FIGURE I-22 ee The rate of heat conduction through a _-For heat loss through a 5-m-los a eee en ee ee eg ee ee ee 3-m-high, and 25.cm-thick wall, for exam. solid is directly proportional to ple, the heat transfer area is A = 15 m*. Note that the thickness of the wall has its thermal conductivity no effect on A (Fig. 1-23). faa [EXAMPLE 1-5 The Cost of Heat Loss through a Roof [ihe roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m E thick, and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.8 Wim « °C (Fig, 1-24), The temperatures of the inner and the outer sur- faces of the roof one night are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a § period of 10 hours. Determine (a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that i night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the cost of elec: Etricity is $0.08/KWh. SOLUTION. The inner and auter surfaces of the flat concrete roof of an electri cally heated home are maintained at specified temperatures during a night. The FIGURE 1-23 heat loss through the roof and its cost that night are to be determined. In heat conduction analysis, A represents Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditians exist during the entire night since ones eneel eee diecion transfer the surface temperatures of the roof remain constant at the specified values of he 2 Constant properties can be used for the roof. Properties The thermal conductivity of the roof is given to be k = 0.8 Wim - °C. Analysis (a) Noting that heat transfer through the roof is by conduction and the area of the roof is A= 6 m x 8m = 48 m?, the steady rate of heat trans- fer through the roof is determined to be T,-T, (as -4y°c 0 = kA] = 08 Wim. °C)(48 m") S55 1690 W = 1.69 kW (b) The amount of heat lost through the roof during a 10-hour period and its cost are determined from FIGURE 1-24 ‘Schematic for Example 1-5. @ = 6 Ar= (1.69 KW)(AOh) = 16.9 kWh Cost = (Amount of energy)(Unit cost of energy) = (16.9 kWh)($0.08KWh) = $1.35 Discussion The cost to the home owner of the heat loss thraugh the roof that night was $1.35. The total heating bill of the house will be much larger since the heat losses through the walls are not considered in these calculations. Thermal Conductivity ‘We have seen that different materials store heat differently, and we have de- fined the property specific heat C, as a measure of a materials ability to store thermal energy. For example, C,'= 4.18 ki/kg + °C for water and C, = 0.45 Ki/kg - °C for iron at room temperature, which indicates that water Gan store most 10 times the energy that iron can per unit mass. Likewise, the thermal conductivity kis a measure of a material’ ability to conduct heat. For exam: ple, k = 0.608 Wim » °C for water and & = 80.2 W/m «°C for iron at room \perature, which indicates that iron conducts heat more than 100 ster than water can. Thus we say that water is 4 poor heat conductor relative to iron, although water is an excellent medium to store thermal energy. Equation 1-22 for the rate of conduction heat transfer under stead y condi tions can also be viewed as the defining equation for thermal conductivity “Thus the thermal conductivity of lerial can be defined as the rate of ry Poenius sain siecoe ates eee ocae dhheat transfer since it is essentially heat conduction in the presence of fluid mo- ‘orced convection of gases 25-250 tion, But we still need to give this combined phenomenon a name, unless we orced convection are willing to keep referring to it as “conduction with fluid motion.” Thus, it of liquids 50-20,000 is practical to recognize convection as a separate heat transfer mechanism de- oiling and he valid arguments to the contrary condensation _-2500-100,000 Util by 0.176 to convert to Btumh FY °F EXAMPLE 1-6 Measuring Convection Heat Transfer Co nt ‘A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15°C, as ‘shown in Fig. 1-33. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heat. ing, and the surface temperature af the wire is measured to be 152°C in steady > ACP Ney operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are mea- sured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface af the wire and the air in the room. FIGURE 1-33 for Example 1-8, SOLUTION The convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer from an electrically heated wire to air is to be determined by measuring temperatures when steady operating conditions are reached and the electric power consumed. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist since the temperature read- ings do not change with time. 2 Radiation heat transfer is negligible Analysis When steady operating conditions are reached, the rate of heat loss from the wire will equal the rate of heat generation in the wire as a result of resistance heating. That i, © = Erneaus = VI = (60 VVL5A) = 90W The surface area of the wire is A, = DL = (0.003 m)(2 m) = 0.01885 m? Newton's law of cooling for convection heat transfer is expressed as Gos = HA, (T, = To) Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation and thus assuming all the heat loss from the wire to accur by convection, the convection heat transfer coefficient is determined to be 9, 20 W. AMT, =F) ~ COOLRRS me\CAS 34.9 Wim? h IC Discussion Note that the simple setup described above can be used to deter- mine the average heat transfer coefficients from a variety of surfaces in air, Also, heat transfer by radiation can be eliminated by keeping the surrounding surfaces at the temperature of the wire 1-8 » RADIATION Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation docs not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth, In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-ray's, gamma rays, radio waves, and television waves that are not related to temper- ature. All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees. However, radiation isy Pract [example 1-10 Heat Loss from a Person © Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C. Determine the total rate fz of heat transfer from this person if the exposed surface area and the average f= outer surface temperature of the person are 1.6 m? and 29°C, respectively, and la the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 Wim? - °C (Fig. 1-39). . SOLUTION The total rate of heat transfer from a person by both convection and radiation to the surrounding air and surfaces at specified temperatures is to be determined Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The person is completely ‘surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room, 3 The surrounding surfaces are at the same temperature as the air in the room. 4 Heat conduction to the floor through the feet is negligible Properties The emissivity of a person is « = 0.95 (Table 1-6). ‘Analysis The heat transfer between the person and the air in the room will be by convection (instead of conduction) since it is conceivable that the air in the Vicinity of the skin or clathing will warm up and rise as a result of heat transfer from the body, initiating natural convection currents. It appears that the exper imentally determined value for the rate of convection heat transfer in this case is 6 W per unit surface area (m*) per unit temperature difference (in K or °C) between the person and the air away from the person. Thus, the rate of convec: tion heat transfer from the person to the air in the room is Qooey = hA, (T, ~ T.) = (6 Wim’ + *C)(1.6 m°\(29 = 20)°C = 864W The person will also lose heat by radiation to the surrounding wall surfaces. We take the temperature of the surfaces of the walls, ceiling, and floor to be equal to the air temperature in this case for simplicity, but we recognize that this does not need to be the case. These surfaces may be at a higher or lower temperature than the average temperature of the room air, depending on the ‘utdoor conditions and the structure of the walls. Considering that air does nat intervene with radiation and the person is completely enclosed by the sur rounding surfaces, the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the person to the surrounding walls, ceiling, and floor is Gos = e0A, (T!- Th) = (0.95)(5.67 x 10-* Wim? - K9(1.6 me) X [(29 + 273)* ~ (20 + 273)41 K’ =817W Note that we must use absolute temperatures in radiation calculations. Also note that we used the emissivity value for the skin and clothing at room tem: perature since the emissivity is not expected to change significantly at a slightly higher temperature Then the rate of total heat transfer from the body is determined by adding these two quantities: Gres = Gow + Ona = (864 + 81.7) W= 68.1. W Room we 20¢ asa Crt Gent FIGURE 1-39 the person described in Example 1-10, Prasad Discussion The heat transfer would be much higher if the person were not Gressed since the exposed surface temperature wauld be higher. Thus, an im- portant function of the clothes is to serve as a barrier against heat transfer, In these calculations, heat transfer through the feet to the floor by conduc tion, which is usually very small, is neglected, Heat transfer from the skin by perspiration, which is the dominant mode of heat transfer in hot environments, is not considered here.| exampLe 1-11 Heat Transfer between Two Isothermal Plates — E consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant [f temperatures of T, = 300 K and T, = 200 K that are L = 1 cm apart, as shown fm in Fig. 1-40. Assuming the surfaces to be black (emissivity « = 1), determine este It the rate of heat transfer between the plates per unit surface area assuming the § gap between the plates is (a) filled with atmospheric air, (b) evacuated, (c) filled © with urethane insulation, and (a) filled with superinsulation that has an appar- -40 Erent thermal conductivity of 0.00002 Wim - °C. for Example 1-11 SOLUTION The total rate of heat transfer between two large parallel plates at specified temperatures is to be determined for four different cases. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 There are no natural con- vection currents in the air between the plates. 3 The surfaces are black and thus e = 1. Properties The thermal conductivity at the average temperature of 250 K is k = 0.0219 Wim - °C for air (Table A-11), 0.026 W/m - °C for urethane insula- tion (Table A-6), and 0.00002 W/m - °C for the superinsulation. Analysis (a) The rates of conduction and radiation heat transfer between the plates through the air layer are 19W Qiu = eo A(T#- TY) = (1(5.67 10-8 Wim? - K')(1 m?)[(300 K)* ~ (200 K)*] = 368 W Therefore, Grout = Qeomt + Qus = 219 + 368 = 587 W The heat transfer rate in reality will be higher because of the natural convection currents that are likely to occur in the air space between the plates. (b) When the air space between the plates is evacuated, there will be no con- duction or convection, and the only heat transfer between the plates will be by radiation. Therefore, Qvei = Pras = 368 W (c) An opaque solid material placed between two plates blocks direct radiation heat transfer between the plates. Also, the thermal conductivity of an insulating material accounts for the radiation heat transfer that may be occurring through Ey Coraase 300K 200K = 300K 20K 300K 200K 300K 200 uy if | Lem (a) Air space () Vacuum (6) Insulation (d) Superinsulation FIGURE 1-4 Different ways of reducing heat transfer between two isothermal plates, and their effectivenesheat transfer problems. ig. 2-40). This is demonstrated below with examples. [ exawpte 2-11 Heat Conduction in a Plane Wall Consider a large plane wall of thickness L = 0.2 m, thermal conductivity & wal [11.2 Wim -°C, and surface area A= 15 m?. The two sides of the wall are main- [k tained at constant temperatures of T; = 120°C and T, = 50°C, respectively, as [k shown in Figure 2-41. Determine (2) the variation of temperature within the |X wall and the value of temperature at x = 0.1 m and (t) the rate of heat con. IE duction through the wall under steady conditions. A ‘SOLUTION A plane wall with specified surface temperatures is given. The vari os ation of temperature and the rate of heat transfer are to be determined. vines 9:41 Assumptions 1 Heat conduction is steady. 2 Heat conduction is one. Schematic for Example 2-11 dimensional since the wall is large relative to its thickness and the thermal 7 aia conditions on both sides are uniform. 3 Thermal conductivity is constant. 4 There is no heat generation, Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be k= 1.2. Wim = °C. Analysis (a) Taking the direction normal to the surface of the wall to be the acdirection, the differential equation for this problem can be expressed as with boundary conditions Diferral equation: TE) =T; = 120°C Ti) = T, = 50°C negate: The differential equation is linear and second order, and a quick inspection of « it reveals that it has a single term involving derivatives and no terms involving = the unknown function Tas a factor. Thus, it can be solved by direct integration. | | egrate again Noting that an integration reduces the order ofa derivative by one, the general w-ort¢ solution of the differential equation above can be obtained by two simple suc cessive integrations, each of which introduces an integration constant. cekiet — Xitay Integrating the differential equation once with respect to xyjields solution constants Tc, FIGURE 2-42 = ‘Obtaining the general solution of a where Cis an arbitrary constant. Notice that the order of the derivative went simple second order differential down by one as a result of integration. As a check, if we take the derivative of equation by integration this equation, we will obtain the original differential equation. This equation is not the solution yet since it involves a derivative. Integrating one more time, we obtain Boundary condition: Ta) = xt G n0)= 7, which is the general solution of the dferential equation (Fig. 2-42). The gen- | | Several sofuton: eral solution in this case resembles the general formula of a straight line whose Tw) = C86 slope is C, and whose value at x= 0 is C.. This is not surprising since the see- | | appiing the boundary condo: ond derivative represents the change in the slope of a function, and a zero sec: eee ond derivative indicates that the slope of the function remains constant. Therefore, any straight line is a solution of this differential equation. o The general solution contains two unknown constants C, and C, and thus we = eed two equations to determine them uniquely and abtain the specific solu- tion. These equations are obtained by forcing the general solution to satisfy the | | Swbuinaine: specified boundary conditions. The application of each condition yields one T=GxOre > GN equation, and thus we need to specify two conditions to determine the con Itcannot involve oe Te) afer the stants C, and C; boundary condition is applied. When applying a boundary condition to an equation, al/ occurrences of the dependent and independent variables and any derivatives are replaced by the FIGURE 2-43, specified values. Thus the only unknowns in the resulting equations are the ar- | When applying a boundary condition bityary constants, to the general solution at a specified The first boundary condition can be interpreted as in the general solution, re- | point, all occurrences of the dependent place all the x's by zero and T(x) by T,. That is (Fig. 2-43), lependent variables should be replaced by their specified values NO) =C,X0+G 9 G=T, at that point,ve need to specify two conditions to determine the con- joundary condition to an equation, al/ occurrences of the yendent variables and any derivatives are replaced by the FIGURE 2-43 s the only unknowns in the resulting equations are the ar- |__ When applying a boundary condition to the general solution at a specified condition can be interpreted as in the general solution, re- point, all occurrences of the dependent ro and T(x) by T,. That is (Fig. 2-43), and independent variables should be replaced by their specified values TO)=C.X0+G > G=T at that point. The second boundary condition can be interpreted as in the general solution, re- place all the x's by L and T(x) by Tp. That is, TW) =CL+O, 9 %=CL+T, 2 G Substituting the C, and C, expressions into the general solution, we obtain (2-56) which is the desired solution since it satisfies not only the differential equation but also the two specified boundary conditions. That is, differentiating Eq. 2-56 with respect to x twice will give d7/dx?, which is the given differential equation, and substituting x = O and x = L into Eq. 2-56 gives T(O) = 7, and T(L) = Tz, respectively, which are the specified conditions at the boundaries. Substituting the given information, the value of the temperature at x = 0.1 m is determined to be (50 = 120)°C 70.1 m) 02m (0.1 m) + 120°C = 85°C (b) The rate of heat conduction anywhere in the wall is determined from Fourier’s law to be iT T, - T; T%— Q vat = —kA = —RAC, = kA = kA (2-57) The numerical value of the rate of heat conduction through the wall is deter- mined by substituting the given values to be qh > . > (l yc Q=KkA (1.2 Wim - °C\(15 m’) L 6300 W .2m Discussion Note that under steady conditions, the rate of heat conduction through a plane wall is constant.F examr.e 2-15 Heat Loss through a Steam FIGURE 2-50 Schematic for Exampl CHAPTER 2 for the temperature distibution inside the pipe under ste determine the rate of heat loss trom the steam ts SOLUTION A steam pipe is subjected to surfaces. The variation of temperature and the rate of heat i determined, ‘Assumptions Heat transfer is steady since there fs 2 Heat transer is one-dimensional since there ist enterline and no variation in the axial direction, an onductivity i constant, 4 There is no heat gene Propesties The thermal conductivity is ‘Analysis The mathematical fermulation 7a bing itt a edly integrable form a Again integrating with respect to» Ty) = Cine + € Je now apply both boundary conditions by replacing all occur Tir) ima, (al with the specified values atthe boundaries. We get Ty =F > CtantG=7, TW) = + Clan +G=T, which are two equations in two unknowns, C; and € sly gives hat «=e mw Substituting them into Eq. (a) and rearanging, the variation o FIGURE 2-51 within the pipe is determined to b Tt The rate of heat loss from the steam iss through the pipe, and is determined 0, ‘The numerical value mined by substitu DISCUSSION Note thaas EXAMPLE 2-16 Heat Conduction through a Spherical Shell | Consider a spherical container of inner radius r = 8 cm, outer radius r2 = 10 ¢m, and thermal conductivity k = 45 Wim . °C, as shown in Figure 2-52. “The inner and outer surfaces of the container are maintained at constant tem- peratures of T, = 200°C and T; = 80°C, respectively, as a result of some chem. ical reactions accurring inside. Obtain a general relation for the temperature distribution inside the shell under steady conditions, and determine the rate of Figure 2-52 heat loss from the container ‘Schematic for Exampl SOLUTION A spherical container is subjected to specified temperatures on its. ‘surfaces. The variation of temperature and the rate of heat transfer are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no change with time. 22 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about the midpoint, and thus T= T(r). 3 Thermal conductivity is constant. 4 There is no. heat generation Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be k= 45 Wim - °C. Analysis The mathematical formulation of this problem ean be expressed as | with boundary conditions Tir) = 7, = 200°C sore where C, is an arbitrary constant. We now divide both sides of this equation by | P to bring it to a readily integrable form, a aie Again integrating with respect to r gives & nm « w We now apply both boundary conditions by replacing all occurrences of r and T(r) in the relation above by the specified values at the boundaries. We get Try=T > Tr)=T, > which are two equations in two unknowns, C, and Cy . Solving the ously gives nln Tt) wi C Substituting into Eq. (a), the variation of temperature within the spherical shell is determined to be Fe tant n== m+Bi=s aon tion through the container walll and is determined from Fourier's law A,” arG08 my = d c m-T <0 ed 16.0 KW Onan tL -tbar) Gm dei, sat nero FIGURE 2-53 0 = 45 Win.*Cx0.08 m4010 m LONE - sw W “ea tno veri coatr, bat the eat ux decreases with LP falconductivity value at the average temperature The variation of temperature We have mentioned earlier that in a plane wall the temperature varies ina plane wall during steady ly during steady one conductivity is constant. But this is no longer the case when the the imensional heat conduction when the thermal oF dimensional heat conduction con- far the cases of constant and variable ductivity changes with temperature, even linearly, as shown in Figure 2-63 thermal conductivity = EXAMPLE 2-20 Variation of Temperature in a Wall with k(T) Consider a plane wall of thickness L whose thermal conductivity varies linearly g ina specified temperature range as k(T) = ka(1 + BT) where ky and fare con- a stants. The wall surface at x= 0 is maintained at a constant temperature of T; while the surface at x = L is maintained at 7, as shown in Figure 2-64. Assuming steady one-dimensional heat transfer, obtain a relation for (a) the & heat transfer rate through the wall and (6) the temperature distribution T(x) in the wall : A(T) = b+ BT) ‘4 SOLUTION A plate with variable conductivity is subjected to specified tem. peratures on both sides. The variation of temperature and the rate of heat trans. fer are to be determined Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is given to be steady and one-dimensional, 2 Thermal conductivity varies linearly, 3 There is no heat generation. Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be K(T) = ko(1 + BT). Analysis (a) The rate of heat transfer through the wall can be determined trom T-T, in Hi FIGURE 2-64 Schematic for Example 2-20, O-k, where A is the heat conduction area of the wall and h+Ty is the average thermal conductivity (Eq. 2-80). (b) To determine the temperature distribution in the wall, we begin with Fourier’s law of heat conduction, expressed as a O= KAS, 106 Trae NNas where the rate of conduction heat transfer @ and the area A are constant. Separating variables and integrating from x = 0 where T(O) = T; to any x where T(x) = T, we get [{ ac =a seman Srrerrne Terie iter eel peiare tee negates cara Ox = ~AK[(T ~ T,) + BCT? = TPQ) Substituting the @ expression from part (a) and rearranging give 2 4 Zhawe x 2 iT eit r which is a quadratic equation in the unknown temperature T. Using the qua- dratic formula, the temperature distribution T(x) in the wall is determined to be ive x Te * = 5 a) BELT -M+T+ The proper sign of the square root term (+ or ~) is determined from the re quirement that the temperature at any point within the medium must remain between T; and 7p. This result explains why the temperature distribution in a plane wall is no longer a straight line when the thermal conductivity varies with temperature,[ exampce 3-3 Heat Loss through Double-Pane Windows Consider a 0.8-m- § 4-mm-thick layers of glass (k = 0.78 Wim ix Stagnant air space (k = 0.026 Wim » °C). Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this double-pane window and the temperature of its inner sur 55 face for a day during which the room is maintained at 20°C while the tempera: ture of the outdoors is ~ 10°C. Take the convection heat transfer coefficients on §& the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be fh, = 10 Wim?» °C and hy 40 Wim? . °C, which includes the effects of radiation. . SOLUTION A double-pane window is considered. The rate of heat transfer through the window and the inner surface temperature are to be determined. ‘Analysis This example problem is identical to the previous one except that the single 8.mm-thick window glass is replaced by two 4-mm-thick glasses that enclose a 10-mm-wide stagnant air space. Therefore, the thermal resistance network of this problem will involve two additional conduction resistances cor. responding to the two additional layers, as shown in Fig, 3-13, Noting that the area of the window is again A = 0.8 m x 1.5 m = 1.2 m®, the individual re- sistances are evaluated from their definitions to be elon = 0,08333°C/W =!" 5A” (OW “CxL2m) oa 0.004 m Ry = Ry = Ry = ———_ O00 = 0,00427°C/W ee KA (0.78 Wim - *C\1.2m) 001m R= R, —— 001m ___ = 0.3208°crW = (0.026 Wim - °CXT R, i 0.02083°C/ W iA GOWim Noting that all three resistances are in series, the total resistance is, Raat = Rooms + Ren + Rac + Rete 2 + Ren 0.08333 + 0.00427 + 0.3205 + 0.00427 + 0.02083 0.4332°C/W Then the steady rate of heat transfer through the window becomes Tay Toy _[20=(=10)7C ae Race OSE Wie which is about one-fourth of the result obtained in the previous example. This explains the popularity of the double- and even triple-pane windows in cold Climates. The drastic reduction in the heat transfer rate in this case is due to the large thermal resistance ofthe air layer between the glasses. The inner surface temperature ofthe window inthis case will be Ty = Tay ~ OR gum, = 20°C ~ (69.2 W(0.08333°C/ W) = 14.2°C which is considerably higher than the ~2.2°C obtained in the previous ex ample. Therefore, a double-pane window will rarely get fogged. A double-pane window will also reduce the heat gain in summer, and thus reduce the air conditioning costs. igh and 1.5.m-wide double-pane window consisting of two. °C) separated by a 10-mm-wide 151 HAPTER Gis Glass [ \ 20°C ¢mm| | tom | [4mm R, FIGURE 3-13 Schematic for Example 3-3,|] exampce 3-8 Heat Loss through an Insulated Steam Pipe F steam at Zn = 220° ows ina cast ron pipe k= 20 Wim -C) whe [Float tote sunoundings x = 5° by natural eomvecion and aati, with Peace a combined heat transfer co Jb transfer coetficient inside the pipe to b FE of heat loss from the steam per unit length of the Taking the heat the rate FF perature drops across the pipe shell and the SOLUTION A steam pip with glass woo! Convection on its surfaces. The rate of heat trans temperature drops across t ‘Assumptions \ Heat transfer change with time. 2 Heat trans symmetry about the centerline and no variatio conductivities are constant. 4 The the negligible. Properties The thermal co ion and k= 0.05 Wim -°C t Analysis The thermal resistance r tances in series and is given in surfaces exposed to convection are determined A, (0.025 mam Then the individual thermal resistanc 5 0.1061 W Oust) = 0.0002°C/W ‘Cx ay =a See R=R oisscw FIGURE 3-29 Noting that all resistances are in ser Schematic for Example 3-8, Ruus= B+ Ry +R +R, = 0.106 + 0.00 +235 + 0.154 = 261°C W Then the steady rate of heat loss trom tl p Tar hs_OM-9C ay 0-—R ~ Terow ~ 121 The heat loss for a given pil ‘above quantity by the pipe le length a The temperature drops across the pipe from Eq. 3-17 to be Toye = OR, w Ww) = 0.02'C ATanrasn = OR (121 W2.38°C/W) = 284°C That is, the temperatures between the inner ipe Discussion Note that the thermal resistance of the pi the other resistances and can be neglected without causing any significant terror. Also note that the temperature drop across the pipe is practically 2e ‘and thus the pipe can be assumed to be isothermal, The resistance to heat f in insulated pipes is primarily due to insulation.| example 3-7 Heat Transfer to a Spherical Container . 3-m internal diameter spherical tank made of 2-cm-thick stainless steel aus 15 Wim - °C) is used to store iced water at T.. = O°C. The tank is located in a room whose temperature is Tz = 22°C. The walls of the room are also at 22°C. The outer surface of the tank is black and heat transfer between the outer IS surface of the tank and the surroundings is by natural convection and radiation & The convection heat transfer coefficients at the inner and the outer surfaces of the tank are fi, = 80 Wim? - °C and hz = 10 Wim? - °C, respectively. Determine Fa tthe rate of heat transfer to the iced water in the tank and (6) the amount of [i ice at O°C that melts during a 24-h period. SOLUTION A spherical container filled with iced water is subjected to convec tion and radiation heat transfer at its outer surface. The rate of heat transfer ‘and the amount of ice that melts per day are to be determined. ‘Assumptions 1 Heat transter is steady since the specified thermal conditions at the boundaries. do not change with time. 2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about the midpoint. 3 Thermal conductivity is constant. Properties The thermal conductivity of steel is given to be k = 15 Wim - °C. The heat of fusion of water at atmospheric pressure is hy = 333.7 kJ/kg. The ‘outer surtace of the tank is black and thus its emissivity is « = 1 ‘Analysis (a) The thermal resistance network for this problem is given in Fig. 3-28. Noting that the inner diameter of the tank is D, = 3 m and the outer ameter is D, = 3.04 m, the inner and the outer surface areas of the tank are 7 a | Ay = =D} = 93m) = 283 m’ % R, | A; = ®D? = n(3.04 m)? = 290 mi R ‘Also, the radiation heat transfer coefficient is given by FIGURE 3-28 Ings = 00(T} + TMT + Tea) atic for Example But we do not know the outer surface temperature Tz of the tank, and thus we cannot calculate fix. Therefore, we need to assume a T> value now and check the accuracy of this assumption later. We will repeat the calculations if neces. sary using a revised value for T, We note that Tz must be between O°C and 22°C, but it must be closer to.0°C, since the heat transfer coefficient inside the tank is much larger. Taking T, = 5°C = 278 K, the radiation heat transter coefficient is determined to be Ira = (15.67 & 10-* Wien? - K*9|(295 K)? + (278 K)PIL295 + 5.34 Wim? - K = 5.34 Wim? - °C 278) Ki Then the individual thermal resistances become 0.000442°C/ W Rie Rows = TA, BOW “CE nor (1.52 ~ 1.50) m Saks Fe 5 Wim CyS2 mK 50m) (0,000087°C/ W R=R, 1 1 ae °CK29.0 me) sc Pay 0.00345°C/ W 0.00646°C/ W 9.0m) The two parallel resistances R, and R.. can be replaced by an equivalent resis. tance Rex determined from 1 1 Toosss * Tooeas = 447 Wie which gives, Regin = 0.00225°C/ W| R. = 0.00225°C/ W equiv Now all the resistances are in series, and the total resistance is determined to be Rea = Ri + Ry + RK ‘equiv = 0.000442 + 0.000047 + 0.00225 = 0.00274°C/ W Then the steady rate of heat transfer to the iced water becomes. \- _ _(22-0c C~~Raa 0.00274°C/W 8029 W (or @ = 8.027 kis) To check the validity of our original assumption, we now determine the outer surface temperature from Tar ~ OR eau = 22°C — (8029 W)(0.00225°C/ W) = 4°C which is sufficiently close to the 5°C assumed in the determination of the radi- ation heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, there is no need to repeat the calcu- lations using 4°C for T>. (b) The total amount of heat transfer during a 24-h period is Q =O At = (8.029 kI/s)(24 X 3600 s) = 673,700 KI Noting that it takes 333.7 kJ of energy to melt 1 kg of ice at 0°C, the amount of ice that will melt during a 24-h period is Q _ 673,700 kI hy 333.7 ki/kg Mige = = 079 kg Therefore, about 2 metric tons of ice will melt in the tank every day. Discussion An easier way to deal with combined convection and radiation at a surface when the surrounding medium and surfaces are at the same tempera- ture is to add the radiation and convection heat transfer coefficients and to treat the result as the convection heat transfer coefficient. That is, to take h = 10 + 5.34 = 15.34 Wim? - °C in this case. This way, we can ignore radiation since its contribution is accounted for in the convection heat transfer coefficient. The convection resistance of the outer surface in this case would be 1 1 NrccmbinesA2 (15.34 Wh Reobined = °C)(29.0 n which is identical to the value obtained for the equivalent resistance for the par- allel convection and the radiation resistances.pressure and mC,41/ at constant volume, and C,, 1S always greater than C,. 1-12 A cylindrical resistor on a circuit board dissipates 0.6 W of power. The amount of heat dissipated in 24 h, the heat flux, and the fraction of heat dissipated from the top and bottom surfaces are to be determined. Assumptions Heat is transferred uniformly from all surfaces. Analysis (a) The amount of heat this resistor dissipates during a 24-hour period is Q=QOAr=(0.6 W)(24 h)=14.4 Wh=51.84 kJ (since | Wh = 3600 Ws = 3.6 kJ) Q (b) The heat flux on the surface of the resistor is 2 2 Resistor A, = 2+ aL = 2 20-4 em)” + (0.4 cm)(1.5 cm) = 0.25141.885 = 2.136 em? 0.6W 0.60 W =; = 0.2809 Wiem” — s 2.136cm (c) Assuming the heat transfer coefficient to be uniform, heat transfer is proportional to the surface area. Then the fraction of heat dissipated from the top and bottom surfaces of the resistor becomes tase _ 0.251 op-base Ay Drop-ase _ Arop-tase 0.251 _ grag op (11.8%) Drotat Avotal 2.136 qs CINE IN] Discussion Heat transfer from the top and bottom surfaces is small relative to that transferred from the side surface.ae a 1-14 The filament of a 150 W incandescent lamp is 5 cm long and has a diameter of 0.5 mm. The heat flux on the surface of the filament, the heat flux on the surface of the glass bulb, and the annual electricity cost of the bulb are to be determined. Assumptions Heat transfer from the surface of the filament and the bulb of the lamp is uniform . Analysis (a) The heat transfer surface area and the heat flux on the surface of the filament are A, = 2DL = 7(0.05 em)(5.cm) = 0.785 em? 0 . @ 150W 2 6 3 Lamp == = =191 Wem? =1.91x10° Wim 4A, 0.785em? 1S0.W (b) The heat flux on the surface of glass bulb is SN PT A, = aD? = x(8 cm)? =201.1em? OPE = 2 = 19 0.75 Wiem? = 7500 Wim? A, 201.1cem~ (c) The amount and cost of electrical energy consumed during a one-year period is Electricity Consumption = QAt = (0.15 kW)(365 x 8 h/ yr) = 438 kWh / yr Annual Cost = (438 kWh/ yr)($0.08 / kWh) = $35.04/ yr 1.15 A 1900 W iron ic left an the irnnino hnaard with ite hace exnoced ta the air The amonnt af heat the1-67 The thermal conductivity of a material is to be determined by ensuring one- dimensional heat conduction, and by measuring temperatures when steady operating conditions are reached. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist since the temperature readings do not change with time. 2 Heat losses through the lateral surfaces of the apparatus are negligible since those surfaces are well-insulated, and thus the entire heat generated by the heater is conducted through the samples. 3 The apparatus possesses thermal symmetry. Analysis The electrical power consumed by the heater and converted to heat is W, =VI = (110 V)(0.6 A) = 66 W ENE Ne oO The rate of heat flow through each sample is o= Me - 66 W =33W 2 3cm Then the thermal conductivity of the sample becomes Aa De, 2004 mY" _ 9001257 m? 3em 4 4 o=nmant _,, - GE -§_ 308m) _agswimec WHI L AAT (0.001257 m*)(10°C)Chapter 1 Basics of Heat Transfer 1-77 An electric resistance heating element is immersed in water initially at 20°C. The time it will take for this heater to raise the water temperature to 80°C as well as the convection heat transfer coefficients at the beginning and at the end of the heating process are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist and thus the rate of heat loss from the Wire equals the rate of heat generation in the wire as a result of resistance heating. 2 ‘Thermal properties of water are constant. 3 Heat losses from the water in the tank are negligible Properties The specific heat of water at room temperature is C= 4.18 ki/kg°C (Table A2) Analysis When steady operating conditions are reached, we have 0 = Exess =800 W. This is also equal to the rate of heat gain by water. Noting that this is the only mechanism of energy transfer, the time it takes to raise the water temperature from 20°C to 80°C is determined to be mC(Ty =) cata water mC(T -T) 800° mC(Ty—T,) _ (60 kg(4180 Srkg.C)(80 - 20)°C Ww 120° 18810s =5.225h a sa 8105 —— The surface area of the wire is Ay = (ADL = (0.005 m)(0.5m) = 0.00785 m7 The Newton's law of cooling for convection heat transfer is expressed as Q=hA,(T, -T.,). Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation and thus assuming all the heat loss from the wire to occur by convection, the convection heat transfer coefficients at the beginning and at the end of the process are determined to be o 800 W AAT, ~T1) (0.00785 m? \120—20)°C @ 800W A(T, -Ta2) (0.00785 m? \(120—80°C Discussion Note that a larger heat transfer coefficient is needed to dissipate heat through a smaller temperature difference for a specified heat transfer rate. hy 1020 Wim?.°C on ns] = 2550 Wim? °CChapter 2 Heat Conduction Equation 2-56 A large plane wall is subjected to specified temperature on the left surface and convection on the right surface. The mathematical formulation, the variation of temperature, and the rate of heat transfer are to be determined for steady one-dimensional heat transfer. Assumptions 1 Heat conduction is steady and one-dimensional. 2 Thermal conductivity is constant. 3 There is no heat generation. Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be k=2.3 Wim°C. Analysis (a) Taking the direction normal to the surface of the wall to be the x direction with x = 0 at the left surface, the mathematical formulation of this problem can be expressed as er 0 ae and T(0)=T, =80C ie elon (EO _nry-1,) h=24 Wim?C dx (b) Integrating the differential equation twice with respect to x yields aT Tc, dk T(x) =Cx 4, x where C, and C) are arbitrary constants. Applying the boundary conditions give TO)=C,x04C, 9 G=T MWC, -T.) kA AGT.) k+he -kC, =M(CL+C,)-T,] > C= Substituting C, and C, into the general solution, the variation of temperature is determined to be h(Ty- Te) k+hL (24 W/m? °C\(80=15)°C (Q3W /m°C) +(24 W/m*°C)(0.4 m) 80-1311 T(X)= x+80°C (c) The rate of heat conduction through the wall is d ACT, -T, 4 - tac, =a") dx KenL (24 Wim? +°C\(80=15)°C (2.3 W/m: °C) + (24 Wim? -°C)(0.4 m) Qwat = (2.3-W/m-°C)(20m?) = 6030 W Note that under steady conditions the rate of heat conduction through a plain wall is constant. 2-19Cy eC No2-77 A 2-kW resistance heater wire with a specified surface temperature is used to boil water. The center temperature of the wire is to be determined. Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no change with time. 2 Heat transfer is one- dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about the center line and no change in the axial direction. 3 Thermal conductivity is constant. 4 Heat generation in the heater is uniform. Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be k= 20 W/m-°C. Analysis The resistance heater converts electric energy into heat at a rate of 2 kW. The rate of heat generation per unit volume of the wire i“ is Qyen Deen _ 2000 W Vwite ™,7L (0.0025 m)? (0.7 m) g= = 1.455 10° Win? The center temperature of the wire is then determined from Eq. 2-71 to be ay 2 8 3 2 ar, (1.455 x 10° W/m~ (0.0025 m) T, =T, +—— = 110°C + -——— MJ = 121 42°C ° - Ak 4(20 W/m.°C) yy | OCLC TINO]Chapter 2 Heat Conduction Equation 2-135 A large plane wall is subjected to convection on the inner and outer surfaces. The mathematic formulation, the variation of temperature, and the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces to be determined for steady one-dimensional heat transfer. Assumptions 1 Heat conduction is steady and one-dimensional. 2 Thermal conductivity is constant. 3 ‘There is no heat generation. Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be k = 0.77 Wim-C. Analysis (a) Taking the direction normal to the surface of the wall to be the x direction with x = 0 at the inner surface, the mathematical formulation of this problem can be expressed as d and oe iT (0) k In{Tay PO = kT 7 hy Ay dT(L ~ my pO er) -7.) T Tex dx (b) Integrating the differential equation twice with respect tox yields , aT = TG dx T(x) = Cx4+C, where C, and C; are arbitrary constants. Applying the boundary conditions give x=0: IylTzy —(C, x0+C,))=-kC, x= AC, = hy [(CL+C. T,2] Substituting the given values, these equations can be written as 5(27-C) =-0.77C, 0.77C, =(12)(0.2C, +C; -8) Solving these equations simultaneously give C,=-4544 C,=20 Substituting C, and C, into the general solution, the variation of temperature is determined to be T(x) = 20- 45.44x (©) The temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces are T(0) =20-45.44x0 = 20°C T(L) = 20-45.44x0.2 =10.9°CChapter 3 Steady Heat Conduction 3-48 A thin copper plate is sandwiched between two epoxy boards. The error involved in the total thermal resistance of the plate if the thermal contact conductances are ignored is to be determined. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since the plate is large. 3 Thermal conductivities are constant. Properties The thermal conductivities are given to be k = 386 W/m-°C for copper plates and k = 0.26 W/m-°C for epoxy boards. The contact conductance at the interface of copper-epoxy layers is given to be h, = 6000 Wim?°C. Analysis The thermal resistances of different layers for Ql AES Wa eet| unit surface area of 1 m’ are i Copp 1 1 er Recatset = = > = 0.00017 °C seats A (6000 Wim? °C\(1m?) — | Foor I L 0.001 Rae = = = 2.6 10° °C/W KA (386 W/m.°C\(1 m*) L 0.005 m y= = = 001923 °C/W Q spy FA (0.26 W/CM m*) The total thermal resistance is Raat = 2Reoniact + Rptte + 2Repony = 2x0.00017 + 2.610% +2%0.01923 = 0.03914 °C/W Then the percent error involved in the total thermal resistance of the plate i the thermal contact resistances are ignored is determined to be 2 Error = Roose 5.199 = 2% 0.00017 169 - 0.87% Renews Roiate Ronen — bac T WAM > which is negligible. Revntact Revmtact3-88 An electric wire is tightly wrapped with a 1-mm thick plastic cover. The interface temperature and the effect of doubling the thickness of the plastic cover on the interface temperature are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with time. 2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about the centerline and no variation in the axial direction. 3 Thermal properties are constant. 4 The thermal contact resistance at the interface is negligible. 5 Heat transfer coefficient accounts for the radiation effects, if any. Properties The thermal conductivity of plastic cover is given to be k= 0.15 W/m-°C. Analysis In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer from the wire is equal to the heat generated within the wire, O=W, =VI=(8V)U0A)=80W Rersesc Recon The total thermal resistance is T WWW 72 on oie 1 =0.3316°C.W h,A, (24 W/ °C)[ (0.004 m)(10 m)] / 21 Rotastic = Inf ___ln@/)-___ g735¢c-w QnkL — 2n(0.15 Wim°C)(10 my (oyRenIEs) go Riot = Reony + Rptasic = 0-33.16 + 0.0735 = 0.4051°C/W a Then the interface temperature becomes : To2 Q= z <= T, = T,, + OR pa, = 30°C + (80 W)(0.405 1 °C/W) = 62.4°C otal The ctitical radius of plastic insulation is k 0.15 Wim2C == = ———— = 0.00025 m= 6.25 mm ho 24Wim? °C Doubling the thickness of the plastic cover will increase the outer radius of the wire to 3 mm, which is less than the critical radius of insulation. Therefore, doubling the thickness of plastic cover will increase the rate of heat loss and decrease the interface temperature Te