A 

seashell, also known as a sea shell, or simply as a shell, is the common name for a hard, protective outer layer, a
shell, or in some cases a "test", that was created by a sea creature, a marine organism. The shell is part of the body of a
marine animal. In most cases a shell is an exoskeleton, usually that of an animal without a backbone, aninvertebrate.
Seashells are most often found washed up empty on beaches or another part of the coastline after the soft parts of the
animal have either been eaten by another animal that attacked it (predation), or after the animal has died and the soft
parts have been eaten by scavengers or have simply rotted out.

The word seashell is most often used to mean the shells of marine mollusks, i.e. mollusk shells. It can however also be
used to mean the shells of a wide variety of other marine animals from various different marine invertebrates.

As well as marine mollusks, many other kinds of sea animals have exoskeletons or even internal shells which sometimes,
after death, wash up on the beach and may be picked up by beachcombers. These shells include remains from species in
other invertebrate phyla, such as the moulted shells or exuviae of crabs and lobsters, the shells of barnacles, horseshoe
crab shells, the tests (endoskeletons) of sea urchins, sand dollars and seastars,brachiopod shells, and the shells of
marine annelid worms in the family Serpulidae, which create calcareous tubes cemented onto other surfaces.

Seashells have been admired, studied and used by humans for many different purposes throughout history and pre-
history.

Sea shells are not the only kind of shells, in a variety of habitats it is possible to find shells from freshwater animals such
as freshwater mussels and freshwater snails, and it is also possible to find shells from land snails.

Terminology
When the word "seashells" is used to refer only to the shells of marine mollusks, (spelled "molluscs" in the UK), then
studying seashells is part of conchology. Conchologists or serious collectors who have a scientific bias are in general
careful not to disturb living populations and habitats: even though they may collect a few live animals, most responsible
collectors do not often over-collect or otherwise disturb ecosystems.

When studying the whole molluscan animal is included as well as studying the shell, then the study is known
as malacology; a person who studies mollusks is known as a malacologist.

[edit]Finding seashells
Seashells are commonly found in beach drift, which is natural detritus deposited along strandlines on beaches by
the waves and the tides. Shells are very often washed up onto a beach empty and clean, the animal having already died,
and the soft parts having rotted away or having been eaten by either predators or scavengers.

Empty seashells are often picked up by beachcombers, and collecting these shells is a harmless hobby or study.
However, the majority of seashells which are offered for sale commercially have been collected alive (often in bulk) and
then killed and cleaned, specifically for the commercial trade. This type of large-scale exploitation can sometimes have a
strong negative impact on local ecosystems, and sometimes can significantly reduce the distribution of rare species.
Collecting shells as a hobby and a study
Main article:  Conchology
A selection of hand-picked mollusk shells found on beaches all over the world, including a fossil clam, and also anechinoderm, a sand dollar

There are numerous popular books and field guides on the subject of shell-collecting. Although there are a number of
books about land and freshwater mollusks, the majority of popular books emphasize, or focus exclusively on, the shells of
marine mollusks. Both the science of studying mollusk shells and the hobby of collecting and classifying them are known
asconchology. The line between professionals and amateur enthusiasts is often not well defined in this subject, because
many amateurs have contributed to, and continue to contribute to, conchology and the larger science of malacology.
Many shell collectors belong to "shell clubs" where they can meet others who share their interests. A large number of
amateurs collect the shells of marine mollusks, and this is partly because many shells wash up empty on beaches, or live
in theintertidal or sub-tidal zones, and are therefore easily found and preserved without much in the way of specialized
equipment or expensive supplies. Some shell collectors find their own material and keep careful records, or buy only
"specimen shells", which means shells which have full collectingdata: information including how, when, where, in what
habitat, and by whom, the shells were collected. On the other hand, some collectors buy the more widely available
commercially-imported exotic shells, the majority of which have very little data, or none at all. To museumscientists,
having full collecting data (when, where, and by whom it was collected) with a specimen is far more important than having
the shell correctly identified. Some owners of shell collections hope to be able to donate their collection to a major natural
history or zoology museumat some point, however, shells with little or no collecting data are usually of no value to
science, and are likely not to be accepted by a major museum. Apart from any damage to the shell that may have
happened before it was collected, shells can also suffer damage when they are stored or displayed. For an example of
one rather serious kind of damage see Byne's disease.

[edit]Shell clubs

There are a number of clubs or societies which consist of people who are united by a shared interest in shells. In the USA
these clubs are more common in southerly coastal areas, such asFlorida and California, where the marine fauna is rich in
species.

[edit]Identification

Seashells are usually identified by consulting general or regional shell-collecting field guides, and specific scientific books
on different taxa of shell-bearing mollusks (monographs) or "iconographies" (limited text - mainly photographs or other
illustrations). (For a few titles on this subject in the USA, see the list of books at the foot of this article.) Identifications to
the species level are generally achieved by examining illustrations and written descriptions, rather than by the use
of Identification keys, as is often the case in identifying plants and other phyla of invertebrates. The construction of
functional keys for the identification of the shells of marine mollusks to the species level can be very difficult, because of
the great variability within many species and families. The identification of certain individual species is often very difficult,
even for a specialist in that particular family. Some species cannot be differentiated on the basis of shell character alone.

Numerous smaller and more obscure mollusk species (see micromollusk) are yet to be discovered and named. In other
words, they have not yet been differentiated from similar species and assigned scientific (binomial) names in articles in
journals recognized by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). Large numbers of new species
are published in the scientific literature each year. There are currently an estimated 100,000 species of mollusks
worldwide.

[edit]Non-marine and marine shell confusion

A group of purchased (mostly marine) shells includes the shell of a large tropical land snail (upper right), and a shiny freshwater apple snail
shell (center)

Because virtually all rivers discharge into the sea, and because heavy rain can carry land snail shells into rivers, the shells
of freshwater snails and freshwater clams, and shells of land snails, can all sometimes wash up onto saltwater beaches,
mixed with the shells of marine species. This can be confusing to shell collectors who are attempting to identify what they
have found. When seashells are purchased from shops or dealers, it is common to encounter various non-marine shells
for sale as well. Sometimes the non-marine shells are mixed in with the marine shells. The non-marine items often include
solid and colorful shells such certain tropical land snail shells, freshwater apple snail shells, and pearly freshwater unionid
mussel shells. This also can be confusing to collectors.

[edit]Significance of molluscan seashells in human culture

[edit]As Additive to poultry feeds
Main article:  poultry feed

Sea shells are found in the creek and backwater of the coast of west india is used as a additive to the poultry feed. It is
crushed and mixed with jawar maaze and dry fish.
[edit]As currency
Main article:  shell money

Seashells have been used as a medium of exchange in various places, including many Indian Ocean and Pacific
Ocean islands, also in North America, Africa and the Caribbean.

1742 drawing of shells of the money cowry, Cypraea moneta

 The most common species of shells to be used as currency have been Cypraea moneta, the “money cowry”, and
certain tusk shells or dentalium, such as those used in North Western North America for many centuries.
 Some tribes of the indigenous peoples of the Americas used shells for wampum and hair pipes.[1] The Native
American wampum  belts were made of the shell of the quahog clam.
 It is of historic interest that the Dutch East India Company, a major force in the colonization of the Indian and
Pacific Oceans, amassed a large portion of its vast fortune via trading shell money of the species Cypraea
moneta and Cypraea annulus, in exchange for commodities such as spices, exotic animals, andgemstones, all of
which were considered valuable in Europe at the time.
[edit]As tools

Seashells have often been used as tools, because of their strength and the variety of their shapes.

 Giant clams (Family Tridacnidae) have been used as bowls, and when big enough, even as bathtubs
and baptismal fonts.
 Melo melo, the "bailer volute", is so named because Native Australians used it to bail out their canoes.
 Many different species of bivalves have been used as scrapers, blades, clasps, and other such tools, due to their
shape.
 Some marine gastropods have been used for oil lamps, the oil being poured in the aperture of the shell, and
the siphonal canal serving as a holder for the wick.
[edit]In horticulture

Because shells are sometimes a readily available bulk source of calcium carbonate, shells such as oyster shells are
sometimes used as soil conditioners in horticulture. The shells are broken or ground into small pieces in order to have the
desired effect of raising the pH and increasing the calcium content in the soil.
[edit]In religion and spirituality

A sacred chank shell on the flag ofTravancore, India

Moche Shell, 200 A.D. Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru.

Seashells have played a part in religion and spirituality, sometimes even as ritual objects.

 In Christianity, the scallop shell is considered to be the symbol of Saint James the Great, seePecten jacobaeus.
 In Hinduism left-handed shells of Turbinella pyrum (the sacred shankha) are considered to be sacred to the
god Vishnu. The person who finds a left-handed chank shell (one that coils to the left) is sacred to Vishnu, as well.
The chank shell also plays an important role in Buddhism.
 Cowries have often been considered to be symbols of female fertility. They were often treated as actual
fertility charms. The dorsum of the shell resembles a pregnant belly, and the underside of the shell resembles a vulva.
In the South Indian state of Kerala, cowries are used for making astrological predictions.
 In Santeria, shells are used for divination purposes.
 The Moche culture of ancient Peru worshipped animals and the sea, and often depicted shells in their art.[2]
[edit]As musical instruments
Main article:  Conch (musical instrument)

Hindu priest sounding a ritual trumpet made from Turbinella pyrum

Korean military procession with Charoniatrumpets

Seashells have been used as musical instruments, wind instruments for many hundreds if not thousands of years. Most
often the shells of large sea snails are used, as trumpets, by cutting a hole in the spire of the shell, or cutting off the tip of
the spire altogether. Various different kinds of large marine gastropod shells can be turned into "blowing shells", however
the most commonly encountered species used as "conch" trumpets are:

 The sacred chank, Turbinella pyrum, known in India as the shankha. In Tibet it is known as "dung-dkar".[3]

 The Triton shell also known as "Triton's trumpet" Charonia tritonis which is used as a trumpet in Melanesian and
Polynesian culture and also in Korea and Japan. In Japan this kind of trumpet is known as the horagai. In Korea it is
known as the nagak. In some Polynesian islands it is known as "pu". [1]
 The Queen Conch Strombus gigas, is or was sometimes used as a trumpet in the Caribbean.
[edit]In personal adornment

Use of gastropod shells, specificallycowries, in traditional dress of the Kikuyupeople of Kenya, Africa.

A Pearly King and Queen in London

Whole seashells or parts of sea shells have been used as jewelry or in other forms of adornment since prehistoric
times. Mother of pearl was historically primarily a seashell product, although more recently some mother of pearl comes
from freshwater mussels. Also see pearl.

 Shell necklaces have been found in Stone Age graves as far inland as the Dordogne Valley in France.
 Seashells are often used whole and drilled, so that they can be threaded like beads, or cut into pieces of various
shapes. Sometimes shells can be found that are already "drilled" by predatory snails of the family Naticidae.
 Naturally-occurring, beachworn, cone shell "tops" (the broken-off spire of the shell, which often has a hole worn at
the tip) can function as beads without any further modification. In Hawaiithese natural beads were traditionally
collected from the beach drift in order to make puka shelljewelry. Since it is hard to obtain large quantities of naturally-
occurring beachworn cone tops, almost all modern puka shell jewelry uses cheaper imitations, cut from thin shells of
other species of mollusk, or even made of plastic.
 Shells historically have been and still are made into, or incorporated into, necklances, pendants, beads,
earrings, buttons, brooches, rings, hair combs, belt buckles and other uses.
 The shell of the large "bullmouth helmet" sea snail, scientific name Cypraecassis rufa, was historically, and still is,
used to make valuable cameos.
 Mother of pearl from many seashells including species in the family Trochidae, Turbinidae,Haliotidae, and various
pearly bivalves, has often been used in jewelry, buttons, etc.
 In London, Pearly Kings and Queens traditionally wear clothing covered in patterns made up of hundreds of
"pearl buttons", in other words, buttons made of mother-of-pearl or nacre. In recent years however, the majority of
"pearl buttons" are imitations that are made of pearlescent plastic.
[edit]In crafts
Main article:  Sailor's Valentines

"Sailor's Valentines" were late 19th century decorative keepsakes which were made in theCaribbean, and which were
often purchased by sailors to give to their loved ones back home for example in England. These valentines consisted of
elaborate arrangements of small seashells glued into attractive symmetrical designs, which were encased on a wooden
(usually octagonal) hinged box-frame. The patterns used often featured heart-shaped designs, or included a sentimental
expression of love spelled out in small shells.
[edit]In architectural decoration

Small pieces of colored and iridescent shell have been used to create mosaics and inlays, which have been used to
decorate walls, furniture and boxes. Large numbers of whole seashells, arranged to form patterns, have been used to
decorate mirror frames, furniture and man-madegrottos.
[edit]In art

Enormous seashell sculpture at Akkulam,Trivandum, India

Large sculpture of a scallop on the beach at Aldeburgh, England

Aphrodite, 1st century BC, 13 cms, 5 in

Illustration from an 18th-century book, edited by Albertus Seba. These decorative arrangements were a popular way to display seashells at the
time

The pleasing designs of seashells have caused them to be featured in art in various ways, in paintings, in sculpture, and
so on. A very large outdoor sculpture at Akkulam of a gastropod seashell is a reference to the sacred chank
shell Turbinella pyrum of India. Maggi Hamblingdesigned a striking 13 ft (4 m) high sculpture of a scallop shell which
stands on the beach atAldeburgh, in England. The goddess of love, Venus or Aphrodite is often traditionally depicted
rising from the sea on a seashell. In the Birth of Venus (Botticelli), Botticelli depicted the goddessVenus rising from the
ocean on a scallop shell.

[edit]Shells of other marine invertebrates

[edit]Arthropods

The moulted carapace of a lady crabfound on the beach at Long Beach, Long Island, New York State

Shell of horseshoe crab on a beach

Many arthropods have sclerites, or hardened body parts, which form a stiff exoskeleton made up mostly of chitin.
In crustaceans, especially those of the class Malacostraca (crabs, shrimps and lobsters, for instance), the plates of the
exoskeleton may be fused to form a more or less rigidcarapace. Moulted carapaces of a variety of marine
malacostraceans often wash up on beaches. The horseshoe crab is an arthropod of the family Limulidae. The shells
or exuviae of these arachnids are common in beach drift in certain areas of the world.

[edit]Sea urchins
Sea urchin test

Some echinoderms such as sea urchins, including heart urchins and sand dollars, have a hard "test" or shell. After the
animal dies, the flesh rots out and the spines fall off, and then fairly often the empty test washes up whole onto a beach,
where it can be found by a beachcomber. These tests are fragile and easily broken into pieces.

[edit]Brachiopods

A whole animal of the brachiopod Lingula anatina from Australia with the shell showing on the left

The brachiopods, or lamp shells, superficially resemble clams, but the phylum is completely unrelated to mollusks. Most
lines of brachiopods ended during the Permian-Triassic extinction event, and their ecological niche was filled by bivalves.
A few of the remaining species of brachiopods occur in the low intertidal zone and thus can be found live by
beachcombers.
Alison N. Cordova
III- Einstein
Introduction to BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering,
technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts.

In its purest form, the term "biotechnology" refers to the use of living organisms or their products to modify human
health and the human environment.

Modern use similar term includes genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. The concept
encompasses a wide range of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes -
going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs
that employ artificial selection and hybridization.

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as:

"Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify
products or processes for specific use."

Our ancestors found that when excess fish was stored in great pots with lots of salt and left for a while, this
resulted into a liquid which makes food more tasty. We now call this fish sauce or patis.

If they use small shrimps and stored these with lots of salt, this result into a fish paste called bagoong.
They found that stored coconut water could turn into a warming and intoxicating drink (lambanog) which could also turn
sour to make vinegar or suka.

Biotechnology in one form or another has flourished since prehistoric times. When the first human beings realized that
they could plant their own crops and breed their own animals, they learned to use biotechnology. The discovery that
fruit juices fermented into wine, or that milk could be converted into cheese or yogurt, or that beer could be made by
fermenting solutions of malt and hops began the study of biotechnology.

When the first bakers found that they could make a soft, spongy bread rather than a firm, thin cracker, they were acting
as fledgling biotechnologists. The first animal breeders, realizing that different physical traits could be either magnified
or lost by mating appropriate pairs of animals, engaged in the manipulations of biotechnology.

Thus, BIOTECHNOLOGY is defined simply as:

any biology –based technology which uses organisms or their parts to make or modify products, or improve plants,
animals and microorganisms.
Other biotech products:
An essay is a short piece of writing which is often written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a
number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life,
recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition of an essay is vague, overlapping with those of an article and
a short story. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g. Alexander
Pope's An Essay on Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John
Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of
Population provide counterexamples.

HISTORY: Other English essayists included Robert Burton (1577–1640) and Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682). In

Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il libro del cortegiano. In the 17th century, the
Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom.[4] During the Age of Enlightenment, essays were a favored tool
of polemicists who aimed at convincing readers of their position; they also featured heavily in the rise of periodical
literature, as seen in the works of Joseph Addison, Richard Steele and Samuel Johnson. In the 18th and 19th
centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. The early 19th century in
particular saw a proliferation of great essayists in English - William Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt and Thomas de
Quincey all penned numerous essays on diverse subjects. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the
new movements in art and culture by using essays (e.g., T.S. Eliot). Whereas some essayists used essays for strident
political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays. Virginia Woolf, Edmund Wilson,
and Charles du Bos wrote literary criticism essays.[5]

Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount Saint Alban,[1] KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was
anEnglish philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord
Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his
works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method and pioneer in the scientific
revolution.

Cause and effect

The defining features of a "cause and effect" essay are causal chains, careful language, and chronological or emphatic
order. A writer using this rhetorical method must consider the subject, determine the purpose, consider the audience, think
critically about different causes or consequences, consider a thesis statement, arrange the parts, consider the language,
and decide on a conclusion.[7]

[edit]Classification and division

Classification is the categorization of objects into a larger whole while division is the breaking of a larger whole into
smaller parts.[8]

[edit]Compare and contrast

Compare and contrast essays are characterized by a basis for comparison, points of comparison, and analogies. It is
grouped by object (chunking) or by point (sequential). Comparison highlights the similarities between two or more similar
objects while contrasting highlights the differences between two or more objects. When writing a compare/contrast essay,
writers need to determine their purpose, consider their audience, consider the basis and points of comparison, consider
their thesis statement, arrange and develop the comparison, and reach a conclusion. Compare and contrast is arranged
emphatically.[9]

[edit]Descriptive

Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which appeal to the physical senses, and details that appeal to a
reader’s emotional, physical, or intellectual sensibilities. Determining the purpose, considering the audience, creating a
dominant impression, using descriptive language, and organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to be
considered when using a description. A description is usually arranged spatially but can also
be chronological or emphatic. The focus of a description is the scene. Description uses tools such
asdenotative language, connotative language, figurative language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant
impression.[10] One university essay guide states that "descriptive writing says what happened or what another author has
discussed; it provides an account of the topic".[11]

[edit]Dialectic

In the dialectic form of essay, which is commonly used in Philosophy, the writer makes a thesis and argument, then
objects to their own argument (with a counterargument), but then counters the counterargument with a final and novel
argument. This form benefits from being more open-minded while countering a possible flaw that some may present.[12]

[edit]Exemplification

An exemplification essay is characterized by a generalization and relevant, representative, and believable examples
including anecdotes. Writers need to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience, decide on
specific examples, and arrange all the parts together when writing an exemplification essay.[13]

[edit]History (thesis)
A history essay, sometimes referred to as a thesis essay, will describe an argument or claim about one or more historical
events and will support that claim with evidence, arguments and references. The text makes it clear to the reader why the
argument or claim is as such.[14]

[edit]Narrative

A narrative uses tools such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, and transitions that often build to a climax. The focus of a
narrative is the plot. When creating a narrative, authors must determine their purpose, consider their audience, establish
their point of view, use dialogue, and organize the narrative. A narrative is usually arranged chronologically.[15]

[edit]Other logical structures

The logical progression and organizational structure of an essay can take many forms. Understanding how the movement
of thought is managed through an essay has a profound impact on its overall cogency and ability to impress. A number of
alternative logical structures for essays have been visualized as diagrams, making them easy to implement or adapt in the
construction of an argument.[16]