Accepted Manuscript

Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom pedagogy for first year
university students

Eugenia M.W. Ng

PII: S0360-1315(18)30177-5
DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.002
Reference: CAE 3398

To appear in: Computers & Education

Received Date: 7 July 2017

Revised Date: 30 June 2018
Accepted Date: 2 July 2018

Please cite this article as: Ng E.M.W., Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom
pedagogy for first year university students, Computers & Education (2018), doi: 10.1016/
j.compedu.2018.07.002.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom pedagogy for first year
university students

Eugenia MW Ng
Lingnan University

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8 Castle Peak Road
Tuen Mun

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Hong Kong SAR
China

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Email: eugeniang@ln.edu.hk

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Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom pedagogy for first
year university students

ABSTRACT

Flipped classroom is a new blended type of pedagogy. This study attempts to examine
whether flipped classroom, with reference to self-regulation principles, is a good

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pedagogy for enhancing formative learning outcomes for first year university
students. A total of 73 students, enrolled on a teacher education program, participated
in this study. Data were collected from different sources in three phases. In the first

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phase, data were collected from pre- and post-tests, and the number of viewings of the
assigned online videos were logged. Techniques in editing images applied by the
group and the individual were examined in the second phase. Finally, opinions related

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to flipped classroom were collected from focus group interviews in the third phase.
The results suggest that students are able to apply their self-learned knowledge to
editing images both together and individually. They were very positive about flipped
classroom activities and all 7 self-regulated (SR) learning principles were achieved.

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While students embraced the flexibility of learning online, they missed the face-to-
face interaction with the teacher and their learning peers. This was especially the case
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when they did not understand the content of the online videos. This study provides an
additional lens of SR principles.
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Keywords: computer-mediated communication, improving classroom teaching, post-

secondary education, teaching/learning strategies
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Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom pedagogy for first
year university students

1. Introduction

The conventional teacher-centered approach to learning that emphasizes

memorizing content knowledge and working procedures is no longer suitable for
preparing university students to tackle complex and ill-structured problems in the
workplace (Macdonald & Hursh, 2006). In contrast, student-centered learning will

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equip learners with subject knowledge and, at the same time, develop their generic
skills such as collaboration, critical thinking, information technology (IT), problem
solving, self-management, and self-study skills (Ng & Lai, 2012; Ng, Yuen, & Leung,

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2013) so that they can become life-long learners. There are various types of student-
centered pedagogies but adopting IT as the medium to support learning and teaching
is particularly appealing to “digital natives” who have grown up with IT (Prensky,

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2005). There are numerous online materials and videos available for educators to
choose from to engage students’ attention and arouse their interest. This means that
they do not need to spend enormous amounts of time in creating their own online
learning materials. Furthermore, there are many well-made massive open online

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courses (MOOC) from school to university level, such as Khan Academy (Davies,
Dean, & Ball, 2013) and Coursera, that aim to teach subjects and promote self-
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learning beyond formal learning. Using technology, students can learn at their own
pace and in their own time through interaction with digital materials or through
interaction with people (Cornelius & Gordon, 2008; Lee & Woods, 2010; Wong,
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Kamarish, & Tang, 2006).

Although online interaction is attractive for independent learning, face-to-face
interaction with its immediate feedback and rapport between peers and educators is
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also important to foster learning. As a result, blended learning, a mixture of online

and face-to-face learning, especially flipped classroom, is gaining impetus. The
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flipped classroom is an emerging pedagogical method that consists of both online and
classroom activities. The flipped classroom assumes that students are responsible for
their own learning, at their own pace, prior to attending classes (Alvarez, 2012;
Fulton, 2012). Students are normally required to watch assigned online videos prior to
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attending classes where they participate in group activities and tackle assignments
(O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). In this scenario, teachers act as facilitators, to answer
questions, support students who require extra assistance, and prompt students to
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explore subjects from different perspectives, rather than transmitting knowledge

directly (Baepler, Walker, & Driesson, 2014; Khan, 2012; Stone, 2012). Since flipped
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classroom learning activities are reversed from the traditional teaching approach, it is
also known as “reverse instruction,” “inverted classroom,” and “24/7 classroom”
(Bergmann & Sams, 2012).
Even though flipped classroom is pedagogy itself, this study attempts to examine
whether flipped classroom with reference to self-regulation principles is a good
pedagogy for enhancing formative learning outcomes for university students who
have just enrolled on a teacher training program. First, data were collected from their
formative assessment activities, including pre- and post-test results. In this phase the
number times they had viewed the assigned online videos was also noted. Next,
techniques applied by groups and individuals in editing images were examined.
Finally, opinions related to flipped classroom were collected from focus group
interviews. This data was collected to provide a holistic understanding of the
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effectiveness of flipped classroom. The following section discusses the research
setting and findings. Finally, conclusions are drawn and future research directions are
proposed.

2. Literature Review

The rationale of flipped classroom is to facilitate students in becoming self-

regulated learners. Self-regulation entails an active monitoring and regulation of
various learning processes that involve setting learning goals, aligning learning

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approaches and resources, and actively responding to feedback to improve final
outcomes. Based on the model proposed by Butler and Winne (1995), with reference
to assumptions that students have the ability to close the gap between expected and

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actual performance (Sadler, 1989), the value of formative assessment for improving
learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998), including self and peer feedback (e.g. Boud, 1995;
Boud et al., 1999) in addition to teacher feedback, Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006)

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proposed seven principles for supporting and developing learner self-regulation (SR).
The seven principles are: 1) help clarify what good performance is, 2) facilitate the
development of self-assessment in learning, 3) disseminate quality information to

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learners about their learning, 4) encourage peer and teacher dialogue around learning,
5) encourage positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem to close the gap between
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current and desired performance, 6) provide opportunities to close the gap, and 7)
provide information to teachers that can be used to shape teaching. Nicol and
Macfarlane-Dick (2006) substantiated the principles by suggesting that teachers
assume the role of facilitators of learning rather than letting students take full control
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of their learning. That is, instead of transmitting knowledge, teachers set the course
requirements and learning tasks and provide feedback as formative assessment so that
students have the opportunity to close the gap between the teacher’s expectations and
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their performance. Furthermore, students are encouraged to monitor and manage their
study time and interactions with their learning peers. Eventually, more self-regulated
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students will become more effective learners and higher achievers (Pintrich, 1995,
Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Indeed, even “at-risk” students could become self-
regulating if they are trained and given opportunities to practice (Pintrich & Zhusho,
2002).
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Previous research on flipped classroom pedagogy has shown positive feedback

(Kong, 2015; Mok, 2014; Stone, 2012). For example, students in two different
biology classes improved significantly in examinations and assignments when
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compared with those using a traditional learning approach (Stone, 2012). The flipped
classroom can promote a deeper understanding of knowledge and concepts and most
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of the respondents agreed that the knowledge and skills they developed would be
useful to them in the future (McLaughlin et al., 2014). One class of flipped classroom
university students out-performed another class that used a traditional learning
approach while another class performed similarly (Baepler, Walker, & Driesson,
2014).
Indeed, the success of the flipped classroom pedagogy depends on the educators’
and students’ willingness to change their mind set and practice regarding assessment,
learning, and teaching rather than on technology and learning materials. Instead of
relying on textbook materials, educators select and evaluate learning materials with
reference to students’ prior knowledge and learning outcomes so that students are able
to learn more effectively, in their own space, and at their own pace, than in traditional
classes (Chen, Wang, Kinshuk & Chen, 2014). When designing and facilitating online
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and class activities, educators embrace the value of assessment for learning, that is to
say, assessments are embedded in the learning process to provide formative feedback
to students and educators (Biggs, 1996; Black et al., 2003, 2004) rather than being
assessments of learning, that is to say, summative assessments.
Flipped classroom also incorporates various assumptions and requirements for
making learning effective. Firstly, students have to be prepared before class rather
than acquiring new knowledge from teachers. The idea of having students prepare
prior to attending classes is nothing new but asking them to learn from online
resources is convenient and affordable these days due to technological advances and

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the availability of abundant resources. Indeed, pre-recorded lecture videos are
particularly useful for slower students because they can watch the online videos
multiple times until they have mastered the subject content (Mok, 2014). Students

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were much better prepared in class (McCallum, Schultz, Sellke & Spartz, 2015) when
they were given video lectures rather than textbook readings (De Grazia, Falconer,
Nicodemus, & Medlin, 2012). However, we have to be mindful not to produce videos

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longer than ten minutes as very few students (35.7%) enjoyed watching long videos
(Wagner, Laforge, & Cripps, 2013).
Secondly, the assessment process has shifted from being primarily unidirectional
(i.e., from teachers to students) to multidirectional (i.e., self, peer, and teachers). The

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students’ motivation to use feedback to improve learning is also essential to the
process (Azevedo & Bernard, 1995). Students are normally asked to attempt quizzes
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and assignments to consolidate their learned knowledge prior to attending classes.
Furthermore, electronic assessments (e-assessments), rather than paper-based
assessments, are normally used during the learning process so that students are
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provided with instant feedback. In addition, the results inform the educators so that
classroom activities can be adjusted to cater for individual students’ needs. Moreover,
e-assessments can tap into any or all of their digital characteristics, such as
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multimedia, digital, and distributed formats, to reflect the natural occurrence of the
learning process. Closed type questions such as multiple choice, multiple answers,
and matching questions are more popular than open type assessments due to their
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simple implementation (Bennett, 1998).

Thirdly, the flipped classroom provides multiple opportunities for students to
interact with digital materials and with peers in class, so that they learn actively,
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rather than passively as in a teacher-centered approach. Frequent interactions with

faculty members have increased student learning satisfaction (Astin, 1984). After all,
students’ communication and collaboration can be developed through interacting with
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professors or peers, or working on group tasks (McLaughlin et al., 2014). Surveys of

17 studies related to flipped classroom practices found that there were mixed feelings
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about watching online videos instead of attending lectures, and yet the participants
were very positive about in-class group activities (Bishop & Verleger, 2013).
Furthermore, students of traditional and flipped classroom pedagogy spent about the
same amount of time in learning activities and achieved similar outcomes, and yet
students of the latter teaching methods were more likely to study other similar courses
(Davies, Dean, & Ball, 2013).
Fourthly, students understand that they are expected to apply their acquired
knowledge in classroom activities so that they are more motivated to learn prior to
attending classes (Baepler, Walker, & Driessen, 2014). Students tackle real world
problems requiring active participation and collaborative learning in the classroom
(Crouch & Mazur, 2001). Collaborative learning means all “team members tackle the
problems together in a coordinated effort” (Ng, 2008, p. 726), and it is regarded as a
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successful strategy for building rapport among team members and maximizing
learning (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1999; Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000).
Moreover, peer interaction is positively related to academic achievement and college
satisfaction (Astin, 1984, 1993).

3. The Research Questions

There are a number of flipped classroom research studies, but their results mainly

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focused on summative learning outcomes (Mok, 2014; Stone, 2012) rather than
elaborating on formative learning outcomes. This research study aims to investigate if
flipped classroom, with reference to self-regulatory principles, is a good pedagogy for

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enhancing formative learning outcomes among first year university students. To be
specific, as a pilot study, students were trying out this flipped classroom pedagogy to
learn photograph editing techniques. Both qualitative and quantitative data were

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collected to form a holistic understanding of whether and how flipped classroom can
support learning. Robson (1993) states that “using more than one method in an
investigation can have substantial advantages, even though it almost inevitably adds
to the time investment required” (p. 290). He also argues that one important benefit of

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using multiple research methods is that it can minimize inappropriate certainty.
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To achieve the research objective, the first 5 research questions (RQs) were
related to SR principles whilst the last 4 RQs were related to the flipped classroom
pedagogy in general. Details of the research questions with the corresponding data
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collection methods are shown in Table 1.

Table 1
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Data collection methods in relation to research questions

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Research Question Data collection methods

1. Could students independently acquire content Online multiple choice pre-
knowledge online? and post-tests
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2. Could students independently acquire Online multiple choice pre-

procedure knowledge online? and post-tests
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3. Could students apply their acquired online Submitted group images and
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knowledge in a group project? self-reported steps

4. Could individual students apply their online Submitted individual images

acquired knowledge to their own work? and self-reported steps

5. Did flipped classroom foster self-assessment? Number of videos watched,

difference between pre- and
post-tests, and focus group
meetings
6. What were the advantages of flipped Focus group meetings
classroom?
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7. What were the disadvantages of flipped Focus group meetings
classroom?

8. What difficulties did students encounter when Focus group meetings

learning through flipped classroom pedagogy?

9. What generic skills did students develop Focus group meetings

through participating in flipped classroom?

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4. Methodology

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4.1 The participants

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The study involved university students (hereafter, students) enrolled on a
teacher education program during their first semester of studies. Most of the
participants were female students who were expected to teach in kindergartens after
graduation. All the participants had recently completed their secondary school

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education and had no full-time work experience. Two classes participated in the
study, one class had 38 students while the other one had 36 students. However, one
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student later dropped out of the course so there was a total of 73 participants.
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4.2 The course

The participants were taking a course entitled “Information Technology in

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Education” taught by the author (hereafter, teacher) during the study period. During
the course delivery, students learnt some basic concepts about IT and its application in
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early childhood education. They also had hands-on practice using some popular free
software. The software skills included editing voices, photographs, and videos, so that
they could apply these skills to complete the group project. The group project
accounted for 50% of the total assessment, and Google wiki was used as a platform
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for publishing the group projects. They were required to create wiki pages to teach a
topic related to early childhood education. A further 40% of the assessment was to
write an individual essay, while the remaining 10% was for class participation. Out of
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the 10%, half was devoted to this flipped classroom initiative to motivate
participation. To be specific, one mark was awarded for attempting the pre- and post-
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tests respectively, the exact mark was for the difference between the pre and post-test,
and a maximum of one mark was awarded for the group image and the individual
image editing, respectively, according to the judgement of the teacher with reference
to self-reported functions used.

4.3 The tasks

The learning activities for the flipped classroom pilot study were designed
with reference to the SR principals proposed by Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006).
At the end of lesson 3, students were introduced to flipped classroom pedagogy by the
teacher. Students were told that instead of following the course outline and watching
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the teacher’s step-by-step demonstrations of various Pixlr’s editing techniques in the
next class, they should learn from the videos set and read the teaching materials if
appropriate. She demonstrated the tasks required for self-learning prior to attending
the next class. Students were told that they had to attempt the post-test when they
were ready and would also be required to edit photographs the following week. There
was a total of 19 short video clips illustrating various editing functions of a web-based
photograph editing platform called Pixlr. The videos ranged from simple procedures
such as opening an account to more complicated procedures such as using filters and
adjusting various image attributes based on the paper-based learning materials.

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Although there were plenty of related videos available on the web, the videos were
created by the research assistant supervised by the teacher rather than selected from
online resources. The reasons for the self-made videos were: 1) the classes were

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conducted in Cantonese and there were not many related videos in Cantonese on the
web, and 2) the videos were made by presenting the expected outcome right at the
beginning of the videos prior to demonstrating the steps for achieving the outcome, so

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that students would have a clear understanding of the expectations (based on SR1-
helps clarify what good performance is) that were different from most of the videos
only showing procedures.

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Students attempted a pre-test in class prior to watching the online videos on their
own to help them understand the expectations (SR1- helps clarify what good
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performance is) and self-assess their prior knowledge (SR2 - facilitates the
development of self-assessment in learning), that is to say, students could view any
video based on their perceived learning needs rather than watching all the videos. In
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fact, there were also some hyperlinks included in the designated websites where
students could further enhance their knowledge. Asking students to attempt the post-
test after self-learning prior to attending class provided opportunities [for them] to
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close the gap (SR6). To assist learning, related videos were also included in the post-
test so that they could watch them again when in doubt (SR5 - encourages positive
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motivational beliefs and self-esteem to close the gap between current and desired
performance). The results of the post-test were useful to both students, to inform their
attainment (SR2 – [using external feedback to] facilitate the development of self-
assessment in learning), and to the teacher to understand the level of competence
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achieved by students (SR7 - provides information to teachers that can be used to help
shape teaching).
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When students met again in class, some of the SRs were repeated, because face-
to-face activities should complement online activities in flipped classroom pedagogy.
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For example, a sample of original and edited photographs with self-reporting were
presented as an example so that they understood the expected performance (SR1-
helps clarify what good performance is). During class, students were required to apply
their self-learned knowledge by editing a photograph that they could use together in
their group wiki project (SR5 - encourages positive motivational beliefs and self-
esteem to close the gap between current and desired performance) while the teacher
was there to provide support to needy students (SR 4 - encourages teacher and peer
dialogue around learning). Through interacting with peers and the teacher, students
also received timely feedback (SR3 - delivers high quality information to students
about their learning). To further provide opportunities for students to close the gap
(SR6), students were asked to edit an individual photograph that would also be
uploaded at the wiki site for identification while the educator was there to provide
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support. A summary of the activities in relation to self-regulation principles and the
related research questions is shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Activities in relation to self-regulation principles and the related research questions

Timeline Activity SR Principle Research

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Question
Preparation Research assistant 1 (helps clarify what good
to create videos. performance is)

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Lesson 3 Teacher to explain 1 (helps clarify what good
flipped classroom performance is)
pedagogy.

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2 (facilitates the development of
Students to self-assessment in learning)
attempt pre-test
(before watching

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videos).
After Videos were 5 (encourage positive motivational 1,2,5
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Lesson 3 provided in the beliefs and self-esteem to close the
and before post-test website. gap between current and desired
Lesson 4 performance)
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2 ([using external feedback to]

Students to facilitate the development of self-
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attempt post-test assessment in learning)

(after watching
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videos). 6 (provides opportunities to close

the gap)

7 (provide information to teachers

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that can be used to help shape

teaching)
Lesson 4 Sample of edited 1 (helps clarify what good 3, 4, 6
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photographs with performance is)

indicated editing
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techniques used.

Students edit 3 (delivers high quality information

photographs to students about their learning).
together and
individually in 4 (encourage teacher and peer
class. dialogue around learning)

5 (encourage positive motivational

beliefs and self-esteem to close the
gap between current and desired
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performance)

6 (provides opportunities to close

the gap)
Wrapping Focus group 6,7,8,9
up meetings.

Examine the
edited images and

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the self-reporting
techniques used.

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5. Data Collection

Data from different sources were collected in three phases so that the data from

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one source could enhance, elaborate, or complement the others (Greene & Caracelli,
1997; Rossman & Wilson, 1985). In the first phase, quantitative data were collected
from the pre- and post-tests using a Google form. There was a total of ten questions

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(some questions had sub-questions so that there was a total of 14 questions asked),
classified into 3 types. Six of the questions (Q1.1, Q1.2, Q1.3, Q5, Q8, and Q9) were
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related to digital image concepts, five questions (Q2.1, Q2.2, Q3, Q10.1, and Q10.2)
were related to concepts applied to the given pictures, while only three questions (Q4,
Q6, and Q7) were related to the operational steps of Pixlr.
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In the second phase, data were collected from class activities. Students were
encouraged to discuss among themselves, watch the pertinent online videos, and also
seek help from their teacher. Evidence was collected from their submitted original and
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edited group images along with the self-reported steps required for the editing. To
further understand individual learning outcomes, they were required to edit their
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individual image on their own. This step consolidated the knowledge that they had
acquired through watching online videos and tackling projects together in class.

In the third phase, qualitative data were collected from focus group meetings after
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the flipped classroom had been completed. Focus group meetings allow for interaction
among participants, enriching the data collected (Krueger, 1994). A research assistant
conducted the focus group interviews in Chinese and then transcribed the interviews
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and sent the transcripts to the interviewees for their confirmation. The Chinese
transcription was then translated into English by the author.
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6. Findings and Discussion

6.1 Findings from the first phase

There was a total of 74 students enrolled on the course initially, but one of them
later dropped out and did not participate in the rest of the activities. All students
participated in the pre-test but the responses from the student who dropped out were
excluded from data analysis, leaving 73 participants. Table 3 shows that the range of
mean scores for pre-test was very wide, ranging from 8% to 96%, and the average
was 55%, suggesting that the students had some prior content knowledge. It seems
that Q3 (96%, digital image concept) and Q8 (8%, application concept) were extreme
cases and the scores for the rest of the questions ranged from 33% to 75%. Similarly,
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the standard deviations for Q3 and Q8 were very narrow while the standard deviations
for the rest of the questions were around 0.5. However, it is interesting to observe that
students did not score the lowest on questions related to procedural knowledge of
Pixlr (Q4 (ranked 4th), Q6 (ranked 13th), and Q7 (ranked 10th)) even though none of
them had previously learned to use this software.

Table 3

Means and standard deviations of pre-test

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Q Item Mean SD
3 Comparing pictures, A and B, which picture has a

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higher resolution? 96% 0.2
9 Saturation refers to ___________. 75% 0.43
10.2 We can create the dusk effect to image A by

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strengthening ______. 70% 0.46
4 We can use _________ to clear the blue sky
background of the following image quickly and

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nicely. 66% 0.48
2.2 Is picture B in JPEG or PNG format? 63% 0.49
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When comparing JPEG, TIFF, and BMP formats for
the same picture, which of these 2 formats require the
1.3 same memory space? 60% 0.49
2.1 Is picture A in JPEG or PNG format? 59% 0.5
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When comparing JPEG and BMP formats for the

same picture, which format requires less storage
1.2 space? 55% 0.5
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10.1 We can create a dusk effect to image A by adjusting

(1) _____ to strengthen (2) ______. 53% 0.5
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7 “Emboss” is located in the _________ menu. 49% 0.5

When comparing JPEG and BMP formats for the
same picture, which format is preferred for a better
1.1 quality image? 47% 0.5
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The tolerance level of the magic wand tool means

5 _____________. 33% 0.47
What should be the first step when merging picture, A
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6 and picture B to create picture C? 33% 0.47

8 Contrast ratio is _____________. 8% 0.28
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Students were requested to complete the post-test after they had watched the
video clips and before they attempted their fourth lesson. The return rate was 100%
(73/73) for the post-test, suggesting that SR5-7 had been satisfied. Table 4 shows that
the range of mean scores was still very wide, ranging from 40% to 99%, with an
impressive average of 86%. The average standard deviation was 0.31, which was less
than the pre-test (0.45), suggesting that most students were able to reach a certain
standard after watching the videos. However, it was disappointing to learn that
students improved very little in Q6 – “What should be the first step when merging
picture, A and picture B to create picture C?” which was related to the operational
steps in Pixlr. In fact, it fell from second last to the last ranked item. The correct
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answer should have been, to select the background with the magic wand tool and clear
it. The finding was quite unexpected as we thought students would remember the
procedural steps after watching the related videos. When we looked at the other two
questions (Q4 and Q7) that were also related to Pixlr, we were unable to conclude that
online videos were less effective for learning procedures as the mean scores were
93% (Q4, ranked 5th ) and 96% (Q7, ranked 2nd ) respectively.

Table 4

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Mean and standard deviations of post-test

Q Item Mean SD

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Comparing pictures, A and B, which picture has a higher
3 resolution? 99% 0.12
7 “Emboss” is located in the _________ menu. 96% 0.2

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When comparing JPEG and BMP formats for the same
1.2 picture, which format requires less storage space? 95% 0.23
10.2 We can create a dusk effect to image A by strengthening. 95% 0.23

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We can use _________ to clear the blue sky background
of the following image quickly and nicely.
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4 93% 0.25
When comparing JPEG and BMP format for the same
1.1 picture, which format is preferred for a better quality? 92% 0.28
2.2 Is picture B in JPEG or PNG format? 92% 0.28
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2.1 Is picture A in JPEG or PNG format? 89% 0.31

9 Saturation refers to ___________. 89% 0.31
When comparing JPEG, TIFF, and BMP formats for the
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same picture, which of these 2 formats require the same

1.3 memory space? 86% 0.35
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The tolerance level for the magic wand tool means

5 _____________. 81% 0.4
We can create a dusk effect in image A by adjusting (1)
10.1 _____ to strengthen (2) ______. 75% 0.43
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8 Contrast ratio is _____________. 68% 0.47

What should be the first step when merging picture, A
6 and picture B to create picture C? 40% 0.49
C

Table 5 shows that the mean of the overall scores for the post-test (86%)
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increased 31% from the pre-test (55%). Statistical analysis was performed to explore
if there was any significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores. The
difference is significant (p<0.05) as the p-value is 0.00 for most questions, except for
Q3 and Q6. Twelve out of 14 questions from pre-and post-tests scores were found to
be significant, suggesting that students were self-regulating and learning on their own
by watching online lectures that were tailor made based on SR - Principle 1 (helps
clarify what good performance is) and SR - Principle 3 (delivers high quality
information to students about their learning). The high correct rate in the pre-test for
Q3 (96%) shows that most students could more easily identify which images had a
higher resolution without learning such information from an online lecture. On the
other hand, students could not remember the procedure for merging images as shown
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by the insignificant difference (7%) in percentages between the answers for the pre-
test and post-test scores for Q6.

Table 5

Comparing the means (%) and standard deviations of pre-test and post-test

Question Pre-test Post-test Differences T-value P-value

8 8% (0.28) 68% (0.47) 60% -9.43 0.00

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5 33% (0.47) 81% (0.40) 48% -6.32 0.00
7 49% (0.50) 96% (0.20) 47% -7.52 0.00
1.1 47% (0.50) 92% (0.28) 45% -6.97 0.00

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1.2 55% (0.50) 95% (0.23) 40% -6.89 0.00
2.1 59% (0.50) 89% (0.31) 30% -4.73 0.00
2.2 63% (0.49) 92% (0.28) 29% -4.35 0.00

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4 66% (0.48) 93% (0.25) 27% -4.89 0.00
1.3 60% (0.49) 86% (0.35) 26% -3.70 0.00
10.2 70% (0.46) 95% (0.23) 25% -4.27 0.00

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10.1 53% (0.50) 75% (0.43) 22% -3.09 0.00
9 75% (0.43) 89% (0.31) 14% -2.19 0.03
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6 33% (0.47) 40% (0.49) 7% -1.09 0.28
3 96% (0.20) 99% (0.12) 3% -1.00 0.32
Overall 55% (2.80) 86% (2.08) 31% -12.13 0.00
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The most dramatic increase in post-test scores was in Q8 (related to digital

image concept), followed by Q5 (related to digital image concept), and Q7 (related to
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procedural steps). The questions that had significant differences between the pre- and
post-tests are further explored in this section. Table 6 shows that Q8, asking about the
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meaning of contrast in an image, had the largest difference in pre- and post-test scores
at 60%, while Q5, asking about the meaning of the tolerance of the magic wand tool,
had the second largest difference in pre- and post-test scores at 48%. However, Q7,
asking about the location of “Emboss” in the Pixlr menu, had the highest post-test
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result even though it had the third largest difference in pre- and post-test scores at
47%. The findings suggest that students are able to acquire both content (RQ1) and
procedure knowledge (RQ2) on their own from the online videos that also “provide
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information to teachers that can be used to help shape teaching” (SR7). In general
these results concurred with previous findings (Kong, 2015; Mok, 2014; Stone, 2012).
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Table 6

The top three highest increases in post-test items

Item Answer Pre-test Post-test Differences

5 the range of color that the magic wand 33% 81% 48%
tool selects (right answer)
the size that the magic wand tool selects 33% 11% -22%
the range of brightness that the magic 10% 7% -3%
wand tool selects
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Don’t know 25% 1% -23%
7 Filter (right answer) 49% 96% 47%
Edit 18% 1% -16%
Adjustment 12% 3% -10%
Don’t know 21% 0% -21%
8 the luminance of the brightest color to 8% 68% 60%
that of the darkest color (right answer)
the contrast of different colors 75% 27% -48%
the contrast between the clearest part 12% 0% -12%

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and the blurriest part
Don’t know 4% 4% 0%

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6.2 Findings from the second phase

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Apart from encouraging students to be independent learners, another advantage of
flipped classroom is that it encourages classroom activities. Students were asked to
edit at least one image related to their group project together when they met in class

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again. The group activity aimed to foster collaboration and, together, to consolidate
their acquired knowledge in an authentic situation. They were required to upload the
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original and edited images to their group project wiki site and to state the functions
they used as evidence of their joint effort. Students’ wiki group project pages were
examined one week after the group activity so that they had ample time to complete
the task if they could not complete it during class hours. Although students were
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required to report back on which editing techniques they had used, it was observed
that some groups did not state all the techniques they had used when merging
photographs. To make calculations consistent, all groups were regarded as having
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used the “merge” function without counting other functions that they might have
reported. From the self-reporting functions, it was found that each group had used an
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average of 2.7 editing functions. Of the 17 groups, one group used six editing
functions and two groups used five editing functions, while five used only one editing
function. Figure 1 shows that the filter function was used most often, followed by
text. It is possible that these two editing functions have the most noticeable effects.
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The least used function was for removing the image background, followed by the
marquee tool. However, most merged images would have to have had some of the
background image removed. The findings suggest that students were able to apply
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their acquired online knowledge in group projects (RQ3).

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Figure 1

Editing functions used for the group image

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No. Functions Used

Marquee tool
Removing background only
Contrast
Merging images
Brightness
Color balance

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Saturation
Hue
Text

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Filter

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

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Although the literature suggests the use of class group activities for flipped
classroom, this study further examined if individual students had learned the required
knowledge. Therefore, after editing the group image, students were required to submit

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an original edited image of themselves and to state the functions that they had used to
edit their image. From the self-reporting functions, it was found that each student had
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used an average of 1.3 editing functions. Figure 2 shows that individual students, on
average, had used less editing functions than the groups, and yet the finding not only
suggests that individual students could apply their acquired online knowledge in their
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own work (RQ4), but also that they could apply that knowledge to a higher level, as
merging images requires a number of techniques. The findings might also suggest
they had prepared themselves prior to attending classes (McCallum, Schultz, Sellke &
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Spartz, 2015), and a combination of self-learning and peer learning could move
learning to a higher level.
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Figure 2
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Editing functions used for the individual image

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No. of Functions Used

Crop tool
Removing background only
Color balance
Auto levels
Contrast
Text

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Brightness
Hue
Saturation

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Filter
Merging images

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

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The videos were uploaded at YouTube and the number of “views” for 19 short
video clips indicated that the online videos were watched 872 times in total and each
student on average watched 10.5 videos during the two weeks of flipped classroom

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activities. The most watched video was “formats of images” (86 times), followed by
“wand tool, clear” (78 times) and “adjust hue, color balance, and saturation” (76
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times). These three videos were watched more than the number of students
participating in the study, suggesting that to some extent SR5 (encourage positive
motivational beliefs and self-esteem to close the gap between current and desired
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performance) had been achieved. Conversely, “save images in JPG format” and
“editing history” videos had the least number of views (23 times), while some videos
on simple operations such as “login” and “select language,” also had very few views
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(27 times). However, it is interesting to note that an advanced editing feature “create
layers, move layers” was viewed only 28 times whereas the “merge images, change
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images, and shapes” video was viewed 65 times. A plausible explanation is that
students had learnt about layers previously or they did not know that using layers
would be more convenient when merging and changing images. The findings suggest
that the pre-test helped to “facilitate the development of self-assessment in learning”
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(SR2) so, they chose to watch videos where they felt their knowledge was poor or
non-existent.
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6.3 Findings from the third phase

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A total of eight students voluntarily attended three focus group interviews. When
they were asked how they felt about the flipped classroom pedagogy applied in the
course, they all liked this pedagogy. According to them, the advantages of flipped
classroom included promoting self-learning, innovation, and flexibility (RQ6). For
example, one student regarded the flipped classroom pedagogy as an innovative
experience. It enhanced his interest in this subject. Apart from watching the online
video, he was curious to learn more online on his own so, he learnt more than was
prescribed “SR5 - encourage positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem to close the
gap between current and desired performance” (McLaughlin et al., 2014) while one
student liked the flipped classroom because she could watch the videos again when
she could not remember or understand the video content, and she could remember
better this way than listening to the teacher. One student enjoyed flipped classroom
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because she could learn at her own pace, and there was no need to follow the
teacher’s step-by-step instructions (SR2 - facilitate the development of self-assessment
in learning). Two students liked flipped classroom because they were required to
explore and also had more opportunities to ask the teacher during classes, while
another student enjoyed having the opportunity to discuss with peers (SR4 -
encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning) (Baepler, Walker, &
Driesson, 2014; Khan, 2012; Stone, 2012). From the impressive achievements in the
post-tests, the ability and willingness to edit photographs and the opinions expressed
in the focus group meeting, it is reasonable to believe that students had developed

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their self-assessment (RQ5) and learned accordingly.
When students were asked what they thought the disadvantages of learning via
flipped classroom pedagogy were, two of them thought that it would be better if they

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could interact with peers rather than watching videos on their own outside the
classroom. One thought it would be better if they were given the correct answers
when they made a mistake in the tests, suggesting SR3 (deliver high-quality

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information to students about their learning) had not been achieved (RQ7). The other
four students did not have any further comment. Students were asked if they had
encountered any difficulties when learning via flipped classroom pedagogy. Four of
them did not encounter any difficulties while the other four had encountered some

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difficulties such as: they did not have a teacher to ask when they could not understand
the online video; they had to wait until the following week to ask the teacher when
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they could not understand a concept; they might forget about asking the questions;
and the pre-test did not indicate which questions they answered correctly even though
they received an overall mark (RQ8). In fact, this was done on purpose when
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designing the tests so as not to encourage rote memorization. Despite the advantages
of independent online studies, the findings further suggested including online
discussion SR4 (encourage teacher and peer dialogue around learning). Perhaps the
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teacher could suggest that students email or contact her if they encounter any
difficulties prior to the next lesson.
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When they were asked which generic skills, they had acquired through
participating in the flipped classroom pedagogy, most of them said they had acquired
one, while two said they had developed three, and one said she had developed two
generic skills. In sum, five students thought that they had acquired self-management
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skills, four had developed problem solving skills, while two expressed an opinion that
they had developed self-study and communication skills, respectively (RQ9). Indeed,
four students believed that they had become more self-regulated as flipped classroom
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gave them resources and flexibility to learn without imposing detailed requirements.
One student thought that she would only become self-regulated if she was interested
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in the topic, while the other three students did not have strong views as it was their
first experience.

7. Conclusions and Future Research Directions

This article has discussed a research study involving students who experienced
flipped classroom during their first semester of university study. The activities were
designed according to the seven principles for supporting and developing student self-
regulation proposed by Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006). Data were collected from
multiple sources, including the learning process, the products, and reflections from
students, to form a holistic understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of
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flipped classroom for enhancing formative learning outcomes on photograph editing.
Answers to research questions 1 to 5 were positive, in that the participants were able
to apply the self-learned knowledge to edit images both collaboratively and
individually for formative assessment. Regarding research questions 6 to 9, students
were also very positive about the flipped classroom experience with some suggestions
for improvement (Kong, 2014; Mok, 2014; Stone, 2012).
The significant improvements in the post-tests suggested that students understood
the requirements after they had attempted the pre-test (SR1 - helps clarify what good
performance is). Similarly, all students were able to edit an individual image

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regardless of the number of editing tools used. There was a varied number of videos
watched and this finding was substantiated by students’ opinions gathered from the
focus group meetings. Some videos were watched more than once because some of

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them watched the videos again when attempting the post-test or when editing images
in order to obtain higher marks. Some students also searched the web to have a better
understanding of the concepts suggested in flipped classroom pedagogy. These

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activities facilitated the development of self-assessment in learning (SR2) and also
encouraged positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem to close the gap between
current and desired performance (SR5).

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The interviewees in the focus groups stated that there was sufficient dialogue in
class when they were tackling group work and they were able to seek help from the
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teacher (SR3 - delivers high quality information to students about their learning and
SR4 - encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning). SR6 (provide
opportunities to close the gap) was also achieved as students were given the
opportunity to watch videos as many times as they wished before, during, and after
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they had attempted the post-test. Editing the images together and individually
reinforced SR6. In fact, they had another opportunity to close the gap between current
and desired performance when they submitted their wiki project at the end of the
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course. The aforementioned qualitative and quantitative results described elicited

students’ readiness for adopting flipped classroom learning photograph editing
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techniques, thus informing the teacher that this was a preferable pedagogy, achieving
SR 7 (provide information to teachers that can be used to help shape teaching). In
fact, the teacher was most encouraged when a student appreciated the teacher’s time
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and effort in preparing for flipped classroom pedagogy and said she had enjoyed
learning more. However, it was noted that it would be even better if students had had
the opportunity to interact during online lessons. Online interactions could include
posting questions on a discussion forum, having a real-time video conference with
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teachers and students at a specified time and day, and even email exchanges during
the online study period.
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Since flipped classroom pedagogy was applied to one topic of the course content,
we have to be mindful that the findings have some limitations. Firstly, students were
willing to edit photographs, probably because they were given one mark for group
photographs and individual photographs respectively. Secondly, focus group data
were based on participants’ subjective perceptions and it was possible that those who
did not like flipped classroom pedagogy did not participate in the focus group
interviews. Thirdly, the authenticity of the post-tests could be an issue, as students
performed the tests outside the classroom and they could have sought help from
others if necessary. Fourthly, the number of videos watched could not be monitored
using a publicly accessed platform, for example, it was not clear which videos were
watched prior and during the post-test or the number of times they were watched
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when they were editing images. However, it was observed that students mainly
discussed with each other and sought the teacher’s advice rather watching videos
during class. Therefore, future research may wish to consider the following directions;
1) carry out an experiment where one class is taught using the traditional teacher-
centered approach; 2) to extend flipped classroom pedagogy to more topics to collect
more data to verify if students could learn better using this teaching method; and 3)
conduct focus group interviews with those who did not improve much during the
post-tests to explore their difficulties in more depth.
To conclude, the findings demonstrate that various learning, teaching, and

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assessment activities have enabled the students and teacher to accomplish all the
seven principles for supporting and developing students’ self-regulated learning
(Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). Considering the focus group feedback, the author

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and other teachers might consider providing avenues for more interaction during
online lessons, allowing for more interaction between students and between students
and teachers. The findings are significant as they illuminate the missing online

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elements in the original 7 SR principles for the author and other teachers to consider
when adopting flipped classroom pedagogy.

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Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom pedagogy for first year
university students

• 73 university students participated in this flipped classroom study.

• Data were collected from various sources in three phases.
• 12 out of 14 questions from pre- and post-test scores were significant difference.
• All 7 self-regulated (SR) learning principles were achieved.

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