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    Unit 4 PDF

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    Ashi Saxena

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 53
    « fodulation 9-2-3: Baud and Minimum Bandwidth Baud is « term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused with bit rate (bps). Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which is usually binary. Baud, like bit rate, is also a rate of change; however, baud refers (o the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred. Hence, baud isa unit of transmission rate, modulathnrrate, oF symboTTateand, therefore, the terms symbols per second and baud are often used interchangeably. Mathematically, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element, and a signaling element may repre- sent several information bits, Baud is expressed as : baud = oD where baud = symbol rate (baud per second) ime of one signaling element (seconds) A signaling clement is sometimes called a symbol and could be encoded as a change in the amplitude, frequency, or phase. For example, binary signals are generally encoded and transmitted one bit at a time in the form of discrete voltage levels representing logic |s (highs) and logic 0s (lows). A baud is also transmitted one at a time; however, a baud may represent more than one information bit. Thus, the baud of a data communications system may be considerably less than the bit rate. In binary systems (such as binary SK and bi- nary PSK), baud and bits per second are equal, However, in higher-level systems (such as QPSK and 8-PSK), bps is always greater than baud. Accoriling to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the medium. “The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidsh or sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, fy = 2B, where f, is the bit rate in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth, The actual bandwidth necessary to propagate a given bit rate depends on several factors, including the type of encoding and modulation used, the types of filters used, system noise, and desired error performance. The ideal bandwidth is generally used for comparison purposes only. “The relationship between bandwidth and bitrate also applies to the opposite situation. For given bandwidth (8), the highest theoretical bit rate is 22. For example, a standard telephone circuit has a bandwidth of approximately 2700 Hz, which has the capacity to propagate 5400 bps through it. However, if more than two levels are used for signaling (higher-than-bis encoding), more than one bit may be transmitted ata time, and itis possible to propaga rate that exceeds 2B. Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity is Jo 2Blog, M (9-8) where f, = channel capacity (bps) ‘B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz) ‘M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels Equation 9-8 can be rearranged to solve for the minimum bandwidth necessary to + pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers —f_) L , (é M, 0.9 ICN is substituted for logy M, Equation 9-9 reduces 10 th DON ti (9-10) where Vis the number of bits encoded Jnto each signaling element, 349 Scanned with CamScanner IC information bits are encoded (grouped) and then converted to signals with more v than two levels, transmission rates in excess of 2 are possible, as will be seen in subse- {quent sections of this chapter. In addition, since baud is the encoded rate of change, it also eqquals the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded into one signaling element. Thus, fe (9 at Al) baud = By comparing Equation 9-10 with Equation 9-11, itcan be seen that with digital mod- 4 ulation, the baud and the ideal minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the saime value and are equal to the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded. "This statement holds true forall forms of digital modulation except frequency-shift keying, 3-3 AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING ‘The simplest digital modulation technique i8 amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. ASK is similar to standard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible, Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM). Mathe- matically, amplitude-shift keying is . « Yeast) = [1+ v9(t) Scot] 012) 3 where — vgu(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave v,,(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts) ‘Af2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts) ©, = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 21 f.£) In Equation 9-12, the modulating signal (v,{¢}) is a normalized binary waveform, where +1V = logic 1 and ~1 V = logic 0. Therefore, for alogic 1 input. v,,() = +1 V, Equation 9-12 § reduces to 4 Mean(t) = [1 + [eae | Acos(w.t) and for a logic 0 input, v(t) = ~1 V, Equation 9-12 reduces to . ‘A « Yeu(t) = [1 — 1] Seos(o,) | =0 Thus, the modulated wave Yu( i the A cos(o4) oO, Hence the carer ie “ono 3 “off” which is why ancplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK). ° Figure 9-2 shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK modulator. From the figure, it can be scen that for every change in the input binary data stream, there is oné change in the ASK waveform, ad the time of one bit (/) equals the time of one analog sig- naling element (,).Itis also important to note that forthe entre time the binary input is hig, the output is a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency signal, and for the entire time the bi- | nary input is low, the carrier is off. The bit time is the reciprocal of the bit “aie and the time | of one signaling element is the reciprocal of the baud. Therefore, the rats of change of the i 350 Chapter 9 4 a) Scanned with CamScanner Binary wave in Product Modulator Carrier wave A, cos(2nf.t) Binary ASK wave s(t) Scanned with CamScanner Binary © E ‘Symbol 1, ASK wave, 7 if threshold Decision |__| exceeded a device a Symbol 0, . otherwise Loe ; : cos(2nf,t) Threshold pret | Scanned with CamScanner wf | te a ty} ou f . FIGURE 9-2 Digital ampltude modur * ® Jetion: (a) input binary; (b) output DAM waveform [ASK waveform (bavd) is the same as the rate of change ofthe binary input (Ops): thus, the pit rate equals the baud. With ASK, the bit rates also equal tothe minimum Nyquist band- oi Mh, This can be verified by substituting into Equations 9-10 and 9-11 and setting Not: i te, é€ ~ Example 9-1 Determine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary to pass 10 Kb tude shift keying. Solution For ASK, N = }, and the baud and minimor 9-11 and 9-10, respectively ps binary signal using ampli- sn bandwidth are determined from Equations _ 10,000 v 8 vs = 1282 ao10 B = 10,000 transport digital information isa relatively -The use of amplitude-modulated analog carriers 0 ‘eldom used except for very low= tow. quality, low-cost typeof digital modulation and, therefor, 15 speed telemetry circuits. w | FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING atively simple, low-performance type of digital Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another te red ulation, FSK isa form of constant-amplitude angle ‘modulation similar to standard fre quency modulation (FM) except the modulating signal isa binary signal that varies between aadiscrete voltage levels rather than a continuoushy ‘changing analog waveform. Conse- quently, FSK is sometimes called binary "FSK (BESK). The general expression for FSK is (9-13) vyalt) = Ve cosl2nlfe + vat AM where —vga(t) = binary FSK waveform V, = peak analog carrer amplitude (vols) J = analog carrier center frequency (hertz) {AJ = peak change (shift) in the analog cartie® frequency (hertz) va(f) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts) itcan be seen thatthe peak shiftin the carrier frequency (0 is \d the direction of the shift From Equation 9-13, proportional to the amplitude of the inary input signal (¥n{f]). an igital Modulation Scanned with CamScanner a2 } ow oe 1 | 1 ~ 1 | 1 ts fe Sn Logic 1 * Logic o inary input FIGURE 8:9. FK in the frequency signal domain is determined by the polarity. The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform: where a logic | = +1 Vanda logic 0 = ~1 V. Thus, fora logic | input, vq(0) = +1, Equa- tion 9-13 can be rewritten as wyald) = Ve costn(f. + Apt} For a logic 0 input, v,(¢) = 1, Equation 9-13 becomes vgalt) = Ve cos[2n(f, — ANA) q With binary FSK, the carrier center frequericy (f)is shifted (devicted) up and dowr -% in the frequency domain by the binary input signal as shown in Figure 9-3. As the binary. input signal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice versa, the output frequency s! between two frequencies: a mark, or logic 1 frequency (f,), and a space, or logic 0 fre- «quency (f,). The mark and space frequencies are separated from the cartier frequency by the peak frequency deviation (Af) and from each other by 2 Af With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the mart. or space frequency and the center frequency, or half the difference between the mark anc ‘matically as where Af = frequency deviation (hertz) Vu ~ 1 = absolute difference between the mark and space frequencies (hertz) Figure 9-4a shows in the time domain the binary input to an FSK modulator and the corresponding FSK output. As the figure shows, when the binary input (f,) changes from a logic | toa logic 0 and vice versa, the FSK output frequency shifts froma mark (f,) toa space (f,) frequency and vice versa. In Figure 9-4a, the mark frequency is the higher frequency (f, + Ap, and the space frequency is the lower frequency (f, — AY), although this relation ship could be just the opposite. Figure 9-4b shows the truth table for a binary FSK module- tor. The truth table shows the input and output possibilities for a given digital modulation scheme. 94-1 FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth In Figure 9-4a, it can be seen that the time of one bit (t,) is the same as the time the FSK output is a mark of space frequency (t,). Thus, the bit time equals the time of an FSK sig naling element, and the bit rate equals the baud. Chapter 9 : Scanned with CamScanner wom OP offre [ofr ]2 Peele eee eee ieee, inary frequency Analogy ni Inpee ‘output output! f =n 1 MI, I OM, ° ace Pat ite mite nite nits nite beri Soe ark troquancy; f, space frequency Oy ” FIGURE 9-4 FSK in the time domain: (a) waveform: (b) truth table & ‘The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting N= 1 in Equa- tion 9-11: baud -4 Se : FSK is the exception to the rule for digital modulation, as the minimum bandwidth is not determined from Equation 9-10. The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as BHI FI - GaP = ES + 2h ; nd since , ~ fl equals 28, the minimom bandwidth can be approximated as B= UMS + fi) where B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz) frequency deviation (,, ~ f) (hertz) input bit rate (bps) Note how closely Equation 9-15 resembles Carson's rule for determining the ap- proximate bandwith for an FM wave. The only diference in the two equations is that, for FSK, the bit rate (f,) is substituted for the modulating-signal frequency (f,,). Example 9-2 Determine (a) the pes equency deviation () minimum bandvidh nd () baud fora binary FSK sat witha nan frequency of 4 ka aspacefequeny ofS KHz and an input bitrate of Kbps, Solution a. The peak fequency deviation determined fram Equation 918: Okie ~ Si aye Hee sti = kHz bs The minimum bandwidth is determined from Equation 9-15: ‘B= 2(1000 + 2000) = 6 kHz «e. For PSK, N = 1, and the baud is determined from Equation 9-11 as 2000 _ Y baud 2000 | Modulation 353 Scanned with CamScanner __ FIGURE 85 FSK moduitor,f, time of one bit = 1/% fx mark frequency; fy Bessel functions ean also be used to determine the approximate bandwidth for an IK wave. As shown in Figure 9:5, the fastest rate of change (highest fundamental fre- quency) in a nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) binary signal occurs when alternating 3s and 0s are occurring (ie. square wave), Since i takes a high and a low to produce a cycle, the high: est fundamental frequency present in a square wave equals the repetition rate of the square wave, which with a binary signal is equal to half the bit rate. Therefore, fe (9-16) 4 fn'y where —f, = highest fundamental frequency of the binary input signal (hertz) Jy = input bit rate (bps) ‘The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid for FSK; thus, a na (onitess oan 4 where f= FM modulation index called the h-factor in FSK J = fundamental frequency of the binary modulating signal (hertz) Af = peak frequency deviation (hertz) ‘The worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) is that which yields the widest band. ‘width. The worst-case or widest bandwidth occurs when both the frequency deviation and the modulating-signal frequency are at their maximum values. As described earlier the peak frequency deviation in PSK is constant and always at its maximum value, and the highest fundamental frequency is equal to half the incoming bit rate, Thus, V A ¢ (unitless) space frequency; Ty, period of shortest cycle: 1/7, fundamental frequency af binary square wave: f,, input bit rate (bps) ates Scanned with CamScanner h Sa Ss te Factor (unitless) = mark frequency (hertz) pace frequency (hertz) bit rate (bits per second) Example 9:3 | Using Bese able, determine the minimum bandwidth forthe same F’ ‘ple 9-1 with a mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kH2, a | Sohition ‘The modeion index is found by substituting into Equation 9-17: #9 kHz 51 kil} | or ee — \ 2 kbps | 2k 2 kbps =I c From a Bessel table three sets of significant sidebands are produced for 8 one, Therefore, the bandwidth can be determined as follows: | B= 2(3 X 1000) 6000 Hz “The bandwidth determined in Example 9-3 using the determined in Example 9-2. 9.42 FSK Transmitter Figure 9-6 shows a simplified binary FSK modulator, which is very similar to conven tinal FM modulator and is very often a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The center frequency (7) is chosen such that falls halfway between the mark and space frequencies. ‘Alogie | input shifts the VCO output othe mark frequency, anda logic O input shifts the ‘VCO output to the space frequency. Consequently, a the binary input signal changes back dd fonh between logic 1 and logic O conditions, the VCO output shifis or deviates back tnd forth between the mark and space frequencies. ‘ha binary FSK modulator, Afis the peak frequency deviation of the carier and is equal to the difference between the cartier rest frequency and either the mark orth space frequency (or half the diference between te carrier rest frequency) and either the mark or c the space frequency (or half the difference between the mark and space frequencies). AVCO- FSK modulator can be operated in the sweep mode where the peak frequency deviation is ‘SK signal Jescribed in Exam- ind an inpat bit rate of 2 kbps. modulation index of Bessel table is identical to the bandwidth 5 Naz AGREE = Fsk ouput inary SLL SK modulo veo C0) - Kati yf Jn te hs : | Logic 1 FIGURE 9.6 FSK modulator Digital Moutulation ass Scanned with CamScanner ‘Analog nate or inn toprawy ected signet , N {iu \ Fevetope | de : . tector | to ‘SK wy oe » Data utp ot counter ', wl Geta outed ne) Nef Eavtane | detector Comparator FIGURE 9.7 Noneoheront FBK damodulator Mutplion Qe) ~ >t el ae i FSK Input | Power Carrion te wre] ¢ ia job wna Caron FIGURE 9:9 Cohorent FSK demodulator simply the productof the the sweep mode of modula Vek of As-= peak frequency deviation (hertz) peak binary modulating-signal voltege (vols) deviation sensitivity (hertz per volt). With binary FSK, the amplitude ofthe input signal can only be one of two values. foralogie 1 condition and one fora logic 0 condition. Therefore, the peak frequency ev aun ig constant and always at its maximum value. Frequency deviation is simply plus minus the peak voltage of the binary signal mes the deviation sensitivity of the VCO- Since the peak voltage isthe same for a logic 1 as itis fora logic 0, the megnitude ofthe frequency deviation is also the same for a logic | as it is for a logic 0. 9.4.3 FSK Receiver FSK demodulation is quite simple with a circuit FSK input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of both bancp: through a power splitter, The respective filter passes only the mark or only the space fre: quency on to its respective envelope detector. The envelope detectors, in tum, indicate the total power in each passband, and the comparator responds to the largest of the 1w= pow: ters. This type of FSK detection is referred to as noncoherent detection; there is no frequency jnvolved in the demodulation process that is synchronized either in phase, fre;uency, ot t such as the one shown in Figure 9-7. Tbe ass Flters (BPFS) both with the incoming FSK signal. Figure 9-8 shows the block diagram for a coherent FSK receiver. The incoming FSK

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