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    Unit 4 (1,2,3,4)

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    Ashi Saxena

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    « fodulation 9-2-3: Baud and Minimum Bandwidth Baud is « term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused with bit rate (bps). Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which is usually binary. Baud, like bit rate, is also a rate of change; however, baud refers (o the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred. Hence, baud isa unit of transmission rate, modulathnrrate, oF symboTTateand, therefore, the terms symbols per second and baud are often used interchangeably. Mathematically, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element, and a signaling element may repre- sent several information bits, Baud is expressed as : baud = oD where baud = symbol rate (baud per second) ime of one signaling element (seconds) A signaling clement is sometimes called a symbol and could be encoded as a change in the amplitude, frequency, or phase. For example, binary signals are generally encoded and transmitted one bit at a time in the form of discrete voltage levels representing logic |s (highs) and logic 0s (lows). A baud is also transmitted one at a time; however, a baud may represent more than one information bit. Thus, the baud of a data communications system may be considerably less than the bit rate. In binary systems (such as binary SK and bi- nary PSK), baud and bits per second are equal, However, in higher-level systems (such as QPSK and 8-PSK), bps is always greater than baud. Accoriling to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the medium. “The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidsh or sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, fy = 2B, where f, is the bit rate in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth, The actual bandwidth necessary to propagate a given bit rate depends on several factors, including the type of encoding and modulation used, the types of filters used, system noise, and desired error performance. The ideal bandwidth is generally used for comparison purposes only. “The relationship between bandwidth and bitrate also applies to the opposite situation. For given bandwidth (8), the highest theoretical bit rate is 22. For example, a standard telephone circuit has a bandwidth of approximately 2700 Hz, which has the capacity to propagate 5400 bps through it. However, if more than two levels are used for signaling (higher-than-bis encoding), more than one bit may be transmitted ata time, and itis possible to propaga rate that exceeds 2B. Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity is Jo 2Blog, M (9-8) where f, = channel capacity (bps) ‘B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz) ‘M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels Equation 9-8 can be rearranged to solve for the minimum bandwidth necessary to + pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers —f_) L , (é M, 0.9 ICN is substituted for logy M, Equation 9-9 reduces 10 th DON ti (9-10) where Vis the number of bits encoded Jnto each signaling element, 349 Scanned with CamScanner IC information bits are encoded (grouped) and then converted to signals with more v than two levels, transmission rates in excess of 2 are possible, as will be seen in subse- {quent sections of this chapter. In addition, since baud is the encoded rate of change, it also eqquals the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded into one signaling element. Thus, fe (9 at Al) baud = By comparing Equation 9-10 with Equation 9-11, itcan be seen that with digital mod- 4 ulation, the baud and the ideal minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the saime value and are equal to the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded. "This statement holds true forall forms of digital modulation except frequency-shift keying, 3-3 AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING ‘The simplest digital modulation technique i8 amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. ASK is similar to standard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible, Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM). Mathe- matically, amplitude-shift keying is . « Yeast) = [1+ v9(t) Scot] 012) 3 where — vgu(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave v,,(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts) ‘Af2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts) ©, = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 21 f.£) In Equation 9-12, the modulating signal (v,{¢}) is a normalized binary waveform, where +1V = logic 1 and ~1 V = logic 0. Therefore, for alogic 1 input. v,,() = +1 V, Equation 9-12 § reduces to 4 Mean(t) = [1 + [eae | Acos(w.t) and for a logic 0 input, v(t) = ~1 V, Equation 9-12 reduces to . ‘A « Yeu(t) = [1 — 1] Seos(o,) | =0 Thus, the modulated wave Yu( i the A cos(o4) oO, Hence the carer ie “ono 3 “off” which is why ancplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK). ° Figure 9-2 shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK modulator. From the figure, it can be scen that for every change in the input binary data stream, there is oné change in the ASK waveform, ad the time of one bit (/) equals the time of one analog sig- naling element (,).Itis also important to note that forthe entre time the binary input is hig, the output is a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency signal, and for the entire time the bi- | nary input is low, the carrier is off. The bit time is the reciprocal of the bit “aie and the time | of one signaling element is the reciprocal of the baud. Therefore, the rats of change of the i 350 Chapter 9 4 a) Scanned with CamScanner wf | te a ty} ou f . FIGURE 9-2 Digital ampltude modur * ® Jetion: (a) input binary; (b) output DAM waveform [ASK waveform (bavd) is the same as the rate of change ofthe binary input (Ops): thus, the pit rate equals the baud. With ASK, the bit rates also equal tothe minimum Nyquist band- oi Mh, This can be verified by substituting into Equations 9-10 and 9-11 and setting Not: i te, é€ ~ Example 9-1 Determine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary to pass 10 Kb tude shift keying. Solution For ASK, N = }, and the baud and minimor 9-11 and 9-10, respectively ps binary signal using ampli- sn bandwidth are determined from Equations _ 10,000 v 8 vs = 1282 ao10 B = 10,000 transport digital information isa relatively -The use of amplitude-modulated analog carriers 0 ‘eldom used except for very low= tow. quality, low-cost typeof digital modulation and, therefor, 15 speed telemetry circuits. w | FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING atively simple, low-performance type of digital Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another te red ulation, FSK isa form of constant-amplitude angle ‘modulation similar to standard fre quency modulation (FM) except the modulating signal isa binary signal that varies between aadiscrete voltage levels rather than a continuoushy ‘changing analog waveform. Conse- quently, FSK is sometimes called binary "FSK (BESK). The general expression for FSK is (9-13) vyalt) = Ve cosl2nlfe + vat AM where —vga(t) = binary FSK waveform V, = peak analog carrer amplitude (vols) J = analog carrier center frequency (hertz) {AJ = peak change (shift) in the analog cartie® frequency (hertz) va(f) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts) itcan be seen thatthe peak shiftin the carrier frequency (0 is \d the direction of the shift From Equation 9-13, proportional to the amplitude of the inary input signal (¥n{f]). an igital Modulation Scanned with CamScanner a2 } ow oe 1 | 1 ~ 1 | 1 ts fe Sn Logic 1 * Logic o inary input FIGURE 8:9. FK in the frequency signal domain is determined by the polarity. The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform: where a logic | = +1 Vanda logic 0 = ~1 V. Thus, fora logic | input, vq(0) = +1, Equa- tion 9-13 can be rewritten as wyald) = Ve costn(f. + Apt} For a logic 0 input, v,(¢) = 1, Equation 9-13 becomes vgalt) = Ve cos[2n(f, — ANA) q With binary FSK, the carrier center frequericy (f)is shifted (devicted) up and dowr -% in the frequency domain by the binary input signal as shown in Figure 9-3. As the binary. input signal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice versa, the output frequency s! between two frequencies: a mark, or logic 1 frequency (f,), and a space, or logic 0 fre- «quency (f,). The mark and space frequencies are separated from the cartier frequency by the peak frequency deviation (Af) and from each other by 2 Af With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the mart. or space frequency and the center frequency, or half the difference between the mark anc ‘matically as where Af = frequency deviation (hertz) Vu ~ 1 = absolute difference between the mark and space frequencies (hertz) Figure 9-4a shows in the time domain the binary input to an FSK modulator and the corresponding FSK output. As the figure shows, when the binary input (f,) changes from a logic | toa logic 0 and vice versa, the FSK output frequency shifts froma mark (f,) toa space (f,) frequency and vice versa. In Figure 9-4a, the mark frequency is the higher frequency (f, + Ap, and the space frequency is the lower frequency (f, — AY), although this relation ship could be just the opposite. Figure 9-4b shows the truth table for a binary FSK module- tor. The truth table shows the input and output possibilities for a given digital modulation scheme. 94-1 FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth In Figure 9-4a, it can be seen that the time of one bit (t,) is the same as the time the FSK output is a mark of space frequency (t,). Thus, the bit time equals the time of an FSK sig naling element, and the bit rate equals the baud. Chapter 9 : Scanned with CamScanner wom OP offre [ofr ]2 Peele eee eee ieee, inary frequency Analogy ni Inpee ‘output output! f =n 1 MI, I OM, ° ace Pat ite mite nite nits nite beri Soe ark troquancy; f, space frequency Oy ” FIGURE 9-4 FSK in the time domain: (a) waveform: (b) truth table & ‘The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting N= 1 in Equa- tion 9-11: baud -4 Se : FSK is the exception to the rule for digital modulation, as the minimum bandwidth is not determined from Equation 9-10. The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as BHI FI - GaP = ES + 2h ; nd since , ~ fl equals 28, the minimom bandwidth can be approximated as B= UMS + fi) where B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz) frequency deviation (,, ~ f) (hertz) input bit rate (bps) Note how closely Equation 9-15 resembles Carson's rule for determining the ap- proximate bandwith for an FM wave. The only diference in the two equations is that, for FSK, the bit rate (f,) is substituted for the modulating-signal frequency (f,,). Example 9-2 Determine (a) the pes equency deviation () minimum bandvidh nd () baud fora binary FSK sat witha nan frequency of 4 ka aspacefequeny ofS KHz and an input bitrate of Kbps, Solution a. The peak fequency deviation determined fram Equation 918: Okie ~ Si aye Hee sti = kHz bs The minimum bandwidth is determined from Equation 9-15: ‘B= 2(1000 + 2000) = 6 kHz «e. For PSK, N = 1, and the baud is determined from Equation 9-11 as 2000 _ Y baud 2000 | Modulation 353 Scanned with CamScanner __ FIGURE 85 FSK moduitor,f, time of one bit = 1/% fx mark frequency; fy Bessel functions ean also be used to determine the approximate bandwidth for an IK wave. As shown in Figure 9:5, the fastest rate of change (highest fundamental fre- quency) in a nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) binary signal occurs when alternating 3s and 0s are occurring (ie. square wave), Since i takes a high and a low to produce a cycle, the high: est fundamental frequency present in a square wave equals the repetition rate of the square wave, which with a binary signal is equal to half the bit rate. Therefore, fe (9-16) 4 fn'y where —f, = highest fundamental frequency of the binary input signal (hertz) Jy = input bit rate (bps) ‘The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid for FSK; thus, a na (onitess oan 4 where f= FM modulation index called the h-factor in FSK J = fundamental frequency of the binary modulating signal (hertz) Af = peak frequency deviation (hertz) ‘The worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) is that which yields the widest band. ‘width. The worst-case or widest bandwidth occurs when both the frequency deviation and the modulating-signal frequency are at their maximum values. As described earlier the peak frequency deviation in PSK is constant and always at its maximum value, and the highest fundamental frequency is equal to half the incoming bit rate, Thus, V A ¢ (unitless) space frequency; Ty, period of shortest cycle: 1/7, fundamental frequency af binary square wave: f,, input bit rate (bps) ates Scanned with CamScanner h Sa Ss te Factor (unitless) = mark frequency (hertz) pace frequency (hertz) bit rate (bits per second) Example 9:3 | Using Bese able, determine the minimum bandwidth forthe same F’ ‘ple 9-1 with a mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kH2, a | Sohition ‘The modeion index is found by substituting into Equation 9-17: #9 kHz 51 kil} | or ee — \ 2 kbps | 2k 2 kbps =I c From a Bessel table three sets of significant sidebands are produced for 8 one, Therefore, the bandwidth can be determined as follows: | B= 2(3 X 1000) 6000 Hz “The bandwidth determined in Example 9-3 using the determined in Example 9-2. 9.42 FSK Transmitter Figure 9-6 shows a simplified binary FSK modulator, which is very similar to conven tinal FM modulator and is very often a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The center frequency (7) is chosen such that falls halfway between the mark and space frequencies. ‘Alogie | input shifts the VCO output othe mark frequency, anda logic O input shifts the ‘VCO output to the space frequency. Consequently, a the binary input signal changes back dd fonh between logic 1 and logic O conditions, the VCO output shifis or deviates back tnd forth between the mark and space frequencies. ‘ha binary FSK modulator, Afis the peak frequency deviation of the carier and is equal to the difference between the cartier rest frequency and either the mark orth space frequency (or half the diference between te carrier rest frequency) and either the mark or c the space frequency (or half the difference between the mark and space frequencies). AVCO- FSK modulator can be operated in the sweep mode where the peak frequency deviation is ‘SK signal Jescribed in Exam- ind an inpat bit rate of 2 kbps. modulation index of Bessel table is identical to the bandwidth 5 Naz AGREE = Fsk ouput inary SLL SK modulo veo C0) - Kati yf Jn te hs : | Logic 1 FIGURE 9.6 FSK modulator Digital Moutulation ass Scanned with CamScanner ‘Analog nate or inn toprawy ected signet , N {iu \ Fevetope | de : . tector | to ‘SK wy oe » Data utp ot counter ', wl Geta outed ne) Nef Eavtane | detector Comparator FIGURE 9.7 Noneoheront FBK damodulator Mutplion Qe) ~ >t el ae i FSK Input | Power Carrion te wre] ¢ ia job wna Caron FIGURE 9:9 Cohorent FSK demodulator simply the productof the the sweep mode of modula Vek of As-= peak frequency deviation (hertz) peak binary modulating-signal voltege (vols) deviation sensitivity (hertz per volt). With binary FSK, the amplitude ofthe input signal can only be one of two values. foralogie 1 condition and one fora logic 0 condition. Therefore, the peak frequency ev aun ig constant and always at its maximum value. Frequency deviation is simply plus minus the peak voltage of the binary signal mes the deviation sensitivity of the VCO- Since the peak voltage isthe same for a logic 1 as itis fora logic 0, the megnitude ofthe frequency deviation is also the same for a logic | as it is for a logic 0. 9.4.3 FSK Receiver FSK demodulation is quite simple with a circuit FSK input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of both bancp: through a power splitter, The respective filter passes only the mark or only the space fre: quency on to its respective envelope detector. The envelope detectors, in tum, indicate the total power in each passband, and the comparator responds to the largest of the 1w= pow: ters. This type of FSK detection is referred to as noncoherent detection; there is no frequency jnvolved in the demodulation process that is synchronized either in phase, fre;uency, ot t such as the one shown in Figure 9-7. Tbe ass Flters (BPFS) both with the incoming FSK signal. Figure 9-8 shows the block diagram for a coherent FSK receiver. The incoming FSK ie ter of output phases possible. The input binary informalny js encoded into groups of bits before modulating the cartier. The number of bits in a BrACP ranges from 1 to 12 oF more “The numberof output phases is defined by M as describes Equation 9-6 and determined aie by the number of bits in the group (")- me 9-5-1. Binary Phase Shift Keying ‘The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shit keying (BPSK), where N = ‘Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (2! = 2) are possible for the carrier. ‘One phase repre- sentsa logic 1, and the ober phase represents 2 logic 0 ‘As the inpat digital signal changes (iq state (.e, from a | to.a0oF from a0 0 1), the Phase ‘ofthe output carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180°. Hence, other names for BPSK are phase reversal key: jodulation of 24 ing PRK) and biphase modulation. BPSK is 9 form of square-wave mi “continuous wave (CW) signal L BPSK transmitter, Figure 9-12 shows a simplified block diagram of a} 9. hase reversing switch. Depending o BPSK transmitter. The balanced modulator acts as 2 P Balanced \__, [Bandpass] _ Modulated modulator filter PSK output “ol =n FIGURE 9-12 BPSK transmitter Chanter 9 Scanned with CamScanner ‘zen | £ svepinary (sin axt FIGURE 9-13. (a) Balanced ring modulator: (blogic 1 input; (c} logic O input the logic condition of the digital input, the carrier is transferred tothe output either in phase or 180° out of phase with the reference carrier oscillator. Figure 9-13 shows the schematic diagram of a balanced ring modulator. The balanced modulator has two inputs: a carrier that isin phase with the reference oscillator and the bi- nary digital data, For the balanced modulator to operate properly, the digital input voltage rust be much greater than the peak carrier voltage. This ensures that the digital input con- trols the onvoff state of diodes D1 to D4. Ifthe binary input is a logic | (positive voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and on, while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and off (Figure 9-13b). With the polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed across 359 Scanned with CamScanner (907) , coseyt -tin gt 180" Logico sin wet ca) Output phase tees 180° o to £08 wet 90") o Logica Logie 1 FIGURE 9-14 BPSK modulator: (a) truth table; (b} phasor diagram; (c) constellation diagram transformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage across T1. Consequently, the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator. If the binary input isa logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes D1 and 2 are reverse biased i and off, while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on (Figure 9-13c). As a result, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180° out of phase with the cartier voltage: across TI. Consequently, the output signal is 180° out of phase with the reference oscillator, Figure 9-14 shows the truth table, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram for a BPSK modulator. A constellation diagram, which is sometimes called a signal state-space dia! gram, is similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn, In a constel « lation diagram, only the relative positions of the peaks of the phasors are showin. 9-5-1-2 Bandwidth considerations of BPSK. A balanced modulater is a producl ‘modulator; the output signal is the product of the two input signals. Ina BPSK modulator, the carrer input signal is multiplied by the binary data. If +1 V is assigned to a logic 1 and ~1 Vis assigned to a logic 0, the input carrier (sin (2) is multiplied by either a + or ~ Consequently, the output signal is either +1 sin 4 or ~1 sin ot; the first represents a sigs nal that is in phase with the reference oscillator, the later a signal that is 180° out ta with the reference oscillator. Each time the input logic condition changes, the output ph changes. Consequently, for BPSK, the output rate of change (baud) is equal tothe input ral of change (bps), and the widest output bandwidth occurs when the input binary data are alternating 1/0 sequence. The fundamental frequency (,) of an alternative 1/0 bit sequendf is equal to one-half of the bit rate (f,/2). Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modulatd is proportional to ——— BPSK output = [sin(2zf,0)] % [sin(2nj-) e 8 & Chapter 9 eeeEeEeEEeEeeEeEeEeEeEeEee Scanned with CamScanner © Digital Modulation Dagrose ° ® ° . ° x Red FIGURE 9-15 Output phaseversustime relationship for a BPSK modulator where _f, = maximum fundamental frequency of binary input (hertz) ‘fe = reference cartier frequency (hertz) Solving for the trig identity for the product of two sine functions, eosf ant — fa] ~'geostanh + J.) ‘Thus, the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth (B) is Seth hth ~h+h) 4 hth and because f, where B is the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth, Figure 9-15 shows the output phase-versus-time relationship for a BPSK waveform, {As the figure shows, a logic 1 input produces an analog output signal with a 0° phase an- gle, and a logic 0 input produces an analog output signal with a 180° phase angle. As the binary input shifts between a logic 1 and a logic 0 condition and vice versa, the phase of the BPSK waveform shifts between 0° and 180°, respectively. For simplicity, only one cycle of the analog carrier is shown in each signaling element, although there may be anywhere between a fraction of a cycle to several thousand cycles, depending on the relationship be- tween the input bit rate and the analog carrier frequency. It can also be seen that the time of ‘one BPSK signaling element (,) is equal to the time of one information bit (,), which in- dicates thatthe bit rate equals the baud. Example 9-4 Fora BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bitrate of 10 Mbps, deter- ‘mine the maximum and minimum upper and lower side frequencies, draw the output spectnisn, de- {ermine the minimum Nyquist bandwidth, and calculate the baud. 361 Scanned with CamScanner up 8 > caine rae TLL FIGURE 9-16 age pr |, >| Balanced |_ e | modulator ig lds T T | sin(o,!) Y | { Clock . recovery Coherent carrer | —~ recovery Block diagram of a BPSK receiver output = (sin (sin 0.2) = [sin 2n(5 MHz)6][sin 2n(70 MHz)1) = Leos 2e(T0 Mite ~ 5 MHz) — ‘feos 2n(70 Mblz + 5 Milz)¢ 2 sone sees Diaesess oak Rens eS) lower side frequency upper side frequency Minimum lower side frequency (LSF): LSF = 70 MHz ~ 5 MHz = 65 MHz Maximum upperside frequency (USF): USF = 70 MHz + 5 MHz = 75 MHz ‘Therefore, the output spectrum for the worst-case Hnary input conditions is zs follows: ‘The minimum Nyquist bandwidth (B) is <8 = 10tH#z —> @SMiiz70WH2 ‘76M (Suppressed) B= 75 MHz — 65 MHz = 10 MHz and the baud = f, or 10 megabaud. 9.5-1-3 BPSK receiver, Figure 9-16 shows the block diagram of a BPSK receiver. and regenerates a carrier signal that is both frequency and phase coherent with the original 3 transmit carrier. The balanced modulator is a product detector; the output is the product of, te two inputs (the BPSK signal and the recovered carrier). The low-pass filter (LPF) sep- j arates the recovered binary data from the complex demodulated signal, Mathematically, the a demodulation process is as follows. Fora BPSK input signal of +sin . (logic 1), the output of the balanced modulators output = (sin @a)/sin 4) = sin? ot (9.2t)' Chaptnn Scanned with CamScanner jital Modulation or sin? wg = eres out ‘3 S{l = cos 2u4) = 5 ~ 508 2a 1 leaving. output = +5¥ = logie | It can be seen that the output of the balanced modulator contains a positive voltage (+[12]V) and a cosine wave at twice the carrier frequency (2 (0,) The LPF has a cutoff fre- quency much lower than 2, and, thus, blocks the second harmonic of the carrier and passes only the positive constant component. A positive voltage represents a demodulated logic 1. Fora BPSK input signal of —sin «(logic 0), the output of the bzlanced modulator is output = (sia «2)(sin @t) = ~sin® ot (Gered ond 1 ait sintos = —) (1 = co = 4 ths 20, or sin? ag = —7(1 — £08 2u) = —3 + 5 608 2ot leaving output = —5¥ = logic 0 ‘The output of the balanced modulator contains a negative voltage (~[1/2]V) and a ‘cosine wave at twice the carrier frequency (20). Again, the LPF blocks the second har- monic of the carrier and passes only the negative constant component. A negative voltage represents a demodulated logic 0. 95-2 Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is an- other form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation. QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where NV = 2 and M = 4 (hence, the name “quaternary” meaning “4”). With QPSK, four output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency. Because there are four output phases, there must be four different input conditions. Because the digital in- put to a QPSK modulator is a binary (base 2) signal, to produce four different input com- binations, the modulator requires more than a single input bit to determine the output con- dition, With two bits, there are four possible conditions: 00, 01, 10, and 11. Therefore, with QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups of two bits called dibits. In the mod- ulator, each dibit code generates one of the four possible output phases (+45°, +135°, =45°, and ~ 135°), Therefore, for each two-bit dibit clocked into the modulator, a single ‘output change occurs, and the rate of change at the output (baud) is equal to one-half the input bitrate (.e., two iriput bits produce one output phase change), 9.5-2-1 QPSK transmitter. A block diagram of a QPSK modulator is shown in Figure 9-17, Two bits (a dibit) are clocked into the bit splitter. After both bits have been se- Filly inputted, they are simultaneously parallel outputted. One bit is directed tothe Tchan- nel and the other tothe Q channel. The I bit modulates a carrier that is in phase with the ref- erence oscillator (hence the name “I” for “in phase” channel), and the Q bit modulates a carrier that is 90° out of phase or in quadrature with the reference carrier (hence the name “Q" for “quadrature” channel), ean be seen that once a dibit has been spit into the I and Q channels, the operation is the same as in a BPSK modulator. Essentially, a QPSK modulator is two BPSK modul- tors combined in parallel. Again, fora logic I = +1 V and a logic 0 = —1 V, two phases ate possible at the output ofthe I balanced modulator (+sin @,t and —sin @,1), and two 363 Scanned with CamScanner taint Braye wn dota fy med | aise = ‘a ox Bi ' oe Liner | pe [A i co a as | ‘ai z bars = : [= ma eet LogicO--1V_ Balanced Q channel fy/2 modulator J" 4cos xt € FIGURE 9.17 GPSK moduistor phases are possible at the output of the Q balanced modulator (+cos co,t and —cos «0. When the linear summer combines the two quadrature (90° out of phase) signals, there are four possible resultant phasors given by these expressions: + sin (,t + cos wt, + sin G4 ~ C08 «4, ~sin Ot + c0s @2, and —sin @.1 — COs (4. Example 9-5 For the QPSK modulator shown in Figure 9-17, construct the truth table, phasor diagram, and con: stellation diagram, Solution Fora binary data input of =I and sin 4, and the two inputs to the Q balanced modulator are ~1 and cos wt. Consequently, the outputs ae . Talanced modulator = (—1sin @s) = ~1sin ot C ‘Qbalanced modulator = (~1)(608 0,1) = ~1 cos wt and the output of the linear summer is , Leos wt — 1 sin ot = 1414 sin(wg — 138°) For the remaining dibit codes (01, 10, and 11), the procedure isthe same, The results are shown if Figure 9-18a In Figures 9-18b and c, itcan be seen thet witn QPSK each of the four possible out i Put phasors has exactly the same amplitude. Therefore, the binary information must be en- Coded entirely in the phase of the output signal. This constant amplitude characteristic i the most important characteristic of PSK that distinguishes it from QAM, which is ex-4 Plained later in this chapter. Also, from Figure 9-18b, it can be seen thatthe angular sepa-i ‘ation between any two adjacent phasors in QPSK is 90°. Therefore, a QPSK signal can un-4 dergo almost a +45° or —45° shift in phase during transmission and still retain the correct. “encoded information when demodulated at the receiver, Figure 9-19 shows the outpu. Phase-versus-time relationship for a QPSK modulator, Chapter 9 Scanned with CamScanner o ot a 4 onan coum sont ee “es sings 1389 vinta " o sina cane 4 HO anal sina ° 1 oon aneaosinad cones ce ont . sina -199) sina 181 o rs rngune 9:18. OPSK oder) rah ble (0) phasor degra: eenseiion onrn me a1 at at Qt a osx : i L€ output Time sn re aad FIGURE 9-19 Output phase-versusiime relationship for 6 GPSK modulator 9.5-2-2 Bandwidth considerations of QPSK, With QPSK, because the input dats are divided into wo channels, the bitrate in ethes the Tor the Q channel is equal \0 ‘one-half a he input data rate (/2)- Essentially, the bitspitter stretches the Land Q bits wo twice their input bit length.) Consequently, the highest fundamental frequency present at the data input sa torte Q balanced modifator is equal to one-fourth of the input data rate (one-half of Jy2 = fd4)- As a result, te output ofthe Land Q balanced modulators requires & ‘minimum Ai ceided Nyquist bandwidth equa to one-half ofthe incoming bitrate (fy = twice fy = fy2) Thus, with QPSK, a bandwidth compression is realized (the minimum ‘bandwidth is rec ihan the incoming bit rate) Also, because the QPSK output signal doesnot change phase m until two bits (a dibit) have been clocked into the bit splitter, the fastest output rate of change v (baud) is also equal to one-half of the input bitrate. As with BPSK, the minimum bandwidth and the baud are equal. This relationship is shows in Fignre 9-20. Y Digital Mudulation 368 Scanned with CamScanner 1Channet ———+| Balanced | tsinat TR 41 | modulator sinogt con ent fy 4 na ome channel | Medvlstor TV scos at FIGURE 8:20 Bandwidth considerations of a GPSK modulator In Figure 9-20, it can be seen that the worse-case input condition to the I or Q bal- 4 anced modulator is an altemative 1/0 pattem, which occurs when the binary input data have a 1100 repetitive pattern, One cycle of the fastest binary transition (a 1/0 sequence) e in the I or Q channel takes the same time as four input data bits. Consequently, the highest fundamental frequency at the input and fastest rate of change at the output of the balanced ‘modulators is equal to one-fourth of the binary input bit rate. The output of the balanced modulators can be expressed mathematically as : jachdaiate te csi ‘output = (sin @,1)(sin @,1) (9-22) f og =a and wt = af, Gi « i where ~paodulaing carrier signal I _ (oof \n Thus, output = (sin 2n'f1 )(sin 2nfr) ' 1 fy 1 & : 7008 nlf. — 7g)! — eos nlf. +7) | € ‘The output frequency spectrum extends from f. + f,/4 to f. — f,/4, and the minimum band \ width (fy) is ‘| t ' fe fe) _%e he ‘ t +f) _(, 4) hh y (+4)-(-4)-4-4 Example 9-6 i \ For a QPSK modulator with an input data rate (f,} equal to 10 Mbps and a carrier frequency of t 70 Miz, determine the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth f,) and the baud. Also, compar! i the results with those achieved with the BPSK modulator in Example 9-4. Use the QPSK block dis ‘gram shown in Figure 9-17 as the modulator model, Solution The bitrate in both the I and Q channels is equal to one-half of the transmission bitrate, 10Mb y= SMbps S66 Chapter 9 ud Scanned with CamScanner ‘The highest fundamental frequency presented to cither balanced modulator is 5 Mbps 25MHz ‘The output wave from each balanced modulator is (sin 2nf,0(sin 2nf) 1 1 7008 2m, ~ ft — 30s 2m + 1 cos 2x{(10 + 2.5) MHz feos 2n{(70 - 2.5) MHz} 1 Lg agesamey = Seo26025 te ‘The minimum Nyquist bandwidth is B= (125 ~ 61.5) Miz = 5 Mz ‘The symbol rate equals the bandwidth; thus, symbol rate = 5 megabaud | | | @7SWHe 7OMAz 725 NHE (Suppressed) | om ‘The minimum bandwidth for the QPSK system described in Example 9-6 can also be

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