Algebraic Curves An Introduction to Algebraic Geometry WILLIAM FULTON University of Chicago Notes written with the collaboration of RICHARD WEISS This book was originally published as part of the Mathematics Lecture Note Series. gx, ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. a J: THE ADVANCED BOOK PROGRAM oN 3 Redwood City, California + Menlo Park, California « Reading, Massachusetts 'R°” New York + Amsterdam » Don Mills, Ontario + Sydney » Madrid Singapore + Tokyo « San Juan * Wokingham, United KingdomCHAPTER 1. me CHAPTER ~ SVONAWAWNE SyePNnavawnn 2. Contents AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS Algebraic Preliminaries Affine Space and Algebraic Sets The Ideal of a Set of Points The Hilbert Basis Theorem Irreducible Components of an Algebraic Set Algebraic Subsets of the Plane Hilbert’ s Nullstellensatz Modules; Finiteness Conditions Integral Elements Field Extensions AFFINE VARIETIES Coordinate Rings Polynomial Maps Coordinate Changes Rational Functions and Local Rings Discrete Valuation Rings Forms Direct Products of Rings Operations with Ideals Ideals with a Finite Number of Zeros Quotient Modules and Exact Sequences 10 13 15 18 25 28 31 35 37 40 42 46 50 52 53 55 57 xviiCHAPTER 3. ~ CHAPTER 4. RwWN> CHAPTER 5. AYAYWNS CHAPTER 6. ALANS CHAPTER 7. AYWNS wee aerumtes LOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES Multiple Points and Tangent Lines Multiplicities and Local Rings Intersection Numbers PROJECTIVE VARIETIES Projective Space Projective Algebraic Sets Affine and Projective Varieties Multiprojective Space PROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES Definitions Linear Systems of Curves Bezout's Theorem Multiple Points Max Noether’s Fundamental Theorem Applications of Noether’ s Theorem VARIETIES, MORPHISMS, AND RATIONAL MAPS The Zariski Topology Varieties Morphisms of Varieties Products and Graphs Algebraic Function Fields and Dimension of Varieties Rational Maps RESOLUTION OF SINGULARITIES Rational Maps of Curves Blowing Up a Point in A” Blowing Up Points in P® Quadratic Transformations ol 63 iy 4 SRB 103 108 112 7 119 123 131 135 137 144 49 153 159 162 168 171CHAPTER 8. RIEMANN-ROCH THEOREM Divisors The Vector Spaces L{D) Riemann’ s Theorem Derivations and Differentials Canonical Divisors Riemann-Roch Theorem APPENDIX NON-ZERO CHARACTERISTIC AYVAWNS SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING NOTATION INDEX 187 192 196 203 206 209 219 221 223 225A Note from the Publisher This volume was printed directly from a typescript prepared by the author, who takes full responsibility for its content and appearance. The Publisher has not performed his usual functions of reviewing, editing, typesetting, and proofreading the material prior to publication. The Publisher fully endorses this informal and quick method of publishing lecture notes at a moderate price, and he wishes to thank the author for preparing the material for publication.Algebraic CurvesCHAPTER I AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 1. Algebraic Preliminaries This section consists of a summary of some notation and facts from commtative algebra. Anyone familiar with the underlined terms and the statements made here about them should have sufficient background to read the rest of the notes. When we speak of a ring, we shall always mean a commitative ring with a mltiplicative identity. A ring homomorphism from one ring to another mst take the mlti- plicative identity of the first ring to that of the second. A domain, or integral domain, is a ring (with at least two elements) in which the cancellation law holds. A field is a domain in which every non-zero element is a unit, i.e. has @ mltiplicative inverse. % will denote the domain of integers, while @, R, and € will denote the fields of rational, real, and com- plex numbers, respectively.2 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Any domain R has @ quotient field K. K isa field containing R as a subring, and any element in K may be written (not necessarily uniquely) as a ratio of two elements of R. Any one-to-one ring homomorphism from R toa field L extends uniquely to a ring homomorphism from K to L. Any ring homomorphism from a field to a ring is one-to-one. For any ring R, R[X] denotes the ring of poly- nomials with coefficients in R. ‘The degree of a poly- nomial £ a,x? is the largest integer d such that aq 7 0; the polynomial is monic if aye. The ring of polynomials in n variables over R is written RIX, ++ 9%). We often write R[X,Y] or R[X,Y,2] when n= 2 or 3. The monomials in R[X,,.--)X,] i, i T are the polynomials X, 1 Xo vee Ky ay ij non-negative integers; the degree of the monomial is i,+...#i,. Every L Fe R[X,,--)X,] has a unique expression 2 (4) FeEaq)xe’, a(j) © R+ F is homogeneous, or a form, of degree 4, if all coefficients 4/;) are zero except possible those where the x(1) are tne monomials, belonging to monomials of degree d. Any polynomial F has @ unique expression F= Fy + F,+...+F,, where F, is a form of degree i; if F, 40, 4 is the degree of F, written deg(F). The terms F4,F),Fy,.-. are called the constant, linear, quadratic, ... terms of F. F is constant if Fe= Fo: If R is a domain, deg(FG) = deg(F) + deg(G). R is a subring of R[Xpo-+ XK], and RIX, -+-X,] is characterizedAFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 3 by the following property: if @ is a ring homomorphism from R toaring S, and s,,...,5,€8, then there is a unique extension of g to a ring homomorphism g from R[X,,+++)X,] to 8 such that 9X) = sy, b= Leen The image of F under g is written F(s),...,8,). R[X>++-sX,] is canonically isomorphic to ROy Ky] le An element a inaring R is irreducible if for any factorization a= be, b,c eR, either b. or ¢ is aunit. A domain R is a.unique factorization domain, written UFD, if every non-zero element in R can be factored uniquely, up to units and the ordering of the factors, into irreducible elements. If R is a UFD with quotient field K, then any irreducible element Fe R[X] remains irreducible when considered in K[X]; it follows that if F and @ are polynomials in R[X] with no common factors in R(X], they have no common factors in K(X]. If R is a UFD, then R[X] is also a UFD. Con- sequently k[X,,.-..X,] is a UFD for any field &. The quotient field of k[X,,.-.,X,] is written K(X), +X), and is called the field of rational functions in n variables over k. If gik 1(0) of elements mapped to zero is the kernel of 9, written Ker(g). Tt is an ideal in R. And ideal I in >S is a ring homomorphism, the set aring R is proper if I7#R. A proper ideal is maximal if it is not contained in any larger proper ideal. A prime ideal is an ideal I such that whenever abe I, either ae I or bel.& ALGEBRAIC CURVES A set § of elements of a ring R generate an ideal I= {za,s, | 8, € S, a, © RJ. An ideal is finitely generated if it is generated by a finite set se {fp,---.f)}5 we then write I= (2y,++52))- An ideal is principal if it is generated by one element. A domain in which every ideal is principal is called a principal ideal domain, written PID. The ring of integers and the ring of polynomials in one variable over a field are examples of PID's. Every PID is a UFD. A principal ideal I= (a) ina UFD is prime if and only if a is irreducible. Let I be an ideal ina ring R. The residue class ring of R modulo I is written R/I; it is the set of equivalence classes of elements in R under the equivalence relation: a~b if a-b eI. The equivalence class containing a may be called the I-residue of a; it is often denoted by &@. R/I forms a ring in such a way that the function 1:R >R/I taking each element to its I-residue is a ring homomorphism. R/T is characterized by the following property: if g:R-——> 8 is a ring homomorphism to a ring 8, and (I) = 0, then there is a unique ring homomorphism @:R/I >s such that g=@ ¢ x. Aproper ideal I in R is prime if and only if R/I is a domain, and maximal if and only if R/I isa field. Every maximal ideal is prime. let k bea field, I a proper ideal in »X,)- The homomorphism TKK Xa] ring homomorphism from k to K[X,,+--,X,]/I. We tms regard k as a subring of k(X,,...,X,J/I; in particular XIX) > K[Xy,-++)X,)/1 restricts to aAFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 5 KK), +X, )/T is a vector space over k. Let R be a domain. The characteristic of R, char(R), is the smallest positive integer p such that 1+...4+1 (p times) = 0, if such a p exists; other- wise char(R) = 0. If o:% homomorphism from 2 to R, then Ker(y) = (p), so char(R) is a prime number. >R is the unique ring If R isaring, ae R, Fe R[X], and a is arootof F, then F= (X-a)G, Ge R[X]. A field k is algebraically closed if any non-constant F € k[X] has a root. It follows that F= wm(r-a,) 2 we AL ek, where the ay are the distinct roots of F, and es is the multiplicity of 2,. A polynomial of degree d has a roots in k, counting mltiplicities. € is an algebraically closed field. Let R be any ring. The derivative of a polynomial Feo a,x? € R[X] is defined to be Bi ax, and is Or written either Sy or Fy. If Fe RIX,--%,], or 5x is defined by considering F as a polynomial i in X, with coefficients in R[M,++-s%;_y) Xiyqes+oXq]- The following rules are easily verified: (1) (aF + 0G), = aF, + dG, abe R. 2) F.=0 if F is a constant. x (3) (FG)y = FG + FO, and (PF) = arte.6 ALGEBRAIC CURVES, (4) Tf Gy-.G, € R(X], and Fe R[Xj,+--,X], n then PCG), ++ 5G, dy =. 2 Fy Gy Gay . (5) F =F. y, where we have written Xj 7 OG Fax, for (Fy dy . (6) (Euler's Theorem) If is a form of degree F n m in R[X,,....X,], then mF = 5 XFL. y n oy “x, Problems. 1-1*. Let R be a domain. §) If F, G are forms of degree r, 8 respectively in RIX, ++ Xi], show that FG is a form of degree rts. (b) Show that any factor of a form in RIX), is also a form. 1-2%, Let R bea UFD, K the quotient field of R. Show that every element z of K may be written z= a/b, where a,b £ R have no common factors; this representation is unique up to units of R. 1-3%, Let R bea PID. Let P be a non-zero, proper, prime ideal in R. (a) Show that P is generated by an irreducible element. (b) Show that P is maximal. i-We, Let k be an infinite field, Fe k[X,,.+.,X,]- Suppose F(a,,--+,8,) = 0 for all a),.+.,4, € k. Show 1 that F= 0. (Hint: Write F=2 FX, Fy © K(X,Ka) ALGEBRAIC SETS 7 ution on n, and the fact that F(a,,...,a, 45X,) a finite number of roots if any se18q.q) £0) ‘a Let k be any field. Show that there are an Hite number of irreducible monic polynomials in k[X]. Suppose Fj,...,F, were all of them, and factor F #1 into irreducible factors.) Show that any algebraically closed field is infinite. +: The irreducible monic polynomials are X-a, a € k.) let k bea field, Fe k[X,..4X)], way € i (a) Show that F=5 X(4)& ray) teeet (Kran) . ek. (b) If F(aj,---54)) 0, show that n Fee for some (not unique) G, € k[X,,.--,X,]- Affine Space and Algebraic Sets Let k be any field. By A™(k), or simply A” (Gf is understood), we shall mean the cartesian product of k with itself n times: a%(k) is the set of ‘n-tuples of elements of k. A'(k) is called affine ‘n-space over k; its elements will be called points. Ab(s) is the affine line, A°(k) the affine plane. If Fe k(X,--.,X,], @ point P= (ayy essa)) © AM(k) is a zeroof F if8 ALGEBRAIC CURVES F(P) = P(a--.sa,) = 0. If F-is not a constant, the set of zeros of F is called the hypersurface defined by F, and is denoted by V(F). A hypersurface in A°(k) is called an affine plane curve. If F is a polynomial of degree one, V(F) is called a hyperplane in A™(k); if n=2, it is a line. Examples. Let k= R. aS eK a. vV(¥?-x(x°-1)) c a? bv. v(¥P-x? (x1) < A? DD V(J). (4) v(Fc) = V(F) U v(G) for any polynomials F,G. V(r) Uv(g) = vi{Fa | Fe, Ge J}); so any finite union of algebraic sets is an algebraic set. (5) v(0) = am(x). va) = ¢ V(Xy-ayy ee eXy-@,) = ((ayse-y@,)} for ay ek. So any finite subset of A"(k) is an algebraic set. Problems. 1-8". show that the algebraic subsets of A(x) are just the finite subsets, together with Al(k) itself. 1-9. If k is a finite field, show that every subset of A'(x) is algebraic. 1-10. Give an example of a countable collection of alg- ebraic sets whose union is not algebraic. 1-11. (a) Show that {(t,t7,3) © A(x) | tek} is an algebraic set. : (v) Show that {(cos(t), sin(t)) € aP(R) [teR10 ALGEBRAIC CURVES is an algebraic set. (c) Show that the set of points in A°(R) whose polar coordinates (r,@) satisfy the equation r = sin(@) is an algebraic set. 1-12. Suppose C is an affine plane curve, and L isa line in a*(k), L¢ C. Suppose C= V(F), Fe k[X,¥] a polynomial of degree n. Show that LMC is a finite set of no more than n points. (Hint: Suppose L= V(¥-(aXtb)), and consider F(X,aX+b) © k[X].) 1-13. Show that each of the following sets is not algebraic: (a) COsyy) © aOR) | y = sin(x)} (>) {(gwe aP(e) | [2l? + wl® = 1, where |xtiy]? =x +y for x,y eR. (c) {(cos(t), sin(t), t) € 1 ¢R) | teR. 1-10", Let F be a non-constant polynomial in K[%p++-4X,], K algebraically closed. Show that A (x) - V(F) is infinite ifn>1, and V(F) is infinite if n> 2. Conclude that the complement of any algebraic set is infinite. (Hint: See Problem 1-4). 1-15". tet Vo A(x), Wo AM(k) be algebraic sets. Show that Vx W= ((8jy+++r8y) Dyyeeeyby) | (ayyeeea,) © V> (by +++5,,) € W} is an algebraic set in ah™M ay. rt is called the product of V. and W. 3. The Ideal of a Set of Points For any subset X of A™(k), we consider thoseAFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 1 polynomials which vanish on X; they form an ideal in K[Xj,-+-,X,], called the ideal of X, and written 1(X). IX) = {Fe k[X--.%] | F(ajy+++38,) = 0 for all (3-218) € X}. The following properties show some of the relations between ideals and algebraic sets; the verifications are left to the reader (See Problems 1-4” and 1-7): (6) If XC Y¥, then I(x) > 1(¥). (7) 2(P) = KEK, XJe (AM(K)) = (0) it k is an infinite field. I({(a,,--.,a,)}) = (Kray, ra.) for a, ek. (8) 1(v(S))> 8 for any set 8 of polynomials. V(1(X)) > X for any set X of points. (9) v(z(v(s))) = V(S) for_any set 6 of polynomials, and. I(v(1(X))) = I(x) for any set. X of points. So if vis an algebraic set, V=V(I(V)), and if I is the ideal of an algebraic set, I = I(v(I)). An ideal which is the ideal of an algebraic set has’a property not shared by all ideals: if I= 1(X), gna Fo © I for some integer n>O, then Fel. If is any ideal in a ring R, we define the radical of I, written Red(I), tobe {ae R| a” eI for some integer ia> 0}. Raa(I) is an ideal (Problem 1-16 below) containing is called a radical ideal if I= Rad(I). So we property (10) (x) 4s a radical ideal for any set eC atk).12 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Problems. 1-16". Let V,W be algebraic sets in A"(k). Show that V=W if and only if I(V) = I(W). 1-1". (a) Let V be an algebraic set in A%(x), Pe A'(k) a point not in V. Show that there is a poly- nomial F ¢ k[X,,-..,X,] such that F(Q) = 0 for all QevV, but F(P)= 1. (Hint: I(v) 4 1(VU {P}) (>) Let [P,,-..,P,} be a finite set of points in A"(k). Show that there are polynomials FyyssesFy € KOKys++yX,] such that F,(P,)= 0 ifid 5, and F,(P,) = 1. (c) Let V be an algebraic set in a”, PP, ¢ V. Show that there is a polynomial Fe k[X,,-.-,X,] such that F(P,) #0, i= 1, 2, but FeI(v). (Hint: Find Fy e€1(V) so that F,(P,) 7 0, Then Fe Fy or Fy or FL + Fp). 1-18". Let I bean idealinaring R. If a” e 1, v™ eI, show that (a+ b)™™ eZ. Show that Rad(I) is an ideal, in fact a radical ideal. Show thet any prime ideal is radical. 1-19. Show that I= (x° +1) CIR[X] is a radical (even a prime) ideal, but I is not the ideal of any set in a(R) 1-20". Show thet for any ideal I in KIX, +X] V(I) = V(Rad(I)), and Rad(I) c I(v(I)). * 1-21". Show thet I= (Xj-a,,..+)%,-8,) © R[Kys +X] is a maximel ideal, and that the natural homomorphism from k to [Ky +X ]/1 is an isomorphism.AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 13 4, The Hilbert Basis Theorem Although we have allowed an algebraic set to be defined by any set of polynomials, in fact a finite number will always do. Theorem 1. Every algebraic set_is the intersection of a finite mumber of hypersurfaces. Proof: Let the algebraic set be V(I) for some ideal Ic k[X,,.--,X,]. It is enough to show that I is finitely generated, for if T= (Fy,...,F,), then W(Z) = V(#))N...N V(F,). To prove this fact we need some algebra: A ring is said to be Noetherian if every ideal in the ring is finitely generated. Fields and PID's are Noetherian rings. Theorem 1, therefore, is a consequence of the HILBERT BASIS THEOREM. If R is a Noetherian ring, then RIX, +++9X,] is a Noetherian ring. Proof: Since R[X,,...,X,] is isomorphic to +++eXq_1] [X,]> the theorem will follow by induction @ can prove that R[X] is Noetherian whenever R is Noetherian. Let I be an ideal in R[X]. We mst find o 2th, finite set of generators for I. : Te Psa) tax tit ax? € RIX], a, #0 we jeall a, the leading coefficient of F. Let J be the Wet of leading coefficients of all polynomials in I. It easy to check that J is an ideal in R, so there are polynomials ry, jgenerate J. Take an integer N larger than the degree oF, eT whose leading coefficientsak ALGEBRAIC CURVES of each Fj. For each m N, we can find polynomials Q, such that = Q,F, and G have the same leading term. But then deg(G-E QF.) R/I the natural homomorphism. (a) Show that for every ideal J' of R/I, x 1(5') is an ideal of R containing I, and for every ideal J of R containing I, (J) =J' is an ideal of R/I. This sets up a natural one-to-one correspondence between {ideals of R/I} and {ideals of R which contain I}. (>) Show that J' is a radical ideal if and only if J is radical. Similerly for prime and maximal ideals. (c) Show that J’ is finitely generated if J is. Conclude that R/I is Noetherian if R is Noetherian. Any ring of the form k[X,,++.,X,]/I is Noetherian.ARFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS : b 5. Irreducible Components of an Algebraic Set An algebraic set may be the union of several smaller algebraic sets (§1.2 Example a). An algebraic set vc A™ is reducible if V=V,U Vj, where Vj, Vp are algebraic sets in AY, and V,7V, i+ 1, 2. Otherwise V is ‘irreducible. “PROPOSITION 1. An algebraic set V is irreducible if and only if I(V) is prime. Proof. If I(V) is not prime, say 2 E I(v), Fy fg I(v). Then ve (vn W(#,)) U (v NV(FS)), ‘and vn v(F,) 5 Vv, so V is reducible. he Conversely if V=V,UV,, V, CV, then = 1 2 i ¢ B02 Iv); let Fy € 1(V), Fy ¢ 1(V). Then B\Fo € 1(V), so I(V) is not prime. We want to show that an algebraic set is the union ee a finite number of irreducible algebraic sets. If V His reducible, we write V=V, UY); if V, is reducible, write V, = VU Wy ete. ‘he need to know that this rocess stops. Let § de any non-empty collection of ideals in a R. Then sf has a maximal member, i.e. there is an ideal I in “in Af which is not contained in any sther ideal of af. Proof. Choose an ideal from each subset of oJ . 0 be the chosen ideal for 4 itself. Let16 ALGEBRAIC CURVES @={1eP| 131g}, andiet 1, ve the chosen ideal of d. tet of, ={I ed Is I} ete. It 7 suffices to show that some be is empty. If not let I= U I, anidealof R. Let F,,...,F_ generate I; n=O nn 1 r . each Ry € q, if n is chosen sufficiently large. But then I,=1, so 1,,,=1,, a contradiction. It follows’ immediately from this lenma that any collection of algebraic sets in A™(k) has a minimal member. For if {V,} is such a collection, take a maximal member 1(¥q,) from f(y + Then Yay is clearly minimal in the collection. THEOREM 2. Let V be an algebraic set in A™(k). Then there are unique irreducible algebraic sets V,-..,V,, such that V=V,U...UV, and vi ¢ V, forall i 4d. Proof. ret f = [algebraic sets VC AMk) | Vv is not the union of a finite number of irreducible algebraic sets}. We want to show that f is empty. If not, let V be a minimal member of ef. since ved’, V is not irreducible, so V = Vy U Vp V,¢ V. Then v, ¢ xf, so V, V. irreducible. But Uru Vine May then Ve U vy a contradiction. ig So any algebraic set V may be written as VeV,U...UV,, V, irreducible. To get the second yAFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 17 condition, simply throw away any V, such that V,¢ V, ‘for i# j. To show uniqueness, let V= Wy UL..U W, be another such decomposition. Then V, = y (ws n Vy)s so VySWy(z) for some J(i). Similarly W,(4)C Vy for some k. But V, CV, k Likewise each Ws; is equal to some a5)" implies i= k, so Vy = Wy) The V, are called the irreducible components of V; V=V,U...UV, is the decomposition of V into irreducible components. Problems. 1-23. Give an example of a collection & of ideals in a Noetherian ring such that no maximal member of Oo is a maximal ideal. 1-2h. Show that every proper ideal in a Noetherian ring is contained in a maximal ideal. (Hint: If I is the ideal, apply the lemma to {proper ideals which contain Th.) 1-25. (a) Show that v(¥-x*) © a®(e) is irreducible; in fact, I(v(¥-x")) = (¥-x*). (b) Decompose vte?, vi Fay? -13) c a) into irreducible components. 1-26. show that F= Y4x°(x-1)° ¢ R[X,Y] is an irreducible polynomial, but that V(F) is reducible. ‘127. Let V,W be algebraic sets in A°(k), Ve W. Show “that each irreducible component of V is contained in ‘some irreducible component of W.18 ALGEBRAIC CURVES 1-28. If Ve=V,U...UV, is the decomposition of an algebraic set into irreducible components, show that v.g U v,. Pa? = n 1-29 ,If k is infinite, show that A"(k) is irreducible. 6. Algebraic Subsets of the Plane Before developing the general theory further, we will take a closer look at the affine plene A(x), and find all its algebraic subsets. By Theorem 2 it is enough to find the irreducible algebraic sets. PROPOSITION 2. Let F and G be polynomials in k([X,Y] with no common factors. Then V(F,G) = V(F) MN v(G) isa finite set_of points. Proof! F and G have no common factors in K[X][Y], so they also have no common factors in k(X)[¥] (see §1). Since x(X)[¥] is PID, (F,G) = (1) in k(X)(¥], so RF+S8G= 1 for some R, 8 € k(X)[Y]. There is a non-zero De k[X] such that DR= A, DS= Be k[X,Y]. Therefore AF + BG=D. If (a,b) € V(F,G), then D(a) =.0. But D has only a finite number of zeros. This shows thet only a finite number of X-coordinates appear among the points of V(F,G). Since the same reasoning applies to the Y-coordinates, there can be only a finite. number of points. COROLLARY 1. If F is an irreducible polynomial in [X,Y], endif V(F) is infinite, then 1(v(F)) = (F), and V(F) is irreducible.AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 19 Proof: If Ge I(V(F)), V(F,G) is infinite, so F divides G by the proposition, i.e. Ge (F). The fact that V(F) is irreducible then follows from Proposition 1. COROLLARY 2. Suppose k is infinite. Then the irreducible algebraic subsets of A°(k) are: A(x), g, points, ana irreducible plane curves V(F), where F is an irreducible polynomial and V(F) is infinite. Proof: Let V be an irreducible algebraic set in w(x). If V is finite or I(v) = (0), V is of the required type. Otherwise I(V) contains a non-constant polynomial F; since I(V) is prime, some irreducible factor of F belongs to I(V), so we may assume F is irreducible. Then I(V) = (F); for if Ge I(V), G¥ (F), then Vc V(F,G) is finite. COROLLARY 3. _Assume k is algebraically closed, F € k[X,¥]. n. n 1 r Let Fe Fy ok be the decomposition of F into irreducible factors. Then V(F) = V(F,) U...U V(F,) is. the decomposition of V(F) into irreducible components, and I(v(F)) = (Byte FD Proof: No F, divides any F,, J # i, so there are no inclusion relations among the V(F,). And 1(U V(F,)) = M T(v(F,)) = a(R). Since any polynomial i i i divisible by each F, is also divisible by Flies FL, (Fj) = (Fy--."F,). Note that the v(F,) are infinite since k is algebraically closed (Problem 1-14).20 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Problems. 1-30. Let. k =R. (a) Show that t(v(x° + ¥° + 1)) = (1). (>) Show that every algebraic subset of A°(R) is equal to V(F) for some F ¢ R[X,Y]. This indicates why we usually require that k be algebraically closed. 1+31. (a) Find the irreducible components of ve -xy-x?y 43) in a?(R), and also in a°(q). (b) Do the same for v(v"-x(x°-1)), and for v(xeK-x yey). 7. Hilbert's Nullstellensatz If we are given an algebraic set V, Proposition 1 gives a criterion for telling whether V is irreducible or not. What is lacking is a way to describe V in terms of a given set of polynomials which define V. The preceding paragraph gives a beginning to this problem, but it is the Nullstellensatz, or Zeros-theorem, which tells us the exact relationship between ideals and algebraic sets. We begin with a somewhat weaker theorem, and show how to reduce it to a purely algebraic fact. In the rest of this section we show how to deduce the main result from the weaker theorem, and give a few applications. We assume throughout this section that k is algebraically closed. WEAK NULLSTELLENSATZ. If I is a proper ideal in X[Xy---5X,], then V(I) 4 gAFFINE ALGEBRATC SETS al Proof: We may assume that I is a maximal ideal, for there is a maximal ideal J containing I (Problem 1-2h), and V(J)cV(I). So L= k[X,,-.-,X,J/I is field, ana k may be regarded as a subfield of L (cf. §1). Suppose we knew that k=. Then for each i there isan a, such thet the I-residue of X, is a,, or X,-e, € I. Bat (Xyraqs +X -a,) is a maximal ideal (Problem 1-21), so I= (Kyrays es Ky-@y)s and WI) = {(ay---28,)} 4 Thus we have reduced the problem to showing: (*) If an algebraically closed field k is a subfield of afield L, and there is a ring homomorphism from K[Xj)+++y%,] onto L (which is the identity on k), then ke L. The algebra needed to prove this will be developed in §8, 9; (*) will be proved in §10. HILBERT'S NULLSTELLENSATZ. Let I be an ideal in K[Xyy--+yX,] (kt algebraically closed). Then I(V(I)) = Rad(I). Note. In concrete terms, this says the following: if FG € K[Xy,-+-5X,]5 and G vanishes wherever 2F,, Vanish, then there is an equation a - ASF) tee et AF for some N>O and some yf KEK X,]- Proof: That Rad(I)c I(V(I)) is easy (Problem 1-20). Suppose that. G & UV(Fyy+++9Fy))> Fle RD) ++ XQ] Let J = (FyyeeesFys Xyyqe) © kDXqy ee Ky Xayq]+ Then22 ALGEBRAIC CURVES ves) © at the F,'s are zero. Applying the Weak Nullstellensatz (k) is empty, since G vanishes wherever ell to J, we see that le J, so there is an equation L=E ACK XP, + BX, oe Xnyg)? Oy @2)- Let Y= 1/X,,,> and multiply the equation by « high power of Nv Y, so that an equation Y =f CX yoo X YF, + D(Xys++Xy¥)(G¥) in K[X,,-.-,X,,¥] results. Sub- stituting G for Y gives the required equation. The above proof is due to Rabinowitsch. The first three corollaries are immediate consequences of the theorem. COROLLARY 1. If I is a radical ideal in k(X,,..-,X,], then I(V(I)) = I. So there is a one-to-one correspondence between radical ideals and algebraic sets. COROLLARY 2. If I is a prime ideal, then V(I) is irreducible. There is e one-to-one correspondence between prime ideals and irreducible algebraic sets. The maximal ideals correspond to points. a. COROLLARY 3. Let Fe k(Xj,-..X,], Fa Fy ote the decomposition of F into irreducible factors. Then V(F) = V(F,)U.+.U V(F,) is the decomposition of v(F) into irreducible components, and I(V(F)) = (Fy'--.*F,). There is a one-to-one correspondence between irreducible Polynomials F € k[X,,--.,X,] (up _to mltiplication by a non-zero element of k) and irreducible hypersurfaces in AM (x).AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 23 COROLLARY 4. Let I be an ideal in k[X,,...,X,]- Then v(I) is a finite set if and only if K(X) +++ X,1/T is a finite dimensional vector space over k. If this occurs, the number of points in V(I) is < dim, (K[X,,.--,X,]/1). Proof: Let Py,+..,P, € V(I). Choose polynomials FyyeeoP, € K[Kyy+++yX,] such that F,(P,)= 0 if if 3, and F,(P,) = 1 (Problem 1-17); let Fy ve the I-residue of Fy. If By Fp = 0,2, €k, then £2, F € I, so y= © Ay F(R) = 0. Thus the Fy are linearly independent over k, so r < dim,(k[X,,-..,X,]/I). Conversely, if V(I) {P,,.-.P} is finite, let Py = (@j;)+++38,)s and let Re (X5-95 5) isl Je leon. Then F,€ 1(V(I)), 80 Fy € 1 for some N>0 (fake N large enough to work for all F,). Taking I-residues, F." 20, so x is a k-linear combination rN-l Be of 1, Xjpee is'e K-Linear combination of bk . It follows by induction that x, TN-l for alls, and hence that %, te “a | m, < rN} generate Kye XI/0 as a vector space over k. Problems. 1-32. Show that both theorems and all the corollaries are false if k is not algebraically closed. 1-33. (a) Decompose vee, #2?) < 3(e) into irreducible components. 5 3 3 (v) Let Ve {(t,t,t-) e an(c) | tec}. Findeb ALGEBRAIC CURVES I(v), and show thet V is irreducible. 1-34, Let R be a UFD. (a) Show that a monic polynomial of degree two or three in R[X] is irreducible if and only if it has no root in R. (v) x°-a € RIX] is irreducible if ana only if a is not a square in R. 1-35. Show that V(¥?-K(X-1)(X-2)) © # (x) is an irreducible curve for any algebraically closed field k, and eny Ek. 1-36. Let I= (2x, Vx?) © o[X,¥]. Find V(I) ana aim, (€[X, ¥]/I). * 1-37". Let K be any field, Fe K[X] a polynomial of degree n> 0. Show that the residues J, x,...,%°4 forma basis of K[X]/(F) over K. 1-38". Let R= k[X,,-+-%,], k algebraically closed, V=V(I). Show that there is a natural one-to-one corres- pondence detween algebraic subsets of V and radical ideals in kD, soX, 1/1 and that irreducible algebraic sets (resp. points) correspond to prime ideals (resp. maximal ideals). (See Problem 1-22). 1-39. (a) Let R be a UFD, andlet P=(t) bea principal, proper, prime ideal. Show that there is no prime ideal Q such that 0C Q2 P, 940, Q¥P. (b) Let V-= V(F) be an irreducible hypersurface in A". Show that there is no irreducible algebraic set‘AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 25 W such that vewca,wdv,w7 ar iho. tet r= (x°-¥3, v°.23) ¢ x[x,¥,2]. Define ork [X, ¥, Z] >k[T] by a(X) = ., oY) = 2, a(Z) = a, (a) Show that every element of k[X,Y,Z2]/I is the wresidue of an element A+XB+ YC +XY¥D, for some A,B, C,D, € k[Z]. (o) If F=A+XB+ YC + XYD, A,B,C,D € k[2], and a(F) = 0, compare like powers of T to conclude that F= 0. (c) Show that Ker(a) is irreducible, and I(V(I)) = I. I, so I is prime, V(I) 8. Modules; Finiteness Conditions Let R be a ring. An R-module is a commtative group M (the group law on Mis written +; the identity of the group is 0, or O%) together with a scalar mltiplication, i.e. a function from RxM to M (denote the image of (a,m) by a-m or am) satisfying: (i) (at>) m= amtbm for ajbe Ry me M (ii) a-(mtn) = amtan for ae R, mneM (414) (ab)+m= a-(bm) for abe R, me M (iv) lym=m for meM, where 1, is the R multiplicative identity in R. Exercise. Show that Opn = Ov for all me M. Examples. (1) A Zmodule is just a commtative group, where (ta)m= +(m+...+m) (a times) for ae % a> 0. (2) If R is a field, an R-module is the same thing as a vector space over R.26 ALGEBRAIC CURVES (3) The mitiplication in R makes any ideal of R into an R-module. (4) If g:R define r-s for reR, s€ 8, dy the equation res =@(r)8- This makes S into an R-module. In >§ is a ring homomorphism, we particular, if a ring R is a subring of a ring 8, then S is an R-module. A subgroup N of an R-module M is called a sub- module if ame N for allaeR, meN; WN is then an R-module. If 8 is a set of elements of an R-module M, the submodule generated by S is defined to be fe rps; | r, €R, 8; € 8}; it is the smallest submodule of M which contains $. If S=(s,,...,8,) is finite, the submodule generated by § is denoted by E Rs,. M is said to be finitely generated if M= 5 Rs, for some Sy)+++38, €M. Note that this concept agrees with the notions of finitely generated commtative groups and ideals, and with the notion of a finite-dimensional vector space if R is a field. Let R bea subring of a ring S. There are several types of finiteness conditions for S$ over R, depending on whether we consider § as an R-module, a ring, or (possibly) a field. (A) 8S is said to be module-finite over R, if S$ is finitely generated as an R-module. If R and S are fields, we denote the dimension of S over R by [s:R]. ,AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 27 (B) Let Vysee¥, £8. Let @:R[Xys + Xp] X, to vy. The image of » is written R[v,,..-,v,]. >S be the ring homomorphism taking It is a subring of S$ containing R and vy,....v,, and it is the smallest such subring. RIV i i {Ee , . ny acy R}. S is ring-finite over sv) = R if S= Rfv,,-..,¥,] for some v, € 8. (c) Suppose R= K, S=L are fields. If VyrresVy € Ly we let K(vy)+++5¥,) be the quotient field Of K[vy,-++,v,]- We regard K(v,,.+.,v,) es @ subfield of L; it is the smallest subfield of L containing K and v,,-..,¥,- L is said to be a finitely generated field _extensionof K if L= K(v,...,v,) for some Yyre¥, & Le Problems. 1-41". If § is module-finite over R, then ‘S$ is ring-finite over R. 42, Show that S = R(X] (the ring of polynomials in ie variable) is ring-finite over R, but not module- If L is ring-finite over K (K,L fields) then is a finitely generated field extension of K. ui", Show that L= K(X) (the field of retional functions nvéné variable) is a finitely generated field extension K, but L is not ring-finite over K. (Hint: If were ring-finite over K, there would be an element b.£ K[X] such that for all ze, bd"z € K[X] for some28 ALGEBRAIC CURVES n; but let 2=1/c, where c doesn't divide b (Problem 1-5).) 1-45", Let R be a subring of 8, S a subring of 1. (a) If S=5g Rv, T=5 Sw show that Tae Ryw,. (o) If S=Rivyyeresvyle T= S[Wyy-eey¥Q], show that T= REvyse--yVyy Wy eeeeWq] (c) If R,S,T are fields, and S = R(vy5++-3¥,)> Ts S(wyy---5Wy), then T= R¢vyseeeg Vay Wyseeey Wy) So all of the finiteness conditions are transitive relations 9. Integral Elements Let R be a subring of a ring $. An element veS is said to be integral over R if there is a monic polynomial F = x" + ag et a, € RIX] such that F(v)=0. If R and S are fields, we usually say thet v is algebraic over R if v is integral over R. PROPOSITION 3. Let R be a subring of a domain S, ve 8. Then the following are equivalent: (1) v is integral over R. (2) R{v] is module-finite over R. (3) There is a subring R' of S$ containing R[v] which is module-finite over R. Proof: (1) implies (2): If vba ve vata, = 0, a mh a then vie £ Rv’. It follows by induction that is0AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 29 ot nls ve 5 Rv! forall m so R[v]= 5 RV. ic0 iz0 (2) implies (3); Let R' = R[v]. n (3) implies (1): If R'= 5 Rw, then eWay n yp qj © Re Then E(B; ;v-ayj)wy = 0 for del all i, where 6,,=0 if i¢d, 0,51. If we consider these equations in the quotient field of 8S, we see that (Wy ++ +9) is a non-trivial solution, so det (8; vee, 5) = 0. Since v appears only in the diagonal of the i this determinant has the form v Pay dete nw ye R. So v is integral over R. COROLLARY. The set of elements of S which are integral er R is a subring of S containing R. Proof. If a,b are integral over R, then b is ‘integral over R{a]>R, so R[a,b] is module-finite ‘over R (Problem 1-45(a)). And a+b, abe R[a,b], so “they are integral over R by the proposition. We say that S is integral over R if every [element of § is integral over R. If R and S are (fields, we say 8 is an algebraic extension of R if is integral over R. ees * oblems, 1-46". Let R bea subringof S, S a Boon of T. If S is integral over R, and T is tegral over 8, show that T is integral over R. inti Let 2%, 27+ a2 ..4a = 0, a, eS. Then30 ALGEBRAIC CURVES R[ayy+++58,92] is module-finite over R.) 147, Suppose § is ring-finite over R. Show that S is module-finite over R if and only if S is integral over R. 1-l8". Let L bea fiela, k an algebraically closed subfield of L. (a) Show that any element of L which is algebraic over k is already in k. (>) An algebraically closed field has no module- finite field extensions except itself. 1-lo". Let K vee field, L= K(X) the fiela of rational functions in one variable over K. (a) Show that any element of L which is integral over K[X] is already in K[X]. (Hint: If oe age =0, write z= F/G, FG relatively prime Then Fo 4 agree. = 0, so G divides F.) (bv) Show that there is no non-zero element Fe K[X] such that for every ze 1, F'z is integral over K[X] for some n>0O. (Hint: Let z= 1/G, where G is an irreducible polynomial not dividing F.) % 150. Let K bea subfield of a fiela L. (a) Show that the set of elements of L which are algebraic over K is:a subfield of L containing K. (Hint: re v2+ ayy ea, = 0, and a, 40, then nel, v(v = -3,-) (b) Suppose L is module-finite over K, and KCRCL, R acsubringof L. Show that R is a field.AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 31 10. Field Extensions Suppose K is a subfield of a field L, and suppose L=K(v) for some veL. Let @:K(X] be the homomorphism taking X to v. Let Ker(p) = (F), F € K[X] (since K[X] is a PID). K[X]/(F) is isomorphic to K[v], so (F) is prime. Two cases may >L occur: Case 1. F= 0. Then K[v] is isomorphic to K[X], so K(v) = L is isomorphic to K(X). In this case L is not ving-finite (or module-finite) over K (Problem 1-hh). Case 2. F #0. We may assume F is monic. (F) is prime, so F is irreducible and (F) is maximal (Problem 1-3); therefore K[v] is afield, so K[v] =K(v). F(v) = 0, so v is algebraic over K, and L= K[v] is module- finite over K. To finish the proof of the Nullstellensatz, we must Prove the claim (*) of §7; this says that if a fiela L is a ring-finite extension of an algebraically closed field k, then L=k. In view of Problem 1-48, it is enough ‘to show that L is module-finite over k. the above iseussion indicates that a ring-finite field extension is Blready module-finite. The next proposition shows that Ghis is always true, and completes the proof of the zg Mulistellensatz. wy OPOSITION.4. (Zariski) If a field L is ring-finite over i meiela K, then L is module-finite (and hence ‘lgebraic) over K.32 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Proof; Suppose L = K[v,,-..,v,]- The case a= 1 is taken care of by the above discussion, so we assume the result for ell extensions generated by n - 1 elements. Let XK, = K(v,). By induction, b= Kj[vp)--.yv,] ts module-finite over K,. We may assume v, is not algebraic over K (otherwise Problem 1-45(a) finishes the proof). Each vy ny n,-1 vy tay, tee =O, ay, © K. Tf we take ae Kiv] which is a multiple of all the denominators of : ny ny . the a,;, we get equations (av,) + aa, ,(av,) tere = OW It follows from the corollary to Proposition 3 that for satisfies an equation any 2€L=K[vjy+-.,v,], there is an N such that aX, is integral over K[v,]- In particuler this mst hold for 2 K(v,). But since K(v,) is isomorphic to the field of rational functions in-one variable over K, this is impossible (Problem 1-49(b)). Problems. 1-51". Let K bea field, Fe K(X] an irreducible monic polynomial of degree n> 0. (a) Show that L= K[X]/(F) is a field, and if x is the residue of X in L, then F(x) = 0. (b) Suppose L' is @ field extension of K, y € 1! such that F(y) = 0. Show that the homomorphism from K[X] to L' which takes X to y induces an isomorphism of L with K(y). (c) With L',y as in (b), suppose Ge K[X] ana G(y) = 0. Show that F divides «G. (4) Show that F = (X-x)-F,, Fy e L(x].AFFINE ALGEBRAIC SETS 33, * 1-52. Let K bea field, Fe K[X]. Show that there is n a field L containing K such that F= 1 (X-x;) e L(x]. jel (Hint: Use Problem 51(d) and induction on the degree.) L is called a splitting field of PF. % 1-53'. Suppose K is a field of characteristic zero, F an irreducible monic polynomial in K[X] af degree n> 0. n Let L be a splitting field of F, so F= 1 (Kea, )ox5 el. isl Show that the x, are distinct. (Hint: Apply Problem 5l(c) to G= Fy; if (x-x)® divides F, then G(x) = 0). 1-54". Let R be @ domain with quotient field x, and let L be @ finite algebraic extension of K. (a) For any veL, show that there is a non-zero 2€R such that av is integral over R. (>) Show that there is a basis v,,...,v, for L over K (as a vector space) such that each v, is Antegral over R.CHAPTER 2 AFFINE VARIETIES From now on k will be a fixed algebraically closed field. Affine algebraic sets will be in A" = A"(x) for some n. An irreducible affine algebraic set is called an affine variety. # All rings and fields will contain k as a subring. By a homomorphism @:R > of such rings, we will jean a ring homomorphism such that g(4) = % for all Ae k. In this chapter we will be concerned only with affine varieties, so we call them simply varieties. 1. Coordinate Rings Let VcA" be a variety. I(v) is then a prime ideal in k[X,,---,X,], so k[X,,-++yX,]/I(V) is a domain. We let T(V)= K[X,+-+)X,1/1(V), and call it the ‘coordinate ring of Vv. For any (non-empty) set V, we let J(V,k) be the set of all functions from V to k. J(V,k) is 3536 ALGEBRAIC CURVES made into a ring in the usual way: if f,g © 7(V,k), (ete) (x) = £(x)te(x), (fa)(x) = t(x)e(x), for all x eV. It is usual to identify k with the subring of 7(V,k) consisting of all constant functions. If vcaA™ is a variety, a function f € Z(V,k) is called a polynomial function if there is a polynomial Fe k[Xj,+++yX,] such that f(a,,.++ya,) = Playy-+.sa,) for all (a,,.-.,8,) € V. The, polynomial functions form pee a subring : F(V,k) containing k. Two polynomials F,G determine the same function if and only if (P-G)(ay,-.-,8,) = 0 for all (a),...,a,) €V, ive. F-G ¢ I(V). We may thus identity [(V) with the subring of J(V,k) consisting of all polynomial functions on V. We have two important ways to view an element of [(V) - as a function on V, or as an equivalence class of poly- nomials. Problems. 2-1. Show that the map which associates to each Fe K[X,,-.+,X,] a polynomial function in F(V,k) is a ring homomorphism whose kernel is I(V). 2-2". Let veoa™ be a variety. A subvariety of V is a variety WC A™ which is contained in V. Show that there is a natural one-to-one correspondence between algebraic subsets (resp. subvarieties, resp. points) of V and radical ideals (resp. prime ideals, resp. maximal ideals) of [(v). (See Problems 1-22, 1-38). 2-3". Let W be a subvariety of a variety V, and let (ww) be the ideal of F(V) corresponding to W. (a) Show that every polynomial function on V restricts to a polynomial function on W.AFFINE VARIETIES 37 (b) “Show that the map from T(V) to [(W) defined in part (a) is a homomorphism with Kernel r(W), so that T(W) is isomorphic to T(v)/Ty(w). x a-l". Let Vo A bea variety. Show that the following are equivalent: (i) V is a.point. (ii) (Vv) = x.~ (444) aimr(v) < @ 2-5. Let F be an irreducible polynomial in k[X,Y], and suppose F is monic in Y: F= viva, (x)yo Let V=V(F)c 4°, Show that the natural homomorphism from k[X] to T(V) = k[X,Y]/(F) is one-to-one, so that k[X] may be regarded as a subring of ['(V); show that ‘the residues I, ¥,...,¥1 generate [(v) over k(x] as a module. Polynomial Maps. Let VA", wo A™ de varieties. A function giv >W is called a polynomial map if there are polynomials T,...,T, € k[X,,-.+,X,] such that o(ay,- 2,) = (By (qs +s @q)s sees Ty(Oys++-sa,)) for all (ayyeea,) € Ve Any function @:V ow (Wk) >7(V,x), where g(f)= fe. If p is a polynomial map, then @(P(W)) CT (Vv), so @ restricts ‘to a homomorphism (also denoted by 9) from [(W) to T(v); for if feT(W) is the I(W)-residue of a spolynomial F, then o(f) = fop is the I(V)-residue of the > W induces a homomorphism polynomial F(T,,.-.)T,)- n n Te V= Aa", We AM, and Tyeeey K€ K(X KX)38 ALGEBRAIC CURVES determine a polynomial map 7: >A", the 1, are uniquely determined by T (See Problem 1-4), so we often write T= (Typ see 7)» PROPOSITION 1. Let vc A", Wo A™ be affine varieties. There is a natural one-to-one correspondence between the polynomial maps :V > W and the homomorphisms o:r (Ww) >I(V). Any such @ is the restriction of a Polynomial map from A” to A™ Proof: Suppose a:f(W) ——>TI(V) is a homo- morphism. Choose 1, € k[X,,-..,X,] such that a(L(W)-residue of X,) = (I(V)-residue of 1,), i=1,...4. Then T= (T,,...,2,) is a polynomial map from AP oto at, inducing Tir(a™) = k[X,--- 5X4] > P(A) = kX) +X) It is easy to check that 4(I(W)) c 1(V), and hence that T(V)c W, and so T restricts to a polynomial map ov >W. It is also easy to verify that ¢ = a. Since we know how to construct @ from @, this completes the proof. A polynomial map o > W is an isomorphism if > V_ such that yep = identity on V, pey = identity on W. Proposition 1 there is a polynomial map y:W shows that two affine varieties are isomorphic if and only if their coordinate rings are isomorphic. * Problems. 2-6. Let g:V > W, yi > Z. Show that 9 = ge}. Show that the composition of polynomial maps is a polynomial map. ~28t2. Wis a polynomial map, and X isAFFINE VARIETIES 39 an algebraic subset of W, show that @ (x) is an algebraic subset of V. If ot (x) is irreducible, show that X is irreducible. This gives a useful test for irreducibility. 2-8. (a) Show that [t,t°,t3) © a%(x) | tek} 4s an affine variety. (v) Show that v(xz-v°, vz-x3, 2?-x®x) c a3(e) is avariety. (Hint: yv3-x", 234°, 2+ e z(v). Finda polynomial map from ae) onto V). 2-9". Let @:V >W be a polynomial map of affine varieties, V'CV, W'CW subvarieties. Suppose ev')cw. (a) Show that 9 (Ty(W")) © 1,(V') (See Problem 2-3). (b) Show that the restriction of @ gives a poly- nomial map from V' to W'. >A", n>r, 2-10". Show that the projection map pr:A” defined by pr(ay, +00 8y) = (ays sey) is a polynomial map. eu. tet fel(v), Vv avariety CA". Define Gf) = (Cay eerragy,) © AM | (ayyeeeea,) © Vand O47 = (apy-+-08,)}, the graph of f. Show that c(t) dis/an affine variety, and that the map (a,,.-.,a,) ——> Cy eoay f(a,,+s+,8,)) defines an isomorphism of V ‘with G(f). (Projection gives the inverse). 12, (a) Let 9: > v= v(¥°-x3) c a? be defined ¥ @(t) = (47,63). show that although p is a one-to-one, ‘onto polynémial map, @ is not an isomorphism.4o ALGEBRAIC CURVES (Hints G(P(v)) = «ft?, 23) c fe] = r(a4).) (b) Let gal >V= v(x (x41)) be defined py g(t) = (12-1, t(t®-1)). show that @ is one-to-one and onto, except that (+1) = (0,0). 2-13. Let V= v(x°-¥3, y°-23) ca? as in Problem 1-40, ar (v) problem. >k[T] induced by the homomorphism a of that (a) What is the polynomial map fp: >v such that ¥ = a? (b) Show that f is one-to-one and onto, but not an isomorphism. 3. Coordinate Changes If T= (2,.-.,1,) is a polynomial mep from a to AM, and Pe k[X,---,X,], we let r= HF) = F(T,,...,7.). For ideals I and algebraic sets V in v mn A", 17 will aenote the ideal in K[X))--+5X,] generated vy {F | Fe 1} and v" the algebraic set t71(v) = v(t"), where I= I(V). If V is the hypersurface of F, v? is the hypersurface of F' (if F" is not a constan An affine change of coordinates on A” is a poly~ nomial mep T= (T,-..50,) : A" >a such that each 1, is a polynomial of degree 1, and such that 7 is one-to-one and onto. If T, = 5 a,jX, + aig then Home 14 .] Ts T"eT', where T! is a linear map (ty z= a; 5X5) m5 oo i and Tf" is a translation (ty =X, + io): Since any translation has an inverse (also a translation), it follows that T will be one-to-one (and onto) if and only if T'AFFINE VARIETIES AL is invertible. If T and U are affine changes of v1 : coordinates on A, then so are ToU and T; T is an isomorphism of the variety A” with itself. Problems. 2-14". A set VC A"(k) is called a linear subvariety of AN(k) if V= V(Fy,+-+,7,) for some polynomials F, of degree 1. (a) Show that if T is an affine change of coordinates on A", then V" is also a linear subvariety of A(x). (bo) If v4, show that there is an affine change of coordinates T of A® such that v= VXyyye 022 Xq)> (Hint: use induction on r). So V is a variety. (c) Show that the m which appears in part (b) is independent of the choice of 7. It is called the dimension of V. V is then isomorphic (as a variety) to A™(k). (Hint: Suppose there were an affine change of coordinates T such that V(XgqsereyXq) = V(Xgqp ee 9hq)s m< sj show that 1,,,-.+,2, would be dependent.) pr15". Let P= (ayyeees@n)s a= (by, ++49b,) be distinct points of A". The line through P and Q is defined to ibe f (a,+t(b,-a,), ---ya,+t(b,-a,)) Jtew. (a) Show that if L is the line through P and Q, id: T is an affine change of coordinates, then T(L) is e line through 1(P) and (9). : (b) Show that a line is a linear subvariety of mension 1, and that a linear subvariety of dimension 1 5 the line through any two of its points. (c) Show that, in A°, a line is the same thing aS. a hyperplane.We ALGEBRAIC CURVES (4) Let P, Pte a’, Lyly two distinct lines through P, Li,L) distinct lines through P'. Show that there is an affine change of coordinates T of A” such that @(P) = P’ and 2(L;) = Lj, i= 1,2. 2-16. Let k= @. Give aM(¢)=¢ (obtained by identifying ¢ with R°, and hence g™ with the usual topology #°), Recall that a topological space X is path-connected if for any P,QeX, there is a continuous function yi [0,1] >X such that y(0) =P, y(1) = @ (a) Show that €-S is path-connected for any finite set S. (b) Let V be an algebraic set in A™(e). show that A"(e)-v is path-connected. (Hint: If P,@ © A%(a)-v, let L be the line through P and Q. LN V is finite, and L is isomorphic to A‘(¢).) 4. Rational Functions and Local Rings Let V be a variety in A", [(v) its coordinate ring. Since T(v) is a domain, we may form its quotient field. This field is called the field of rational functions on V, and is written k(V). An element of k(V) is a rational function on V. If f is a rational function on V, and Pe V, we say that f is defined at P if for some a,b eT (v), f= a/b, and b(P) #0. Note that there may be many different ways to write. f as a ratio of polynomial funct: f is defined at P if it is possible to find a "denominat for f which doesn't vanish at P. If [(V) is a UFD, however, there is an essentially unique representation f= a/b, where a and b have no common factorsAFFINE VARIETIES 43 (Problem 1-2), and then f is defined at P if and only if v(P) #0. Example. V = V(XW-¥Z) © aka). T(v) = k{X,¥, Z,W]/(XW-Yz). tet X,¥,Z,W be the residues of X,Y,2,W in T'(v). Then X/¥ = Zi = fe k(v) is defined at P= (x,y,z,w) eV if y #0 or w70 (See Problem 2-20). Let PevV. We define O,(V) to be the set of rational functions on V which are defined at P. It is easy to verify that O,(v) forms a subring of k(V) containing T(v): ke T(v) © 6,(V) © K(¥). Op(V) is called the local ring of V at P. The set of points PV where a rational function f is not defined is called the pole set of f. PROPOSITION 2. (1) he pole set of a rational function on Vis an algebraic subset of V. (2) F(v)= 9 Gv). Pev Proof: suppose VC A™. For Ge KIX Ki] note the residue of G in T(v) by G Let fe k(V). Let Jp= {Ge K[K,,++.)%,] | Geely. 3, is ideal in KIX), -+-)%,] containing I(V), and the points V(3p) are exactly those points where f is not defined. s proves (1). If fe N G,(V), V(J,)=f, so le J, ey f f Vstellensatz!), i.e. I'f= feT(v), which proves (2). Suppose f €O,(V). We can then define the value of ‘at P, written f(P), as follows: write f= a/b, ‘eT(v), b(P) #0, and let f(P) = a(P)/b(P) (one necks that this is independent of the choice of a and b).yk ALGEBRAIC CURVES Mp(V) = {f € 6,(¥)| £(P) = 0} is called the maximal ideal of V at P. It is the kernel of the evaluation homo- morphism f > £(P) of Op(V) onto k, so ,(¥)/M,(V) is isomorphic to k. An element f €0,(V) is aunit in O,(V) if and only if f(P) #0, so M,(v) = {non-units of O,(V)}- LEMMA. The following conditions on a ring R are equivalent: (1) The set_of non-units in R forms an ideal. (2) R has a unique maximal ideal which contains eve: er ideal of R. Proof: Let M-=fnon-units of R}. Clearly every proper ideal of R is contained in M; the lemma is an immediate consequence of this. A ring satisfying the conditions of the lemma is called a local ring; the units are those elements not belonging to the maximal ideal. We have seen that 6, (Vv) is a local ring, and M,(V) is its unique maximal ideal. These local rings play an prominent role in the modern study of algebraic varieties. All the properties of V which depend only on a "neighborhood" of P (the "local" properties) are reflected in the ring 6,(V) (See Problem 2-18 for one indication of this). PROPOSITION 3. o,(v) is a Noetherian local domain. Proof: We mst show that any ideal I of @,(V) is finitely generated. Since I'(v) is Noetherian (Problem 1-38), choose generators f,,...,f, for the r ideal IN(v) of L(V). We claim that fy eet generate I as an ideal in O.(V). For if fet co,(V),AFFINE VARIETIES 5 there isa beT(v) with b(P) #0 ana bf eT (v); then bf eT (v) NI, so df= at, ae T(v), so P= 5(a,/b) t,, as desired. Problems. 2-17, Let v= v(¥-x2(xH1))ca°, ana EF the residues of X,Y in T(v); let z= ¥/Kek(v). Fina the pole sets of z andof 2°. 2-18. Let O,(V) be the local ring of a variety V at a@ point P. Show that there is a natural one-to-one correspondence between the prime ideals in O,(V) and the subvarieties of V which pass through P. (Hint: If I is prime in O,(V), TAT(v) is prime in T(v), and “I is generated by INT(v); use Problem 2-2.) 2419. Let f be a rational function on a variety V. Let U={Pev| f is defined at P}. Then f defines a “function from U to k. Show that this function determines f uniquely. So a rational function may be considered as type of function, but only on the complement of an igebraic subset of V, not on V itself. 2-20. In the example given in this section, show that it Lis impossible to write f= a/b, where a,beT(v), and (P) 4 0 for every P where f is defined. Show that 1". Let gv ieties, o:(w) oordinate rings. Suppose Pe V, o(P) = Q. Show that > W be a polynomial map of affine >T(v) the induced map on extends uniquely to a ring homomorphism (also written from 64) to O,(V). (Note that @ may not extend46 ALGEBRAIC CURVES to all of k(W), however.) Show that @(MQ(n)) © M,(v). 2-20", pet T= At >A" be an affine change of coordinates, T(P) = Q. Show that Fo (a") > 6,(A") is an isomorphism. Show that 7 induces an isomorphism v p from Oy(V) to Op(V’) if Pev. 5. Discrete Valuation Rings our study of plane curves will be made easier if we have at our disposal several concepts and facts of an algebraic nature. They are put into the next few sections to avoid disrupting later geometric arguments. PROPOSITION 4. Let R be a domain which is not a field. Then the following are equivalent: (1) R is Noetherian and local, and the maximal ideal is principal. (2) There is an irreducible element t € R such that_every non-zero z€ R may de written uniguely in the form z= ut", u aunit in R, n a non-negative integer. Proof: (1) implies (2): Let M be the maximal ideal, t a generator for M. Suppose ut™ = vt", u,v units, n>m. Then ut™™-=v isaunit, so n=m and uv. Thus the expression of any z= ut” is unique. To show that any z has such an expression, we may assume z is nota unit, so 2= zt for some z, € R. 1 = Zab Continuing in this way, we find an infinite sequence If 2 is a unit we are finished, so assume z. Zyy2p++. with 2, = 2,,,t. Since R is Noetherian ,AFFINE VARIETIES Tg the chain of ideals (z,)¢ (2) c ..+ mist have a maximal member (Chapter 1, §5), so (%) = (Zn44) for some n. Then z z, for some ve R, so inti = Vn z= viz, and vb= 1. But t is not a unit. (2) implies (1); (We don't really need this part.) M= (t) 4s clearly the set of non-units. It is not hard to see that the only ideals in R are the principal ideals (t®), n 2 0, so Ris a PID. Arving R satisfying the conditions of Proposition 4 is called a discrete valuation ring, written DVR. An element t as in (2) is called a uniformizing parameter for R; any other uniformizing parameter is of the form ut, uaunit in R. Let K be the quotient field of R. Then (when t is fixed) any non-zero element 2 € K has a unique expression z= ut", u aunit in R, ne @ (See Problem 1-2). ‘The exponent n is called the order of 2, and is written n= ord(z); we define ord(0) = ©. R= {zeX | ord(z) > 0}; M=f{zeXK]| ord(z)>0} is ‘the maxima) ideal in R. Problems. 2-23". Show that the order function on K is ndependent of the choice of uniformizing parameter. 2-04", net v= at, P(v) = K(X], K = k(v) = K(x). (a) For each ae k= V, show that G,(v) is with uniformizing parameter t = X-a. (bv) Show that 6, = {F/¢ € k(x) | deg G > deg(F)} ‘also a DVR, With uniformizing parameter t = 1/X- 2-25. Let pe Z be a prime number. Show that re Q|r-= a/b, a,be 2 p doesn't divide b} isa ‘DVR with quotient field @.48 ALGEBRAIC CURVES 2-26". Let R be a DVR with quotient field K; let M be the maximal ideal of R. (a) Show that if ze kK, 27 R, then ztem. (b) Suppose RG:ScK, and $ is also a DVR. Suppose the maximal ideal of S contains M. Show that S=R 2-27. Show that the DVR's of Problem 2-2h are the only DVR's with quotient field k(X) which contain k. Show that those of 2-25 are the only DVR's with quotient field Q. 2-28". An order function on a field K is a function gp from K onto ZU {=}, satisfying: (i) (a) = © if and only if a= 0. (44) p(abd) = ofa) + p(d)- (144) @(atb) > Min(y(a), o(b))- Show that R={zeK | g(z) >0} is a DVR with maximal ideal M={z | o(z) > Ot, and quotient field K. Conversely, show that if R is a DVR with quotient field K, then the function ord: > ZU {~} is an order function on K. Giving a DVR with quotient fiela K is the same thing as defining an order function on K. 2-29". Let R be a DVR with quotient field XK, ora the order function on K. (a) If ord(a) < ord(b), show that ord(atb) = ord(a) (b) If Byy e+, 8, € K, and for some i, ora(a,) < ord(a;) (all j7 4), then ayt...ta, #0. 2-30". Let R be a DVR with maximal ideal M, and quotient field K, and suppose a field k is a subring ofAFFINE VARIETIES 49 R, and that the composition k >R > R/M is an isomorphism of k with R/M (As in Problem 2-2h,-e.g.) Verify the following assertions: (a) For any ze R, there is a unique he k such that 2-eM (>) Let +t be a uniformizing parameter for R, z2€R. Then for any n>O there are unique Rope ead © ana 2, €R such that my tat + at? tet athe oe) Gunes For uniqueness use Problem 2~ 293 for existence use (a) ana induction. ) 2-31. Let k be a field. The ring of formal power series over k, written K[[X]], is defined to be {3 ax” | a, € k}. (As with polynomials, a i=0 vigorous definition is best given in terms of sequences ((agsa,9-++) of elements in k; here we alton an infinite number of non-zero terms.) Define = a, re +E b, xe Ea, +b, ox >» and Gay x Sy (5 db, x yede, . > where Za,d,. show that k[[X]] is a ring containing jtkei x(X] as a subring. Show that k[[X]] is a DVR with niformizing parameter X. Its quotient field is denoted ((x)). 32. (a) Let R be a DVR satisfying the conditions of Problem 2-30. Any ze R then determines a power series Be if Ay hye +++ are determined as in Problem 2-30(b). > 2,X is a one-to-one ring ‘homomorphism of R into tx}. We often write50 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Za at, and call this the power series expansion of z in terms of t. Show that the homomorphism extends to a homomorphism of K into k((X)), and that the order function on k((X)) restricts to that on K. (b) Let a= 0 in Problem 2-2h, t=X. Fina the power series expansions of z = (1-x)7> ana of (1x) (14x°) 71 in terms of +. 6. Forms Let R bea domain. If Pe R[X,,.+-yX,,)] is a form, we define Fy € R[X,,-.-,X,] by setting Fy = < F(Xj,+++,X,r1)+ Conversely, for any polynomial fe RK, +++] of degree a, write f= fot tay where f, is a form of degree i, and define f € RIK. X.] by setting f= x2 to 4 xtle per Spas OY ntl ‘o * Ane £2 * veetfy = ey 20G Kage oXp/Spe)s is @ form of degree d. (These processes might be described as "de~ homogenizing" and "homogenizing" polynomials with respect to Xa left to the reader: ) The proof of the following proposition is PROPOSITION 5. (1) (FG)y = FyGy; (fe)" = fe". (2) If rv is the highest power of X,,) which r * ¥ — des F, then Xia (Fx) =F; (f ), =f. r t+ * * (3) (Pe) = Py AGS KL (fe) = Kh + * Xe > where r= deg(g), s= deg(f), and te=rts - deg(ftg). COROLLARY. Up to powers of Xuaev factoring a formAFFINE VARIETIES 51 Fe R[X+++.%,,] is the same as factoring F, € R[X,,-.-,X,]- In particular, if Fe k(X,¥] ise form, k algebraically closed, then F factors into a product of linear factors. Proof: The first claim follows directly from (1) and (2) of the proposition. For the second, write F=¥"G, where ¥ doesn't divide G. Fy = G,= € 1(K-2,) * since k is algebraically closed, so F = € Y" 11(X-2,¥). Problems. 2-33. Factor vo-exy sox? vex3 into linear factors in [X,Y]. 2-34. Suppose F,G € K(X, e+e X,] are forms of degree Yr, r+1 respectively, with no common factors (Kk a field). Show that F+G@ is irreducible. 2-35". (a) Show that there are d+l monomials of degree a in R[X,¥], and 142+...+(a+1) = 4442 are monomials of degree d in R[X,Y,2]. (o) Let v(a,n) = {forms of degree a in K[Xyp+-yX,]}, & a field. Show that (dn) is a vector space over k, and that the monomials of degree d form a basis. dim V(d,1) = 1; dim v(d,2) = atl; dim v(4,3) = fara) fave) (c) Let LysIpy.-- and My,M,,... be sequences of Linear forms in [X,Y], and assume no L, = Myy de Ke = Dylgt s+ Ly MyMy*+ ++ jy i,j 20 (gg =1). Show that {Ay5 | 4#5 = a} forms a basis for V(d,2).52 ALGEBRAIC CURVES 2-36. With the above notation, show that dim V(d,n) = ‘d+n-: at), the binomial coefficient. 7. Direct Products of Rings If Ry-+-sR, are rings, the cartesian product eX Ry is made into a ring as follows: (ayy 8.) + (Dyyeeesd,) = (ytd, +) 8&4), and (ayy ++658,)" (Dyy++e9d,) = (aybdys-+-ya,0,)+ This ring is called the direct product of RyseeeyRys and is written n n X Rj. The natural projection maps x,: XR, >R, je. ? ger? + taking (a,,.++,8,) to a, are ring homomorphisms. The direct product is characterized by the following property: given any ring R, and ring homomorphisms oy: >Ry i= y.s.yn, there is a unique ring n homomorphism @:R > X Ry such that i, = @,. isl In particular, if a field k is a subring of each R, n k may be regarded as a subring of X R,. jel " Problems. 2-37. What are the additive ana multiplicative identities in X Ry? Is the map from R to X Ry taking +++,0) a ring homomorphism? to (0, +4343 2-38". If kc Ry» andeach R, is finite-dimensional over k, show that dim(X R,)= 2 dim RyAFFINE VARIETIES 53 8. Operations with Ideals Let I,J be ideals ina ring R. The ideal generatea by {ab | ae I, be J} is denoted IJ. Similarly if Ty,++.)T, yiretT, is the ideal generated by [a,a,*...7a, | a, €1,}. We define are ideals, I. I" tobe I‘I'...‘T (n times). Note that while I” contains all n°" powers of elements of I, it may not be generated by them, If I is generated by a,)+-+,a,, i i then I” is generated by fay eeeera” ls i, en}. R= Potsrs5... Example. R= k[Xjp.+)XJ, I= (Xp---X,)- Then 1? is generated by the monomials of degree n, so I” consists of those polynomials with no term of degree +++yX,] such that F,(P)) =O if ij, F(P,) = 1 (Problem 1-17). Let aya a E. 1- (1-F;) + Note that BE, =F, D, for some Dj, a so E, ei, if ifj, and 1-5-E, = (1-E,)-5 HE, € 4 © "5 ra 7 sg3 2 a ie I. If we let ey be the residue of By in R, 2 ie i we have ej =e, ee, = 0 if afd, ond De, = 1. Cla If Ge k[X+++X,]e and G(s) 4 0, then there is a t eR such that tg the I-residue of G. e,, where g is 1 Assuming the claim for the moment, we show how to conclude that g is an isomorphism: is one-to-one: If g(f) = 0, then for each i there isa G, with G,(P,) #0 and GFet (f= I- residue of F). Let t. Then 1 F=Qe,f=5 taf = 0. og is.onto: Since E,(?,) =l, 3 (e,) is a unit in Rys since —;(e;)py(e;) = o,(ezes) = 0 ifAFFINE VARTETIES 57 ifd, ,(@5) = 0 for i# j. Therefore ei (ey) = 9, e;) = (2) = 1. Now suppose z= (a,/s,,-+.,a,/sy) © XR. By the claim, we may set tS, = e,; then a,/s, = at, in Ry, so 9, t 2585) = o (ta) = a,/sy> and g(f %54;¢5) =. To prove the claim, we may assume that G(P,) el. = a~ = - Let H= 1-G. (1-4) (8, + HE, +..4+ 8 "a, ) = By xn. Het,, so H°B, eI. ‘therefore g(e,the,+..,+nte,) = i i i i i as desired. N COROLLARY 1. dim, (X[X),---)X,]/Z) = ZX dim, (0,/1 9,). COROLLARY 2. If V(I) = (P}, then K[Xys-- X,I/E is isomorphic to G(A")/I 6,(A"). Problem. 2-47. Suppose R is a ring containing k, and R is finite dimensional over k. Show that R is isomorphic to a direct product of local rings. 10. Quotient Modules and Exact Sequences Let R bearing, M,M' R-modules. A homomorphism (resp. isomorphism) :M ‘called an R-module homomorphism (resp. isomorphism) if ‘p(em) = a@(m) forall ae R, me M. >M' of abelian groups is = If N is a submodule of an R-module M, the quotient group M/N of cosets of N in M is made into ‘an Remodule in the following way: if m is the coset (or equivalence class) containing m, and ae R, define58 ALGEBRAIC CURVES am = am. It is easy to verify that this makes M/N into an R-module in such a way that the natural map from M to M/N is an R-module homomorphism. M/N is called the quotient module of M by N. Let y:M' >M, o:M >M" be R-module homomorphisms. We say that the sequence (of modules and homomorphisms) i is exact (or exact at M) if Im(y) = Ker(p). Note that there are unique R-module homomorphisms from the zero- module 0 to any R-module M, and from M to 0. Thus us wy" > 0 is exact if and only if g is onto, and 0 >M' —b>M is exact if and only if 4 is one-to-one. If pith, >M,,, are Remodule homomorphisms, we say that the sequence Or Pp Pn My > MS >see —— DM is exact if Im(,) = Ker(p,,,) for each isl,...,n. Thus 0 > Mt b> uw 25 wn if and only if y is onto, and y maps M' isomorphically > 0 is exact onto the kernel of 9. PROPOSITION 7. (1) Let 0 >yi b> y—2> vw sequence of finite-dimensional vector spaces over a field > 0 be an exactAFFINE VARIETIES 59 k. Then dim V' + dim v" = dim Vv. (2) Let ey % %3 0 > Vy > Vo > V3 > Vy > 0 be _an exact sequence of finite-dimensional vector spaces. Then dim Vy = dim V3 - dim Vy + dim Vy. (1) is just an abstract version of the rank- sy Proo: nullity theorem for a linear transformation :V of finite-dimensional vector spaces. (2) follows from (1) by letting W= In(p,) = Ker(p3). or , For then 0 > vp —25 9 > Vy > 0 9 and 0 ——>W > V3 3 vy, > 0 are exact, where y is the inclusion, and the result follows by substraction. Problems. 2-48". verify that for any R-module homomorphism om >M', Ker(p) and Im(p) are submodules of M and M' respectively. Show that 0 > Ker(p) >M —2-> Imig) > 0 is exact. 2-lo". (a) Let N be a submodule of M, 1:M—— > M/N ‘the natural homomorphism. Suppose @:M SMI isa homomorphism of R-modules, and @(N) = 0. Show that there > M' such that is a unique homomorphism o:M/N HP = Q. (b) If N and P are submodules of a module M, with PCM, then there are natural homomorphisms from M/P onto M/N and from N/P into M/P. Show that the60 ALGEBRAIC CURVES resulting sequence 0 > N/P > M/P > M/W > 0 is exact ("Second Noether Isomorphism Theorem"). (c) Let UC WCV de vector spaces, with V/U finite-dimensional. Then dim V/U = dim V/W+ dim W/U. (a4) If JCI are ideals ina ring R, there is a natural exact sequence of R-modules: O—> 1/s > R/v- > R/T > 0. (e) If @ 4s a local ring with maximal ideal M, there is a natural exact sequence of G-modules 0 > Meyygttt soy > O/M® ——> o. 2-50". Let R be a DVR satisfying the conditions of Problem 2-30. m/w"? 4s an R-module, and so also a k-module, since kC R. (2) show that aim (w/w!) = 1 for all n> 0. (b) Show that dim, (R/M") =n forall n>0. (c) Let zeR. Show that ord(z)=n if (2) = M, and hence that ord(z) = dim, (R/(z)). 2-51. Let 0 > Vy tee >vV———~ 0 be n an exact sequence of finite-dimensional vector spaces. Show that £(-1)* dim(V,) = 0. 2-52". Let N,P be submodules of a module M. Show that the subgroup IMP = {ntp | ne N, pe P} is a submoduleAFFINE VARIETIES 61 of M. Show that there is a natural R-module isomorphism of N/NIP onto N+P/P ("First Noether Isomorphism Theorem" 2-53". Let V be a vector space, W a subspace, rv and assume V/W and W/T(W) are finite-dimensional. (a) Show that T induces an isomorphism of v/W with 1(v)/T(w). 4 (b) Show that T(V)/WNT(V) is isomorphic to W(V)/W, and that W/WNT(V) is isomorphic to w+T(v)/T(v). (c) Use Problem 2-49(c) to show that dim V/WT(V) = dim WT(v)/T(W). (a) Conclude finally that dim v/t(v) = dim W/T(W). > V a one-to-one linear map such that T(W) © W, ll. Free Modules Let R be aving, X any set. Let >R| (x) = 0 for all but a finite number of x € X}. My is made into an R-module M, = (functions @:X as follows: (pty)(x) = @(x) + y(x), and (ap)(x) = a’e(x) for gy eM, 2eR xX. My is ‘called the free R-module on the set X. If we define 9, My, by the rules: Gy) = 0 if yd xo.) = 1, then every € M, has a unique expression @ = E a0, where a, eR (in fact, a, =(x)). Usually we write x instead of g,, and consider X as a subset of M,. We say that X is a basis for My: the elements of My are just "formal sums" £ ax. M, ‘is characterized by the following property: If62 ALGEBRAIC CURVES aX R-module M, then a extends uniquely to a homomorphism from My to M. An R-module M is said to be free with basis >M is any function from the set X to an Myyseoym € M if for Xe fmy,++-sm)}5 the natural homomorphism from My >M is an isomorphism. If R= Z, a free 2-module on X is called the free abelian group on X. Problems. 2-5. What does M being free on m,...,m, say in terms of the elements of M? 2-59. Let Fax" + ax") 4...4 0, be a monic polynomial in R[X]. Show that R[X]/(F) is a free R-module with vasis 1, X)-.-,X 1, where X is the residue of x. 2-56. Show that a subset X of a module M generates M if and only if the homomorphism My Every module is isomorphic to a quotient of a free module. >M is onto.CHAPTER 3 LOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 1. Multiple Points and Tangent Lines We have seen that affine plane curves correspond to non-constant polynomials F € k[X,¥] without multiple factors, where F is determined up to mltiplication by a non-zero constant (Chapter 1, §6). For some purposes it is useful to allow F to have mltiple factors, so we modify our definition slightly: We say that. two polynomials F,G € k[X,¥] are equivalent if F'= }G for some non-zero hek. We define “én affine plane. curve to be an equivalence class of non-constant polynomials under this equivalence relation. We often slur over this equivalence distinction, and say, €.g-, "the plane curve yan, or even "the plane curve y= x3", the degree of a curve is the degree of a ‘@efining polynomial for the curve. A curve of degree one sa line; so we speak of "the line aX+bY+c, or “the line aXtbY+c = 0". 636h ALGEBRAIC CURVES If F=F,° , where the F, are the irreducible factors i i of F, we sey that the F, are the components of F and e, is the mltiplicity of the component F,. F, is a simple component if 1, and_multiple otherwise. Note that the components F, of F can be recovered (up to equivalence) from V(F), but the mltiplicities of the components cannot. If P is irreducible, V(F) is a variety in A’. We will usually write ['(F), k(F), and 6,(F) instead of T(V(F)), k(V(F)), and 6,(Vv(F)). Let F be acurve, P= (a,b) eF. P is calleda simple point of F if either derivative RY(P) #0 or F(P) # 0. In this case the line F,(P)(K-a) + F,(P)(¥-b) = is called the tangent line to F at P. A point which isn't simple is called miltiple (or singular). A curve with only simple points is called a non-singular curve. Examples. Wee pe Y-axLOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 65 Be (x+y*)? + oxy - 3 Note. Since Rc ¢, A°(R)c A%(e). Tf F is a curve in (ce), we can only sketch the real part of F, i.e. (Pay? )3 - 4 xy? 7 AP(R). While the pictures are an aid to the imagination, they should not be relied upon too heavily. A calculation with derivatives shows that A and B are non-singular curves, and that P= (0,0) is the only multiple point on C,D,E, and F. In the first two examples, the linear term of the equation for the curve is just the ‘angent line to the curve at (0,0). ‘The lowest terms in C,D,E, and F respectively are Y, yeux? = (¥-X) (YX),66 ALGEBRAIC CURVES 3 y-v3 = ¥(/3X-¥)(/3H+Y), and -uy?. In each case, the lowest order form picks out those lines which can best be called tangent to the curve at (0,0). Let F be any curve, P= (0,0). Write ++ Ty where F, isa formin k[X,Y] Perth of degree i, F, #0. We define m to be the mltiplicity of F at P= (0,0), andwrite m= m(F)- Note that PeP ifend only if m,(F)>0. Using the rules for derivatives, it is easy to check that P is a simple point on F if and only if n,(F) = 1, and in this case F, is exactly the tangent line to F at P, If m= 2 P is called a double point, if m= 3, a triple point, ete. Since F,, is a form in two variables, we can write Q, Roi," where the L, are distinct lines (chapter 2, Prop. 5, Cor.). The L, are called the tangent lines to F at P= (0,0); r, is the mitiplicity of the tangent. L, is a simple (resp. double, etc.) tangent if ryel (resp. 2, etc.). If F has m distinct (simple) tangents at P, we say that P is an ordinary mltiple point of F An ordinary double point is called a node. (The curve D has a node at (0,0), E has an ordinary triple point, while © and F have a non-ordinary multiple point at (0,0).) For convenience, we call a line through P a tangent of miltiplicity zero if it is not tangent to F at PB. Si Let F= [1 F,” be the factorization of F into irreducible components. Then n,(F) =f emp (Fy)s and if L is a tangent line to Py with miltiplicity vyLOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 67 then L is tangent to F with mltiplicity & e,r,- (this is a consequence of the fact that the lowest degree term of F is the product of the lowest degree terms of its factors.) In particular, a point P is a simple point of F if and only if FP belongs to just one component F, of F, F, is a simple component of F, and P is a simple point of Fy. To extend these definitions to a point P= (a,b) ¢ (0,0), let T be the translation which takes (0,0) to P, ive. T(x,y) = (xta, ytb). Then T : Py FP = F(Xta, Yb). Define m,(F) to be (0,0) F ), dee. ; r write Fos Gay + Gael x, Tl Gye iy), Dy = aX + BY, the lines a, (X-a) + p, (¥-b) +» G, forms, and let m= m(F). jare defined to be the tangent lines to F at P, and ry is the mitiplicity of me tangent, etc. Note that 7 ‘takes the Points of F" to the points of F, and the ieangents to Float (0,0) to the tangents to F at P. al, 4 ; since Re) = F4(00), Fe) = Fy(0,0), P is a simple point on F if and only if n,(F) = 1, and the two finitions of tangent line to a simple point coincide. roblems. 3-1. Prove that in the above example P= (0,0) ig the only mltiple point on the curves C,D,E, and F. 2. Pind the mltiple points, and the tangent lines at he mltiple points, for each of the following curves: (a-) Be 428-2 + aye 4 wy + Oxy (b) vay. 2?68 ALGEBRAIC CURVES (e) ey. a? - ay? 4 ed (a) + ( - 5)(ux* - 20x? + 25) Sketch the part of the curve in part (d) that is contained ain a2¢n)¢ a°(e). 3-3. Ifa curve F of degree n has a point P of miltiplicity n, show that F consists of n lines through P (not necessarily distinct). 3-4. Let P be a double point on a curve F. Show that i ; ; 2 P is anode if and only if Fy?) 7 Fy (P)Fyy(P)- 3-5. (Char(k) = 0). Show that m,(F) is the smallest integer m such that for some i+ j= m, ate (P) # 0. Find an explicit description for the axtay! leading form for F at P in terms of these derivatives. 3-6, Irreducible curves with given tangent lines L, of 4 miltiplicity 1, may be constructed as follows: if r 4 ; Enj=m, let Fel, +R.) where F,., is chosen to make F irreducible (See Problem 2-34). 3-7. (a) Show that the real part of the curve E of the example is the set of points in a(R) whose polar coordinates (r,@) satisfy the equation r= -sin(36). Find the polar equations for the curve F. (b) If n is an odd integer > 1, show that the equation r= sin(n@) defines the real part of a curve of degree n+l with an ordinary n-tuple point at (0,0). (Use the fact that sin(ne) = Im(e™®®) to get the equation;LOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 69 note that rotation by 2n/n is a linear transformation which takes the curve into itself.) (c) Analyze the singularities which arise by looking at x’ = sin*(ne), n even. (a) Show that the curves constructed in (b) and (c) are all irreducible in P(e). (Hint: Make the polynomials homogeneous with respect to a variable Z, and use Chapter 2, §6.) 3-8. Let Ta >a bea polynomial map, 1(Q) = f (a) Show that ag(F") > m(P)- (0) Let T= (2,1), and define Tat = x, to be the Jacobian matrix of T at Q. Show that (F7) = a,(F) if Jef is invertible. (c) Show that the converse of (b) is false; let ge OC,y),Pe¥-#, P= Q= (0,0). 3-9. Let Fe k[X,,.+-,X,] define a hypersurface we) a". bet Pe a” (a) Define the mltiplicity n,(F) of F at P. (v) If m,(P) = 1, define the tangent hyperplane Fat P. (c) Examine F= x +? - 2? , P= (0,0,0). Is it possible to define tangent hyperplanes at mltiple points? * a . Show that an irreducible plane curve has only a ‘nite number of multiple points. Is this true for hyper- sll. Let Vc A" be an affine variety, Pe V. The jangent space 1,(V) is defined to be ((vy,---5¥,) © av for ell Ge I(Vv), 2G, (P)vy = 0}. i70 ALGEBRAIC CURVES (a) If V=V(F) is a hypersurface, F irreducible, show that 1,(V) = {(vy---¥,)| 2 FO oO}. (>) As in (a), how does the dimension of TAY) relate to the miltiplicity of F at P? 2. Multiplicities and Local Rings Let F be an irreducible plane curve, Pe F. In this section we find the mltiplicity of P on F in terms of the local ring Op(F)- The following notation will be useful: for any polynomial Ge k[X,Y], denote its image (residue) in T(r) = k(X%,xI/(F) by gs THEOREM 1. P is a simple point of F if and only if op?) is_a discrete valuation ring. In this case, if L=aX+b¥ +c is any line through P which is not tangent to F at P, then the image g of L 6, (F) is a uniformizing parameter for Op(F)+ Proof: Suppose P is a simple point on F, and L isa line through P, not tangent to F at P. By making an affine change of coordinates, we may assume that. P= (0,0), that ¥ is the tangent line, and that L =X (Problems 2-15(a) and 2-22). By Chapter 2, Prop. h, it suffices to show that MA (F) is generated by x. First note that Mp(F) = (x,y), whether P is simple or not (Problems 2-43, 2-hl). Now with the above assumptions, F = ¥ + higher terms. Grouping together those terms with Y, we can write F=YG-%H, where G= 1+ higher terms, He k(Xff 2 1 Then yg=xheT(F), so y= 2g” e (x), sinceLOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES ven e(P) #0. Thus M,(F) = (x,y) = (x), as desired. The converse will follow from Theorem 2. Suppose P is a simple point on irreducible curve F, We let ord, be the order function on x(F) defined by the DVR 6, (F)5 when F is fixed, we may write simply ord,. If GeX[X,¥], and g is the image of G in T(F), we write orag(a) instead of ordh(g). If P isa simple point on a reducible curve F, ¥, ; Foy i we write ord, instead of ord,", where F, is the component of F containing P. Suppose P is a simple point on F, and L is any line through P. then ord(L)=1 if 1 is not tangent to F at P, and ord (L) >1 if L is tangent to F at P. For we may assume the conditions are as in the proof of Theoren 1; Y is the tangent, y= hg” > 0 ord,(y) = ord,(°) + ord,(hg™) > 2. The proof of the next theorem introduces a technique ‘which will reappear at several places in our study of jeurves. It allows us to calculate the dimensions of ertain vector spaces of the type G,(V)/I, where I His-an ideal in 6,(v). OREM 2. Let P be a point on an irreducible curve F. 7 mL ; en m,(F) = aim, (M7) MMP) ) for all sufficiently large n. In particular, the mltiplicity of F at P di Op(#)- Proof: Write G,M for 6,(F), u(F) respectively.72 ALGEBRIAC CURVES From the exact sequence > wet > ofa it follows thet it is enough to prove that dim, (6/4) = nn,(F) + s, for some constant s, and all n>m,(F) (Problem 2-h9(e) and Chapter 2, Prop. 7). We may assume that P= (0,0), so M = I'G, where T= (X,Y) © RIX,Y] (Problem 2-43). Since v(1") = [P}, nay 2 . 2) ~ . n HIM YI/(IF) FO, (8°)/(TS P(A) FO, (8)/,(F) = of (Chapter 2, Prop. 6, Cor. @ and Problem 2-kl), >o/u" >0 So we are reduced to calculating the dimension of KIX,YI/(I4F). Let m= m(F). Then FG e TI" whenever GeiI™™, there is @ natural ring homomorphism @rkIX Y)/1™ >k[GYI/(I",F), and a k-linear map pki yy/o™ > k[X,YI/I" defined by ¥(G) = FG (where the bars denote residues). It is easy to verify © that the sequence : o> Kx ey Ls exyyy/2 Bo xfx,¥I1/(1",F7) —> 0 is exact. Applying Problem 2-46 and Chapter 2, Prop. 7 again, we see that dim, (k(X,¥]/(I",F)) = nm - alec) for ell n>m, as desired. Note that if op(F) is a DVR, then Theorem 2 implie that m,(F) = 1 (Problem 2-50) so P is simple. This completes the proof of Theorem 1. It should at least be remarked that the function x(n) = dim, (Of), which is a polynomial in n (for largeLOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 13 n) is called the Hilbert-Samel polynomial of the local ring G; it plays an important role in the modern study of the mitiplicities of local rings. Problems. 3-12. A simple point P one curve F is called a flex if oray(L) > 3, where L is the tangent to F at P, The flex is called ordinary if ord,(L) = 3, a higher flex otherwise. (2) Let Fe Y¥-xX™. For which n does F have a flex at F-= (0,0), and what kind of flex? (b) Suppose P= (0,0), L= Y is the tangent Vine, F=Y¥+ aX +... . Show that P isa flex on F if and only if a= 0. Give a simple criterion for calculating ordh(¥), and therefore for determining if P is a higher flex. * 3-13". With the notation of Theorem 2, and M= M,(F), show that aim(v"/w™ 1) =n +1 for 0¢n m(F)m,(G), with equalit; occurring if and only if F and G have no tangent lines in common at P. The intersection numbers should add when we take “unions of curves; : ry 85 (6) I¢ Fer", and G- mG," , then (BF NG) = Epes "G;). ’ The last requirement is probably the least intuitive. If F is irreducible, we want I(P,F MG) to depend only on the image of G in I(P). Or, for arbitrary F, ® Dt P 6) = 1(R,F (G+ AF) for any k[XY]- OREM 3. There is a unique intersection number 1(P,F N G) : 2 iefined for all plane curves F, G, and all points Pe Ay,16 ALGEBRAIC CURVES satisfying properties (1) - (7). It is given by the formla I(P,F NG) = aim, ©,(4°)/(F,G))- Proof of Uniqueness: It suffices to give a con- structive procedure for calculating 1(P,F NG) using only properties (1) - (7). We may suppose P = (0,0) (by (3)), and that I(P,F NG) is finite (by (1)). The case when I(P,F 1G) = 0 is taken care of by (2), so we may proceed by induction; assume I(P,F NG) =n>0, and I(P,A MB) can be calculated whenever I(P,A ‘1 B) 0, so I(P,HNG) 0. We may mltiply F and G by constants to make P(X,0) and G(X,0) monic. Let H=G- x*"P, Then I(P,F NG) = 1(P,F MH), and deg(H(X,0)) = t dim, (6/(H))- But G/(H) is isomorphic to O,(H) (Problem e-hh), and Op(H) > T(x), and dim, T(H) = © by Cor. 4 to the Nullstellensatz. This proves (1). . To prove (6), it is enough to show that I(P,F A GH) = 1(P,F NG) + 1(P,R NH) for any F,G,H. We may assume F and GH have no common components, since the result is clear otherwise. Let 9:/(F,GH) - >G/(F,G) be the natural homomorphism. (Problem 2-42), and define a k-linear map y:0/(f,H) ——> G/(F,GH) by letting (2) = Gz, 226 (the bar denotes residues). By Chapter 2, Prop. 7, it is enough to show that the sequence 0 —> 6/(F,H) > o/(F, cx) 2 o/(F,¢) —> 0 is exact. We will verify that y 4s one-to-one; the rest ‘(which is easier) is left to the reader. If y(zZ) = 0; Gz = uF + vGH, uv. eG. Choose Se k[X,¥] with 8S(P) 4 0, and Su= A, Sv= B, and Sz= Ce k[X,Y]. Then G(c - BH) = AF in K[X,¥]. Since F and G have no common factors, F must divide -C - BH, so C - BH = DF.78 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Then z= (B/S)H + (D/S)F, or Z= 0, as claimed. Property (5) is the hardest. Let m= m,(F), n=m(G). Let I be the ideal in x[X,Y] generated by X ana Y. Consider the following diagram of vector spaces and linear maps: ROGYY/I xk YI/TEMS x tx, 21/12 2> KEK, V1/(I FE, G)—> 0 a 0/6) +> o/(™",2,¢) —> 0 where @,", and q are the natural ring homomorphisms, and y is defined by letting (A,B) = AF + BG. @ and x are clearly surjective, and, since va™",2,¢) ¢ (Pl, @ is an isomorphism by Chapter 2, Prop. 6. Cor. 2. It is easy to check that the top row is exect. It follows that dim(k[X,¥]/I") + dim(k[X,¥]/1™ > dim(Ker(y)), with equality if and only if y is one-to- one, and that dim(k[X,¥]/(1™",¥,¢)) = aim(x[x,yI/I™™) - dim(Ker(@@) ). Putting all this together, we get the following string of inequalities: 1(P,F 1G) = dim@/(F,¢)) > aim@/(I"", F,G)) = aim(k[X,¥I/(I™",F,@)) > aim(xx,v]/r™") - dim(k[X,¥]/I") - dim(k[X,¥]/I™) = mi (by Problem 2-46 and arithmetic). This shows that I(P,F MG) > mn, and that I(P,F NG) = mn if and only if both inequalities in the above string are equalities. The first such inequality men is an equality if « is an isomorphism, i.e. if r™" © (F,q)0. The second is an equality if and only if y is one-to-one. Property (5) is therefore a consequenceLOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 719 of: LEMMA. (a) If F and G have distinct tangents at P, then 1%c (F,G)9 for t> mén-1. (b) y is one-to-one if and only if F and G have distinct tangents at P. Proof of (a): Let L,,--+,1,, be the tangents to Fo at Py My--.M, the tengents to G. Let 1, = 1, if i>m ™ dj Aggy Fyfe Ly Myre =M, if J>n, and ret 5 for all i,j >0 (Ago #1). A,, | iti = t} forms a basis for the vector space of ig all forms of degree t in k{[X,Y] (Problem 2-35(c)). To prove (a), it therefore suffices to show that A,, © (2,G)0 for all i+j > men-1. But itj > mtn-1 J implies that either i>m or j>n. Say i>m, so yj = AgoB Where B is a form of degree t = itj-m. FeA.>+F', where ail terms of F’ are of degree > m1. Then A,, = BF - BE', where each termof BF’ has degree > i+jtl. We will be finished, then, if we can show that 1c (P,G)9 for all sufficiently large +. This fact is surely a consequence of the “Nulistellensatz: let V(F,G) = {PpQyreees Oats and choose a polynomial H so that H(Q;) = 0, H(P) # 0 (Problem 1-17). ‘HX,HY € I(V(F,G)), so ex)", (ay® e (F,G) ¢ k[X,Y] for ‘some N. HY ise unit in @ so Xyy" ¢ (F,c)g, and therefore 1% c (?,G)6, as desired. : Proof of (b): Suppose the tangents are distinct, and that (A,B) = AFVEG = 0, i.e. AF+BG consists entirely of terms of degree > mn. Write A= A, + higher terms, B= Bt... , so AMBG=ARIBG +... . Then we80 ALGEBRAIC CURVES mist have rim= sin and AF = - BG. But F, and G, have no common factors, so F, divides B,, and G, divides A. Therefore s>m,r>n, so (ZB) = (0,0). Conversely, if L were a common tangent to F and G at P then P= LPL, G, = 1G But then n n-1" (Pap completes the proof of the lemma, and also of Theorem 3. -F]) = 0, so y is not one-to-one. This ‘Two things should be noticed about the uniqueness part of the above proof. First, it shows that, as axioms, Properties (1)-(7) are exceedingly redundant; for example, the only part of Property (5) that is needed is that (0,0), XN ¥) = 1. (The reader might try to find a minimal set of axioms which characterize the intersection number). Second, the proof shows that the calculation of intersection numbers is a very easy matter. Making imaginative use of (5) and (7) can save mich time, but the proof shows that nothing more is needed than some arithmetic with polynomials. Example. Let us calculate I(P,E NF), where Be (x4 9)? 4 xy - 93, Pe OP + ¥)3 - ey? and P= (0,0), as in the example of §1. We can get rid of the worst part of F by replacing F by FP -(x2 + ye = ¥(08 + ¥?)(v® - ax®) - ax’y) = va. Since no obvious method is available to find I(P,E NG), we apply the process of the uniqueness proof to get rid of the X-terms: Replace @ by G+ 3B = V(5x* - ay? 4 wy + yxy) 3 YH. Then 1(P,E MF) = 21(P,E NY) + 1(P,B NH). But I(P,E NY) = x(P,x" Ny)=4 (by (7), (6)), anaLOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 81 1(P,E 9 H) = m,(E)m,(H) = 6 (by (5)). So I(?,B NF) = 14. two more properties of the intersection number will be useful later; the first of these can also be used to simplify calculations. (8) If P is a simple point on F, then 1(P,F NG) = orap(a). Proof: We may assume F is irreducible. If g is the image of G in Op(F), then oran(G) = din, (0,(F)/(g)) (Problem 2-50 (¢)). Since @,(F)/(e) is isomorphic to op(?)/(e6) (Problem 2-4), this dimension is I(P,F NM G). (9) If F and G have no common components, then £ (P/F AG) = dim, (k(x, ¥]/(F,G)). 2 Proof: This is a consequence of Chapter 2, Prop. 6, cor. 1. Problems, 3-17. Find the intersection numbers of various pairs of curves from the example of §1, at the point P= (0,0). 3-18. Give a proof of Property (8) which uses only Properties (1)-(7). 3-19". Aline L is tangent toa curve F ata point P if and only if I(P,P AL) > m,(F). 3-20. If P is a simple point on F, then82 ALGEBRAIC CURVES I(P,F N (GH)) > Min(I(P,F NG), I(P,FNH)). Give an example to show that this may be false if P is not simple on F. 3-21. Let F be an affine plane curve. Let L be @ line vhich is not a component of F. suppose L= {(a +tb, c + ta) | t ¢ k}. Define G(T) = Fla +Tb, c +Ta)i Factor G(T) = en(T - a) SS A, distinct. Show that there is a natural one-to-one correspondence between the A, and the points Pe LAF. Show that under this correspondence, I(P,, LMF) = e,. In perticular, EU(P,LN F) < deg (F). 3-22. Suppose P is a double point ona curve F, and suppose F has only one tangent L at P. (a) Show that I(P,F NL) >3. F is said to have acuspat P if I(P,F NL) = 3. (b) Suppose P= (0,0), and L= Y. Show that P is a cusp if and only if Pye (P) #0. Give some examples. (c) Show that if P is a cusp on F, then F has only one component passing through P. 3-23. A point P ona curve F is called a hypercusp ir n(F) > 1, F has only one tangent line Lat P, and I(P,L NF) = mF) +1, Generalize the results of the preceding problem to this case. * 32h". The object of this problem is to find a property of the local ring 6, (F) which determines whether or not. P is an ordinary mltiple point on F.LOCAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES 83 Let F be an irreducible plane curve, P= (0,0), ms np (F) >i. Let M= M(F)- For Ge k{X,Y], denote its residue in ['(F) by g; and for geM, denote its residue in nye by B- (a) Show that the map from {forms of degree 1 in KIX,Y]} to M/M’ taking eX + bY to ax? by is an isomorphism of vector spaces. (See Problem 3-13). (>) Suppose P is an ordinary mltiple point, With tangents L,,-+.,L,- Show that I(P,F 1,) > m and T,4T, for all if Jj, all AeEk. (c) Suppose there are GyyeerGy & E[X,¥] such that I(P,FNG,)>m and g ¥ dey forall i¢ ds and all Xe k. Show thet P is an ordinary mltiple point on F, (Hint: Write G, = L, + higher terms. Z. 4 #0, and ly is the tangent to G,, so L, is tangent to F by Property (5) of intersection numbers. Ts F has m tangents at P.) (a) Show that P is an ordinary mitiple point on F if and only if there are g,,...,g, €M such that at XB; for all if j, Bek, and aimG,(F)/(g,) > mCHAPTER 4 PROJECTIVE VARIETIES 1. Projective Space Suppose we want to study all the points of inter- section of two curves; consider for example the curve Yer +.and the line Y= o,aek. If aft), they intersect in two points. When a=+1, they do not intersect, but the curve is asymtotic to the line. We want to enlarge the plane in such a way that two such curves intersect "at infinity". one way to achieve this is to identify each point (xy) © a with the point (x,y,1) € a Every point (x,y,1) determines a line in A? which passes through (0,0,0) and (x,y,1). Every line through (0,0,0) except those lying in the plane Z= 0 corresponds to exactly one such point. The lines through (0,0,0) in the plane Z= 0 can be thought of as corresponding to the "points at infinity". This leads to the following definition: Let k be any field. Projective n-space over k, written P"(x), or simply P", is defined to be the set of all lines through (0,0,...,0) in A(x). any 8586 ALGEBRAIC CURVES point (x) = (X96 a) # (0,...,0) determines a unique such line, namely [(Ax,5++62%,5) [Xe k}. two such points (x) and (y) determine the same line if and only if there ise non-zero Xe k such that y, = Ax, for L,..+, ntl; let us say that (x) and (y) are equivalent if this is the case. Then P" may be identified with the set of equivalence classes of points in al _ 6 9,...,0)}. Elements of P* will be called points. If a point . Pep" 4s determined as above by some (xy3-++5% 43) € anh we say that (9 ++ 5% ay) is a set of homogeneous coordinates for P. We often write P= (x,).-+s%,,4) indicate that (yo ++) are homogeneous coordinates for P. Note that the i**-coordinate x, is not well- defined, but that it is a well-defined notion to sey whether the i°"-coordinate is zero or aon-zero; and, if x, #0, the ratios x,/%; are well-defined (since they , are unchanged under equivalence). We let U, = ((p+-%44) © PP | x, #0}. Each PeU, has a unique set of homogeneous coordinates of the form P= (Hyper hy yy l, Kye % ya) The coordinates (ype Kipper X par) are called the non-homogeneous coordinates for P with respect to U, (or X,, or i). If we define oth" DU, by oi (ay -+-a,) = (ayer ye 1, Byres y)s then 9, sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the points of A and the points of U,. Note that ntl pe. U U., so P* is covered by, ntl sets each of ier ?PROJECTIVE VARIETIES 87 which looks just like affine n-space. For convenience we usually concentrate on Unert n Let Hy = PP UL = (qa eeee yy Xa) | Xa 7 OF H,, is often called the hyperplane at infinity. The correspondence (x9 + 049% 0) —<— > (yp XQ) shows that HW, may be identified with P° 4. thus pos U.,, UH, 4s the union of an affine n-space and a set which gives all directions in affine n-space. Examples. (1) P°(k) is a point. aa (2) PEGs) = £652) | xe PU ((L,0)}. FM) is the affine line plus one point at infinity. P(e) is the projective line over k. 2. 2 (3) PFCs) = f(xy) L(y) © ADU {(x,¥00) | (xy) © Py. Here H,, is called the line at infinity. F(x) 4s called the projective plane over k. (4) Consider a line y = mK+bd in we. oe we identity a® with U,c P*, the points on the line 3 correspond to the points (x,y,z) © PP with y= mx + bz and z7#0. (We must make the equation homogeneous so that solutions will be invariant under equivalence). The set {(%y9z) © | y= me + be} HL = F(Ajm,0)}- 80 all lines with the same slope, when extended in this way, pass through the same point at infinity. (5) Consider again the curve Pers. the corresponding set in PF is given by the homogeneous equation Y= + 2,240. (lonz)e P| Pave 2} intersects H, in the two points (1,1,0) and (1,-1,0). ‘These are the points where the lines Y= X and Y= -X intersect the curve.88 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Problems. 4-1. What points in P* do not belong to two of the three sets Uy, Up, U 2 37 ue, Let Fe KEG >++y%yaq] (infinite). Write PoP, Fy @ form of degree i, Let Pe PM(k), ana suppose F(Kqo +X ey) = 0 for every choice of homo- geneous coordinates (yp 09% p4q) for P. Show that each Byers % ya) = 0 for all homogeneous coordinates for P. (Hint: Fix (xyp eee yq)s and consider GOA) = FO, dy, i ae) = Ed Fy (x, vena) +) 4-3. (a) Show that the definitions of this section carry over without change to the case where k is an arbitrary field. (>) If ky is a subfield of k, show that F*(k9) mey be identified with a subset of P(x). 2. Projective Algebraic Sets In this section we develop the idea of algebraic sets in P= P"(x). Since the concepts and most of the proofs are entirely similar to those for affine algebraic sets, many details will be left to the reader. A point Pe P* is said to be a zero of a poly- nomial Fe k[X),---%.,] if B(x) 06X41) =0 for every choice of homogeneous coordinates (x,+.+5%, me) for P; we then write F(P)=+ 0. Ifwewrite F asa sum of forms in the usual way, then each form vanishes on any set of homogeneous coordinates for P. (Problem 4-2). For any set § of polynomials in RIX eee MaylePROJECTIVE VARIETIES 89 we let v(s)={pep"|P isa zero of each Fe S}. If I is the ideal generated by S, V(I) = V(8). If I =D, pO), where F(t) 2 ze(), rt) a form of degree J, then V(I) = very), so V(S) = veer) is the set of zeros of a finite mimber of forms. Such a set is called an algebraic set in P", or a projective algebraic s For any set XC P", we let U(x) = {re R[Xyy eX.) | every PeX is a zero of Fh. 1(X) is called the ideal of Xx. An ideal 1€ K[X,,---,X,,,] is called homogeneous m if for every F= £ F, € I, F, a form of degree i, we iz0 have also Fj, eI. For any set XC PY, I(x) isa homogeneous ideal. PROPOSITION 1. An ideal 1 k[X,,...,X,,1] is homogeneous if _and only if it is generated by a (finite) set of forms. Proof: If I= @, ...,rO)) is homogeneous, then I is generated by tr). Conversely, let S= ppl; be a set of fornis generating an ideal I, with (a) = deg(F") = dy, and suppose F =F, +...+ Fe I, dea(F,) a. It suffices to show that Fe I, for then F-FL € I, and an inductive argument finishes the proof. Write pera@p@), comparing terms of the same degree, we = ya) p(o) conelude that R Ana F » so Fa et.90 ALGEBRAIC CURVES An algebraic set vc P* is irreducible if it is not the union of two smaller algebraic sets. ‘The same proof as in the affine case, but using Problem 4-4 below, shows that V is irreducible if and only if I(V) is prime. An irreducible algebraic set in P™ is called a projective variety. Any projective algebraic set can be written uniquely as a union of projective varieties, its irreducible components. The operations {memes oy vs, ae Sets : I n in K[Xyseeo Ky] < in P'(k) satisfy most of the properties we found in the corresponding affine situation (See Problem 4-6). We have used the same notation in these two situations. In practice it should always be clear which is meant; if there is any danger of confusion, we will write v,, I, for the Pp projective operations, V,, I, for the affine ones. If V is an algebraic set in BP", we define n+l COV) = (ype) © AY | Geert) eV oF Kyy+++9%y4) = (O;+++,0)] to be the cone over v. v ne sone 2%, rf v¢¢, then T,(e(v)) = 1(V)s and if I isa homogeneous ides] in k[X,,++-)%,,] such thet Vp (1) 4 ¢, then o(v. p()) =V,(I). This reduces many questions about Pp to questions about A™!. For example: PROJECTIVE NULLSTELLENSATZ. Let I be a homogeneous ideal in [Xs ++ Kaya) ThenPROJECTIVE VARIBTIES gu (2) v,(2) = @ if and only if there is an integer N such that I contains all forms of degree > N. (2) If v.(1) #9, then 1,(v,(Z)) = Red(Z). Proof: (1) ‘The following are equivalent: V,(1) = Os Va(Z) < {(0,-++40)}5 Rad(I) = T,(V,(1)) > (Hyp e+e X ey) (by the affine Nulistellensatz); and W y (Xperia) CI (by Problem 2-41). (2) 1,(¥,(1)) = E,(c(W,(1))) = Ty(vg(T)) = Rad (I). The usual corollaries of the Nullstellensatz go through, except that we must always make an exception with the ideal (X,,---5 ed)" one-to-one correspondence between projective hypersurfaces V=V(F) and the (non-constant) forms F which define V provided F has no mltiple factors (F is determined up In particular, there isa to mitiplication by a non-zero he k). Irreducible hypersurfaces correspond to irreducible forms. A hyperplane” is a hypersurface defined by a form of degree one. The hyperplanes V(X,), i-l,-.-,n+1, may be called the coordinate hyperplanes, or the hyperplanes at infinity with respect to U,. If n= 2 the v(X,) are the three coordinate axes. Let V be a projective variety in Pp”. I(v) is a prime ideal, so the residue ring rv) = KEK) Ku I/1) is a domain. It is called the homogeneous coordinate ring of Vv. More generally, let I be any homogeneous ideal in X and let I= k[X,,. oXnez]/1- An element ae)92 ALGEBRAIC CURVES fel will be called a form of degree d if there is a form F of degree a in, k[X,,..-»X, nei] Whose residue is f PROPOSITION 2. Every element fe! may be written uniquely as f= fp tee. fy £, a form of degree i. Proof: If f is the residue of Fe k[X)+++sXy,1]> weite F=EP,, and then f=5f,, where f, is the residue of F,. Yo show the uniqueness, suppose also f= 2e,, & = residue of G,. Then F -2G, = £(F,-G,) el, and since I is homogeneous, each F,-G,€ 1, so Let k,(V) be the quotient field of TQ)s at is called the homogeneous function field of V. In contrast with the case of affine varieties, no elements of rw) except the constants determine functions on V;_ likewise most elements of &,(V) cannot be regarded as functions. However, if f,g are both forms in Tv) of the same degree d, then f/g does define a function, at 2(dx) — d9e(x) _ £(x least where g is not zero: for = = Rx) 7 5o x 8 wax) & ’ so the value of é 4s independent of the choice of homogeneous coordinates. ‘The function field of V, written x(V), is defined tobe {ze kj(V)| for some forms f,g €T,(V) of the same degree, 2= f/g}. It is not difficult to verity that k(V) is a subfield of x (v). keR(v)C kV), but rw) G¢ k(V). Elements of k(V) are called rational functions on VW.PROJECTIVE VARIETIES 93 Let PevV, 2€k(V). We say that z is defined at P if z can be written as z= f/g, f,g forms of the same degree, and g(P) # 0. We let O,(V) = (2 © k(v) | 2 is defined at Fp. 6,(V) isa subring of k(V); it is a local ring, with maximal ideal My(V) = {zlz = t/a, @(P) # 0, £(P) = OF. The value 2(P) of a function ze op(V) is well-defined. re tant coordinates, then T takes lines through the origin into lines through the origin (Problem 2-15). So T determines a map from P” to FP", called a projective change of coordinates. If V is an algebraic set in P*, then T(v) is also an algebraic set in PY; we write v' for T (vy). r¢ Ve V(Fy,+++9F)s ana T= (Ty, T, forms ——> a™1 Gs a Linear change of of degree 1, then vi = VOFEp ees FaDs where We Fy(Tyy-+-2Tyq)) Vo is a variety if and only if V" is a variety, and T induces isomorphisms Dv) — > Fv), Cv) >x(v"), ana T. OV) ——> Og(V"), if 1(Q) = P. Problems. 4k”, Let I be a homogeneous ideal in K[Xy,+++,%,4,]+ Show that I is prime if and only if the following condition ie satisfied: for any forms FyGek(Xy eX], if Feed, then Per or Gel. kos", If I ise homogeneous ideal, show that Rad(I) is also homogeneous.aH ALGEBRAIC CURVES 1.6", state and prove the projective analogues of properties (1)-(10) of Chapter 1, §2,3. 4-7, Show that each irreducible component of a cone is also a cone. 48. Let V=PY Dv) = kOGY]. let t= x/ve (V), and show that k(V) = k(t). Show that there is a natural one-to-one correspondence between the points of Pl and the DVR's with quotient field &(V) which contein k (See Problem 2-27); which DVR corresponds to the point at infinity? 4-9". Let I be a homogeneous ideal in KI y os Xueq]s Te K[Xy)+--.%,,,]/I- Show that the forms of degree a in 1 form a finite-dimensional vector space over k. 4-10. Let R= k[X,¥,Z], Fe R an irreducible form of degree n, V=V(F)O PR, ret (v). (a) Construct an exact sequence >R—*5rp—Psrp >0, where y is multiplication by F. (b) Show that dim {forms of degree a in I} = an ~ 8(a=3) if a>n. ° y-i1™, A set vCP"(k) is called a linear subvaricty of P'(k) if Vs V(iyss--5H,), where each Hy is a form of degree 1. (a) Show that if T is a projective change of coordinates, then v' = aly) 4s also a linear subvariety. (b) Show that there is a projective change ofPROJECTIVE VARIETIES C7 coordinates @ of BY such that V" = VKyos-+sKay)s so V is a variety. (c) Show that the m which appears in part (b) is independent of the choice of T. It is called the dimension of V (m= -l if V= @). yee”. Let Hy)+++H, be hyperplanes in Py mcn Show that H, 1H, 1... a, 7 O * 4-13". Let P= (ay 209 Spe) Q= (byy++4,Py) de distinct points of P®. The line L through P and Q is defined by L= ((de, +ud,5---) Ma.) + ud,,,) | Ayu e ky X#0 orp ¢ 0}. Prove the projective analogue of Problem 2-15. Welk”. Let PypPysP3 (resp. +s) be three points in pe not lying on a line. Show that there is a projective change of coordinates ‘T:P” > PF such that 7(P,) = Qy» i1,2,3.What about four points? x 4.15". Show that any two distinct lines in P* intersect in one point. ‘ 2 4-16. Let LypLgrlg (resp. MMos) be lines in P°(k) which do not all pass through a point. Show that there is a projective change of coordinates T:P” > such that 1(L,) = My. (Hint: Let Pe Ly n Le Qe My n M., 1,3, distinct, and apply Problem 4-14.) * 4-17. Let z be a rational function on a projective variety V. Show that the pole set of z is an algebraic subset of V.96 ALGEBRAIC CURVES 4-18. Let H= V(Ea,X,) be a hyperplane in Pp. (ayy eeu) is determined by H up to a constant. (a) Show that assigning (a,,--+5a,47) eP to sets up a natural one-to-one correspondence between {hyperplanes in P"} and PF. If Pep", let P¥ be the corresponding hyper- plane; if H is @ hyperplane, H¥* denotes the corresponding point. (bv) Show that P** = P, Ht* =H. Show that P eH if and only if H¥ © P¥. This is the well-known duality of projective space. 3. Affine and Projective Varieties We may consider A” as a subset of P" vy means of > P the map@y)? a In this section we c Cned n study the relations between the algebraic sets in A and those in P", Let V be an algebraic set in A”, T=lvjc KEK, +X). Let I* be the ideal in K[X.+++,X,,,] generated by [F* | F e I} (See Chapter 2, §6 for notation). I* is a homogeneous ideal; we define v* tobe V(I¥)c BY Conversely, let V be an algebraic set in P", T=IUvye K[Xy-+-X,u,]+ Let I, be the ideal in X[X,,-+-X,] generated by {F, | Pet}. We define vy to be V(I,)c a® PROPOSITION 3. (1) If vc Aa", GeV) = HOU and (V*), = VPROJECTIVE VARIBTIES oT (2) rf vewca™, then vecwre P™. if VOWCP", then WCW, cA (3) If V 4s irreducible in a", then v" is irreducible in P*. (4) If veu V;, is the irreducible decomposition i of V in A", then v= U V¥ is the irreducible i decomposition of v* in P”. (5) Ig vc", then V* is the smallest algebraic set_in P" which contains v. (6) Zf Vea", then no component of V* lies 4 or contains H = P™-U.). (7) Ig ve P", and no component of V lies inor contains H,, then V, CA" ana (V,)*=V. é Proof: (1) follows from Chapter 2, Prop. 5. (2) is obvious. If vGa", T= 1(V), then a form F belongs to I* if and only if Fy, eI. If I is prime, it follows readily that I* is also prime, which proves (3). To prove (5), suppose W is an algebraic set in po which contains Pi (V)- Te Fe I(W), then F,e€T(v), so Fe ¥2,,(F,)* € I(V)*. Therefore I(W) C I(v)*, so W> V*, as desired. (4) follows from (2), (3), and (5). To prove (6),-we may assume V is irreducible. wedH, by (1). If Veo Hy then I(V)¥c I(Ve) c I(H,) = (X,,))- Bubif OF Fe Z(v), then Fe e I(v)¥, pot Fed + So Ve fH.98 ALGEBRAIC CURVES (1): We may assume VC P" is irreducible. since ne Vy) SV, it suffices to show that VC (V,)*, or that I(V,)*C1(V). Let Fe I(v,). Then we I(v), for some N (Nulistellensatz), so te e I(V) for some + (Chapter 2, Prop. 5 (3))- But I(V) is prime, and Kas €I(v) since VGH, so Fe e I(V), as desired. Ig V is an algebraic set in A", vec Pp” is called the projective closure of V. If V=V(F) is an affine hypersurface, then V* = V(F*) (See Problem 4-19). Except for projective varieties lying in H,, there is a natural one-to-one correspondence between affine and projective varieties (See Problem }}-22). Let V be an affine variety, V¥C P* its projective closure. If fcT,(v*) is a form of degree 4, we may define f, ¢T(v) as follows: take a form Fe k[X),+++,X%,4,] whose 1, (V#) residue in f, and let f, = I(V)-residue of F, (one checks that this is independent of the choice of F). We then define a natural isomorphism azk(V*) ———> k(V) as follows: a(t/s) = t,/e,, where f,g are forms of the same degree on v®. If Pe V, we may consider Pe V* (by means of ®ne) and then q induces an isomorphism of 0, (¥*) with Op(v)- We usually use q@ to identify k(v) with k(V*), and Gp(V) with G,(v*). Any projective variety vc P" is covered by the ntl sets vn Us. If we form V, with respect to v5 (as with Ui) the points on VNU, correspond to 7 snd the local rings are isomorphic. ThusPROJECTIVE VARIETIES 99 questions about V near a point P can be reduced to questions about an affine variety V, (at least if the question can be answered by looking at o,(¥)). Problems. 4-19". If I= (F) is the ideal of an affine hypersurface, show that I* = (P*). 4-20. Let Ve v(x, 2-x3) cad. prove: (a) 1(v) = (ex, zx), (b) ZW-XY © I(V)*C K[X,Y,2,W], but aw-xy ¢ ((x-x?), (2-x3)*). 60 if I(V) = (F,- it does not follow that I(v)* = (F)*,...,F.*)- JE) 421", show that if VC WC P" are varieties, and V is a hypersurface, then W= V or W= P” (See Problem 1-39). 422%. Suppose V is a variety in P* and V2 H,. Show . If vePyv,= a", while if that Ve 2" or Ve g. 423%. Find all subvarieties in Ph ana in FL Vey Vy Aele. Let P= (0,1,0) ¢ P(k). show that the Lines through P consist of the following: (a) The "vertical" links = V(X-2Z) = [(,4,1) | t © kp U {PP (b) The line at infinity 1, = V(z) = {(x,y,0) | aay € k x and y not both zero}. \o5", Let P= (x,y,z) © Pe. (a) Show that {(a,b,c) € a | ax + by + cz = 0} 4s a hyperplane in A>100 ALGEBRAIC CURVES (b) Show that for any finite set of points in PP, there is a line not passing through eny of them. 4. Multiprojective Space We want to make the cartesian product of two varieties into a variety. Since A” x A™ may be identified with a’) this is not difficult for affine varieties. The product P" x P” requires some discussion, however. Write K(X)Y] for KK yee Ks Yeeros Lg] A polynomial F € k[X,¥] is called a biform of bidegree (p,q) if F is a form of degree Pp (resp. q) when considered as a polyncmial in X,,++-.Xii1 (resp. Yap ee Tuey with coefficients in K[¥,,-++y¥,1] (resp. k[X),+++2X,4,))- Every F ¢ [X,Y] may be written uniquely es Pe DF che F i biform of bid . E fog were Hg lee of bidegree (p,a) If S$ is any set of biforms in k[Xjj+-s% yy Ypres tea) we let V(S) or v, (8) be {Qsy) « Px P| F(xyy) = 0 for all Fe S}. A subset Vv of P" x P* will be called algebraic if V-= v(S) for some §. For any VC P°x PB", define 1(V), or 1,(V), to be (F € k[X,¥].| F(x,y) =O for all (x,y) eV}. We leave it to the reader to define a bihomogeneous ideal, show that I,(V) is bihomogeneous, and likewise to carry out the entire development for algebraic sets and varieties in P"x P" as was done for Po in §2. If vor’ xB” is a variety (i.e. irreducible), T,(V) = k[X,¥1/1,(V) is the inhomogeneous coordinate ring, wv) its quotient field, andPROJECTIVE VARIETIES 101 kK(V) = {ze x, (V) | 2= t/a, £,g biforms of the same didegree in Ty,(v)} is the function field of v. ‘The local rings Oplv) are defined as before. We likewise leave it to the reader to develop the ML p 2 By theory of mltiprojective varieties in P xP“ x...xP7, If, finally, the reader develops the theory of algebraic subsets and varieties in mixed, or "multi-epaces" 1, a. pt xP? x...2P "x A" (here a polynomial should be homogeneous in each set of variables which correspond to n, a projective space P*, but there is no restriction on those corresponding to A™), he will have the most general theory needed for the rest of these notes. If we define we ana affine varieties are special cases of varieties in a a PlaxP x a® to be a point, then all projective, multiprojective, Problems, 4-26. (a) Define maps 3,5 —— 2 U,xUse Px PL Using Prbtymey? efine the Ybiprojective closure" of an algebraic set in a™™, Prove an analogue of Prop. 3 of §3. (b) Generalize part (a) to maps , a. 1, taxa” x a ——> plex ex a™ show 9: that this sets up a correspondence between {affine nyt. +m Ry n varieties in A } and fvarieties in P~ x...x A which intersect U, ,) X.+.x AY. Show thet this corres- ‘ 1 pondence preserves function fields and local rings. 4.27%, Show that the pole set of a rational function102 ALGEBRAIC CURVES on a variety in any multispace is an algebraic subset. 4-28*. For simplicity of notation, in this problem we , n Let Xop+++yX, be coordinates for P", ¥o,-..,¥), sol, 7. 2, m coordinates for P", and 7 ‘an oo? Towrtt? Tom Tyo coordinates for PY, where N= (n+1)(m+1) -1 = ntmtnm. Define s:P™ x B™ > PY as follows: S((xop eer X le (Ygeeera¥y)) = (XhorX Vp ee % Vn § is called the Segre imbedding of P™ x P™ pehnnm (a) Show that § is a well-defined, one-to-one function. (b) Show that if W is an algebraic subset of PY, then s1(W) is an algebraic subset of P™ x PB” (c) Let Ve VET Mey ~ Tye | ijk = 0,...,n; J, 4 = 0,-..,m}) C2. show that s(p" x P") = V. In fact, s(U, xU,)= vn Uy where By (Ce) I ty5 70+ (a) Show that V. is a variety.CHAPTER 5 PROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES 1. Definitions A projective plane curve is a hypersurface in P, except that, as with affine curves, we want to allow * multiple components: We say that two non-constant forms P, Ge [X,Y,Z] are equivalent if there is a non-zero he k such that G= AF. A projective plane curve is an equivalence claes of forms. The degree of a curve is the degree of a defining form. Curves of degree 1,2,3 and ‘4 are called lines, conics, cubics, and quartics respectively. The notations and conventions regarding affine curves carry over to projective curves (See Chapter 3, §1): thus we speak of s o,(F) instead of 9,(V(F)) for an irreducible F, etc. Note that if P= (x,y,1), then O,(*) is canonically mple and multiple components, and we write isomorphic to Bx yy Fxd> where F, = F(X,¥Y,1) is the corresponding affine curve. The results of Chapter 3 assure us that the mitipli- city of a point on an affine curve depends only on the local 103104 ALGEBRAIC CURVES ring of the curve at that point. So if F is a projective plane curve, Pe U; (is with respect to Xj» at P, nF), to be ny (F,)- The multiplicity is independent of the choice of U,, and invariant under projective change of coordinates (Chapter 3, Thm. 2). ,2 or 3), we can dehomogenize F and define the multiplicity of F The following notation will be useful. If we are considering a finite set of points P,,...,P, € Py we can always find a line L which doesn't pass through any of the points (Problem 4-25). If F is a curve of degree d, we let Fy = at € x(P*). F, depends on L, but if L' were another choice, then ryt = (1/u")°r, and L/L' is a unit in each Sp (ey. Note also that we i may always find a projective change of coordinates so that the line L becomes the line Z% at infinity; then, under the natural identification of K(a°) with x(P*) (Chapter 4, §3), this F, is the same as the old F, = P(X,¥,1). If P is a simple point on F (i.e. m(F) = 1), and F is irreducible, then 9,(F) is a DVR. We let ora, denote the corresponding order function on k(F). If G is aformin k[X,¥,Z], and G, € 9nF*) is determined as in the preceding paragraph, and G, is the residue of Pe G, in O,(F), we define ora (6) to be ord3(G,)- Let F, G@ be projective plane curves, Pe P. We define I(P,F NG) to be aim, (F°)/(F,56,))- This isPROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES 105 independent of the way F, and G, are formed, and it satisfies Properties (1)-(8).of.§3.3: in (3), however, T should be a projective change of coordinates, and in (7), A should be a form with deg(A) = deg(G) - deg(F). We can define a line L to be tangent to a curve Fat P if I(P, FNL) >m,(F) (See Problem 3-19). P is an ordinary multiple point of F if F has m,(F) distinct tangents at P. Two curves F and G are said to be projectively equivalent if there is a projective change of coordinates @ such that G= F', Everything we will say about curves will be the same for two projectively equivalent curves. Problems. 5-1, Let F be a projective plane curve. show ‘that a point P is a multiple point of F if and only at F(P) = F,(P) = Py(P) = Fy (2) =0. 5-2. Show that the following curves are irreducible; find their mitiple points, and the mltiplicities and ‘tangents at the mltiple points, (a) XY" + v2" + Xz". (v) Py + P23 P23 (ce) ¥z - x(x-2)(x-dz), Xe x. (a) x84 ¥74 27, n>. 5-3. Find all points of intersection of the following [airs of curves, and the intersection numbers at these points: (a) wz - x(x-22)(x42) ana YP + x - Oxz. (o) 2+ )z+x34 43 ona 8+ x3 - onvz.106 ALGEBRAIC CURVES (c) y - x? - xz)* and ye + voz - x°2", (a) OC +)? + 3x2 - 82 ana oe + v3 - ux?y?2? 5-4. Let P be a simple point on F, Show that the tangent line to F at P is By (P)K + Fy(P)E +8, (P)z = 0. 5-5*. Let P= (0,1,0), F a curve of degree n, F=2R, (x, zy", PF, 2 form of degree i. Show that m,(F) is the smallest m such that PF 0, and the factors of F,, determine the tangents to F at P. 5-6. For any F, Pe F, show that mp(¥y) > m,(F)-1. 5-7*. Show that two plane curves with no common components intersect in a finite number of points. 5-8%. Let F be an irreducible curve. (a) Show that Pye Fy oF Fo? oo. (b) Show that F has only a finite number of miltiple points. 5-9. (a) Let F be an irreducible conic, (01,0) a simple point on F, and Z= 0 the tangent line to F oat P. Show that aYZ - x” = xz - az, a,b O0. Find a projective change of coordinates T so that Pla yz - x2 - c's - a'z®, Fina T' so that (TT 2 vz - x. (tt = (KY + eX + a'Z, 2). (b) Show that, up’ to projective equivalence, there is only one irreducible conic. Any irreducible conic is non-singular.PROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES 107 5-10. Let F be an irreducible cubic, P= (0,0,1) a cusp on FP, Y= 0 the tangent line to F at P. Show that P= ayz -vx3 - oxy - axy® - ev3. rina projective changes of coordinates (i) to make a=b=1 (il) to make c= 0 (change X to X- $» (iii) to make d=e=0 (Zto Z+ DX + e¥). up to projective equivalence, there is only one irreducible cubic with a cusp: Y°z= x5, It has no other singularities. 5-11. Up to projective equivalence, -there is only one 3 3 irreducible cubic with a node: X¥Z= X°+¥7, It has no other singularities. 5-12. (a) Assume (0,1,0) ¢ F, F ‘a curve of degree n, Show that £1(P, FN X) =n. * P (bv) Show that if F is a curve of degree n, L @ line not contained in F, then DI(P, FAL) =n 5-13. Prove that an irreducible cubic is either non- singular or has at most one double point (a node or a cusp). (Hint: Use Problem 5-12, where L is a line ‘through two mltiple points; or use Problems 5-10 and 5-11.) S-1u*, Let PyypreeoPy € PF. Show that there are an Anfinite number of lines passing through P,, but not hrough Pyy+++)P,. If P, is a simple point on F, we may take these lines transversal to F at Pj. let © be an irreducible projective plane curve, i Pyoso-yP, simple points on C, m,.+.ym, integers. Show108 ALGEBRAIC CURVES that there is a 2ek(C) with ora “(z) = m, for Lyeeste (Hint: Toke lines 1, ‘as in Problem 5-1 for Fy, anda line Ip not through any P,, and let nm, =m, ne 11,*t, ty i 5-16". Let F be an irreducible curve in F°. Suppose 1(P, FA Z)=1, and P# (1,0,0). Show that R,() #0. (Hint: If not, use Euler's Theorem to show that FY(P) = 0; but 2 is not tangent to F at P.) 2. Idnear Systems of Curves We often wish to study all curves of a given degree A> 1. Tet Myy..4yMy be a fixed ordering of the set of monomials in X,¥,2 of degree d, where w= Mar1)(a+2) (Problem 2-35). Giving a curve F of degree 4 is the same thing as choosing a,,--.58y €k, not all zero, and letting F=Ea,M,, except that (ayy ++ +2ay) and Qayy ++ +y2ay) determine the same curve. In other words, each curve F of degree a corresponds to a unique point in ner palae3) 3a(ar3) pnd. pe and each point of P* represents a unique curve. We often identify F with its da(ar3) corresponding point in P* » and say e.g. "the curves of degree d form a projective space of dimension a(4+3) ou. Examples. (1) d= 1, Each line aX + bY + eZ corresponds to the point (a,b,c) ¢ P. The lines in P forma F (See Problem 4-18).PROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES 109 (2) a= 2. The conic aX” + UXY + oxz + ay’ + eYZ + t7* corresponds to (a,b,c,d,e,f) € P. The conics form a FP’. (3) ‘The cubics forma P°, the quartics a ru, etc. If we put conditions on the set of all curves of degree d, the curves which satisfy the conditions form 3a(ae3) a subset of P . If this subset is a linear sub- variety (Problem 4-11), it is called a linear system of curves. LEMMA. (1) Let Pe P be a fixed point. Then the set of curves of degree d which contain P forms a hyperplane in Ba(ar3) P (2) If pF > PP isa projective change of coordinates, then the map F >" from {curves of degree d} to fcurves of degree a} is e projective change proof: If P= (x,y,z), ‘then the curve corresponding 3a(ae3) 23y) e Pp passes through P if and only to (ayy if Da,M, (x,y,z) = 0. Since not all M, (x,y,z) = 0, these (ayy+++y8y) form a hyperplane. The proof that > fF is linear is similar; it is invertible since -1. xr) F F is its inverse.110 ALGEBRAIC CURVES It follows that for any set of points, the curves of degree d which contain them form a linear subvariety 3a(ar3) of F . Since the intersection of n hyperplanes of BP" is not empty (Problem 4-12), there is a curve of o degree d passing through any given ste) points. Suppose now we fix a point P and an integer y forma linear subvariety of dimension afar3) - ren) . For, by Lemma (2), we may assume P= (00,1). Write F=Er,(%,¥)2", FL a form of degree i. Then n,(F) >r if and only if = Fh = 0 de. the coefficients of all nonomials xtyJz with itj ry i 4 THEOREM 1. (1) V(4;r,P),-+-,7,P,) is a linear subspace 1 5a(d+3) 1) of a of dimension > ages) -2 (2) If a> (r,)-1, then r,(r,+1) * a(a+3) 5 Tas dim WEA52 Py +e ey FAP) = a(e3) iPROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES nu Proof: (1) follows from the above discussion. We prove (2) by induction on m= (gr,)-1. We may assume that m>1, 4>1, since otherwise it is triviel. Case 1: Each rj = 1: Let V, = v(asP,, +P) By induction it is enough to show that V7 V,_,. Choose 1 lines L, passing through P, but not through Pye jfi (Problem 5-14), and a line I) not passing through any oe a-ntl Then F= Ly*++-"Dy yl eV FEY Case 2: Some n> l: Say r= r> 1, and PePpe (0,0,1). Let Vo = v(a; (P-L)P, PgPps +e TPL) r-l, Ayrel-l x 1 + higher terms. For FeV let Fy= 2 Let Vpr{Fevy | O for j< ij. J Vo 2 Vy 22D Vy = V(G5rpPysrpPoo seep TP,), so it is enough to show that V, # Vv. i= 0,...,r-1 i+? Let Wy = V(d-15 (r-2)P, PyPoy ++ +s 7 yPy)s for ir-2ai Fe Wy) Fy = 2 ayX'y + 5 W=fPew [a,=0 for j W,>.--2W = oF ML rel ¢#°4 # V(Q-As (eo2)Py PyPoy es PA) Tf Fle Wy, Fy ¢ Ww then +? YF, € Vj, YF, ¢ Vag 29d XFL € Vy MF evs Tus Vy #4 Vigz for i 0,.--,r-1, and this completes the proof. 5 2 Problems. 5-17. Let PpPorPyP, 6 Ps Let V be the linear system of conics passing through these points. Showne ALGEBRAIC CURVES that dim(v) = 2 if P,...,P, lie ons line, and dim(V) = 1 otherwise. 5-18. Show that there is only one conic passing through the five points (0,0,1), (0,1,0), (1,0,0), (2,11), and (1,2,3); show thet it is non-singular. 5-19. Consider the nine points (0,0,1), (0,1,1), (2,01), (1.11), (0251), (2,052)s (1,251), (2,1,1)5 and (2,2,1) ¢ PP (Sketch). Show that there are an infinite number of cubics passing through these points. 3. Bezout's Theorem ‘The projective plane was constructed so that sny two distinct lines would intersect at one point. The famous theorem of Bezout tells us that much more is true: BEZOQUT'S THEOREM. Let F and G be projective plane curves of degrees m and n respectively. Assume F and G have no common component. Then LIP,FAG) =m P Proof: Since FM G is finite (Problem 5-7), we may assume, by a projective change of coordinates if necessary, that none of the points in FNG is on the line at infinity Z= 0. Then ¢ I(P,F N Gey I(P, Fy A Gy) = P P dim, K[X,YI/(FsG,)» by Property (9) for intersection numbers. Let Ty = k(X,¥]/(FysGy), P= ¥[X,¥,21/(F,G), R= k[X%,¥,Z], and let T, (resp. R,) be the vector spacePROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES 113 of forms of degree din T (resp. R). The theorem will be proved if we can show that dimT,= dinT,= mn for some large 4a. Step 1: dim ry =mn forall d>m+n: Let :R ——>T be the natural map, let g:R x R >R de defined by (A,B) = AF + BG, and let y:R >RxXR be defined by y(C) = (Gc, - FC). Using the fact that F and G have no common factors, it is not difficult to check the exactness of the following sequence: ° >r—SsxrxrSor— or >0 If we restrict these maps to the forms of various degrees, we get the following exact sequences: — —-, 2 4 — ° > Ramen Bam * Ran > Ry >Tg PO. Since dim Ry = Geo) » it follows from Chapter 2, Prop. 7 (with a calculation) that dim Tama if d>mtn Step 2; The map ail’ > defined by a(H) = ZH (where the bar denotes the residue modulo (F,G)) is one-to-one: We must show thet if Zil= AP + BG, then H= A'P + B'g for some A',B'. For any J € k[X,Y,Z], ‘denote (temporarily) J(X,¥,0) by Joe Since F, G, and % have no common zeros, Fy and G, are relatively prime forms in k([X,¥].a ALGEBRAIC CURVES If W- AP + BG, then A\Py= -ByGgs so By = Fy and Ay = -GoC for some Ce k[X,¥]. Let A) = A+ CG, B)= B- CF. Since (4) = (By = % we have A, = 24', B) = ZB' for some A', BY; and B)G, it follows that H= A'F+ B'G, as Step 3: let a>m+n, and choose Ay,...,A,, Ry whose residues in T, forma basis for Ty. Let Asx = AyQ&¥1) € [X,Y], end let a, be the resiaue of Aye in Ty. Then as. form a basis for Ty: +9 8ian First n! ice that the map of Step 2 restricts a to an isomorphism from rs onto Tf if d>mt+n, ay since a one-to-one linear map of vector. spaces of the same dimension is an isomorphism. It follows that the residues r, r, of Daye Z Ay, forma basis for Ty, for all r> 0, The a, generate T,: if b= Hely, He k(X,¥], some 2x is a form of degree a+r, 50 m ‘ Dues 2 2A, + BE + CG for some 2, © ky BC © KIKGY, 2] isl N, then H= (2m), = DA, + BP, + CG, so b= Zsa, as desired. The a, are independent: For if Bas =0; then ZA,A,, = Br, + CG,- Therefore (vy Chapter 2, Prop. 5) zSoxp + ztoxg for some x, s, t. But then 0 TERA, a » and the TA, form a basis, so r, EA,Z A, er’ Oo in rTPROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES 15 each 2, = 0. This finishes the proof. Combining Property (5) of the intersection number (Chapter 3, §3) with Bezout's Theorem, we deduce COROLLARY 1. If # and G have no common component , Bap (#)a,(6) < deg(F)*deg(G). COROLLARY 2. If F and G meet in mn distinct points m= deg(F), n= deg(G), then these points are all simple points on F and on G. COROLLARY 3. If two curves of degrees m and n have more than mn points in common, then they have a common component. Problems 5-20. Check your answers of Problem 5-2 with Bezout's Theorem. 5-21*. Show that every non-singular projective plane curve is irreducible. Is this true for affine curves? 5-22%. Let # be an irreducible curve of degree n. Assume Fy #0. Apply Cor. 1 to F and Fy and conclude that rm,(F)(m,(F)-1) < n(n-1). In particular, F has at most 3a(n-1) mltiple points. (See Problems 9-6, 5-8.) 5-23. A problem about flexes (See Problem 3-12): Let F be & projective plane curve of degree n, and assume F contains no lines. let Fp=F and Fy, =F, forms of degree n-1 a3 A5Xy116 ALGEBRAIC CURVES and n-2 respectively. We can form a 3x3 matrix with the entry in the (i,j)-th place being Phy Let Ce be the determinant of this matrix, a form of degree 3(n-2). H is called the Hessian of F. The following theorem shows the relationship between flexes and the Hessian. Theorem. (Assume Char(k) = 0) (1) Pe HN F if and only if P is either a flex or a mltiple point of F. (2) I(P,H MF) = 1 if and only if P is an ordinary flex. Proof: (Outline) (a) Let T be a projective change of coordinates. Then the Hessian of F! = (aet(T))®+(H™) . thus we can assume P = (0,0,1); write £(X,¥) = F(X,¥,1) ana h(X,¥) = H(X,¥,1). (>) (1) Fy = s X, F,, (Use Duler's Theoren). (ec) 1(P,f£ Mh) = I(P,£9 g) where z Sl. + foyy - 28 ff.) (lint: Perform row and column operations on the matrix for h. Add x times the ~ first row plus y times the second row to the third row, then apply part (b). Do the same with the columms. Then calculate the determinant.) (4) If P is a mitiple point on F then 1(P,£ g) >2. (e) Suppose P is a simple point, Y tangent line to F at P, so 0 is the f= y+ ax + buy + cy” + ax3 + other terms. P is a flex if and only if a= 0. P is an ordinary flex if and only if a=0 and a40. A short calculation shows that g= 2a + (6a+2ab)x + higher terms, which concludes the proof. Corollary. (1) A non-singular curve of degree > 2 alwaysPROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES uy has a flex. (2) A non-singular cubic “has nine flexes, all ordinary. Problems 5-22 and 6-47 show that H # 0. 5-eh. (a) Let (0,1,0) be a flex on an irreducible cubic F, Z= 0 the tangent line to F at (0,1,0). (char(k) = 0). Show that Pe w+ py + cvkz + terms in X,2. Find « projective Bs > Y— 32 - SX) to change of coordinates (using Y get F to the form we = cubic in X,Z. (b) Show that any irreducible cubic is projectively equivelent to one of the following: ¥°z = x3, z= (x42), or a= X(K-2)(K-aZ), Lek, 2H 0,1. (See Problems 5-10, 11.) 4. Multiple Points In Problem 5-22 of the previous section we saw one easy application of Bezout's Theorem: If F is an irreauctble curve of degree n, and m, denotes the (m,-1) mitiplicity of F at P, then pee < a(n=l) An examination’ of the cases n= 2,3 however, indicates that this not the best possible result (Problems 5-9, 5-13). In fact: THEOREM 2, If F is an irreducible curve of degree n, 2 < (a-1 (nce) Proof: since r= {u-d)(n-i43) 2 wea) _ pt) (%») 2e 2 {eH Gp) > > 0, we may choose simple points118 ALGEBRAIC CURVES Qe v existence of a curve G of degree n-1 such that n() > tp for all P, and mg, (0) 22 @, © F. Phen Theorem 1 (for den-1) guarantees the Now apply Cor. 1 of Bezout's Theorem to F end 0 (F is irreducible, so there are no common components): n(n=1) 2 Em,(m,-1) +r. The theorem follows by substituting the value for r into this inequality. For small n this gives us some results we have seen in the problems: line and irreducible conics are non-singular, and an irreducible cubic can have at most one double point. Letting n= 4 we see that an irreducible quartic has at most three double points or one triple point, etc. Note that the curve x"+¥"lz has the point (0,0,1) of miltiplicity n-1, so the result cannot be strengthened. Problems. 5-25. Les F ve a projective plane curve of degree n with no multiple components, and o simple components. Show that p(y") n-1)(n-2) n(a-1) i) Folse3 (Hint: Let F= F. Fj; consider separately the points 1 on one F, or on both. ) 5-26". (Char(k) = 0). Let F be an irreducible curve of degree n in P°. Suppose Pe Py with a,(F) = n> 0. Then for all but a finite number of lines L through P, L intersects F in n-r distinct pointe other than P. We outline a proof: (a) We may assume P= (0,1,0). If ={(,t,1) | t ek) USP}, we need only consider thePROJECTIVE PLANE CURVES ng Ly. Fea, zy" 42h, 5-5). (b) Let G(t) = F(A,t,1). Tt is enough to show thet for all but a finite mmber of 2, G, has n-r +t A(%Z), A, # 0. (See Problems distinet roots. (c) Show that G has n-r distinct roots if A,Qs1) #0, and FAFA TL ={P}(see Problem 1-53). 5-27. Show that Problem 5~26 remains true if F is reducible, provided it has no multiple components. 5-28. (Char(k) = p>0): F= xt - vPy, P= (0,1,0). Find LAF for all lines IL passing through P. Show that every line which is tangent to F at a simple point passes through P! 5. Max Noether's Fundamental Theorem A zero-eyele on P° is a formal sum £ a P, where Per the np's are integers, and all but a finite number of ny's are zero. The set of all zero-cycles on PP form an abelian group - in fact, it is just the free abelian group with basis X= , as defined in Chapter 2, §11. The degree of a zero-cycle En,P is defined to be En,. The zero-cycle is positive if each n,>0. We say that map is bigger than ZmP, and write In,P >om,P, if each n, > m. Let F, G be projective plane curves of degrees myn respectively, with no common components. We define