

> 8 ?
?:= `
> 8 ? 8

"
8:8q6 781 N5.2q74?>4502.9>

9:3/<S
0-4 =.1CK1/451>84 8-4:=D;2b 4J 6 513=1 >74B
012=1>8qJ 019-<8 19-.>8=1>8qJ @ 6 ?K1B

=1/bc.S
?Nb8q
B5.-=<K
? 10-./.2.=4.
0-11C-:N<
>4502.9>1?
=:9-<84b
>4502.9>1?
? 4 ?
`w1D/:
`
? 9:7.>8?.F 48-4:=D;2b
,;>8q
/2b 8:94K 8-4:=D;2b
F 44 513B
91247.>8?:
E E4S ` lw1D/: E F H

H E F6 01 a 815; E F H E F `

,;>8q 4 l 91247.>8?:
l 91247.>8?1 B5.-=<K 92.819 ? B5.-=<K >4502.9>1? ? 4 6
` w 1D/: H P `
. 0F F
00
G
,1 a 815; E− F H P E− F E− F ×6 : N=:7486
F F
I F
0 00
F G

F
I F
0
00
E × F H X E− F H X E− F X E− F H E F E F

F
F

0

00

817.96 81F 513=1 >24 01>8-148q

: H de 4 181C-:3.=4.
B24>8=1. =:9-<84.=. 45..8 =.01/?43=<K 6 D/.
F
6
F H ` >24 8-4:=D;2b R →/1>8:817=1

4b
6
#
∼ E ∼ E ∼

4 E
F =. 0.-.>.9:J8>b ` w :9:b 8-4:=D;2b 4b
? ∼
H
5.29:b6
4=/;
6 H
81 >4502.9><
6 ∼ H
E 6 H H

4-;.8 8-4:=D;2b 4J 0-1>8-:=>8?:

/:7. ` ` E F H E ∼F ≡ I E e F ` ∼ ` ,1 a 815; >1D2:>=1 N:B

6

>=16 781 ∼H L
E 6 01a 815;

ed L H ed ed 6
6

2./1?:8.2q=16

6 6
7
X
E− F ed L H X

E F ed X
E F ed H
H X E− F ed E− F ed HI

− − 6 6
X >
6 6
5<9:=4. ,;>8q 1D/: l B19-.>8=1>8q

F H /:==1D1
F N: .02.=4b6
F F l N:B
/.>q
` w E 6 E F HE I6 01>912q9; ` >1B
>
− E
?
>8148 F H I6 \ F H I 46 =:91=.
E 4N 1/=1D1

E 424 =.>912q94K 81-1?

E ∩` 2./1?:8.2q=16 E F ∩H I6 781
∩

>
> >
>

4 8-.C1?:21>q ` 7 >
91a MM4 4.=8:54 :04 .5? =.9181-15

817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

012. R 0:-< /2b D15121D4S >

F
→ E → E → E
F
F→ E F→

8

−
>

""
01k aa81S
815;01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84 .>8q 24N:/:7.S
513=1 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b q 91=.7=1. 74>21
``` k =.=;2.?<K012;745
-.N;2q8:8. 72.=1?6

E− F ed E F X E− F ed E F X E− F ed E F H I
>
X 8

91247.>8?1 :=;5.-;.5
B5.-=<K
B5.-=<.: N:8.5
D-:=.S6 D-:=4/2b 74>2:54
B5.-=1S D-:=4
6 D/. l
> =15.-15
8 8 8
6 6
-:>>518-45 74>21 E F6 -:?=1.B5.-=<K

91247.>8?; B5.-=<K D-:=.S6 0.-.B

F
>.9:Jc4K
G
D-:=q
-:?=1 − E F6 01a 815; ` 1247.>8?1
#
D-:=.S6
F 9
#
.G =.
G
0.-.>.9:Jc4K6

6 G
H X E − E FF H − X E F

FI > 6 EF #
G 6 6

FI >
#
G

F

_ pF [H n U F V ^W\ U TW[\Y m U \_^ _ W[ ^\ U
! ' ! F # (& # &( #
E− E E−
$
P I #
G ,
Up [Z[ ^ 5=13.>8?1
-:>>518-45 U k?./G5 6>1>81bc..
( ) &( # =: 5=1D11C-:N44
4N
,
817.9 -45:=1?; 5.8-49; 4
6;/:2G==<K 18 =.

C12.. 7.5 =: `
:-; 4 =. >1/.-348 >24 /1>8:817=1
?.- 4= 6 18247=<K 18 ?.- 4= D-:=4B5.-=15;
5:216 81 D15.151-M=1

`

F
,.-.>.7.=4b1247.>8?1
D-:=.S > FB5.-=<K N:/:J8 =: 81D1 >8-;98;-; jB
F
> >
91502.9>:
-:?=1 `
91247.>8?; B5.-=<K
≈
92.819 a
j
E −D-:=.S 6 0.-.>.9:Jc4K D-:=q 4 0-4
9 B91502.9>:

− −

a 815 =. >1/.-3:c4K>b ? ` ,1a 815;

F
F
E FH O #
EF G
>
−
8
D/.
012:D:.8>b6 l 91247.>8?1

781
−
>
H E −O lFB5.-=<K
IF6 92.819B5.-=<K
91247.>8?1 j B91502.9>:
D-:=.S
0-./B
E
?<0;921D1
5=1D1D-:==49: E0-./012:D:.8>b6 781 O H 4 O H I 0-4 F `

>
−
>=16 781 P E− F O H E F H 4 P E− F H E F H
F

F

> >
E− F ` k1>012qN1?:? 4>q M1-5;21S E F6 012;7:.5

I I
> − −

−

E− F E F H X E− F X E− F O H − − E− F H E− F

X >
# > 8
G − −

I I I

781 4 8-.C1?:21>q `
"
N M1-5;2< E F >2./;.86 781

E F H X X E− F H

I I

H X X E− F − X X X E− F E F

#
I I 6 6 I I FI >
G

,.-?:b >;55: ?<74>2b.8>b =.01>-./>8?.==1 R

?
F H E− H E F
F
!
E−
XX X ?

I I 6 6 I 6

,-4 ?<74>2.=44 ?81-1S >;55< ?1>012qN;.5>b 2.551S R

E− F E F H X E− F X X E− F E F H

XXX
# #
G G
I I FI > I FI > I

H X E− F X E− F H

I FI >
H E− F X E− F H E− F E F

I 6
k81 481D.
E F012;7:.5
H I ` ,1a 815;E F HE F EH FE− E−F −FEE F `F ` 1 .>24 =.7G8=16

?

?

6 .>24 :>>518-45
=1-5:2q=<. =:01/0-1>8-:=>8?:
>2./;Jc.. 18=1 .=4. a 9?4?:2.=8=1>84 R F
=1-5:2q=15 ?01/0-1>8-:=>8?.F
8179:K 4 >1?0:/:J8

83.=4.
H
È . ` a 84 81794 2.3:8b?2b.8>b
∼
F
? 1/=15=:9-<84.5601>912q9;
F
9:3/:b ` 81C-:B
=1-5:2q=:b
H

021>91>8q →0.-.>.9:.8 ∼
8-:=>?.->:2q=1 `

F
1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q6 781 /2b 91 a MM4 4.=81? 4=/.9> 0.B

-.>.7.=4b
5.-=1.FB5.-=1. 4 =1-5:2q=1D1 01/0-1>8-:=>8?: -:?.= I ` ZJC1.
5
01/0-1>8-:=>8?1
F
? 513=1 0.-.5.>848q ? 2JC1. E FB

/-;D1.
−

?

G
EE −− FB5.-=<5 01/0-1>8-:=>8?16

G
R
01/0-1>8-:=>8?15 01=.aN:?4>48
815; 4=/.9>
18 0.-.>.7.=4b
?<C1-: >
01/0-1>8-:=B
F
>8?:

` 1 /2b1=19150:98=1D1
> 9181-<5
G
5=1D11C-:N4b >;c.>8?;.8 01/0-1>8-:=>8?16
=. 0.-.>.9:.8>b

`
"
k<C.-.5 8179; ∈ 9-4847.>94K

6 =. 45.2: ?<-13/.==<K
8:96 781C< 817.9
M;=9 4b -4847.>94.

E F H k −817Bk 6
F ?
`

F 6 H H
H
94>8-:=>8?15
∈
a 81S M;=9? 8179.
44 l a 81,;>8q81794O 0.-.>.7.=4b
74>21 > =1-5:2q=<5 01/0-1B
9-4847.>94K 817.9 4=/.9>:
F
9
` `

1D/: O H O 4
wa 815; O F O ` 1E− F H EO ` F6 D/.
F
F O l H

F
F >=1 8:93.6 781

O I ` ,1B F

E -. 6.=44 N:/:74E ` ` ` E=:7486 − lE 5=1D11C-:N4.6

P I P I

F F F F
??./G==1. −
0-4
1C-:N156 E F H I 424 6 8 `. ` E F H I 424 O `

F

F 6 ` w:945

F

F

N:59=;81. ,-4 -. .=44 N:/:74

5=1D11C-:N4.6

/2b ` ` I 5<>;c.>8?;.8
9181-1D1
012;742468-:=>=1-5:2q=1.
781 .>24 l
F
?213.=4.6
F
0-47G5 F 6H I6 81 O jH IB91502.9>;6
D15181047.>94 aE 9?4?:2.=8=1
/2b ?>.K =.7G8=<K
F
; 9181-1D1 ` ,1=.8a 815;

92.B
819 =.7G8=1S -:N5.-=1>84 `
D/: w-.C;.51.
>45024 4:2q=1.;8?.-3/.=4.
181C-:3.=4. /1>8:817=1
k 815 /19:N:8q
>2;7:. ? >2;7:.6
.0=1.
a .S > .2174>2.==<54 181C-:B 91B
l R E h RF → E h RF N:/:G8>b` 5:8-4
.
3.=4. 6

a2.5.=8:546 : .0=1. 181C-:3.=4. N:/:G8>b 5:8-4 .S `

F F F
6

F
6
p U UT\[_ V [ WYF [ ^ U]Ye F^\\ V Y ^V ^\
[V Y omW U U ^ ]Y [nW[ n[ E ≡ E

; &( ) 4 # ( ( 2 & 2 & '

$
( *# 4 &( & #
, @ ,
Up [Z[JC15;
:5=1D172.= ^ U ,;>8q E >F H.2<54
5=1D172.=; e E 91− MM4 F6 D/.4.=8:54
l ./4=47=:b 5:8-4B
>118?.8>8?;.8
` a 4N a2.5.=81?F ` ,-4>1./4B
( ) &( #
, 6 H H

=45 9 F 91-=4 =:/ 012.5 E 91=.7=1.

F 5=1D172.=:
012. 6

k -.N;2q8:8. 012;745 012.

`

#
6
8
F `

>8
H H 6
H 2b 2JC<K a2.5.=81? I ∈ Fe F?<012=b.8>b -:?.=>8?1 E,1 815; FH

6 01>912q9;

≡ E
0-4

H H
8

− `
# a 8 8 8#
H

HE FH
H

> > >
E?81-1.H -:?.=>8?1 >2./;.8 4N 81D16781 F 1 -:?.=>8?1

H H H H H H
∈F `

17.?4/=16:
E
e
?81-1. F 4
>2./;.8

4N 81D16781
# H E.>24
E F

>
Fe H F ,.-?1.
` F

F6
>
H

H
#

>
H
H
817.-.N 91 MM4 4.=8<

?<-:3:.8>b
9:9
H
5=1D172.= > E .2<54E −91a MM4 E4.=8:54

H
− 6 H H
>
H

5=1D172.=: 6817=1 0-47G58:9 3. ?<-:3:.8>b

7.-.N 91 aaMM4 4.=8< 5=1D172.=:

>

`
>
6 H H

6
N 2.55< 8-.C;.51. ;8?.-3/.=4. >2./;.8 17.?4/=<5 1C-:N15 `

"
;5=13.=4. 8110-./.2b.8>b
>2./;.8 4N 81D16781
817=1 8:9/2b3.618=1>48.2q=<K
9:9 4 /2b 91D15121D4S;3=1
:C>12J8=<K B
`
.
24 q N:5.848q6 781 ∪ ∅ H ∪ `

:F N 817=1S 91D15121D47.>91S 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84

. .
E F → E F → E F H I

8
>2./;.86 781 181C-:3.=4. F F l a 0451-M4N56

F .>8q a 2.5.=8 E 6 181C-:3:Jc4S>b E

8815
.` ` ? 2.5.=8 E
181C-:3:.8>b
→
?

? ` ,-41
8

a a 8
`

F H I`
>
>
E >2./;.8 4N :F6 01>912q9; =:/>8-1S9: 0-./B

CF 7.?4/=<5 1C-:N15

> S
∗ 8 I>
∈
>8:?2b.8>b ? ?4/. 1C ./4=.=4b /?;K >8bD4?:.5<K 0-1>8-:=>8? l 91B

=;>1? `

M4N5. ,;>8q F| l 1C-:NF a2.5.=8: 1D/: 0-4H .>8.>8?.==15

F H D15151-BF
E 6→81 | E H I6 : .>24 I ed E | 6 81 | H I È |>8:B `
` w
. :

F
>24
G8>b I ed
-:>>518-.8q
∗ 8
24 q >2;7:S6 91D/: ed

H
∗
ed H

1

? a 815 >2;B

`

7:. ∈ E F H I `

?
8

F

D15151-M4N5<6:F ,;>8q /2b4 9181-<K l :C.2.?<H deD-;00<61D/:: RH → 4 R →.SB

`w `
. E
l>8?48.2q=162JC1S a2.5.=8 r ∈ 513=1 0-./>8:?48q %
? ⊕
?4/.
r H r

%
5
%
4 Er −H I6 81rF6 D/.H r H∈ H 4I6r01−a815;r ∈ H I6 `: N=:7486 -15. 81D16.>24

H I` H

9
H
O R,-45.=4? a 81 ;8?.-3/.=4. 9 D15151-M4N5:5O R EF F → EA F6F6

H H H
EAF F E
F6 F 4
012;7:.5 9 D15151-M4N5:5
8-.C;.51. R E → EA

`
∗ ∗ ∗
R CF EA:?.=>8?1

E O O H O F 019:N<?:.86 781 O 01/B

∗ ∗ ∗
→
∗∗
∗

∗
E 019:N<?:.86 781 .>24 l H I

∗ ∗
→
912q 1 `
:?.=>8?1
424 H I6 81 E F H I `

∗
E FH
∗
∗
∗

∗

∗
∗

∗
∗
∗
0-4 F >4 ,-.3/. ?>.D1 N:5.8456 7814 EA ∨ F H019:N<?:J86 EA F ⊕ 781 E F

` .8-:9 44
.
EAF E E FFHl 4/.:2<

#
A ∨? →EAA ∨ AF EN:/:7:

∨ →
` ` F ` ,1a 815; E

/2b 2JC<K 91D15121D47.>94K 92:>>1?

∗
∗
∗
H
EA F 4 ∈ ∈ E EAF6 F45.Jc4K 0121348.2q=;J -:N5.-=1>8q `

0 0
H0 H H0
8
H H0
5 .S>8?48.2q=16
∈

∗ 8 0
H ∩ E F6
0 01
a 815;
∗

∗ H I `
∗
H
0
"
OH R × →O,-./01213456
.

∨,;>8q ` w6 6
1D/:

781 N:/:7.
>1D2:>=14

>;c.>8?;.8 -.8-:9 F 4bH
` 1C-:N;Jc4.
` E ×=.8-4B

`

l
∗

?4:2q=<K
H2.5.=81?E D-;00
∗
⊕

F 91D15121D4S
,1
∗
815; O ×>1>8148

.D91 ?4/.8q6 781 H
` 4N 24=.S=<K 915C4=: 4S

× ` a 1 81D/:
∗

6 4 `0-184?1-.74.
a01/912q 1 ` ,12;7.=1

O 6 01 a 815; O l =.
∗

`
∗ ∗
6∈

4O ER:F h,;>8q f g 4 f g l 1C-:N;Jc4. D-;00 -.8-:9ER h Z

F >
.
>
Z `
F ,-./01213456
1D/: >1D2:>=1

781 >;c.>8?;.8

4b ?
` w 4 O ` N:/:7. >=16 781` ` E f g FERH fh Zg 6F 01b?2b.8B

?
R>b R0-b51S

→ R>;551S 815;
a

∗ ?
>1>8148 4N a2.5.=81? I6 f g 6 ``` 6 f g ` 2./1?:8.2q=16 O

∗ ∗ ∗
>
>1>8148 4N N:/:7.
a2.5.=81?` ` I6 6 O f g 6 01/912q 6 ``` 6 1 f g ` 1 a 81 l =. 01/912q 16
∗ 7
g
∗
?
: >1D2:>=1 f `

CF . :.8>b :=:21D47=1 ` l

∗
4 6 :F 6k<C.-.5
6 6 ? 6 E6 9:9F 4 ?? 8.1-.5. E F C:N4>< 6 ``` 6 6 6 ``` 6
> ? > ?
``` D-;00 F 4 ` ` ` ,;>8q H 4

. >
``` 1C-:N;Jc4.
? > >
H F 1D/: .>24

E E ` w
0> 0 0> 0 > >
0 >
0 >
0

l FH
> ?
?
> ?
>
E FH > >
6∗
> >
0

0 > 0> 0 8
E

> > > 0> > 0> 0 8
81

6∗ 0

E F HH E F H
6∗ 6∗
> >
F
CF 4=/;15151-M4N5 E r6 0.-.?1/bc4S
> >
− − −

? 6 : ? 6 =.6 01>912qB

513.8
>>

0
C<8q
4-1?:=
9; E F E F H E F H I `
>
=.0-.-<?=<5
?
181C-:3.=4.5 >
R → ?
> 0>
6
?
?
>
0>
?
?
6∗ 6∗ 6∗
:FF >=16 6 781: ?>. 1>8:2q=<. E × D-;00<

F ∼H E91D15121D4S
FHZ 4
× ∼ =;2.B
F F ?F F F
H
. .

F
?<. E`,;>8q
F
× ∼Z⊕Z
F
F l 92:>>< 91D15121D4S6
E × D15121D47.>945
F F F
/?1S>8?.==<. E4?
>5<>2. 24=.S=1S 1D/:
∈
:2D.C-<F
8
92:>>:5 4921? F
H 6D/. l 1C-:N;Jc:b D-;00<

×{ }F
{ } × `w

a>b81? >2./;.8

F
4N 81D16 781 ;9:N:==<.

492<

8-:=>?.->:2q=1 E × h
0.-.>.9:J8B
?F F H F
492 1/=1S 8179. D15121D47.=

E F ` ,-1?.-45 8.0.-q 781 781C< H I 4 H I`

.0q × 6 D/.× { l} h 0;8q > a91=81 /19:N:8q6

492;
8
F H F
/1>8:817=1
× {-:>>518-.8q
} H

:54 4
F H 0

H

I

H0
` 492< /19:N<?:.8>b6
=:21D47=1
F
×{ } ×{ }
4 781 =. 0.-.>.9:J8>b6
H

H I `
F
01a 815; H I `

H0

CF ,-.3/. ?>.D1 N:5.8456 781

91 492 /?1S>8?.=81/4:D1=:24H

4H E F ? E 815 >2;7:. F H 4=/.9> >:510.-.>.7.=4b

` >24 =.7G8=16

h 7G8=16 81 H H 6 01a 815; 4=/.9>I ` /4:D1=:24 -:?.=

a

G
>24
−

3.

>:510.-.>.7.=4b /4:D1=:24 -:?.= =:9>24N:?4>48 181-4.=8:

81D16 9:94b ?<B6
± `

G
C-:=<
811-4.=8:1-4.=8: 44 /4:D1=:24
1-4.=8: 4b4b /4:D1=:24813.N:/:G8>b 4 × `
.>8.>8?.==<5
N:/:=:
1C-:N15 ,-4
F
7G8=15

F F
`

G
6

× 4
F
N:/:G8>b
6
F
9:=1=47.>946
0-4 7G8=15 01815; 781 C:N4><
1-4.=84-1?:=<
1/4=:91?1 ` ,-4 8:915 ?<C1-. 1-4.=8: 4S 012;7:.8>b N=:9 02J> `
> 8

8 F > 8

8F >8

8 F > 8

8 F

G
>5<>2. ,;>8q :2D.C-<F

24=.S=1S
. . . 4 l 91D15121D47.>94.
D15121D47.>945
92:>><6 4921?
92:>>:5 /?1S>8?.==<. E?
4,1{ 815;}× ` w
1D/:

l 1C-:N;Jc:b D-;00< E × { F}
× `

H

a F /1>8:817=1

/19:N:8q6 781 F H I 4 F H I` 1

6∗ E ∈ E
F H I

4 F
E ∈ E
F EH I
6∗
`
E
6

∗
6 ∗
5; D15121D4S:>>518-45
. . .
4 91D15121D4S 9155;8:84?=;J > 817=1>8qJ
> 91a MM4 4.=8:54 ? 012./1 QN=:9:
R
/4:D-:5B
E x F −−−−→ E x F −−−−→ Ex F

? 8

>

∗ >


I  
I

I

F F F
 ∼   ∼ ∼
,1>912q9; 5< E -:>>5:8-4?:.5

>
−−−−→ E −−4−−91D15121D44
D15121D44 →
∗
E > 91a MM4 4B

>

?
8
.=8:54 ? 012.6
24=.S=1S :2D.C-< 181C-:3.=4b 4 /?1S>8?.==< /-;D /-;D; ? >5<>2.
`
∗
4=.S=15; 181C-:3.=4J R @ → L 513=1 >101>8:?48q 817=;J 01B

∗
>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q

I → → @ −→ L → → I
,-4 0.-.K1/. 9 /?1S>8?.==<5 0-1>8-:=>8?:5 012;7:.5 817=;J 01>2.B

/1?:8.2q=1>8q

I ← E F ← @ ←−− L ← E F ← I

wH:945 1C-:N156 E FedH E HF èd ,1 a 815;H eded HH

∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

ed
6
∗
: N=:7486
H ed ` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7:.5 ed H ed E F H
∗

∗

∗ >

∗
∗

H ed E F − ed 6 8 `. ` ed H ed E F6 781 4
8-.C1?:21>q
>
`
> ? >
1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. /?1S>8?.==1>84 2.9>:=/.-:

. . : 7
 0-4 H − h
F
EA ∼ E| t {z t } ZI 0-4
H F H H Ih

! F > ! F ? Z
 ? > G
? 1>8:2q=<K >2;7:bK `

− − −
− − G
,1 a 815;

 0-4 H I h
0-4 H

EA F H ZZ 0-4 H h− h

 Z


>
I ? 1>8:2q=<K >2;7:bK `
−

0-4 I 1D2:>=1 -15. /?1S>8?.==1>84

81D16 F H 2.9>:=/.-:
I6 01>912q9; EA F ∼H E F
0-1>8-:=>8?1
! !
`
. . E 7
EAFB5.-=15; 5=1D11C-:N4J > 9-:.5A`

−
D15181047.>94
6 6

a 9?4?:2.=8=1
9
E
>
w:945 1C-:N156
D15121D4SEAAF H=;2.?<. 0-4 H − 6 : ?>. 1>8:2q=<. D-;00< 0-4B

?./G==<K
!
`
#
Z
F 1D2:>=1
F 0-4 I /?1S>8?.==1>84
-15. 81D16 2.9>:=/.-:
F H I 0-4
H 6 6 `
. . 7
!

EA

∼
`
!

E t−

EA
9

:F ,;>8q 4 1C-:N;Jc4. D-;00 F

>
4 ER h Z F ` >24f g E ff g Fg Hl I6 81 E f g F H I6 D/.ER f h gZ H

>
. . : ?
> F F
H 1C-:N;Jc:b D-;00< F ,-./01213456

?
781 f g E f g F6H I6f 8g `l. ` E f g F H f g ` w1D/: ERE f h Zg F H` f g 6H I6 01B

6∗ 6F∗
?
> >

>912q9; 6 ` /-;D1S >81-1=<6 f g H I ` ,12;7.=1 0-184?1-.B
∗
6∗ 6∗ > 6
74.

7
C̀F 81C-:3.=4. /?1S>8?.==1 181C-:3.=4J `

6∗ 6∗
9155;8:84?=: ,-./01213456
. . E
/4:D-:55:781 8:91. 181C-:3.=4. >;c.>8?;.8 ` w1D/:

−−−−→

 
 
y y

8
R −−−−→ R

D/. 4 l /?;24>8=<. =:9-<84b ` 1D2:>=1 N:/:7. ` ` :F 181B

C-:3.=4. g f g R ER h Z F → ER h Z F =;2.?1. ` ,1a 815; 181C-:B
# # 7

3.=4. ER h Z F → ERR Z →h ZZF=;2.?1S
813. =;2.?1. ` .S>8?48.2q=16
> ? > ?
f 6 81R D15151-M4N5

6∗
.>24 H 6∗
47.>945 0-474=:56

: .>24
>
6 81 513=1

01 17.?4/=<5
?
1813/.>8?48q :2D.C-:B
1C-:N;Jc4.6∗
>
?
? 5
ER h Z
F 4 ER F6 : 8:93. 1C-:N;Jc4. ER h Z F 4 ER F `

,1>2.81C-:3.=4.
8:91D1 1813/.>8?2.=4b 012;745 g H f g `
> ? > > ? >
f

=<K D-;006 01 a 815; 4=/; 4-;.8 =;2.?1S

01/=b84.D15151-M4N5 M;=/:5.=8:2qB
6∗ 6∗

>;c.>8?;.8 6

u:

uuu
uu

u

uu
R R
w1D/: F HH HF H ` 2b 2JC1S 81794 ∈ 424C1 E>1?0:/:J8F H E F6?
/
24C1 # !#
F 81C-:3.=4b
# !#
E− ` ` .S>8?48.2q=16 181C-:3.=4. =:B

# 5
E− 01 a 815; E 1=4 >1?0:/:J8

6 !6 H H 6 H
1/=1S 8179.6 # !# !#

H 6 H 6 H 6
9-<?:Jc4K
=:9-<84S6 0-1>8-:=>8?6
012=1>8qJ 9181-1.1C-:N15
N:/:G8>b =:9-<?:.8
1/=1S /:==1.
81794 181C-:3.=4. C:N 5
< 0-4K1/45 9 0-184?1-.74J6 01>912q9; ` 0.-.?1/48

181C-:3.=4.
81794 4 − ? -:N=<. 817946 : l ? 1/=; 8179; `

H H
#

540-1>8-:=>8?
4 :F 2b6 9181-<.
-. .=4b104><?:J8
a 81S N:/:74;5=13.=4.
=;3=1 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b
? 912q :K 8.1-.5:B
91D15121D4S
` ` ` ` 4 ` -15. 81D16 =;3=1 ?1>012qN1?:8q>b -.N;2qB
. . 5

8:815CF N:/:74 R
` `
=13.>8?::-:5F ` C 9
R R F6 6H I6 >8bD4?:.5< 1=4 D15.151-MB

=< 189-<8<5
E R 4 019-<?:J8

H

R EC `
H
>
F E
H

H
D/. ,;>8q
,1 815; l 1C-:N;Jc:b
F H F D-;00<
H E
2b F 1D/: E F F513=1
`w
C?<74>2.=4b
H 6 >
∈ Z` a `
. .
?1>012qN1?:8q>b =. E 181C-:3.=4.5
812q91 E 6∗

F
D15121D4S6=1 4 E
181C-:3.=4B
6 ∗
F F F
5
6∗
6
.5 91D15121D4S ` ,1a 815; E F H ` 6

?

1D2:>=1 N:/:7. ` ` E F H H ` ? C >
,1 a 815; .>24 E F H I6 81 H 4 6H ` =:7486 H − 4 74>21

. . 7 −
>
> 6
=.7G8=1 `
−

6
8.2q=16 C:9 4 H? N:/:7. ` ` 6 012;7:.56 781 H ` 2./1?:B

. . 9
`
7
6∗

6∗ C

CF. . :F >247817G8=16

,19:3.56 81 >1D2:>=1 N:/:7. ` ` 6eN:/:==<S
/4MM.151-M4N5
H > I`
?>2;7:.
1/=1B
6

-1/=<K
=.7G8=1D1 911-/4=:8:K
1C-:c:.8 M1-5;21S
1-4.=8: 4J
C → C
F
E `R .S>8?48.2q=16
R 7→ E R ? 19-.>8=1>84
R F6 ? =.B

01/?43=1S 81794 I IF 818 /4MM.151-M4N5 ;>8-1.= 9:9 181B

a
5
C-:3.=4. E 6 RN:/:==1.
R R M1-5;21S F F >B
` 6 81

24.D1 5<10-./.248.2q
-:>>518-45
C →C

81
a F` 181C-:3.=4.

9:9 E

7→ E
181C-:3.=4.
>8 8

> 8 8
? ?

-:?.=

E−
R →R
-;00< 91D15121D4S > 91 a MM4 4.=8:54 F ;9:N:==<K 0-1B

>8-:=>8? E
912q . EC F =.8-4?4:2q=16 : ;5=13.=4. ? 912q . R ;5=13.=4.
4N151-M=<6 =1 912q : 91D15121D4S ; =4K -:N=<.
. .
Z
?8-4?4:2q=1 ?

E F ?
`

∗
∨ ∗
3.=4J ,-1>8-:=>8?1 6 C
9181-1.
?
012;7:.8>b
b?2b.8>b
?
0-492.4?:=4.5
-:>>21.=4.5 9 01 181C-:B
10M:` >24 C< a 81

?
181C-:3.=4.
8. 8:91S >92.S94 C<210-1>8-:=>8?1

→
D151810=1 01>81b==15;6 81 012;7.==1.9?4?:2.=8=1
C<21 C< D15181047.>94 ? -.N;2q8:B
?
` a
∨
-:N5.-=1>8bK
. . 9:N:==<.
I6 6 4 0-1>8-:=>8?:
.>24 45.J8
H 681 ? D-;00< 91D15121D4S
-:N5.-=1>84 H D-;0B ?
0:=;2.?<.
91D15121D4S -:?=:
Z⊕Z h
EF 1>8:2q=<. D-;00< 91D15121D4S ; =4K

Z

91D15121D4S ` 2b -:N5.-=1>8.S
0-1>8-:=>8?: 4 × -:?=1
5

0-14N?./.=4.
1C-:N;Jc.S 1C-:N;Jc4K
D-;00<

D-;00
91D15121B
D4S -:N5.-=1>848-4?4:2q=1
? 91D15121D4bK ` 2b` 0-1>8-:=>8?: ∨ ∨ ;5=13.=4.

5

H \ d :04 4 .5 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
. .
>

? H \ d R :S.-: kq.81-4>: /2b H
?

>
?
E
>
F → E F ⊕ E F → E F → E F
? > ? > ? >

?

? >
>
/.>q F E FF H I 4 F E-15.

F81D16
H I6>1D2:>=1 01a 815;N:B
− −
−
> >
H
>
`
? ?

E ` ` ⊕I EE F ∼∼H EE F ` >=1 8:93.6 781 B5.-=<. 492<6
−
−
/:7. > > −

? ? ? > ? 9

01-13/:Jc4.
:-

513=1 E F6 513=1 ?<C-:8q 8:96 781C< 1=4 =. 0.-.>.9:24

?

?<C-:8q
?
>912q

?

;D1/=1 5:2<5F ` ,1 a 815; M1-5:

E 5=1D11C-:N4b
0.-.>.7.=4b

0.-.>.7.=4b 5=1D11C-:N4S 4 ` b?2b.8>b 0-b51S >;551S M1-5

>

?

> ?
>8:?2bJc4.,;>8q 4 l 92:>>< 91 .04 >1 4N=:7.=4b54 ? 6 0-./B

. .
91D15121D47.>94.
` w1D/: E F6

%

E E F F 44 E EF lF ` 91>=1.0460-./>8:?2bJc4.

8:93.6 781
E
92:>><
F H E EF F6

∗

∗
F F

∗
`
− E

E
9; E F H>=16FI 424781Z `F ,1a 815;E F F >1D2:>=1 E F8.1-.5.H I6 01>912qB

. :

8:

D-;00: 4N151-M=: J==.8: 8 >
H
−
E ⊗ E E F H Z` 4 E F H Z `

9
81D/:E 4 812q91

× 81D/:6
∼
91D/:

Z

,-./01213456781 >=16H 781 6 D/. 4 l/123=< 5=1D11C-:B

N4b -:N5.-=1>8.S
N:59=;8<54
. : .
-15. > `
81D16 >1D2:>=1
×
a 84
N:/:7. 5=1D11C-:N4b C<8q
` ` D-;00: F1-4B>1B
1=4 /123=< C<8q

` ` ,1a 815; >1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. J==.8:

# 8
.=84-;.5<54
/.-348 01/D-;00; H
9
F F6 0-47G5 I E81D1
=.

` 9
513.8 C<8q ` Z E ⊗ E

#
?>. 1>8:2q=<.
. : : ;=/:5.=8:2q=<.
D15181047.>94. D-;00<
D-;00< 1C14K
; 0-1>8-:=>8?
>M.-< 4 -:?=< Z0-1B6 :
0-1.984?=1D1 ?
>8-:=>8?:
817=1 81S 3.781-:N5.-=1>84
/19:N:8q6 -:N=<54 4N151-M=<
C;/;8 D-;00< 2b D15121D4S> 91/1>8:B
` D15121D4S MM4B
a
5
4.=8:54 Z `
1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. J==.8: -:N5.-=1>8q 0-1>8-:=>8?:
EAEA h×Z F h4Z LF -:?=:E 0-14N?./.=4J -:N5.-=1>8.S 0-1>8-:=>8?
? 7 9
F ,1
` a 815; -:N5.-=1>84 0-1>8-:=>8?
L ?
h

F 4 F -:?=< 4
L >
? ?
E × R h`Z E × R h Z

L Z

>118?.8>8?.==1
L >

?
>

?

> >

>=16
F 781 F 0-4E × R6 01>912q9; F ∼H Z ∼H ERF HF I 44
? ?
H
. : E > ? >
EE F ×∼H RER ∼F 0-4ER> ` E

∞
? ?
F ∞ F F ∞
? ? > G
F
D-;00;6 1D2:>=1
F
8.1-.5. J==.8: D-;00:
4N151-M=;J F
G

E F >1/.-348 01/B
× FRH h Z? 7:>8=1>846 8:
?
a
?
D-;00: =.8-4?4:2q=: /2bE?>.Kh Z ` ⊗/-;D1S h Z ∼ Z h h F H I 0-4

7 9
ER >81-1=<6
∞
?
? ? ?
ER Z
∞
?
> `
7

?
0-1>8-:=>8?15 , . - ? 1 . -I . .= 4 .01,-1>8-:=>8?1
. :
>2./;Jc.5;
∗ b?2b.8>b M:981-B
18=1 .=4JH a 9?4?:2.=8B
=1>84 F F6 .>24 24C1 H H I 4 6 24C1 H

× 8
H-<K HR E 4 6 :H ∼` E,;>8q >1>8148

×
⊂ ∗ >1>8148 4N 8.K 817.96 /2b 9181B
> 8 >8 > ? 8 ? 8 ? > ? > ? >

,-1>8-:=>8?:
? > ?
4N 8.K 817.96 /2b 9181-<K > `
4 513=1 1813/.>8?48q > 01/5=13.>8?:54 ? ∗ 6
⊂∗

6
>1>81bc454 4N 817.96 /2b 9181-<K H I 4 H ` w1D/: 0-1>8-:=>8?:

"
4 b?2bJ8>b /.M1-5: 41==<54 -.8-:98:54 4 ` >=1 8:93.6

781

∩ H × ` ,1 a 815; 5< 012;7:.5 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
:S.-:

kq.81-4>:

→ u E ∗
> F → u E × F −→ u E F ⊕ u E F −→ u E ∗ F →

81C-:3.=4.
.D91
−
?4/.8q6 4=/; 4-1?:=1 ?92J7.=4b54 ⊂ ∗ 4 ⊂ ∗ `

781 9:3/1. 4N a 84K 181C-:3.=4S

D151810=1 01>81b==1B
5;M1-5;21S

` :0-45.-6 F/2b
H ?92J7.=4b F6 D/. ⊂∗ 8-.C;.5:b
M49>4-1?:==:b D1518104b
8179: N:/:G8>b
0-1>8-:=>8?:
E E 012;7.==:b 817=:b
l 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 45..8 ?4/
` w:945 1C-:N156
8 8
6
I → u E ∗ F → u E × F −→ u E F ⊕ u E F → I
>
-;00;
>b>;551S
?<74>248q u E ×b/-1F 5<181C-:3.=4b
=:K1/45 01 8.1-.5. J==.8:6 b?2b.8>b
81C-:3.=4. 01a 815; 1>8:G8B
0-b51S

` 9

181C-:3.=4S 4 6 0-47G5 91501N4 4b

E × F −−→ E F −→ E F
I
4=/; 4-1?:=: 0-1.9 u
4.S =: u 5=1348.2q
0.-?<S u
` I 8:181C-:B
∼
915B
01N4
4b ;>8-1.=:
3.=4.F u EF F ⊗ EF F → uF E F =;2.?1.6
>2./;Jc45
1C-:N15 R 0-4 : 181C-:3.=4.
H E∗ -:?=1 E F ⊗181C-:B
F 4=/; 4-1?:=1

3.=4.5u E ⊗ →E ∗ ` →/-1 u01>2./=.D1

E ∼ u E 181C-:3.=4b

E F`
−

u
⊗
2bk181C-:3.=4b -:>>;3/.=4b :=:21D47=<
!

`

D/. ∧ F H × F∨ :015=456
8 1 - 1 . - . .= 4 . 7816 N:/:7: F6
5
∼ E ∧

7:>8q ∗
EE × ∨ F ` :04 .5 817=;J ` F ` ,1 a 815;
H H

>
u E
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q
∗ ∼
!

E
u 0:-< E × u ∨ F R
∧ ∼
8
8
→ u E ∨
F → u E × F → u E × ∨ F → u E ∨ F →
8 >

/.>q −
u E × F H Mu E E F ⊗ E FF ⊕ Mu E F E F
8

I I >
451.181C-:3.=4.
>2:D:.51. u E ∨ F → u E × F b?2b.8>b 4N151-M4N515 =: 0-bB
−

E E F ⊗ E FF ⊕ E E F ⊗ E FF
k5.-=<K7:>8=1>846 a 81 u
181C-:3.=4. 4

:=:21D47=1. u 181C-:3.=4. O FB

D15121D4SF b?2b.8>b E 51=151-M4N515 ` ,1 a 815; ED-;00: −

u E × ∨ F 4N151-M=: M:981-D-;00. u E × F u E ∨ F `
8

:981-4N:D15121D4b5
?./G==<5 4b 01 01/D-;00. u E ∨ F a 9?4?:2.=8=: 0.-.K1/; 9 0-4B
`

91D15121D4S N 8.1-.5<
84K 0-1>8-:=>8?J==.8: 4N151-M=<
>2./;.86 781://484?=<5
D-:/;4-1?:==<. D-;00<
D-;00:5 91B01
a
. : 9
2.>118=15=1D172.=1?
.=4b5 Z H H
? >84 6 0-1M:981-4N1?:==<5
Z H I 84 D-;00< 01-13/.=< 2.5.=B
8 F >8 8 F
` ` /.>q 1C-:N;Jc:b a B

>H H > H H
8:54 ?4/: 6 I

>C F
5.-=<K 91D15121D4S
> C

H
×
?
×
?.c.>8?.==156 6
>2;7:.

F
H
4 B5.-=<K

l 91D15121D4S ?

91502.9>=15
91N=:9D-;00<6F =1>2;7:. 912q` N: `8.1-.5< ` ` >2./;.86781 4N151-M=< =. 812qB

4;748<?:8q k=.91502.9>=15

=;3=16 >2;7:.
01>912q9; >2./;.8
?>. =.=;2.?<. 185.848q6

781
2.5.=8<
a

45.J8E−7G8=;J -:N5.-=1>8q `

C D
D1912q51=151-M4N5:
. : w.1-.5: ` ` F?<-:3:.8 F ;5=13.=4. ?F 1C-:N.

7.-.N .>8.>8?.==1B?
;5=13.=4b
:K E F 4 EE F ` ⊗1 .>24E 1/=:

∗
→
E D-;00
4N ×

∗
E F 4 ` E F =.

∗
45..8 9-;7.=4b6 81 a 818 51=151-M4N5 b?2b.8>b 4N151-M4N515

∗
∗
∗
∗
>24 >;c.>8?;.8 ;9:N:==1. =.?<-13/.==1. C424=.S=1. 181B

C-:3.=4.6
>8?:5
. :
I 81 74>21 7G8=1 /2b ?>.K 6 ;/1?2.8?1-bJc4K =.-:?.=B

` ,1 a 815; E F ≡ E e F /2b ?>.K .2<K 4

F
G
`

G
e >=16F ,-./01213456
781 E F ≡ 781 H E e6 D/.F ` ,1 a 815;=.7G8=1.
? ?
E ?
F ≡
74>216 ? ? ?
` `

wE 1D/: l
F

E F ≡ E F ≡
? ?
Ff g

g E E eF

f − > ? ?
−
? ? ??
− ·
/.>q 6≡ I E e F `
≡

,121345
. :
E F H E u F6 D/. 
6 H
8 >8

8 >
u X H Xu ! X 
−
>
− F > > >
F −

− −
FI >
I> H I>

81=1.>241/4=0-14N?./.=4. /?;K 5=1D172.=1? b?2b.8>b =;2.?<5 5=1D172.=156

4N a 84K 5=1D172.=1?
181C-:3.=4. =.?<-13/.==1. ` /123.= C<8q =;2.?<5 ` ,1 a 815; C424=.SB
6

< 01>8-1424 =:21D47=1 =.?<-13/.==1.513=1 C424=.S=1. =.?<-13/.==1.

0-1>8-148q 181C-:3.=4.
`

Ru × R → Ru
>
C424=.S=1. 181C-:3.=4. 6 9181-1. b?2b.8>b =.?
-13/.==<5 C424=.S=<5 181C-:3.=4.5 u ` 6 =1-15.4

R u × R → R74>2:
−
? ? ? ? ?
81D16 513=1 4>012qN1?:8q =.
9?:8.-=41=< H 6 : 8:93. 1981=41=< E74>2: a24F O `812q91 91502.9>=<. C
− 9
.=84-;.51 N 1/=1>?bN=1>84 5=1D11C-:N4b >2./;.86 781 1=1 1-4B

` ,1 a 815;` /2b1D2:>=1
45..8 5.>81 /?1S>8?.==1>8q ,;:=9:-. >
:

91,1a MM4 4.=8:54 8.1-.5. ;-.?47: E F ∼ H E F H I`
745a815;6 ?1>012qN1?:? 4>q .cG -:N /?1S>8?.==1>8qJ ,;:=9:-.6 012;B
7 > >
Z
F H I ` cG -:N 0-45.=4? 8.1-.5; ;-.?47:6 012;7456 781

F EH
E F HaI9?4?:2.=8.=
` w:945 1C-:N156 l jB>?bN=<S j B91502.9> `
?
?
E= D15181047.>94
∼ ?
B5.-=15; B91502.9>; > 1/=1S

IB
5.-=1S 92.891S 4 C.N 92.819 -:N5.-=1>8.S 4 68 .

748<?:b6 781 E F H Z 6 012;7:.56 781 ∼ `

`
`
∼ ∨

∨ `

,1> 1/=1S :9 D15181047.>94

4 ? N:/:7. ` ` 6 012;7:.56 781 B5.-=15;
E F H I 0-4
6 − `

a IB5.-=1S 92.891S 4 C.Na 92.819 -:N5.-=1>8.S 6 j6 B91502.9>;

815; 9?4?:2.=8=1
: . 9 F
G

``` 6 `

2./1?:8.2q=16 D15181047.>94 a 9?4?:2.=8=1 C;9.8; >M.- ` −74B

8<?:b6 781 E F H Z 6 012;7:.5 8-.C;.51. `
7

>8?1 :F ,;>8q>?bN=1
24=.S=1 A l : 49247=<S
,1 815; >1D2:>=1j B91502.9>
N:/:7. ` w 1D/:
4N 0-1>8-:=B
7:>84 0-1B
` a: N=:7486 `
: :
>8-:=>8?1 A A 1/=1>?bN=16 F H I

:2..6
"
A ` ?>. D15181047.>94.
E ;-.?47: E AFH

HD-;00<EA F0-1>8-:=>8?:
H I 0-4 > ` 1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. > 5 >

A 8-4?4:2q=< ` k 8:915 >2;7:. >1D2:>=1 8.1-.B

7
5. :S8K./: 0-1>8-:=>8?1 >8bD4?:.51

A : 49247=1D1` j B91502.9>: 0-4?./G= ?
CF ,-45.- =.>8bD4?:.51D1

N:/:7. `" ` `

91502.9>:b?2b.8>b ,-1>8-:=>8?1
> 92.89:54 -:N5.-=1>8.S513=1I6 0-./>8:?48q

6

4 ? ?4/.,1 815; jB
` a
: E
×
B5.-=<5 1>81?15 0-4

# #

∨
` 81C-:3.=4. G
>118?.8>8?;.8
× 0-492.S9.{ 92.894
9 E − FB5.-=15; 1>81?; ` 15181047.>94S 92:>> 181C-:3.=4b

#
−

6
}6 6
#8
G
#

b?2b.8>b 0-.0b8>8?4.5> 9 0-1/123.=4J 813/.>8?.=B

>

=1D1
−
181C-:3.=4b
−→ ∨
=: FB5.-=<S
∨ 1>81?

E
,-./01213456781

FB5.-=1D1
8:91. 0-1/123.=4. 1>81?:
`
#
→ ∨

×

E #

−

R × 92:>><
D47.>94.

→ ∨
?

>;c.>8?;.8F 4` ,;>8q 6 F6 4>118?.8>8?;Jc4.

6 l 91D15121B6

1D/: H 4 EH I H∨ ` ,1a 815; E × H E F ` 1

` w H I6 :

∗ ∗

`

∗ ∗ ∗
6
01 92.819:>>518-45
:

>2./;Jc.. 92.817=1. -:NC4.=4. 6 >1/.-3:c..
9:3/1S -:N5.-=1>84 R
∞
E I I Fh
? F

8 8 8
E II F

?
h
8 8 8 8 G G

I I F I 6 | | H − h

E
? F ? ?
>8
8 8 8 8 8 >
E I I F I 6 | | H −

?
> 8 8 8 8 8
h 8 >
?

?
8 G G

E I I F I 6 | | | | H − h

? F ? ? ?
>8 ?8 8 8 8 8 8 > ?
E I I F I 6 | | | | H −

>8 ?8
?
8 8 8

8
h 8 >
?

?
?

?
8 G G

81 92.817=1. -:NC4.=4. >1D2:>1?:=1 > 18=1 .=4.5 a 9?4?:2.=8=1>84

=:3:c..

6 01 a 815; 4N =.D1 5< 012;7:.5 92.817=1. -:NC4.=4.
01 1/=1S 92.89. 9:3/1S -:N5.-=1>84 -:=47=<. D15151-M4NB
6 >1/.-B

∞
5< ?<74>2bJ8>b ` ∞

.0=1S 817=1 8:9 3.6 9:9 /2b 8-GK5.-=<K 24=N ` k -.N;2q8:8.
012;7:.5 91502.9>

× ×
15121D44 a 81D1 91502.9>: 45.J8 ;9:N:==<S ?4/ `

→ Z −−→ Z −
− → Z −−→ Z −
→ Z

,;>8q
l ;=4?.->:2q=:b
F H I 4 E F H=.9150:98=1 =:9-<?:Jc:b ` w1D/:
E F H I ` ` -;00: E EF C.>91=.7=:6 01 a 81B
: !
5;781E5=1D11C-:N4.

=:7486 F H I >=1 8:93.6
! !
`012;7456 781
> ? ? >
F H I 0-4 ,-45.=4? 8.1-.5; ;-.?47:6

! !
`

F EH I /2b ?>.K `> 1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. :S8K./: 5=1D11C-:N4.

F !

E
>8bD4?:.516 : N=:7486 E F H E F H I 0-4 > `
! G
7
!

!
-b/9: ,-./01213456
1D/: 1=: 781 4D-;00:
>1/.-348 >1/.-348845a2.5.=8
01-13/G==;J 91=.7=1D1
2.5.=815 01B
49247.B
` w a a
:
>9;J 01/D-;00; Z ` 1D/::>>518-450-1>8-:=>8?1

01/D-;00. =:9-<84. A 840: →A
6 >118?.8>8?;Jc..
EZ F6 01a 815;
!
Z ⊂ ` w Al

!

8

1=1 D15181047.>94
>912q9;6 > 1/=1S a 9?4?:2.=8=191=.7=15.-=<S
>81-1=<6 ` ,-4K1/45 9 0-184?1-.74J6 01B
>45024 4:2q=<S45..8 915B
A l N:/:7. ` `" 0-1>8-:=>8?1
∞

02.9>6 : > /-;D1S >81-1=<6 >1D2:>=1
!
=.=;2.?<. D15121D44 >912q ;D1/=1 C12q 4K -:N5.-=1>8.S ` A !

?4/=16 2b 8-4?4:2q=1D1
>;c.>8?;.8 ,-./0121345 -:>>21.=4b
8.0.-q68-.C;.51.
781 8:91. 181C-:3.=4.
181C-:3.=4. 6 17.B
>;B
`
: . 5
c.>8?;.8
21S F H :>>518-45 181C-:3.=4.
` F F ` 1D2:>=1 8.1-.5.R →` ` a×81R181C-:3.=4. N:/:G8
6 N:/:==1. M1-5;B

E -:>>21.=4b
4N151-M4N5 6

E E =: 8-4?4:2q=1. -:>>21.=4. × R `
# 8 7
6

k?./b -45:=1?;
81=1-54-1?:==<54 5.8-49;6
49>4-;.5 1/=; 8-4?4:24N:
8-4?4:24N: 444J513=1 >748:8q
1D/: 2JC:b1-B
`1/=1N=:7=1 N:/:G8>b 181C-:3.=4.5 `w→ E F ` 1B
: . .

8-4?4:24N:
518104b 4b
8:93.6 7818-4?4:24N: 4S 4l a 81 D1518104b 8:94K 181C-:3.=4S ` >=1

F F H F H
E ≈ R ER E Z `

81-=1. 49>4-;.5
012.I=: C.N 1>1C<K
: . :

8-4?4:24N: 817.9 4J -:>>21.=4b
1/=1N=:7=1 ` w1D/: 2JC1. ?.9B
N:/:G8>b

181C-:3.=4.5

81→D1518104b
R \ { } ∼8:94K
1518104b ?
?.981-=<K
` 181C-:3.=4S >=1 8:93.6 781
012.S C.N 1>1C<K F H 817.9 l
a
` E

Z`

?
,-45.=45 4=/;9
?4/=1 ` ,-./01213456
: . E
781 4J 01 ` ,-4/19:N:=1
;8?.-3/.=4. H ;8?.-3/.=4.
/2b 0-14N?./.=4S
G
17.B G

=4.

× ?×

k21345 >M.-;01 815;
` 8-4?4:2q=16 ?=1-5:2q=1.` 1-5:2q=1.

-:>>21.=4. -:>>21.B?
>
a a 81D1 8-4?4:2q=1D1 -:>>21.=4b

C C
−> R

>
b?2b.8>b
R
813.

8-4?4:2q=1 ` 21.5
?21348q R × × h ? ` ak81-.N;2q8:8. 0-1>8-:=>8?1 01 0-./01213.=4J 513=1

C 7
R >
C

C
− C

012;7:.5
− C 8-.C;.51. ?213.=4. `
>24 ?>. 74>2:< C;/.57G8=<6
: .

012qN1?:8q>b
81 0-45.-:54 ` `" 4 ` ` `

E × × F H E F E F H 6 H I

C

C

F
,1 a 815;8179;6
=: 5=1D11C-:N44 2JC1. ?.981-=1. 012. 45..8

1>1C;J:S5G5>b 8.0.-q : N=:7486 a 81
5=1D11C-:N4.
/19:N:8.2q>8?15
× × =. 0:-:22.24N;.51
C
0:-:22.24N;.51>84

`

5=1D11C-:N4b

C

H ×8-.C;.51.×
6 ;8?.-3/.=4.
>

6 ? >2;7:.617.?4/=<5
G
91D/: 1/=11C-:N15
4N 74>.2
?<8.9:.8 =.7G8=1
4N ` ,-4
>2./;JB
c.S 2.55< `

G
I
o Z[ Vp \ o ÛV \ UTUU W[ZY_V UTUY [ pU ] U VV [

p UTU WY Y[W[ZY^\ UTUW[o U
Y^\Y_ \YWY[ Y[[ ^ \[\Y WYW[ UV^\Y_ F HY I ^W\UT n[ V \ UTUU

; &( ) ( " > ? ( # * ( &
$ $
( & ( ) && ' ( # ) && '
m [W[ ^ YZ o ^VU m E
( # ) ( > " > ?
× , @

Up,1[Z[;>21?4J U ,;>8q 8-4?4:2q=1. B5.-=1. -:>>21.=4. =:/

,
^
( ) &( #
F H
I6 01l815;
,
=: >;c.>8?;.8
` 1>1C<K 817.9E` =1 N:/:G8a =:/ /?: -:>>21.=4b 8-4?4:2q=1. B

?.981-=1. 012.
C.N
5.-=1. -:>>21.=4.
>
R
4 1-81D1=:2q=1. /1012=.=4. 9 =.5;6 9181-1. 5<

>
>
>

1C1N=:745 ` ,-4 a 815 ed H ed − H − 4 H ⊕ ` C >
2b 2JC<K ?.981-=<K -:>>21.=4S-:>>21.=4.

4
=:/ 4 2JC1D1 =.0-.B
> >
C C
-<?=1D1

F
5
181C-:3.=4b R

F ` -15. 81D16 → H ` ,1 a 815; E ⊕

F 4N151-M=1
>
> ?
> ?
E ⊕E> ? 9
6 6∗
H∼ E F ⊕ E F ∼H E ⊕ F ⊕ E F ∼H
6∗ 6∗ 6∗ C
>
>
H E F ⊕ ⊕ E F ∼H E F ⊕ E ⊕ F ∼H
C× D >
∗
C
?∗
D
∗ ?∗
D
C
> >
>
∗ ?∗ >
∗ ?∗
H E F ⊕ ∼H E ⊕ F ∼H
∼ C× D D C D
> >
>
∗ D >
∗ D
H E F ⊕ ∼H E ⊕ F ⊕ ∼H
∼ C× D C C D
> × >
>
∗ D > C
∗ D−
H ⊕ ∼H
∼ C C× D C C× D
> >
∼ C D− C D
C× D C× D C× D
781 ,-4 =.7G8=1513=11D/:?1>012qN1?:8q>b

513=1 0121348q4=/;9
H
4.S 01 ` ;/.54 >748:8q6
H `
` w

G G
,1 8-4?4:2q=1.
0-./01213.=4J
>
4=/;9
-:>>21.=4. ` 44 0:-:22.24N;.516 ×01 815;
a >
> C − C

?
>

l ⊕ C C
N4. < =. C;/.5

1D-:=4745>b 0-1?.-b8q6
?<74>2.=4.5 .D1 781-:N5.-=1>84
L E F l 81C-:3.=4.
5=1D11C-:B
` 6 ``` 6
: . 8
h F L
L=:C1- F6 >101>8:?2bJc.. =:C1-; ?.981-1?
G

E ?.981-1?
8
→ E G −6
```` 6 .S>8?48.2q=16
8
6 b?2b.8>b 219:2q=1
G

8-4?4:2q=<5 -:>>21B? > F
.=4.5 >1 FB5.-=15

>21.5 0-1>8-:=>8?. >
./4=47=<S
F
?.981-
F >
2.348
l 1-81D1=:2q=15 /1012=.=44 9 01/B
5 − F
E−
−
0-1>8-:=>8?;6
L E F ≈ ` ,1a 815; 5< 012;7:.5 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q -:>>21.=4S781

8
G
01-13/G==15;

>
?.981-:54 6 ``` 6 ` >=1 8:93.6 > F >
−
−
L E F −−−→ L E − F −−−−−→ −−−→ L E F H

8 −

8 − −
C
−
D
8
>
2./1?:8.2q=16 -:N5.-=1>8q L E F -:?=:

−
G G
8
F
7
G
E−F E−F E − FH − E

G G
G G

8.1-.5. ` =1D11C-:N4.
: .
` 1=1 E − FB>?bN=1

L E 4 F 45..8 -:N5.-=1>8q ` 1D2:>=1

8

7
L E F H (Z .>24

8
.>24 =.7G8=1
7G8=1 h
8
?8

1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. ;-.?47: L E F ∼H L E F 4

Z
L F H I 0-4 I ,121?4=; D-;00 D15121D4S 5< ? 0151cqJ /?1S>8?.==1>84

7

74>2424
F

8
,;:=9:-. ` k -.N;2q8:8. 012;7456 781 .>24 7G8=16 81

5

G

FL E F H (ZI /2b

8
H I6 6 6 h
/2b 1>8:2q=<K G

8

: .>24 =.7G8=16 81

G
 /2b H I6 h
L E F H Z /2b H h


 Z G
I /2b 1>8:2q=<K
F 8 ?
G

G
?4>45<K
: . ,-./>8:?45
>.7.=4b ? ?4/. j B91502.9>: 4 C;/.5 >8-148q =.N:B
9:>:8.2q=1D1 -:>>21.=4b 4=/;9 4.S 01 1>81?:54K `=:,.-BB
?1. =.8-4?4:2q=1. 0-.0b8>8?4. ?1N=49:.8 0-4 0-1/123.=44

5.-=<S
B5.-=<S 1>81?
1>81? 81 0-.0b8>8?4.
` >;c.>8?;.8 81D/: l 492:>>
812q91 =:748691D/:
`81D/:6 0-1/123.=4.
H I =:
,-.B

`
?
0b8>8?4.
91?4/=1 9 0-1/123.=4J =:F B5.-=<S 1>81? 2.348 ? 91D15121D4bK > ?
a MM44N4.=8:54
817=1S
L E `
01>2./1?:8.2q=1>84
? 1
8 L F
E -:>>21.=4b

≈
F 4 F H I a 81
E E F →E >1 >21.5
8
E ?
F6 01>912q9; FF H F H IF ,1 a 815; a 81 0-.0b8>8?4.

`
E
18>;8>8?;.8 ` E ?
E ER
?
9-:b >24 7.?4/=<5

B5.-=1D1 1C-:N15
:-: =: =.N:?4>45<K
:- > ?<91218<5 >.7.=4b
.=8-15 513=1 0-1/12348q >

; =:> .>8q

=.N:?4>45<.
>.7.=4b =:/ `
> =.>912q9454 ?<91B

218<54
=:/

8179:54 6 ``` 6 6 81 513=1 01>8-148q =.N:?4>45<. >.7.=4b
> 1/=1S ?<912181S 81791S ` 2b a 81D1 =;3=1 >1./4=48q 817B
H
>
H

9;84 0;84 > 8179:54

? 8179; 6 ``` 6 =.0.-.>.9:Jc454>b 0;8b546: N:8.5 >8b=;8q

H
5
a `
>
H H H

,;>8q
H F 4
H F ?.981-< 0-1>8-:=>8?:
H
× ∼H f g E E× F ` ,121345E E

lF H E F E F `
: . > > 8 > ? ? 8 ?
>8 ? >8 ? > 8 ?

,;>8q ?.981-15
>:8.2q=<5 k.981-
H E F ∈ f g E × F b?2b.8>b 9:B
∈ `
8
9 EF F1-81D1=:2.=
81D/: 4 812q91 81D/:6 91D/: F H81D/:
8
6 8 `.4`
H F k.981- H
` 91D/: HE 6 8 `. ` H F ` 81C-:3.=4.E ?>.5 ?.981-:5
812q91E 81D/:6
8
E
8
→ f F6 g 6 8
9181-1. >101>8:?2b.8
b?2b.8>b 4N151-M4N515 ?.981-=<K?.981-;
−

∈
?.981-
-:>>21.=4S E` − ∈ f g E ×
− F
8

8

M.-: > -;79:54

-1?: K:-:98.-4>849: 7G8=:6 011-4.=84-;.5:6
815; H I ` 01a 815; H I ` G a S2.B
a
: . . 7 >

,1B/-;D15; -:?.=>8?: H I 4 ?213.=4b H I 513=1>M.-</19:N:8q6 ?1>012qN1B

?
?:? 4>q 8.56 781 /2b >8:=/:-8=1D1

=1-5:2q=1. -:>>21.=4. 8-4?4:2q=1 `

>
> -;79:54
?
? R

8.-4>8494 2b >M.-< >>7G8=1>8qJ

>1?0:/:.8 24>8:5474>2:GC4;>: ,17G8=1>8q 815; a S2.-1?1S
H 6 D/. K:-:9B
` a
: . : 5
1C-:N;Jc:b B5.-=<K 91D15121D4S6 8 ` . ` H I 0-4 7G8=15

4

H l ?
0-4 =.7G8=15 ` ? ?
2b 9145.J8
a MM4 C:N4>
4.=81? Z6 6B5.-=<. 91D15121D44 >M.-<92:>>< > 24>8:54

GC4;>:5
/?1S>8?.==<

``` ?/12q 9181-<K 4N5.=bJ8 1-4.=8: 6 4J6
492:561CK1/< 6 D/. > 91D15121D47.>94.
?

``` 6

>
01a 815; H
:91=. 6 H 6 01à 815; H H `

> >
?
> ?

F
,;>8q
F H 6 01 l
815;
=1-5:2q=1.H 6 -:>>21.=4.6H I6 H 6 E F ` w1D/:H
a H 6 H 6 ``` 6 H ` ```
: . E >
H EI ` 2./1?:8.2q=16
E
> ? > >
?
7 > ? −
,;>8q H ER F H /2b H 6 ``` 6 ` 1D2:>=1 > F
N:/:7. H `24C1 ,1a 815; ?>. 74>2: =.7G8=<. 6 D/. H 6 ``` 6 6 24C1
: . F F 7
` ` 7G8=<.6
F
F > G
1/=1?-.5.==1 F
1/=1?-.5.==1
>
`H
F
G

:/ 012.5 Z 45..8 5.>81/?147=:b -:?.=>8?1 N:04>qE F

74>2: 1D/:` ,;>8q ? ?
` w 74>2:
?
H· E 81F E H· FHl E H I 4 F `H >24 81?>.1N=:7:.86 E H H
F 7G8=<6 ;9:N:==<.
>
? ?

H>

H

>24

H H
?>.
C
;9:N:==<.

H
74>2: =.7G8=<6 h
81 a H H 781
H h a 81

1N=:7:.86` 781 H − `
F >
−

>

F 6 D/. >24 1C-:N;Jc:b

7G8=16 81 91D15121D47.>94S
D-;00< 92:>>
F6 E
=.=;2.?1S F ,1H E 81B

` a
: .

5; 74>21 84M.2b

l 48=4 R 813. =.=;2.?1.

ER h Z ` 1D15121D47.>94S

R

>
?
9

92:>>
84M.2bER48=4F H E RF H=.=;2.?1.

813. =.=;2.?1S 4 6H I ` ,1 a 815; 74>21
`
>

>
F H I >24
/2b H −=.7G8=1D1
2JC1D1 6 81 ER F 1H?E2JC1SF 51=15 H E F 6 01a 815; ?F ? F
O H − 6 ?K1/48 `5=1348.2q 6 D/. =.7G8=1 u u` 6 D/.

: .
O ERO
G

>C

> ?

G
k 1/=; >81-1=; ;8?.-3/.=4. 17.?4/=160181a 815; =;3=1

2481Bq

/19:N:8q6
3.-:>>21.=4. 781
: .
8-4?4:2q=1 .>24 C:-:>>21.=4.

-:>>21.=4b
8-4?4:2q=16 -:>>21.=4.
F
4 1-4.=84-;.5<6 01a 815;

> F

` ⊕

813. 1-4.=84-;.51 ` ⊕ ;/.5 >748:8q6 781 ?1 ?>.K >21B
F

F > >
bK3/<S-:>>21.=4S
>21S
-:>>21.=4b 4
M49>4-1?:=:
F >
1813/.>8?2G= =.9181-:b
>
F
1-4.=8:
0-4 815 4b ` :B
9:3/<S
a

h 01/0-1>8-:=>8?1
9
⊕ F > F >

>21S -:>>21.=4b
? R D15.151-M=1
a 81 1-4.=84-1?:==1. B5.-=1.
l 1-4.=84-1?:==<K B5.-=<K 01/0-1>8-:=>8? ?
⊕ F R
F >
F >
` ,-1>8-:=>8?1 >M.-. `>2;348 :>>518-45 -:>>21.=4. 81S=:/8179.
F
6 >21.5 G
G
F F
R
9181-1D1
.=84-1?:==1. =:/ 81791S
B5.-=1. ∈01/0-1>8-:=>8?1
>118?.8>8?;Jc..
?
F

,;>8qa 1-4B

181C-:3.=4.6 >101>8:?2bJc..
G

8179.
H
∈ >21SR `
-:>>21.=4b R
=:/
→ l
a 81S
F >
6 F
F
81791S
/;.86 781 >=16781

H
` 181C-:3.=4. D151810=1 ` F
N 81D16781 -:N5.-=1>8q
F
5.=q
01>81b==15; ` ,1 a 815; -:>>21.=4.
6∗
. 6>2.B
G

8-4?4:2q=1 `
F 6
:F 7.?4/=<5 1C-:N15 >2./;.8 4N N:/:74 ` ` `

CF
1D/: ,;>8q
: .
l =1-5:2q=1.

F
6 01 815; -:>>21.=4. /2b ?213.=4b < ⊂-:>>5:B `

F
w8-4?:.5 >48;: H
⊕ 4J6 91D/:

F
a F
,-./01213456H `
781 5=1D11C-:N4.
> R F F >
`

∼ ⊕ ⊕ ∼
>8:C42q=1 0:-:22.24N;.51 ` w 1D/: -:>>21.=4. 8-4?4:2q=16

> G >
01C1-186
a 815;.>24>1D2:>=1
-:>>21.=4.N:/:7. -:>>21.=4.
`8-4?4:2q=16
` 81 813. ⊕
-:>>21.=4.
F
8-4?4:2q=1
:1B
` 813.
F

>

8-4?4:2q=1 `
⊕
,-1>8-:=>8?1 F >1>8148 4N 0:- F6D/. 81C-:3.=4. ` ,-1B

>8-:=>8?1: . .
E F >1>8148
F > E 4N 0:- F6 D/. E
F

`
E E F 0:-;⊥ E F6 D/. ⊂ F >
8
F
F >
F
E F → E F >101>8:?2b.8 0:-.
− 8 − −
F F > F F > F >
l?2b.81-81D1=:2q=1. /1012=.=4. 9 ? ` C-:8=1. 181C-:3.=4. >101>8:B=:

− 8 8 − −
F
4 ` E0:-.
F >
F 0:-; F6 D/.
8
E
F >
−
l 0-1>8-:=>8?16
8
F
=:8b=;81. F

>8?;.8 =: ,-./01213456
: :
R ` JC:b

781 =.9181-:b
91=.7=:b D-;00: 91=.7=:b01/D-;00;
>1/.-348 D-;00: >?1C1/=1 H Z
6/.SB
D/. %

#
l 0-1>81.
/.S>8?4. 4=/; 74>21
4-;.8 -;00: 813.=: >?1C1/=1
` /.S>8?4. > /.S>8?;.8=.01/?43=1S
./4=>8?.==1S
=: R ` 81 %

81791S
0-1>8-:=>8?1 6 8
∞ ` ` E
. F F H {∞} `

b?2b.8>b /-;D1S
>81-1=<6 >1D2:>=1 8.1-.5.
D15121D47.>91S >M.-1S6: ``
810121D47.>91. 7
%
0-1>8-:=>8?16 E>1>81bc.. 4N 1/=1S 817946 =. b?2b.8>b D15121D47.>91S

>M.-1S `
1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. ` ` H E F H 6 ? ? ? ? ? C
01>912q9;F H ≡ I EF e F 0-4F 6 6 F− ` ,1Ha 815; E

: E 7
? ?

`

E E E ? ?

, .- ? 1 . - . .= 4 . 1D2:>=1 8.1-.5. ` ` 45..8 5.>81

51=151-M4N5
: E .

7
R E F h Z → ER × × R h Z F ∼H Z
8 ? ? ? > 8 8 8
0-47G5 H E H 6 F l a2.5.=8:-=:b >455.8-47.>9:b M;=9B

6∗ ∗
∞ % ∗ ∞

∞

4b ` -15.
01 M1-5;2.
9 81D16
6∗
:-8:=:

H > 8

4

8
u
H I 0-4 O ` a 815;
,1 >

?

FH E F E FH
9
E
F F ? F >
− D
H HX
C C D C
? ?
8
D/. >;554-1?:=4. ?./G8>b

9181-<K 4 01 ?>.5 0.-.>8:=1?9: =:C1-: 6 ``` 6 6 /2b
2./1?:8.2q=16
C C
`
>

> F F > 7

E FH

X F

?

?

8:9 9:95.>81l813/.>8?151=151-M4N56 81 /1>8:817=1 /19:N:8q6 781 01 51/;2J

6∗ C
C
45..8

6∗
H X − − EF
F
X ? ?
G F

C C

,-45.=45813/.>8?:
4=/;9 4J 01H 74>2;4 0.-.5.==<K ` ,-48.0.-qH 012;7:.5 17.B

I −
?4/=<.
>24 H 6 81 M1-5;2: F H
0-4=45:.8 ` 19:3.5
?4/

F :D
H 4=/;9
F 4481` ? ?

`
> > > > 5
813/.>8?1

G
01 51/;2J

E17.?4/=1 ` ,-./0121345
P
E 8.0.-q6 781E `

C

?
F
?

,;>8q :=:21D47=:b >;55: /2b 0.-.B

5.==<K
P
6 ``` 6
∗
` w
?
1D/:
C l 7:>8q M1-5;2< E F N:04><?:.8>b
2.?:b
?

C − ?
G

?4/.

> >
−
? ? ? ? ?
X∗ X∗
C
− C C C C C C
−

−
X∗ ?
?

C
C
"
,;>8qH l a2.5.=8:-=:b
6 01 M;=9
815; 4b 187:>8q
0-:?:b 0.-.5.==<K
M1-5;2< 6F ```N:04><?:.8>b
6 ` w1D/:? >
a
>
E
∗

?4/.
−
∗ > ∗
−

−

E ∗ F >
−
∗ F

F
F G>
I
−
X
−G −

F∗
E −−

>

F
∗
−
FE ∗ >
−
∗

FH
G
H
F >
? −
X − G − ∗F >∗ >
I −−

−

F

X −G − −G − F ∗
∗ >
I
− −
−
F
h
X
−G − F ∗
∗
I −

N/.>q 5<?1>012qN1?:8q>b
1>8:G8>b 012:D:.5 0-./01213.=4.5
H I ` 81C< N:?.- 48q /19:N:8.2q>8?16
F ?
4=/;9 44 ` 2b2b9191MM4
a MM44.=8:
4.=B
− >−
81? 0-4 4 0-4 5< >-:N; 012;7:.5 8-.C;.51. ` a

5
−
?
0-4 =;3=1 N:5.848q6 781

5
E eF

−G −G − −G − 8
≡
−
01>912q9; F >
− >− H ` −
F >
− −
F
k 82.D91
1 - 1 . 0-1?.-b.8>b
- . . = 4 . 2b.S>8?48.2q=16
-:>>21.=4b =:/ FRH 8-.C;.5:b M1-B

−
>
5;2:
D-;00< F `
,1 815;

?>G >?1/48>b 1C-:N;Jc:b

E 9 17.?4/=15;
l -:?.=B

5
> ∞
R h Z ` a
5 >
E >

>
>8?; H
4 ` ,-./01213456 ?∞
781 8-.C;.5:b M1-5;2: ?.-=:
?
/2b
-:>>21.=4b
H ×

H E
F ` 1D2:>=1 M1-5;2. 48=4

1D2:>=1 M1-5;2. :-8:=: E

FF HH >
` 7
E ×

×
> 7 9 >

× − −

H E F
F × E
>
F >
> F × ` ,1 a 815;

?
E
× F H
−
− −
F >

H

F −G F > > − F
× − × ×
G

F > −G − F > − F >
− × − × − ×
G
? ? ?
>
F > −G F ? − F ?
× × ×
/-;D1S >81-1=<6 E E F E FH EF F E .B
− − − −
G−
> >

7
0.-q>
− ×

;3.
F
2.D91H

×
0-1?.-48q6
>
×
781 8-.C;.5:b
× − − × − − ×
>

× − ×
M1-5;2:
>
>
?.-=:

>
?×
/2b
`w

-:>>21.B
=4b

5
>8?.==1
>
`2b 2b>2:D:.5<K
>2:D:.5<K?4/:?4/: =;3=1 4 0-1?.-48q6
?
a 81 ?4/=1781 =.01>-./B
01 51/;BH
`

× × ×
2J 45.J8 5.>81 -:?.=>8?:

5
×

F
H F >
6 F F >
H 6 4 8 `/ ` 84 -:?.=>8?: >2./;J8 4N -:?.=>8?

>
H
− −> − − > −?
F F
01H 51/;2J 6 N=:9 =.>;c.>8?.=H 6 4 8 `/ `6 01>912q9; /2b 1>8:891?

−? − >
F > F F > F −
−> − > −? ?
`?.-=: /2b -:>>21.=4b
−
− −
8:96

8-.C;.5:b M1-5;2: > >
` N
a=1.81D1181C-:3.=4.
>2./;.86 781 1=: ?.-=:F /2b -:>>21.=4b 6 01>912q9; .>8.>8?.=B

× ×
51-M4N5 JC1. E
B5.-=1.
?
h
-:>>21.=4. E

4=/; 4-1?:=1 h F l 51=1B6

-:>>21.=4.5
`
8-.C;.5:b M1-5;2: 813. ?.-=: `
8 ?
G Z → ∗ R ∞ × × R ∞ Z

∗
%

01a 815; /2b

=1S 1D/: k<-.3.5

513=1 4N 91=;>: 8.1-.5;
0-45.=48q 91=;>1>?<-.N:=44
?/?1. 5.=q ,1>2..S C191?1S81D1 >81-1B
513=1
`w ` >4=D;2b-=<Ka D151B
E
?1>012qN1?:8q>b D15181047.>91S 4=?:-4:=8=1>8qJ

21D4S 0:-< E>5 ?` 8.1-.5;

/19:N:8.2q>8?1 817=1>84 81` ` 3.=:>:51.F
> ` h /2b >4=D;2b-=<K D15121D4S
`

E . :04 .5 817=;J 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 0:-< EA ∪

FR 8
F → EA ∪ F → EA ∪ F→ E F

E

8 ! >
/.>q E F F H E F H I601>912q9; 91=;> >8bD4?:.5 ` =:7486

−
H F 0-4 >8:G8>b ?1>012qN1?:8q>b N:B

!
> `
>
EA ∪ ` ` ` ∼ EA ∪

/:7.S
−

8

1D/:,-4 H I ;8?.-3/.=4.
F 17.?4/=16
F >1D2:>=101 aN:/:7.
815; C;/.5 >748:8q6 781
01>912q9;
` w H ` ` `
E :

91502.9>
>

EA ∼ A EA∪ ∪ ∼ EA ∪ F H A `
>8bD4?:.5

8

H/:==15;
I6 N:59=;81 .86 =. ?.-=1
81 `
5=13.>8?1=13.>8?1 @ ⊂ R 6 N:/:==1.
D15.151-M=1 5=13.>8?;;-:?=.=4.5
L 6 H
N:B

`
E E
H
;-:?=.=4.5
5=13.>8?1 =. b?2b.8>b N:59=;8<5 `

H I 4 =.-:?.=>8?15
H

⊂R
` 81 H
?
>
H −
>
,-./>8:?45 69:9H I
6 D/.
: H2JC<. O
>518-45 5=13.>8?:
>
64 -:>B4=
?.-
> 8 > 8 8 >
` a 815 S 6 N?.N/:
E . .
=:8b=;8 >4502.9> ,-4

` u ` l
8 8 8
8 8
a 81D1 >4502.9>: h 1=: b?2b.8>b >8bD4?:.5<5 5=13.>8?15

8 8 F I >
C C

? N:/:7. `-;00<
E :

91D15121D4S 5=1D11C-:N4b L E /2bF -:>>21.=4b
` ` :04 .5 01>2./1?:8.2q=1>8q 4N4=:

?<74>2.=<

8
LE F −−→H 6 E H I6F 4 C;/.5 H4/846 > 91= H: Ì6,1>2./1?:8.2q=1

C
012;745

H

8
,1>2.

81D1
%

513=1

>
8
?1>012qN1?:8q>b ``` 6 H,;BI6

?
/?1S>8?.==1>8qJ

? >
` a

? Z −
Z − −
:=9:-.Z` k⊕481D.

Z
012;7456 781 /2b I 6 6
 .>24 7G8=16 6H h G
F H Z ⊕ Z .>24 H h
8
E
F 
 Z G G
I .>24 =.7G8=1
8 8
% G
 8
G
HH H :FH I 41D2:>=1
E : .
>7

H
8.1-.5. k;,1 815;
?
` a
H .>24 6 H H H 6 H``Ì66 81 HH
> > ? ?

> F >
`
F > F F > > F >
−
CF 6 81>24 H IH0-4 H H,1I6 815; 81 H H I H0-4 H I ` .>24 H 424

F F > F >

` a `
> F > F
G

G G G
=;2.?<. ,15451 -:N5.-=1>8.S

D15121D44 4 91D15121D44 I 424 q 5=1D11C-:N4.
? -:N5.-=1>84 45..8 =.B F
h 9-;7.=4b
E : :
G
5=1D11C-:N4.
2:>>: k;45.==16 =. 45..8 `
45..8 ./4=>8?.==;J
F
91501=.=8; 0121348.2q=1S -:N5.-B

G
=1>8469
>=16 781 ?F
?F

`
F
,-4H a 815
?F
>1D2:>=1
N:/:7.
4 ` ` H H`
?F F ?F
?F
F
?F
H>8?15

h
?F
?F
h
?F 8 ` ,1 a 815;
?F
F
8
H E/2bH?>.K

i?F
i

h
92:>>
012=1>8qJ i
10-./.2b.8>b
h
8
F ` k 7:>8=1>846 H IF 81D/:
?F
?F
-:?.=B
i
8
4 812q91
81D/:6

:>>518-45

91D/:

8.0.-q
?F
?F
92:>>
?F
I
91D15121D4S/2b ?>.K =:/ 5;E hZ `

.>8.>8?.==<5
?F ?F
?F
F
`
?
∈ ?F
1C-:N15
9:3/1S

513=1
.04 >101>8:?48q
0-4?1/48>b 01 92:>>
51/;2J 91D15121D4S
F 4>21
Z
=:/ Z EN=:7.=4. 7G8=1 =: ?F

`
?
?F ?F 8 F
81D/: 4 812q91 81D/:6 91D/: H I ` h

?F

?F i

81>81-1=<6.>24
F H:9 019:N<?:.8 /19:N:8.2q>8?1 601 8.1-.5< ` ` F H6 .>24
815; I H 6
/-;D1S
F
ER 5=1D11C-:N4. ?213.=1a ? R 681ER E 6 F H` I ` w:945

E : E 9
? >
> 7
− F −
1C-:N156 .>24 H 6 81 R =.2qNb ?21348q ? R `

F
F ? >
−
>8:?2.=4b ,;>8q
81D1 H Z 513=1
51/;2b ⊕Z `
?Nb8q k 9:7.>8?. 5:8-4
/4:D1=:2q=;J
5:8-4 < ; 0-./BH
a

⊕ % C
H9181-<S
ed E -:?.= F ` /.:2 EH 01-13/G= 10-./.248.2.5 a 81S 5:8-4 <6

| |`
>8 8F >

> F
%
2b=: -:>>5:8-4?:.51D1 ;N2: 513=1 ?<C-:8q 4 817=1
· ·
8:9 3.6
9-G>819 9:9
. 5
=: 815 -4> ` `
-4>;=9. ` E ;3=1
=: 8-4 812q91 N:5.=48q
0.-.9-G>89:6 >:5<S
9:9 =43=4S
8.0.-q ; =:> 0.-.B 6
>
6
?
5.=b.8>b 24a q91a MM4 4.=8 N: .02.=4b E F h 8.0.-q 1= -:?.=

`F NB` ?8 ?

,1 a 815; H I − 4 0124=15 2.9>:=/.-: -:?.= E − F

6 6

?

H − `

?

:F k<C.-.5 4 6 9:9 019:N:=1 =:-4> ` " ` .>213=1 0-1B

: > ?
?.-48q6 781 81D/: 5:8-4 : .SM.-8: -:?=: 6

O

` ,1a 815;
6
> #

0124=15 2.9>:=/.-: -:?.=

?
−
E O O FE − F
? ?
# #

4> ` " ` k<C1- 4

6
>
6
?
CF 0124=15
>2;7:. >24 H − 2.9>:=/.-:
6 H " 4 O H-:?.=6 81 O O H − ` =:7486 ? a 815
`
# # #

019:N:=1 4:D-:55;
=: -4> N:1D/:
.02.=4b
N: H 513=1 0-./>8:?48q 8:96 9:9
.02.=4b 4 4N1810=<6 01 a 815;
` `w
E 5
H 6 : N=:7486 H H I`

−
∇ ∇ − ∇ ∇ − ∇ −
4> ` ` 4:D-:55< 8-GK N: .02.=4S

5
,1 a6815; .D91;8?.-3/.=4.

.>24
0-1?.-48q6 N:/:74
781 E?.-=1
F H /2bE /?;K
F H 4NE 8-GK
F ± N:E-4>.02.=4S
` F`
4 6 81 1=1 ?.-=1 4 /2b 8-.8q.D1 N: .02.=4b ` 2b 8-4?4:2qB

−

=1D1
0124=15B91501=.=8=1D1

1=?.b =;2.?1SF6N: 01.02.=4b

;8?.-3/.=4. ?.-=1 E.>24N: .02.=4b
6 81 5
a 815; 1=1 ?.-=1 4 /2b 2JC1D1 `

−

9
4> ` ` ,-1?.-9: -:?.=>8?: E F H E F H E F ±

−

F
>=16 781 F H ∇ EIF678101 a 815; F H4N >118=1
F H E F >2./;.86

F`
.=4b
.=bb
840<
∇ E 0.-.9-G>891?6
− ∇ E ∇ E N: .02.=4. 513=1 E 0-.?-:848q
2JC1. E ? 8-4?4B
:2q=1. N: .02.=4. > 8.58-4?4:2q=1.

3. >:5<5N: 74>215 91501=.=8F ` ,1a 815;3.
−
−

F H F6 D/. E .02.=4.6 45.Jc.. >812q91

E E >912q91 ; l` 2b 8-4?4:2q=1D1 ;N2: H 6 : 0-4 /2b

91501=.=86

0 0
8-4?4:2q=1D1 B91501=.=8=1D1 N: .02.=4b H I `

5

I
D1/;9` 44>=16 ,-45.=45

781 F HEI F0-4>4=/;9

E F
4J 016 01 E815;
F

F ` ,-4>1D2:>=1

E F H /19:N<?:8q =.7.B
a ` 2./1?:8.2q=160-./01213.=4J

FH
4=B
F6

E F E 0.-.9-G>891?62JC1. E .02.=4. E513B

−
0-4 N5.=bb 840< N:
±
`
7
E

−
=1,-40-.?-:848q ? 8-4?4:2q=1. N:5.=b.5
.02.=4. >F 8.50-4 3. 74>215 91501=.=8 `
± −

−
8:94K 4N5.=.=4bK 5< =. F 6 01 a 815;
±

E F H I 0-4 E F − `

E
E −

,;>8q 40.-.9-G>89.
7G51D/:=: ?</.2.==15

l /?;K91501=.=8=<.
0-4>;8>8?;J8 N: .02.=4b6
1C. 91501=.=8< 0-4B
``

;N.26 01 815; F H >1D2:>=1 N:/:7. :F

−
w2./1?:8.2q=16 a
l E F − E FE H E F H ` >=1 8:93.6 781 ` `

E F − N:E.02.=4. F H ` .=bb 840< 0.-.9-G>891?6 2JC1. /?;KB

> >
7
91501=.=8=1. 513=1 0-.?-:848q2b? =.D1 /?;K91501=.=8=1. N:BH

−
> 8 ? > 8 ?
.02.=4. > =.N: .02.==<54 91501=.=8:54

−
-:?.=>8?1
` F H I 4 EF H I F
−
H=:7486 F ?.-=16 01>912q9; ? a 815 >2;7:.

5 >
E a 81 -:?.=>8?1 ?.-=1 /2b 2JC1D1 /?;K91501=.=8=1D1

>8 ?
E E N: .02.B > >8 ?
=4b `

N >118=1 .=4b F F H F >2./;.86 781

∇ E − ∇ E ∇ E N: .02.=4.6 81
F FH F ` >24 /?;K91501=.=8=1.

?
> EE F H− EE F >1D2:>=1

?
>−
8 ?
>
E N:/:7. l` ` `

−

H/; 4-1?:==1. ,-4 /19:N:8.2q>8?. 8.1-.5< ` `" C<2181 2JC1.

E F ` >24 -:>>21.=4. 8-4?4:2q=16
:

019:N:=16781 H
-:>>21.=4.6
4=B

∗
4N =.D16 813. 8-4?4:2q=1 `

:F .S>8?4. a2.5.=8: =: @ N:/:G8>b M1-5;21S

E 5
F 7→ E F

,-4 8:915 /.S>8?44 E

8
Bb D-:=qF H6 9181-:b

8
N:/:G8>b ;-:?=.=4.5 H I6

8

8

8

8

=.01/?43=: ,1
` a E− 815; I6 : N=:7486

H Y E − F X E− F H I

CF :>>518-456 D/. 6>=:7:2: >2;7:S H I ,;>8q H

``` 6 l .2<. 74>2:` ` w1D/:

>
>
−

FH E − F E − F F

E E
>
> > − 8
0191 a81D/:6
815; a2.5.=8
−
91D/: H2.348H ? b/-. H ;9:N:==1D1

H ` 181C-:3.=4b 81D/: 4 812qB
−
−
> >
−

:>>518-45
6 =1 8.0.-q >2;7:S
8.0.-q =. H 74>216
.21. ` ,;>8q:>=1?: 24=.S=:b H 915C4=: 4b 2.B
aH
>
>
5.=81? 6 6 6 > .2<54 91 MM4 4.=8:54 ,;>8q6 /:2..6

``` a `
−
>
H E − F HF HI >=1?: 9?4?:2.=8=1 815;6 781

> > C −
6 D/. HH H− H` :?.=>8?1

6 8 `. `
>
0
a
> 0 0> 0 − 0
E−

0 0> 0
FH E F
0

E
? >
> 0 −
H=:7486 HE F 4. -:>>;3/.=4b
6 D/. E − :=:21D47=<
F H I6 8 `. ` H
−
? >
F :2q=.S

E?F 45024 4:2q=<S 91502.9> @ =. 45..8 92.819 -:N5.-=1>84 `

`
− >
? >
> > > C − 5

6 01 a 815;
=:7486 ?
7
@B5.-=<.
F

.>8q D15121D44 @ >1?0:/:J8 > B5.-=<54

01/D-;00: 9:N:==<. 492:54

? ;>21B `

H `

E 9:9 -:N 4 1C-:N;J8

?44 N:/:74 2.5.=8< C:N4> 81S 01/D-;00< >=16

a a `

ZZ ∼ ZZ
781 .G -:=D -:?.=

D-;00< E@ F ` ,1Ea 815;

−
F F6
8
EE@ F −∼H Z Z ` ``. 1= >1?0:/:.8

>
-:=D15 ?>.S

>8?4J ,;>8q l" 0-14N?12q=<S

8.1-.5< H a
/2b 2.5.=8
=.9181-1SD-;00<
5:8-4 ` < 1D2:>=1 >2./B
,121345
H ` w1D/:` ` H ` `
. 7

>
H

H

%

H

! !"##+
$ %&
' ())*+,*- )- . +/012

3
! 4 !56"7 9.:*
*2 8 3> . ; *-< /=.
(
( ( '
' ' ?@A6B ' 9.:* . +; CD?

8 8"67
GG& H$ E+/01F +F F 0.
(
( (
8 4 #6L
I01F
(
?5 3 F :))*+,*-< ) J"57? #K
(
8 M 85?NN?# C "5O7)-
:))*+,*-
' P*+,*F
> F 2
( (
Q Q7+2 #6#?

RL#S6
TUVW+=1
XHMY 4 Z43 1*+F*-<
( '
Q " fk_aQ"@"O"5"B
mno^l pkq kekr a^ #6 J
\[]^_ à^ sbcdeXMHY
afd[f agZ>4hci]dc `^_ jkg]al d '
Q "4 ]aQ"@"O"5"B
j kgq djf^l wd[cg^m #6 J
tkgkekr a^_alsrXMHY
`^m ukg>Zq e^>xv^m cl` `^m eknde
'
Q 5 Q5"y@@ $ C" $ 9.:* . ; =+. ?5 H

@6L7 z I+F ?5 HH
(
? ?@7"5
{F |1 ?5 Hx
3M
?4?5
?@7"5
z# 6N
1 01 +11-
( (
" "*F65 .$

%7O"5 2
+01
?5 > < +

'
5 "@"B '' +F:*F +F x

( (
4 H5 "@"B '' :0 - +*2*2 +/-

(
(
M *-
'' z" ?7 ?L ! =+- =+*F
5 "@"B*/=F 1- < ( '
HZ4H
5 "@"B ' ' .<*1 , 2) #6 5" B XY

( (
$ $"S@?7
xZ44M' I 01 - R s B xZH X HY
(
z6 'z6557 $ @"677

K *+F*- +11+**-<
6 5" #57 #B

G& x3 Z1 *1 . ( (
z64 'z6557 $ @"677

K I6 01

- G& +11-
x3 4/+.-<
ZH4

5" #57 #B
(
zB zB?# E+/01F

+ 65 $ 3x +F

( ( '
z z 67A65 E+/01F +2 ?5

z# z#?75" {+F 1-< =.:*2 G& xM
(
z#4 L@67J65O

z#?75" 8GC& x3 z T1*.*F +/012 +
( '
z#M 3M
z#?75" #6L7
+01

z# z#"7O $ /:=. ?5 M

R? R?#7? I 01F F * .*F G& H>
( (
R y Ry@@
/=F< $ ())*+,*

?5 H 101+* * +1*-< *

( ( (
'
3

C C+.
C T//#6#?
**- )+-
) . .+* *
s V XHY HZM ( '
C 4 C"67"
3% C
! 1 012 +
(

( (
?5
C {+01
6J5S ?5 M :- . +/012
( '
4 A D"@@65
P11+**- 1 *1 . ?5 >
(
67A y7Z 67A +1*- */=F G& H

( (
g]^`àlr m dl` ag g^_maklm M

dlde mam mafcm h q _kki ki fo ^ al d_a sdln^XxY ki n^_fda 3Zxl nklmfdlf

m ki

4 d_dfakl fo ^k_^g
h q _kki dl` ^vf^lma kl ki Wfo ^X44Y MMMZM
k_`dl _kc ^_ m^q

! " # '
M U XMHY Zl fo4^ nkll^nfa af _alr ki dl d]mf_dnf mq dn^

$
d mc_i dn^ `^ k s X3HY 3xZ4HH

od_dnf^_a \lf^_mcnocl
mfaj r ^l c[]^_ cd`_df amno^s k_g^l X Y al 3ZH
u k[_q ^_l `^_
% % '
& ( ) "
*
+ , - .
lklmalr ce d_ nkg lq e^fof^^ alf^_m^nf

o^_l neakdlm mm^m dl` fo ^ ce^_ nod_dnf^_a fan ik_
mX3>Y
/ 0 1 23 4
5 5 6 7 $
MZ 3
/
8 4 U
kr hl ^vdgs XH4Y 4MZ4 q e^ ki dlkgdekcm ki malr ced_ okgke

9 9 : '
àg ^lmaklm c_ e^ fo ^k_s^g^XY x `^ k_`dl 4Zx `dlm e ^mq dn^ d

8
9 9;3 < = > ? @ AB ! C @D
4 s X4Y MZ44
lekkq alr nk^ na^lfm
, % 1
; E
9 9;3 < = $ F G

M Us X4Y Zx
\[]^_h]]ae`clr kl dllaridefarjâf^l
8 E
9 9;3 < = A
Us X4Y M>xZMM
9 9;3 < = " #

^ âm `^m l d_adl `^m àUWg X4Y xxKxH
H I D'

^lmaklde^l ^]âf^m
J
3x
x àg ^lmaklde^l wdcg
9 9;3 < = ^ âm `^m Usk_`dlmno^l
" # !
X4Y M ZMdf ^m i c[_ `^l
> I D'
H Us X4Y M4>ZM4
\[]^_ k_`dlmno^ dllaridefarjâf^l

9 9;3 < = ! A
U XH4Y MMKM
9 93 1 ) kndee df ^g]^`àlrm ki fkq kekr ande gdlai ke`m

cefaq eandfakl kl d nkge^v U XMHY H3ZH

E
dnf^_amfaKn ik_ nkgq e^f^ alkg^f^_m^nfagqakealndfgdlaaklmi keki`m fo ^ ce^_ kal nd_^ nod_

,
,
= A
, , 9 2; > ?
X Y Z3
'
8
WU hXl^ Y q _kki3>Z34 ki _k l m nkeed_alr fo ^k_^g

, ,' 1 # " # C 8
4 q _kq ^_fa^m B 7?O6

hl ^lcg^_df akql_k]eki ^jlkfgm amldl`d]mfe_aldnfjm dedl`r ^]_d mkg^ ki fo â_

, ,3'
X >Y 44Z4 kg q / cf B

82
M U X3MY xZ xM ulkfm dl` ealjm al mq dfade r _dq om

8 7
, ,3' :
,
X >Y 4HxZ4H3

h q _kki ki `^wodg m fo ^k_^g
:% '
,; ,; < ;2;
C (;

gkekr tê e f q ^ fo ^k_^gm UU X `^_a>Y M^ì_kg xZM3> ]dman malr ced_ ok
4
; = '
h magq e^ q _kki ski foXMY 3xHZ3x

^ k_`dl he^vdl`^_ nkgq e^g^lffo ^k_^g
'

!
X >Y 4MZ4x kokgkekr dl` nklfalckcm gdqq alr m s

'

= = 2 /
4 r _kc_m ki mqdn^m
wê dfaklm ]^f X^^lxY okgke3>Zx> kr dl` okgkfk

= = 2 < #
q
s Xx>Y x ZxMM
M 3Z hn nean gk`êm U XxMY

E
= = 2 < E
XxMY xxZ>H
E4
l fo ^ r _kcXxq m Y X ZM xMZxx
= = 2 < $

D

Y

3H
x U XxMY 4>>Z4>
= = 2
E
l q _k`cnfm ki nkgq e^v^m
$

nadf^` mqdn^m l q ^_a kàn gd q m dl` fo ÛWceXx4Y

( ('
= = $

^_ nod_dnf^_a M3Zmfanm ki dmmk

'
_alr _^^ à U^_^lfXxMY x

( ( 1 .
E
cecm b^_a dfakl al fo ^ i_^^ r _kcq
ade ndenZxH>

HB
4 4> _^^ à ^_^lfade ndencecm Xx Y HZ

( ( 1 . HH E
H ^nfc_^m kl der ^]_dan fkq kekr K

: : 2 )

7 9
4 nkokgkekr X
: :; % 6 1 / kll^nfaklm nc_ dfc_^ dl`K

Y K 4
* 1 2' + +

* ;

7
8
M nkokgkekr X kll^nfak lm nc_ dfc_^ dl`
: :; % 6 1 /
Y K
7
*
M
< 2;% %% ;

8

X34Y xZ>> kecg^ dl` ]kcl`^` nkokgkekr

: : * 8; = E
kl dlla ridec_fartkgke
: ' :'
A

jâf^l kr a^ po^k_a ^ `^m h]]a es`clXr ^l Y HZ4
, *
cl` dm^_clr ^l

.

her ^]_dan fkq kekr
4>>4
,
2 * 8
cljf^l \[]^_ ^lr ^l jkl ^v^_ u k[_Wq ^_X4MY
' =

A
;

6
gaf r^gâxZlmnodif
H eano^l
4 mnodifeano^l \[]^_cljf^l mf^g^ kl d] r ^mnoekmm^l^l ^lr ^lU XM>Y gaf r ^gâ43Zl

' = > A
M>4
'
;
8 'G
h nkc_m^ al okgkekr ande der ^]_d

8
%2
7
4 ba amakl der ^]_dm dl` fkq kekr B 7?O6 cg]^_m

5 ; (
%2

3
M q o d[_^ cl` alr ced_afd[f^l l dllaridefarjâf^l ^vkf amnoÛ

5 ;
( ' $ ' A
>
H3
> <; 7 E
\[]^_ X4x à^ 4HY M c_ dfc>ZMH_d alf^ r _d r ^mnoekmm^l^_ t q ^_ d[no^l

%2
%+ /
4 X4H^jfk_4 i Y 44xZ4x>ê`^_ al àg ^lmaklde^l dllaridefarjâf

E
%+ D A
M h l^ q _kkiski X43Y ZxMd kl al d_adlf q kalfm

î mno^f ik_gce

%+ # ) I 8
ucr ê d[no^ \[]^_ à^h]]ae`cls r ^lXMY HMZHHx

`^_ `_âàg ^lmaklde^l q o d[_^ dci à^
7

%+ >
x dci à^ àbag^^lmauedkmm^llde^l`^_qh]]ao d[_^ e`clr ^l `^_ àg^lmaklde ^XMMY MZ
l ke ^`^_

%+ D
x D > , * E
H bag ^lmak l^l \[]^_ à^ h]]ae`cl Wr ^lXMxY kl q4o d[Z_^l>dci q o d[_^l la^`_ar ^_

%+ > >
^_deer ^gâ \[]^_l ^_clà^r ^l pkq kekr a^ `^_ _cs qqX^l >Y 44Kx4
dllaridefar eâf^l cl` o_^
(;
E
%+ J A H
3 asl fkXq kekY 4Z4M r amno^_ âf_dr c_ _^ê^l her ^]_d

%+ " I ,
tkgkfkq aXMxY x4Zx43 ^ cl` tkgkekr a^r _cqq ^l K

*
; ;35 8 G

33 po^ okgkekr ki tkqi mq dn^m K K

4
1 7

4 >3 po^ kl d q ke lkgade W X3Y >Z

; < / # %2'
U XHY HxZHx
* $ 0 l mq od_^m al gdlai ke`m
8 7
4 UU XHMY x> ZxM _kcq m ki okgkfkq mq o^_^m

* J H
idefarjâf \[]^_ à^ X4MY HxZ3x ^ffamno^ doe^l âl ^_ _k`cjfg dllar

; ;
"

33
4 s\[]^_X4àY ^ pk_ma
; ;

4xZMkl doe^l kl _k`cjfg dllaridefarjâf^l
I
K l fo ^ fk q kekr kiXfo ^ ^Y ^lZàg4x^lmaklde nkgq e^v cd`_anm

< < ( $ -
8
ai ke`m lf^_m^nf aklm dl`f_dlmW iX4HY

< <+ 5 H
4
k_gdfakZlm ki nkgq e^v^m dl`gdl
4

< <+ 5 pkq kekr M>
7
M f k hl der ^]_da n nedmma ndfXakl>Y ki3xK3
< <*
# , * E
mkg^ jlkfm ki nkàg ^lmakl
gcefaq e^ q edl^m he^vdl`^_ q ke lkga
< < 2
;G de kiX34Y 3MMZ3x

q edl^ der ^]_dan nc_ ^m dl` n nean
4
< hl alf_k`cnfakl fk jlkf fo ^k_
<G 9 %2
X Y HM ZHM h lkf^ kl ^vdnf m^ c^ln^m
: - 8
4 X4Y \[]^_ Zd]mf4 4Z4x3

_djf^ pkq kekr a^

' + + ;
;
8 'G
mc_i dn^m w^q _^m^lfalr okgke

'
8 s Xkr HY nedmm^m3Z34
ki nekm^` k_a^lfd]e^
XxHY M>Z MHklmf_cnfakl ki cla ^_mde ]clè^m
/ HH
4 l fo ^ ag g^_ma

$
, *
klm kixZ43gdla i ke`m al X Y mq dn^

XxHY 4 D D
M l magq e x3 44K43gdlai ke`m K

$
2 2
&
nkll^nf^` ' % %
fad]e^ gdla i ke `hm q _kn^`c_îk_

jae alr fo ôkgkfk

q r _kc q m ki à H
^_^l
MZxx

' % 8;
x an_k]clè^m
A s XH Y xMZ3
H %2' ;%%
H

pkq kekr ki a^ r _kcq m
;
)
3
_kgk m lk_g dlàgq e_kgk

; ;G an^m kim gdvaq _kkig deki keckmfkg^ alm o_arqa^_]ke
>
` a f anfo m^k_^g
q dn^
ikeek alr poc_mfkl
J C J C
U X3>Y >Z4
A #C
4 e^g^lfm ki der ^]_dan fkq kekr Z 3

# <; 7 44
k_a^ h]eâfclr `^_ e^g^lfd_fâ e^_fo ^k_a ^ X4HY

; ;G 1
'
dcm `^_ > _c qq ^lfo ^

7 7 = J
Xx3Y Hx3ZHH3
kl d]êadl nkokgkekr dl` dl udgq ^l m fo ^k_^g
; 6
; 8 C
gdqq alr m l fo ^ î mno^f lcg]^_X ik_HY af^_df^m

4
8 82 $ ) I
Z ki nklfalckcm
Xx3Y ZM> l^ cdeafa^m ki n_afande q kalffo ^k_
8 E
8 8 = H - 9;

edmm^m `^ o^_l X 3Y xK x
Xc_e Ydldes mamXMY
8 8 /
& ; E4
mafcm `^mxK4>d_a^f^m d àg ^lmakl
/
1 1 : > C ?? D
4M l f_dlmlk_gde gdlai ke`m XH Y Z

8; %%
1 1 $ %2'
4 hl alf_k`cnfakl fk der ^]_dan fkq kekr 33

l kal nd_^ `cdeaf s XHxY M4MZMMH
1 1 %2
4
$
l `^ wodg m fo ^k_^g XH Y 4 K M4
?
X HY H hnZH3nean gk`êm dl` ^vnamakl

$ C %2'

1 8 E
dn dl^ K kokgke kr a^ gk`ce kWU XxMY

8 / `^m nkg3Zq e^4M4v^m ` ce^l]^_r
0 C
4>>>
A ) , *
% 9 / kgq kmafakl ki cd`_dfan ik_gm - 9 7
4 K h nkg]asl dfk_a î mno^f v^` q kalfik_gced K

:;'

X4Y de 4MZ4 ) I ,
Z ^nfc_^m klXHê^Yg^lfd_ fkq kekr dl` r ^kg^f_

'
2 % )
( , :*3
>
XM3Y 4 ZH p_dlm

8
i k_gdfaklm ki laf^ q ^_ak` HB
am q d_deeêa d]e ^h amok_f

% = 9
i kl^ dl`ki fêo ^g^g^lfd_
a m q _kki fo df d q _k`cnf
k``

ki mq o^_^m
s
XH Y x >Zx
I 8 4
4 X Y 4>ZM4>

7 =
4
_k`cnfm ki nkn ne^m dl` ^vf^lmakl ki gdqq alrm

M X Y x Z33
kokgkekr al d_adlfm ki gdqq alrm

7 = / E
q k ^_ kq ^_df aklm tkgke kr r _kcq m ki m gg^fXxMY 4MZ44M

7 =
#

8 7

_an r _kcq m dl` _^`cn^`
x kokgke

7 = /
, *
akl `^_a ^ì_kg m gg^f_an r _kcq
s Xxkr kY q ^_dfxZ43
H wanofclrmi ê`XMHY MZx

+ =
, *
^_ cl` ^_lq d_deeêamgcm al dllaridefarjâf
4
. A
\[]^_s XwanofY 4>Z43

+ =
*
clr mi ê`^_ al `^l q _k ^jfa ^l w d[cg^l ,
U X Y 4HZMM4 l laf^mag de nkgq cfdfaklm al fkq kekr

; ;* H 8; =

mq dn^m ]_^mXx4Y
1
&
= 7 ;%
?
>Z3^f nd__^m `^ f^^l_k`
^l mq o^_^m ? >
4 f_adlr ce^^m ^m nedmm^m nod_dnf

^_amfa c^m `^ klf _ dr al x3 x `^m d_aZH^f^m

1 ) ? - ??
? '% %2 2
&
M 3 po^ r ^kg^f_ dl` fkq kekr ki gdlai ke`m

; 8
tkgkekr fo ^k_
6 6G 7
8 M
4 q e^v^ \[]^_ à^ tkgkekr a^r _cqq ^l `^_U XM>Y
6 6 <
+ + ;
;
8 'G
^_âlar clxZH4
r â^_ ukg I#
l q da_m skiXlklaxY lf^_m^nf

8 < $
8 E M3Z al>r idn^m ki nêe nkgq e^v^m

4 po^s okgke
2 , kr r _kcq m ki fo ^ ]_^ ]clè^m k ^_ d mq o^_^
X Y MMZM3
X Y tamfk_ ki fktaqmkefk_kr ki okgkekr ande der ^]_d XY

B 7?O6 Z3MH
;G
,
c_ xe^m fo ^k_^gm `^ `^ wodg W

=*
4 Xx4Y Z

> , *
M ssW X3xY
e ^_ m ik_gce
4>Z d4dl` aljk mja m fo ^k_^g

2 $ C A # C <;
4 H4Z H3 q o^_^ mq dn^m Ws XMxY

7
' > 8 7

M XM po^Y xZxx gdq m ki dl nkgq e^v alfk dl mq o^_^

' D D ;G
M4 l q _k`cnfm al d nkgq e^v XM3Y M Z

' $
xmq dn^ po^ mêiXalf^_m^nf Y 44>K4aklmHki d mgkkfo gdlai ke` al 4

' D D
H Y mq dn^ po^ mêi alf^_m^nfX akY 4lm ki Z4M

d mgkkfo gdlai ke` al X4
E
' D D
K W Xx>Y x>3Zx
edmm^m nd_dnf^_amfa c^m ^f nd__^m ` cl^ d_a^f^
E
; ; ;
/ ? - ? C ??, 1

! $
"# ">
H"/" F
/&%&%# ($ $(
'*%""#
%"%&
%"%& $()&+ ,( H"/"
H"/"
H"/"
/")<)<

)<6 & "
-" .% /" 0 5"!
H"/" I&%" (-" /&
2342341 5&/
5&/ 6%%&%#

H"/"CJ%
%&%# )$% / ""#"
H"/"CD
6
274274 5&/ ,080%" """!"! / )8-<
""#" )8
% &%# 0)5&/ "-- "! %/ )8-< ""#"
:9 ;& &"% "% ! )<, HB" H"/"CD
=">&" "&>/" - HB"B&"&")0("%5"!
"% &"/"% )0<?
"" "" &5" )68()8(( HB"
HB" &" "%5"
%" )0( )0<
&5"
%" "&"%
<< ()8(( %" "!
"%"! &"
08)$ ? )(
"" "" "5% ()8(( "!"! ?
? / )$ ! "#
%?% ()8((
"""%A% ?BCD /@/ % 6( " "!
?,B% 6
"() .% /"CE>"
">" FGB"(( ()) >"5>"5K /
&>/ )-, ">&
">"
">" GB" &5" ()) % - % ? )0(
>"5>?
">" ?
>"+ (6 % & "# % )-< ! ? "
4
M
>?
%"%& -) 5& 5 " /&"%#%# )$(
>> %% &"%>"+
? ""%") B" (0 > ? >"5

<( BB! "#"B"

">&@ "/"/

> +/ (
)<%>"+ & "
"/"/ BB! )(0 "#"B"
,-%" B 5 ,8 <8 "
"/" % )(0 )($
"!

#!" $0 "/ &%
B 5 "<) <

$ %" 60 #!"
%?
% %#-8-(
"CD"" 5"%
&/ )$ %

<- "# ;BB

&%
5"! $)"
&&%

%
! %" <0 ! "# )
(, & &" "%

!)(
&%
&% "
" "/
< <
" ?"
- /&"%#
&%
00 " " ?
%# " - /&"%#
&%"
6, ?"
%# % , <8
&%
<) " % & "#
?" B"
? . %"
&%
&% "%
<(
5B 6
?? /" % &
<) " %"> #
&%
<<? ! )
;& &"% 0;& &"%
&%"
B 5 %" ,8 <8
<) *%""# ,(
&+ ,-
B 55 "& ??" )6)

&+
&+)
%""# ? ,( B
B 55 " ? ))
B /?&

&% )$<$$86 B 5"&5&" -8<

"
%" ")$< " )68()8(( %
% !" " ()8((
<8)- <(

&5" % &%

&5" 5B 5 ( % % & " 5"! "

"!" )<( // BB!

"#"B""/"
?
"
"&"!"?""
B 5 ) / )(0%"BB! "#"B"5"
" / " <)(< / BB! ), "#" B"
" ;BB- ! %& ()8(( "#" )(,8)(0

"
" "F ((@ - / ),BB! "#" B" %?"
"
" #!

/ ?"08),-(< /%
/"# +%&
" A% ,- %
BCD
&
! 0)
"
-
)<% %# %%& >"5&" 6
%%&%# 5&/

), &/

6 234
), . %" ? %%&%#"&A%
D % 0$ BC

6 ?"B 5 )6

& 5"%" B" ),! % <8$<
& ?" %" ($ 5"! ;BB

/&" %?""
)6 $, B%"
B%" "% !" )-< )-,
&@%#
B%"
B%" 5B")<))--

/&%&
/&%&%# H"/" $(

/&%&%#
J% " )$J"" <$ H"/"C
/&%&%#
/&%&%# J"" ,$

H"/" )<)-6
/"/" ;%"
"#
// """" ;BB ! %"
),! "#" 5B
5B 55 &5"
FB !" $)(
%"
)- &>/

5B
5B? 55@ >"5
FB !" / 6,%

/%& "/% )8($

/%& ;BB%
! &"#-$ 5B
5B 5 J"" -6
/%&
/""?"&" (< <, 5B /5J""/
"" ))<
5J""/%
? 5@ >"5 00%

/ 8--

""#" " "! )8 5B "
/ H"/"CD
""#" %")8-<"! % 5" 0))
5B
x
5B
&" <)"% HB"&% " "% ?J%
$6 " @""%
&"B"%)0(HB"5"! &"/"% )0<? "% @""%
%? " $6 % ? J
B%-8-
&"
&" HB" 5"< )0<
"%"% GB" &"
"% "> F 6($
&"
&" "%%#
"%%# "
>"%(< (<
/ %"%
"" ), &
/? -0 )6( <(8) "%

/"?
/! &" " <(
% <( "# ;B
%"B>"5
?))%&" 5#&%"
" ), (,
B ! %" <0 (

@" )-8),
)<% %#

I""CD"%@/"
" 00? &%

%" <$" ), ?" "! -,

" ?B"%>"+ $
%"# ?-- " B/"
I"%""
""%# 0
" )$
& ?
) +
"%
"% 0
?" / 6 )0) "
"

!"! )<B" (
&"/"%
&"/"% B"
?"B""/ "/ & " ? B 5 )-
I&"CH"/"
+/"
&"/"% )0)
.% /" <
Z
Z + ,0%& ()
"
"
" )$<
" 08)$ - #!"
#! $008),-
&

%"% )6(,

" B/"%"#

%"%

"@""%
, % ? " %"% &%@ )<
"66 @""% % ? +
! -
B "! $0
">"5+ $0 &%"

">"5 A% 0(BCD %

6, >"5 A%

" ;&A% ,0BCD % % B 60 ),
I&
"&
%&%# 0$ ?
%"&"+/ "%B%
/#6)-,
H
(, -

"
&" "
/ & 58 ($0"!
" @ "
%"% &%# - 274 5"5&, %"%& >?
5&/ () 0) -)%" <,

+
B!"# +%& )( % "#"
<()(8)- "%
""C
%#%# #%)8)6" /&"
!#
!# % %#"" (-),

""C

%#%# #%/" /&"

/
!# "5
!! %"% ?"
)< & <(

""
""C

)0#%/" /&"
%#%# /

!%"% &

<( ?
""

"%
))$ #% " /&" %
;BB
;BB !! %%&5"!
" ()8((
<8 $< ""C

%#%# % %#" ))8

/
"" @&", "%%#" (<-

(

"" "# % (5&/ $,

?
II %"

<$%" ( "% %
!"!"/%"&
B%" )-< )-0
"%

%"%"/%
@ -, %# "

" ""%#
)$ )$
I @%"%" --/

)$" ;& &"%

I -,%" %" % %#"

"
& %"%"($, -
#!"

$

&& &" "%" B" (0 >"5 > ?

&" "%
(, /+ )(6 &% <(
>"5 "" 5
"
" J"" ))( $( <)8)$08($<
>"5 ?% "" 5
FCG
FBFB !"!" 5B " %" 55 /$) %
>"5 ,(
5B 5 6 %">%#?
""

>"5
FBFB ?!"!" ?%"
@ >"5 6,

,- " % 6(
">"(((( ,(
FF " >"5
>"5 A%A% B
B ,

60

>"5
>"5 A>%"
&5" 6 ($(
" & ? <)
>"5 "%" )( >"%
+%& /% ,- >>(( "&"%"%%# (<

+%&
+%& B""&
"# )())

>"5 " %0?" (

/
/ 6 ? )$
"! >> % "%
B
! "# <)5 )

/#
/# ?
&>/ +/
)-, )-, " ?
"!
<0%"! ?"
-,

/ >"5 )-, -

" "&%&"
B" %"%&
5 0 -6 " %"

>"5
%"! %
,- ?
"/% 5B 5 )8($ >"5

%"! %
" ?
6-
"%
)-< >? ! ? >"5
% &" ,-% ?
""&"
)) %" ">&@ %%
"
% ,<?
""&
&+/" +%&&"/"%)) ?"
B" "/ )0)> % >"5
%
>"5
,-% ?
!#
"), 6(
&+/
>"+ )<&"" "&5" % %#"
%%#%#"""C /&"%#
#% " ))8
Z
%"%
<< &" /&"%# (
%-, %#" %" I %"

%"%
%# ""C& #% " << % %#" !#( (

%"%
<(8) & !

% %#
% ),%#
%"%
?&<( ! <( %>"+
%"%
"# (6"">" ? $)%
&%>"+
%%!"%#
"
- " - ! ,< %>"+
%>"+ ;&!&"-"% $

"&%&"
" &" <)
" 5"% (

"#"

%# + ""

5 >"5
<)8)$08($<
($(
%# ! , "6;&"@""% % ",)8
3
?
?
/ ($-0 ?%>"5 "" ,( 5
?
@/"B! B" ))8)$0 "&
/ &""%")) B" (0
&@%#
/ ?"B%" "(<)-, /?&
/? B 5 )
)
+
+

"#" )6%# /?
/%"& %
"% !" ))-0
($( H"/" )<& " >"5&"
>"5&" %%&
! )0$ 6
H"/" %%& ((/+ ?

5"! I&
I& )<6),
"#""
/ BB!)(0"#
%%&
&/&/ ,$ )$

" B"

"B""#"" / BB!)(,"# ), % &"& ?

)<- ?

"A% ? BCD ($ % 0 " &<<5"! &% "
J%
% ? " $6" @""% %
&" $)5#&%" (,
J%
/&"%#%#" %" 0,5 " )$( %
5&/)- ">&@
/&"%#%#
#% " )8)6

""C 5&/($ %5 ">&@
/&"%#%# ""C

#% " / / %"%& "" -6 -

"" )0 %"%& %

%"%& E>"C

/&"%#%# ""C

#% " / / "" -

"" "% % " " 5&/

">&@ )(

))$ ">&@

/&"%#%# ""C&" )- 5&/ &%@

#%
<< " %"%

"/ <-))
/&"%#%# ""C))8

#%
( " % %#"

J""
J"" /&%&%#
/&%&%# <$
/&"%#%# " %?" "# 5B ;BB 5! %" ,$

-
/&"%#%# . %"%?" J""
J"" 5B -6
5/
6
/ "" ))<
%B /? 5)<) J""
? @5B >"55 /%
00

J"""
J"" %" ))()6 ? &" )<-
?
?8?)"!)( &" / "? %?"
/)6)6(
"?

?8)( +/ /?

&>/"
&>/" ">&" "">&
5#&%" -
&>/ ()/%&
"5>"5 ?" ?""!#6) (- &>/
?&>/ //#
),BB!)-, "#
"5%
"

"F (-" ()8(( &>/ B% 6 -
"
" &%
&% < <
"/ &>/
&5" !
">">"5
GB" ()) ($(
"
" /&%&
/! $,<(
&" &5"
&5&" " B 5 -8<
"
"
%
% ,<,< ?
?

)(
& <) <)
"
) %% ?
"%" "
( (8 )(
"
" +
GB" $,
< "%"
#"%"D >"5
"%"8%"%"&+ -
"
&"58"! ($0&%&"5B
/

@ )6 ))

<) &% %"> #

"
;& &"% 0 &"% "
% " !">"5 )0(
?
)- ! "#" %" / ""
" &%;&
<) @""% % ? !! "# /%& $)

" "#

""
%#%#
, %?" /&"
" !! "#
"#
$"!
"
+ ),%>"+ )6 $) ?! "#
, > <)

(-

)((

5#&%" ;%
% &"&" (,(,
(-))
;%
5#&%"
5#&%" %
&>/" ">& %"
&" ">&@
)) ""

% )) () %"
<0 %"! "
x>>
?
.6%" &"
"?<, %"
-, I %" % %#"
%" FCG ,-" $(

.. %"%"%?"/&"%#%#
%" %"
%" FB " !"
($, -
6 %& ; %" &

"&" %" &% 6/ "/ @

%& ) " $, %" &%

+
%">>"5#"" 5 >"5
%" &5" $$ )<
6

%">#";& &"% &% %"

%" >!
"! %
?@ <
/@
%# %>"+ 0 - )$ ?@ %@
%">"!
.%.% /" - " 0 0 5B 5FB !"
.%()/" &"/"% < "
/"CE>" %">
$) > &" "%% >"
%"

.%""
" %"">&@)) )( % (<J% " 0,
%"
"
" &5"
D % >"5 ($(
<- %"
%" J""
. %" )6
B" ?" <8 %"
%" .%"! )0$))
%5
($ 5&/ ">&@ %"
%"

"" )$- "% -
%" D % &+ @ #

%5
& 5&/ !@ " )6

%"
%" H"/"
HB" )0( (- %"
%" G
GB" (68-$
($<8()-
%"
%" "CD""
)$< 60 %"
%" GB"CD
A% B % (0
)$0
%" &/&%&%
?" ($ D % %" A%E>"
BCGB" )<

%" %" (-

0) / "" )($ %"E>"C #>" --

%" !! >"5&"

)0$
%" / "" ! "#" "" %" )0$5 0

)- 5B

%" I""CD"%@/" <$ "" " 08)$

%"
%"I I %" (
%"/% %#

%"
%" )$- "% -
@ -, " B" )$->"5 " (

%" I %" --/ % ?"

@
% ? >"5
x>
%"!? ,- >"5
% DD %% " %" <- /&%&%
"
6- B/"%"# " D "0)% )6%" &+ @ #
% ? >"5
B/"%"# " ,- DD %% B"
% )6, 0$
%
% ?
&" >"5
,- +

() ?
%
% ?
,->"5 +
& ) I&"C
%
" ?%
>"56( +
H"/"
&"#@(, ,0 ;BB ! %&

%% (-" "# ( B

%%"#
%?" !)6 ,6
/&" /?
,6 !
%?" "?
"?"- /&"
%?"%#%# )6
%?"""C #%/&"%#%#

" >? &" "%"
B" ), (0
" ) " B" B%"?")-- "/ )0)

%?"- /&"%#%#

B"
B"

&"/"%
&?&" "%" (0
%?"/&"%#%#
%?"/&"%#%#
" ), " B"
B" 8)$0
Z
"&I"%""&" 0"%" (0

. %"

6 B"
B" " ! (
%?"
%?% B"" "), ()8(( B"
B" " )$-
D%&"#@
0$ ;BB
%"&"#%# 6- ,(

%""# &+ B

! %& (, " -
%"B
%% &"! , "/" )($ B/"%"#
B/"%"# " %
%" 5"!<( " B/"%"#
? >"5 " ,-
%
% & "#
<) &% " ?
6- >"5 "
%%#%#
, ?"/&" B/"%"#
" -- ?
%
% D % )6,5&/ " $,
B%
B% "! "%
&" ? 66

B%
B% %"&"
&>/ "% 6
6
5 B%" )<)
B! @/" ))
x>4
@""% %% ";&" <68 ),)8 ! ? )

@""% ";&"" @"
6 % ? " J +66 @""% %)-8), ? "

@""%
% "%$6? "

@""% +
@""%>"5
% ? "

A% BCD
/@/ % 8 " "% ?
6( ?? " FB%% !") ,( $0

@""%
, % ? "" ? A% BCD % 0<

@""%
66 % ? " +
@""% % ?>"5
" +$0 A%A% B >"5
,

B >"5

@""% % ?% ,( " A%A%B60 %" )$0

A%
@""% BCD
% ? " ; BCD 0(% "
G & ,0
%" (68-$ >"5
A%% BCD % "8" "
GB"
GB" ">"
&" ())<
"% ?
A% BCD /@/ 6(
%,( @""% % ?
GB"
GB" "
%" <
($<8()-
A% BCD " %/"#
@""%0) % ?
GB"CD % %" (0
A% BCD " %@""% % ?
!%" 5"% ( % <-
A%A% BCD " % ?%" 0
0<)<
!!"5"%
% <8)- A>%"BCGB"

!
! %>"+
- - %&>"5
" () 6
! % !"%#

! -
&>/ -,6

E>"
E>"C %"
#>" (-%" --
!
! %%"#
/? E>"C
%& -

"" %"
,6 ;& "@""%,0 % " <68)

!@&%5 ;&"
!#!#5&/
)% %#"
;&"@""%
6 % "" ,)8
!! )? "%( >? ;&&"%
<) &% "
;&)$&"% "
)-<
x>M
;&;%"/
&" "% %>"+ % $
""

;%
(( (-

;%
;%" /" (-
)-6
;BB% & /%& -

2005 Prasolov V.V., Eliemienty - (2005) (PDF) Russkii PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2005 Prasolov V.V., Eliemienty - (2005) (PDF) Russkii PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

  

       

&'% % % ( &' ( $) $ %%

% , &% , % 4 3 1 5 3 ) 5 ' ( 1 1 ' 7,

%% 77 7, ABCG *DEF * 1 = ) ><< .

,, %%% ,% 444 5 ' -*'5'< :3 %,I%7,

,, ,, , H)' ( 5 3) ' .' ( 1 5 '' )' ) . 5

)) 5 5 5 ( '<< ( . 1 ' '(  9) 9+H9&  @

' (5 5= ( 53 3 ' 3 ( = 35 5 = '= )* =@

5' 3 ) ' H '; ( = ) ) ''' . 3 1 ?*= 5= )(5) '5 *@

' 4(). = 1 =( ) ? 3 * )( )5? ( 35 1 ( ) *?( *5 5 =(1)5 ( 5@@

*( ?5 = ''5 > ' =* (( )3 ? ) = 1 ' 1?* ? (* 5 ) * )*@@

5??() > ) ( ) ? 1 ' (8  1

' (=1 ( ) ' ) = ) 3 ) 3' )(== () 3 ? * @@

.L * 5  '5' () 5 5 )5= (* 5 ) ( ' = (5' @@

) ( J  ) 5 ) 5 =(8 J( '( (=) 5??( ) ' 5 ) ( @@

5. (1 5 ) ()*' = )) ? ) ' *). 5 (5 J ' ?? 31 1 '(8 @@

< 5 * () )( ?5 3 5 5)1 3 5 ) 5' *''='K 35=@' & *( ( 5@

* &' ' ) ? ( 35 5*( ? 38 )*, 3 H ? ' 1?* ) ? ) @

B  C  <*) (5( 1 <) ?  ? 5 

' .' (.1 1= = ' > *3L* 3 8 5 ' 5( 5 * * ( 5@

  !"#"$"%&" '!( ')*)$)'&+

'' )5( ) ' ('L ) 5) ' ) L ,- .,  ? ,=

,-*),  ? ,  ' ,5() - ,%  *( ,  ? 33% 1 >,-5 , ( ' ),)  3 ' ) 5@

(  1 <  1 * % %' )  4( 3 1 3 5 @@

( 3) ' 5>)) ( 5 '(* ) ( L >) L ) =@

' ) ? ) = ? . %3 % >5= ' . ' * ) 5  % * 5( ' )( ) )@

J %% - . ' ) M   L L M ML

 >5 >) *'' * ) = >) ? 1 5 5 .5 ) .. ) )3 @

' ) ( ?3 1 ?) (  *'' 5 = H8 %6)/ ><<( . 3 ) *3' 5 ( ) 1@

) H' '3) ( '( 1 ? *''' (' ) 5 (? ( 53 )

. J! ,"#%"4(6 #9)) )( " #)%! ,( %$&"'"!0 %)%)%&.>)  %) #!95

 !& * ' % +"' (!) M P  N LMMLNL  M L  

? 1 * %@ * . '13    ' > *   J '@

>J *  , % ? . ',   ( ,,% ,,%  ,, %% , ,  % 

. '1,  ,  ' () ,? ( *3 3 1 ( . 5 @ 5

, ,- ,- , ' > * , , ,  4 ) ? *''

%@ ' )    ? 1   L ' >   *   ( 1

? , 3  (3   3 ) 1 (5 < ) . 55 @ L 5 .& '1 8 5@

)* ><<' ). ><<3 . '*  ') ><<(  . * * ; ( *1

  " % " )* $"

%$ # & !# $ %& "!# L NL   M  MN L  N    

? ( 5 ' > *'' > *''' 5 5 *) ) ' ( 

    < +? '     > (*. * @

  ' . 1 ) ' (  5 5 (*(*. * ?

 ,- , ,-  ,   ,!  , '

L' ) 5 )  L3  > 3,- ( , = . '*3 5=

'( )1 *3*3*3 )  (3    3)  5 * 1 J ? 3

(*. * (*.< ?*  (  ' >< ?  ( @

' *3 < ?      ? > @

) *   ) ) * ? 3 '  )   ? C   H*   ' >' @@@

>( 5 *  C      % (  (  << . .? '> ) ' )(

H. )5= '. (' 1) ? 1 1 ' 3 ) ( )

*''( * *3) ) ( ) )*''1. ) (><< .. ' 5 5*'' 5 ((

  & $& % " %) & "$&

!   L   M L NL   &   # P M    

& !# $ %& "  &  %

& !# $ %& "   ( %' "  !"' % %# ! %  %$ %   

  + ' * '  *( 1 (*). '

J) ' ) ;3 ' )*3

. '1- - ! , ! - (  !!- ,!  -5 5( ! 5 - , - . )) 5 .%@ ' ' 5> . '1*

' ? 3 1'- , - , - % - 3 (( 51 ' L? .1 '1 (*''% ) ><<*( @

<.?' !- ! -   * < '? @

&'% % % ( &' ( $) $ %%

% , &% , % 4 3 1 5 3 ) 5 ' ( 1 1 ' 7,

%% 77 7, ABCG DEF 1 = ) ><< .

,, %%% ,% 444 5 ' -*'5'< :3 %,I%7,

,, ,, , H)' ( 5 3) ' .' ( 1 5 '' )' ) . 5

)) 5 5 5 ( '<< ( . 1 ' '( 9) 9+H9& @

5' 3 ) ' H '; ( = ) ) ''' . 3 1 ?= 5= )(5) '5 @

' 4(). = 1 =( ) ? 3 * )( )5? ( 35 1 ( ) ?( 5 5 =(1)5 ( 5@@

( ?5 = ''5 > ' = (( )3 ? ) = 1 ' 1?* ? (* 5 ) * )*@@

5??() > ) ( ) ? 1 ' (8 1

.L * 5 '5' () 5 5 )5= (* 5 ) ( ' = (5' @@

) ( J ) 5 ) 5 =(8 J( '( (=) 5??( ) ' 5 ) ( @@

5. (1 5 ) ()' = )) ? ) ' ). 5 (5 J ' ?? 31 1 '(8 @@

< 5 * () )( ?5 3 5 5)1 3 5 ) 5' ''='K 35=@' & ( ( 5@

* &' ' ) ? ( 35 5( ? 38 ), 3 H ? ' 1?* ) ? ) @

B C <*) (5( 1 <) ? ? 5

' .' (.1 1= = ' > 3L 3 8 5 ' 5( 5 * * ( 5@

!"#"$"%&" '!( ')*)$)'&+

'' )5( ) ' ('L ) 5) ' ) L ,- ., ? ,=

,-), ? , ' ,5() - ,% ( , ? 33% 1 >,-5 , ( ' ),) 3 ' ) 5@

( 1 < 1 * % %' ) 4( 3 1 3 5 @@

' ) ? ) = ? . %3 % >5= ' . ' * ) 5 % * 5( ' )( ) )@

J %% - . ' ) M L L M ML

>5 >) '' ) = >) ? 1 5 5 .5 ) .. ) )3 @

' ) ( ?3 1 ?) ( '' 5 = H8 %6)/ ><<( . 3 ) 3' 5 ( ) 1@

. J! ,"#%"4(6 #9)) )( " #)%! ,( %$&"'"!0 %)%)%&.>) %) #!95

!& * ' % +"' (!) M P N LMMLNL M L

? 1 * %@ * . '13 ' > * J '@

>J * , % ? . ', ( ,,% ,,% ,, %% , , %

. '1, , ' () ,? ( *3 3 1 ( . 5 @ 5

, ,- ,- , ' > * , , , 4 ) ? *''

%@ ' ) ? 1 L ' > * ( 1

? , 3 (3 3 ) 1 (5 < ) . 55 @ L 5 .& '1 8 5@

)* ><<' ). ><<3 . '* ') ><<( . * * ; ( *1

" % " )* $"

%$ # & !# $ %& "!# L NL M MN L N

? ( 5 ' > '' > ''' 5 5 *) ) ' (

< +? ' > (. @

' . 1 ) ' ( 5 5 ((. * ?

,- , ,- , ,! , '

L' ) 5 ) L3 > 3,- ( , = . '*3 5=

'( )1 333 ) (3 3) 5 1 J ? 3

(. (.< ? ( ' >< ? ( @

' *3 < ? ? > @

) * ) ) * ? 3 ' ) ? C H* ' >' @@@

>( 5 * C % ( ( << . .? '> ) ' )(

''( *3) ) ( ) )''1. ) (><< .. ' 5 5'' 5 ((

& $& % " %) & "$&

! L M L NL & # P M

& !# $ %& " & %

& !# $ %& " ( %' " !"' % %# ! % %$ %

+ ' * ' ( 1 (). '

. '1- - ! , ! - ( !!- ,! -5 5( ! 5 - , - . )) 5 .%@ ' ' 5> . '1*

' ? 3 1'- , - , - % - 3 (( 51 ' L? .1 '1 (''% ) ><<( @

<.?' !- ! - * < '? @

L L MN MNMN

' > * . ' 5 5 5 4 ) . ' '? ) ? 3 ( 15 .55' 5

) )$)'& " &% !& % %) ')*)$)'&+

M L P N L M

'''( 1 < ? < = '' 1?. 1 5 = ) ' ) ' . @

5 ) . ' '5 ') (8- ( %* ?K )L ' - 1 3 @

5& ' . '1 ((.5 '' 5 ). ' . 3 &( 3 5 5 5@

&'(*.( ' 1' . .' 1

' ( (? ' 1 . ) ' ) G 5

- - P L M ML - L

L - M L P M M L

M L M ML L L M L M M

.. ? 33 )) '' (( ?(.?(' '' ()) 5 5' )(5 ) * * (

.0 ) > (. .< '? ' ( ( *

L L - MN

3' )) & ) * .? ' 5 '' ) * .' '35 ) 5 '* (@@@

) ?( ' ( & 1) *

. A( % %&) / 4% %%,&*""

= ) 1' ?) &' 1 ( ' @ < .? 3 ) ' ( ?(' . (*@1@

< ? H* (' * 5 1 '3 . > 1 '5 ('' ) ) . 5)

) * ,-1 ,- ( ) ,,? 1 > ,-L ,) 5 5 5 ' L3)*) F4,'- ( ) ,3@

N M ML N L

11 '' ) . (* - 3 ' >) * ,?- ',. @

L N M ! LM M

L M L M ∈ P M