Chapter 2: Tissue

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Histology

• Study of Tissues
• Epithelial Tissue
• Connective Tissue
• Nervous and Muscular Tissue
• Intercellular Junctions, Glands and Membranes
• Tissue Growth, Development, Death and Repair
The Study of Tissues
• 200 Different cell types
• Four primary tissue classes
• epithelial tissue
• connective tissue
• muscular tissue
• nervous tissue
• Histology (microscopic anatomy)
• study of tissues organ formation
• Organ = structure with discrete boundaries
• composed of 2 or more tissue types

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Features of Tissue Classes
• Tissue = similar cells and cell products
• arose from same region of embryo
• Differences between tissue classes
• types and functions of cells
• characteristics of matrix (extracellular material)
• fibrous proteins
• ground substance
• clear gels (ECF, tissue fluid, interstitial fluid, tissue gel)
• rubbery or stony in cartilage or bone
• space occupied by cells versus matrix
• connective tissue cells are widely separated
• little matrix between epithelial and muscle cells

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Embryonic Tissues – mesoderm (middle) becomes
• Embryo begins as single cell mesenchyme
• divides into many cells • wispy collagen fibers and
and layers (strata) fibroblasts in gel matrix
• 3 Primary germ layers • gives rise to muscle, bone,
• ectoderm (outer) blood
• forms epidermis and
nervous system
• endoderm (inner)
• forms mucous
membrane lining GI
tract and respiratory
system and
digestive glands

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Tissue Techniques and Sectioning

• Preparation of histological specimens

• fixative prevents decay (formalin)
• sliced into thin sections 1 or 2 cells thick
• mounted on slides and colored with histological stain
• stains bind to different cellular components
• Sectioning reduces 3-dimensional structure to 2-
dimensional slice

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Sectioning Solid Objects
• Sectioning a cell
with a centrally
located nucleus
• Some slices miss
the cell nucleus
• In some the
nucleus is smaller

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Sectioning Hollow Structures
• Cross section of
blood vessel, gut, or
other tubular organ.
• Longitudinal section
of a sweat gland.
Notice what a single
slice could look like.

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Types of Tissue Sections
• Longitudinal section
• tissue cut along longest
direction of organ
• Cross section
• tissue cut perpendicular
to length of organ
• Oblique section
• tissue cut at angle
between cross and
longitudinal section

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Epithelial Tissue

• Layers of closely adhering cells

• Flat sheet with upper surface exposed to the
environment or an internal body cavity
• No blood vessels
• underlying connective tissue supplies oxygen
• Rests on basement membrane
• thin layer of collagen and adhesive proteins
• anchors epithelium to connective tissue

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 Simple Versus Stratified Epithelia
• Simple epithelium • Stratified epithelium
• contains one layer of cells – contains more than one layer
• named by shape of cells – named by shape of apical cells

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Simple Squamous Epithelium

• Single row of flat cells

• Permits diffusion of substances
• Secretes serous fluid
• Alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

• Single row cube-shaped cells with microvilli

• Absorption and secretion, mucus production
• Liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands,
bronchioles, and kidney tubules 5-13
Simple Columnar Epithelium

• Single row tall, narrow cells

• oval nuclei in basal half of cell
• Absorption and secretion; mucus secretion
• Lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney and uterine tubes
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Pseudostratified Epithelium

• Single row of cells some not reaching free surface

• nuclei give layer stratified look
• Secretes and propels respiratory mucus
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 Stratified Epithelia
• More than one layer of cells
• Named for shape of surface cells
• exception is transitional epithelium
• Deepest cells on basement membrane
• Variations
• keratinized epithelium has surface layer of dead cells
• nonkeratinized epithelium lacks the layer of dead cells

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Keratinized Stratified Squamous

• Multilayered epithelium covered with dead squamous cells,

packed with keratin
• epidermal layer of skin
• Retards water loss and barrier to organisms
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Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous

• Multilayered surface epithelium forming moist, slippery

layer
• Tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus and vagina 5-18
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

• Two or more cell layers; surface cells square

• Secretes sweat; produces sperm and hormones
• Sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles and seminiferous tubules
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Transitional Epithelium

• Multilayered epithelium surface cells that change from

round to flat when stretched
• allows for filling of urinary tract
• ureter and bladder 5-20
 Connective Tissue
• Widely spaced cells separated by fibers and ground
substance
• Most abundant and variable tissue type
• Functions
• connects organs
• gives support and protection (physical and immune)
• stores energy and produces heat
• movement and transport of materials

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 Cells of Connective Tissue
• Fibroblasts produce fibers and ground
substance
• Macrophages phagocytize foreign
material and activate immune system
• arise from monocytes (WBCs)
• Neutrophils wander in search of
bacteria
• Plasma cells synthesize antibodies
• arise from WBCs
• Mast cells secrete
• heparin inhibits clotting
• histamine that dilates blood vessels
• Adipocytes store triglycerides

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 Fibers of Connective Tissue
• Collagen fibers (white fibers)
• tough, stretch resistant, yet flexible
• tendons, ligaments and deep layer of the skin
• Reticular fibers
• thin, collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein
• framework in spleen and lymph nodes
• Elastic fibers (yellow fibers)
• thin branching fibers of elastin protein
• stretch and recoil like rubberband (elasticity)
• skin, lungs and arteries stretch and recoil

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Connective Tissue Ground Substance

• Gelatinous material between cells

• absorbs compressive forces
• Consists of 3 classes of large molecules
• glycosaminoglycans – chondroitin sulfate
• disaccharides that attract sodium and hold water
• role in regulating water and electrolyte balance
• Proteoglycan (bottlebrush-shaped molecule)
• create bonds with cells or extracellular macromolecules
• adhesive glycoproteins
• protein-carbohydrate complexes bind cell membrane to collagen
outside the cells

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Fibrous Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue
• gel-like ground substance between cells
• types
• areolar
• reticular
• adipose
• Dense connective tissue
• fibers fill spaces between cells
• types vary in fiber orientation
• dense regular connective tissue
• dense irregular connective tissue

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Areolar Tissue

• Loose arrangement of fibers and cells in abundant ground

substance
• Underlies all epithelia, between muscles, passageways for
nerves and blood vessels 5-26
Reticular Tissue

• Loose network of reticular fibers and cells

• Forms supportive stroma (framework) for lymphatic
organs
• Found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus and bone 5-27
marrow
 Adipose Tissue

• Empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed against cell

membrane
• Energy storage, insulation, cushioning
• subcutaneous fat and organ packing
• brown fat (hibernating animals) produces heat 5-28
Dense Regular Connective Tissue

• Densely, packed, parallel collagen fibers

• compressed fibroblast nuclei
• Tendons and ligaments hold bones together and attach
muscles to bones 5-29
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

• Densely packed, randomly arranged, collagen fibers and

few visible cells
• withstands stresses applied in different directions
• deeper layer of skin; capsules around organs 5-30
 Cartilage
• Supportive connective tissue with rubbery matrix
• Chondroblasts produce matrix
• called chondrocytes once surrounded
• No blood vessels
• diffusion brings nutrients and removes wastes
• heals slowly
• Types of cartilage vary with fiber types
• hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage

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Hyaline Cartilage

• Rubbery matrix; dispersed collagen fibers; clustered

chondrocytes in lacunae
• supports airway, eases joint movements
• Ends of bones at movable joints; sternal ends of ribs; supportive
material in larynx, trachea, bronchi and fetal skeleton
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Elastic Cartilage

• Hyaline cartilage with elastic fibers

• Provides flexible, elastic support
• external ear and epiglottis
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Fibrocartilage

• Hyaline cartilage with extensive collagen fibers (never has

perichondrium)
• Resists compression and absorbs shock
• pubic symphysis, meniscus and intervertebral discs
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Bone
• Spongy bone - spongy in appearance
• delicate struts of bone
• covered by compact bone
• found in heads of long bones
• Compact bone - solid in appearance
• more complex arrangement
• cells and matrix surround vertically oriented blood
vessels in long bones

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 Bone Tissue (compact bone)

• Calcified matrix in lamellae around central canal

• Osteocytes in lacunae between lamellae
• Skeletal support; leverage for muscles; mineral storage
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Blood
• Variety of cells and cell
fragments; some with
nuclei and some
without
• Nonnucleated pale pink
cells or nucleated white
blood cells
• Found in heart and
blood vessels

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Nerve Tissue
• Large cells with
long cell processes
• surrounded by
smaller glial cells
lacking processes
• Internal
communication
between cells
• in brain, spinal
cord, nerves and
ganglia

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http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__the_nerv
e_impulse.html
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 Muscle Tissue
• Elongated cells stimulated to contract
• Exert physical force on other tissues
• move limbs
• push blood through a vessel
• expel urine
• Source of body heat
• 3 histological types of muscle
• skeletal, cardiac and smooth

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 Skeletal Muscle
• Long, cylindrical, unbranched cells with striations and
multiple peripheral nuclei
• movement, facial expression, posture, breathing, speech,
swallowing and excretion

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 Cardiac Muscle
• Short branched cells with striations and intercalated
discs
• one central nuclei per cell
• Pumping of blood by cardiac (heart) muscle

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 Smooth Muscle

• Short fusiform cells; nonstriated with only one central nucleus

• sheets of muscle in viscera; iris; hair follicles and sphincters
• swallowing, GI tract functions, labor contractions, control of
airflow, erection of hairs and control of pupil

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Intercellular Junctions

• All cells (except blood) anchored to each other or their

matrix by intercellular junctions 5-44
 Tight Junctions
• Encircle the cell joining it to surrounding cells
• zipperlike complementary grooves and ridges
• Prevents passage between cells
• GI and urinary tracts

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Desmosomes
• Patch between cells holding them together
• cells spanned by filaments terminating on protein plaque
• cytoplasmic intermediate filaments also attach to plaque
• Uterus, heart and epidermis

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 Gap Junctions
• Ring of transmembrane proteins form a water-filled channel
• small solutes pass directly from cell to cell
• in embryos, cardiac and smooth muscle

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 Endocrine and Exocrine Glands
• Secrete substances
• composed of epithelial tissue
• Exocrine glands connect to surface with a duct (epithelial
tube)
• Endocrine glands secrete (hormones) directly into
bloodstream
• Mixed organs do both
• liver, gonads, pancreas
• Unicellular glands – endo or exocrine
• goblet or intrinsic cells of stomach wall

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 Exocrine Gland Structure

• Stroma = capsule and septa divide gland into lobes and lobules
• Parenchyma = cells that secrete
• Acinus = cluster of cells surrounding the duct draining those cells

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 Types of Exocrine Glands

• Simple glands - unbranched duct

• Compound glands - branched duct
• Shape of gland
• acinar - secretory cells form dilated sac
• tubuloacinar - both tube and sacs 5-50
 Types of Secretions
• Serous glands
• produce thin, watery secretions
• sweat, milk, tears and digestive juices
• Mucous glands
• produce mucin that absorbs water to form a sticky secretion
called mucus
• Mixed glands contain both cell types
• Cytogenic glands release whole cells
• sperm and egg cells

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Holocrine Gland

• Secretory cells disintegrate to deliver their

accumulated product
• oil-producing glands of the scalp 5-52
Merocrine and Apocrine Secretion

• Merocrine glands release their

product by exocytosis
• tears, gastric glands, pancreas,
etc.
• Apocrine glands are merocrine
glands with confusing appearance
(apical cytoplasm not lost)
• mammary and armpit sweat
glands

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Mucous Membranes

• Epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosae

• Lines passageways that open to the exterior: reproductive, respiratory,
urinary and digestive
• Mucous (movement of cilia) trap and remove foreign particles and
bacteria from internal body surfaces 5-54
 Membrane Types
• Cutaneous membrane = skin
• stratified squamous epithelium over connective tissue
• relatively dry layer serves protective function
• Synovial membrane lines joint cavities
• connective tissue layer only, secretes synovial fluid
• Serous membrane (serosa) –internal membrane
• simple squamous epithelium over areolar tissue, produces
serous fluid
• covers organs and lines walls of body cavities

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 Tissue Growth
• Hyperplasia = tissue growth through cell
multiplication (Gingival hyperplasia)
• Hypertrophy = enlargement of preexisting
cells
• muscle grow through exercise
• Neoplasia = growth of a tumor (benign or
malignant) through growth of abnormal
tissue

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 Changes in Tissue Types
• Tissues can change types
• Differentiation
• unspecialized tissues of embryo become specialized mature
types
• mesenchyme to muscle
• Metaplasia
• changing from one type of mature tissue to another
• simple cuboidal tissue before puberty changes to stratified
squamous after puberty

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 Stem Cells
• Undifferentiated cells with developmental plasticity
• Embryonic stem cells
• totipotent (any cell type possible)
• source = cells of very early embryo
• Pluripotent (tissue types only possible)
• source = cells of inner cell mass of embryo
• Adult stem cells (undifferentiated cells in tissues of
adults)
• multipotent (bone marrow producing several blood cell
types)
• unipotent (only epidermal cells produced)

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 Tissue Shrinkage and Death
• Atrophy = loss of cell size or number
• disuse atrophy from lack of use (leg in a cast)
• Necrosis = pathological death of tissue
• gangrene - insufficient blood supply
• gas gangrene - anaerobic bacterial infection
• infarction - death of tissue from lack of blood
• decubitus ulcer - bed sore or pressure sore
• Apoptosis = programmed cell death
• cells shrink and are phagocytized (no inflammation)

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 Tissue Repair
• Regeneration
• replacement of damaged cells with original cells
• skin injuries and liver regenerate
• Fibrosis
• replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue
• function is not restored
• healing muscle injuries, scarring of lung tissue in TB or healing of severe
cuts and burns of the skin
• keloid is healing with excessive fibrosis (raised shiny scars)

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 Tissue Engineering
• Production of tissues and organs in the
lab
• framework of collagen or
biodegradable polyester fibers
• seeded with human cells
• grown in “bioreactor” (inside of
mouse)
• supplies nutrients and oxygen to
growing tissue
• Skin grafts already available
• research in progress on heart valves,
coronary arteries, bone, liver,
tendons

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Wound Healing of a Laceration
• Damaged vessels leak blood
• Damaged cells and mast cells
leak histamine
• dilates blood vessels
• increases blood flow
• increases capillary
permeability
• Plasma carries antibodies,
clotting factors and WBCs into
wound

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 Wound Healing of a Laceration

• Clot forms
• Scab forms on
surface
• Macrophages start
to clean up debris

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 Wound Healing of a Laceration
• New capillaries grow into
wound
• Fibroblasts deposit new
collagen to replace old
material
• Fibroblastic phase begins
in 3-4 days and lasts up
to 2 weeks

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