A Comparison of Perceived Fit Issues of Apparel As It Relates To

University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
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Theses and Dissertations
5-2013
A Comparison of Perceived Fit Issues of Apparel as

it Relates to Body Image and Body Satisfaction
Among High School Athletes and Non-Athletes
Using 3-D Body Scan Technology
Stephanie Kay Hubert
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
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Hubert, Stephanie Kay, "A Comparison of Perceived Fit Issues of Apparel as it Relates to Body Image and Body Satisfaction Among
High School Athletes and Non-Athletes Using 3-D Body Scan Technology" (2013). Theses and Dissertations. 785.
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A COMPARISON OF PERCEIVED FIT ISSUES OF APPAREL
AS IT RELATES TO BODY IMAGE AND BODY SATISFACTION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETES AND NON-ATHLETES
USING 3-D BODY SCAN TECHNOLOGY
A COMPARISON OF PERCEIVED FIT ISSUES OF APPAREL
AS IT RELATES TO BODY IMAGE AND BODY SATISFACTION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETES AND NON-ATHLETES
USING 3D BODY SCAN TECHNOLOGY
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Human Environmental Sciences
By
Stephanie Kay Hubert

Kansas State University
Bachelor of Science in Human Ecology 2010
May 2013
University of Arkansas
ABSTRACT
The objectives of this study were to first, determine whether high school students have
the perception that they have problems finding clothing that fits their bodies, as well as the
second objective which was to determine if the problem is common among both athletes and
non-athletes or if one group finds fit of apparel more problematic. The third objective was to
determine if body image and body satisfaction have an effect on the likelihood of athletes and
non-athletes reporting problems with fit issues of clothing available from ready-to-wear stores.
Hypothesis I and III analyzed body image, Hypothesis IV analyzed body satisfaction, Hypothesis
II and VI addressed apparel fit and Hypothesis V compared the perception of apparel fit
problems and how body image and body satisfaction changed the perceived fit issues of high
school student’s apparel.
High school athletes reported body images that were more accurate than those of non-
athletes completing this study. No other statistically significant differences were found when
testing the research hypotheses. A noteworthy finding was that nearly all of the students
completing the study (96%) reported fit issues of ready-to-wear apparel.

This thesis is approved for recommendation
to the Graduate Council.
Thesis Director:
Dr. Laurie M. Apple
Thesis Committee:
Dr. Kathleen R. Smith
Dr. Cynthia K. Moore

THESIS DUPLICATION RELEASE
I hereby authorize the University of Arkansas Libraries to duplicate this thesis when needed for
research and/or scholarship.
Agreed __________________________________________________
Stephanie K. Hubert
Refused __________________________________________________
Stephanie K. Hubert
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my thesis committee for the countless hours they have spent
teaching me the research process. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Laurie
Apple, my thesis director, for her guidance, patience, persistence and compassion throughout the
writing of this thesis. To Dr. Kathleen Smith, I can never thank you enough for the hours you
spent proofreading this paper and cheering me on toward completion. Dr. Cynthia Moore, your
encouragement and prayers lifted my spirits when I felt like quitting. You have all three allowed
me to struggle through the learning process, interjecting wisdom and knowledge when I needed
direction. You are exceptional educators and I have benefitted greatly from your knowledge. To
my children, Elizabeth and Alex, thank you for your support and understanding and for listening
to me talk endlessly about body scanning. To my friends and family, thank you for laughing
with me and encouraging me to keep reaching toward my goals. And finally, to Lauren Speight,
my colleague, teacher, encourager and friend, without you this thesis would never have been
completed. My life has been truly blessed by your friendship.

DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated in loving memory of my parents, Gary and Donna Hubert, who
encouraged me to value education and to never quit when faced with adversity. Thank you for
your wisdom and love.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 3
Objectives of the Study 4
Hypotheses 5
Limitations of the Study 5
Definitions of Key Terms 5
II. LITERATURE REVIEW 8
Physical Activity, Body Change and Apparel Fit of Athletes 8
Body Image, Body Satisfaction and Body Shape 10
Body Image and Apparel 14
Fit and Sizing Issues in the Apparel Industry 15
Body Scanning and Associated Research 17
III. METHODOLOGY 20
Population and Sample 21
Instruments 25
TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner 26
Questionnaire 26
Collection of Data 30
IV. RESULTS 33
Sample Profile 34
Perceived Fit Issues of High School Athletes and Non-Athletes 34
Hypothesis I 34
Hypothesis II 36
Hypothesis III 38
Hypothesis IV 39
Hypothesis V 41
Hypothesis VI 42
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS 44
Summary 44
Conclusions 45
Implications 46
Recommendations 46
REFERENCES 47
APPENDICES
Appendix A 54
Questionnaire 55
Appendix B 66
Permission Letter Sent to Schools 67
Appendix C 68
Research Study Website 69
Appendix D 71
Safety of Photic Stimulus 72

Appendix E 78
Parental Permission Form 79
Appendix F 83
IRB Approval Form 84
Appendix G 85
Sample Body Scan 86

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLE PAGE
Table 1 Gender of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 22
Table 2 Grade Level of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 22
Table 3 Age of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 23
Table 4 Ethnicity of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 23
Table 5 Sports Participation by Frequency and Percentage 24
Table 6 Sports Participation by Individual Sport Frequency and Percentage 25
Table 7 BIQ Psychometrics 27
Table 8 BASS Sample Scores 29
Table 9 Cross tabulation of Body Image Accuracy for Sport Participation 35
Table 10 Chi-Square Test 36
Table 11 Body Image Accuracy Reported as Absolute Value 36
Table 12 Body Image Accuracy by Sport Participation 36
Table 13 Alteration Frequency of Athletes and Non-Athletes 37
Table 14 Alteration Frequency Means of Athletes and Non-Athletes 37
Table 15 BIQ Score Means of Athletes and Non-Athletes 39
Table 16 BIQ Scores by Sport Participation 39
Table 17 BASS Score Means of Athletes and Non-Athletes 40
Table 18 BASS Scores by Sport Participation 40
Table 19 Comparison of Body Image Accuracy and BIQ Score 42
Table 20 Body Image Accuracy and BIQ Score Means 42
Table 21 Comparison of Purchasing Difficulty Means by Sport Participation 43

Table 22 Purchasing Difficulty Means by Sport Participation 43
Figure 1 Dietitians of Canada Body Silhouettes 28

CHAPTER I
Introduction
Headlines of major newspapers are catching the reader’s eye with such titles as this one
written by Terbush (2011), “When a size 10 isn’t really a size 10: Clothes brands adjust their
measurements so women feel better – and spend more” (p. 1). Clifford (2011) reported on
vanity sizing, the practice of adjusting the size on the label to reflect a lower size than what the
garment actually measures, in a New York Times article, “One size fits nobody: seeking a steady
4 or a 10” (p.1). Another article by Gerstein (2011), revealed the practice of cutting tags out of
clothing so models will not refuse to wear a garment if it says size ten on the tag and she wears a
size eight. The focus of these articles points to an increasing problem in the apparel industry. As
highlighted by Doshi (2006), there is a problem with fit issues in ready-to-wear garments
available in ready to wear stores
Athletes tend to have unique problems with fit of their clothing. In an article in Real Men
Real Style magazine, Centeno (2012) discussed the differences in body builder physiques and the
lack of proportion compared to the average person. According to this article ninety-five percent
of clothing available in stores does not fit the bodies of extreme athletes. The only ready-to wear
clothing available that does fit these athletes is extremely casual wear designed mainly for
exercise. Although body builders exemplify the extremes of body disproportion, it is common
for athletes to have body changes as a result of their exercise regimens (Andreoli, Monteleone,
Van Loan, Promenzio, Tarantino and De Lorenzo 2001). Several studies pointed out these
changes, such as gymnast’s well-developed leg muscles, swimmer’s large shoulders, and football
player’s enlarged necks, shoulders, and legs (Chilibeck, Calder, Sale, & Webber, 1997; Douda,
Laparidis, & Tokmakidis, 2002; Gonyea, Sale, Gonyea, & Mikesky 1986; Jones, Rutherford, &
1
Parker 1989). The sculpting of the body through exercise is what many athletes strive for, but
the resulting fit issues of the clothing available through ready-to-wear markets can cause
problems for the athletes that they may not have foreseen. Entrepreneurs of online businesses
such as BestCustomShirt.com and Casualmale.com have acknowledged and are offering a
solution for adult athletes (Athletic, 2012). For adolescent athletes, similar businesses do not
exist.
There have been many studies with regard to the importance of body image and body
satisfaction (Noles, Cash, and Winstead, 1985; Kakeshita and Almeida, 2008; and Chattaraman
and Rudd, 2006). Specific studies of body image and adolescence point to the interest in how
body image effects the adolescent population. (Barber, Eccles, and Stone, 2001; Caglar and
Asci, 2010; Dorak, 2011; and O’Dea and Abraham,1999). These studies highlight the
importance of body image on our attitudes regarding the world around us. Tselepis and de Klerk
(2004) reported that adolescents use clothing not only to fit in with the styles that are popular,
but also to feel better about their bodies. According to the 2007 study by de Klerk and Tselepis,
adolescents reported dissatisfaction with the fit of their clothing. This raises the question about
whether dissatisfaction comes from the adolescent’s body image issues or issues with the sizing
of clothing targeted for the adolescent customer.
DesMarteau, (2000), pointed out some of the problems of fit issues the apparel industry is
facing. Among these are a lack of standardization between brands, quality problems, and
patternmaking failures. From the perspective of teenagers who use clothing to enhance their
body image (Tselepis and de Klerk, 2004), poor fit of apparel could enhance their dissatisfaction
with themselves. Kuykendall (2011) found no participant to exactly fit the ASTM sizes for
juniors, when comparing bust, waist and hip measurements. Current sizing of junior clothing is
2
based on ASTM D6829 - 02(2008) Standard Tables of Body Measurements for Juniors, Sizes 0
to 19.
Statement of the Problem
Issues with fit are currently being addressed in the apparel industry (DesMarteau, 2000).
Kuykendall (2011) found that junior sized apparel tends to focus on fashion and design more
than proper fit of the garments. Athletics in high schools is considered to be a positive
extracurricular activity and is encouraged by school personnel and parents (Hartmann, 2008).
According to Parker-Pope (2010) how athletic involvement influences the student goes beyond
their school performance and their body image. The changes to their physical structure have
proven to lower their weight and associated risk of diabetes and other health risks later in life.
The health benefits from exercise have been proven, according to the World Health Organization
(WHO) to be significant, with a lack of physical activity accounting for 3.2 million deaths
globally (WHO, Physical, 2013). The apparel industry, unfortunately, has not adapted to the
increasingly difficult task of fitting athletic builds with a wide variety of garment types,
(Centeno, 2012). The problems associated with increased muscle size of athletes combined with
the already insufficient fit of junior apparel makes finding properly fitting apparel difficult for
high school athletes. It then becomes necessary to determine if the problem of poorly fitting
apparel unnecessarily increases the already problematic body satisfaction and body image
problems common among adolescents as noted by Noles, Cash, and Winstead (1985).
Purpose of the Study
Considering the changes to an adolescent athlete’s body, this study addressed whether
athletic programs are helpful to high school students by changing their bodies to be more
adaptable to ready-to-wear garment fit without alteration or if their involvement makes them
3
more likely to have fit issues. This research could help industry designers and producers of
adolescent apparel more clearly understand their target market. This information combined with
data from body scan research in the future could aid the apparel industry in developing garments
that better fit their target customers.
Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study was to determine whether high school students have the
perception that they have problems finding clothing that fits their bodies. Hypothesis II and
Hypothesis VI addressed this objective as well as the second objective of the study which was to
determine if the problem is common among both athletes and non-athletes or if one group finds
fit of apparel more problematic. The third objective was to determine if body image and body
satisfaction have an effect on the likelihood of athletes and non-athletes reporting problems with
fit issues of clothing available from ready-to-wear stores. Hypothesis I and III addressed body
image, Hypothesis IV addressed body satisfaction, and Hypothesis V compared the perception of
apparel fit problems and how body image and body satisfaction changed the perceived fit issues
of high school student’s apparel. Several research questions used to guide this study were
considered. Are high school athletes more or less likely to have distorted body image than non-
athletes? Do athletes and non-athletes indicate difficulty finding ready-to-wear apparel that fits
them properly without alteration? Do athletes indicate a more accurate body image than non-
athletes? Do athletes indicate better body satisfaction perception than non-athletes? Do
perceptions of body satisfaction and body image change the likelihood of having fit issues? Do
high school athletes have more difficultly with fit of apparel when purchasing ready-to-wear
garments than non-athletes? Six hypotheses were developed to answer these questions. The
hypotheses were written in null hypotheses form for ease of testing.
4
Hypotheses
Hypotheses to be tested are as follows:
H1 = High school athletes are no more likely than non-athletes to have distorted body image.
H2 = There is no difference in the reported difficulty of athletes and non-athletes finding ready-
to-wear garments that fit properly without alteration.
H3 = Athletes have a body image (BIQ) score equal to that of non-athletes.
H4 = High school athletes report a body satisfaction score (BASS) equal to that of non-athletes.
H5 = Body satisfaction and body image perception do not change the perception of apparel fit
problems.
H6 = High school athletes report the same level of difficulty buying ready-to-wear as
non-athletes.
Limitations of the Study
1. This study was limited to high school students in grades nine through twelve at
participating schools.
2. Participation in this study was voluntary.
3. Data collected in this study recorded perceived fit issues; actual fit of clothing was not
measured.
4. This was a regional study in the mid-southern United States.
5. Socioeconomic status of the participants was not considered.
Definition of Key Terms
The following key terms were identified for this study:
1. Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS). a questionnaire developed by Thomas Cash
that measures how content the subject is with different areas of their body. The
5
BASS is a subscale of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire
(Cash, 2000b).
2. Body Cathexis –importance of body, which can include degree of importance
(Secord, 1953 and Jourard and Secord 1954).
3. Body Image – a psychological view of the outward appearance of the body that can
alter behaviors and feelings of self-perception (Cash, 2004).
4. Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) - an assessment tool designed by Thomas
Cash that measures body image discrepancy and importance (Cash, 2000a).
5. Distorted Body Image –Body images that differ from actual body size and shape,
either in a positive or negative direction (Noles, Cash, and Winstead, 1985). For the
purpose of this study, distorted body image will be reported as an absolute value that
is not equal to zero when the image chosen by the participant in Part II of the
questionnaire (Appendix A) is subtracted from the actual body image seen on the 3D
body scan (Appendix G).
6. High School Athletes - for the purpose of this study, defined as students in ninth
through twelfth grade who participate in school sponsored athletic programs.
7. High School Non-athletes - for the purpose of this study, defined as students enrolled
in ninth through twelfth grade who do not participate in organized sports.
8. Junior Apparel Size – ready-to-wear apparel sizes usually numbered from three to
fifteen designed to fit young women. They usually have smaller shoulders and bust
lines (Junior, 2013).
9. Made-to Measure – designed to fit specific measurements (Made-to-measure, 2013).
6
10. Normal Body Image – body image that is consistent with actual body size and shape.
For the purpose of this study normal body image will be an absolute value equal to
zero when the image chosen by the participant in Part II of the questionnaire
(Appendix A) is subtracted from the actual body image seen on the 3D body scan
(Appendix G).
11. Off-the-rack – clothing that is mass-produced for retail purchase (Off-the-rack, 2013).
12. Ready-to-wear Apparel – ready-made clothing that is mass-produced for retail
clothing stores. These garments are not custom made and are intended to be worn
without further hemming or other alterations (Ready-to-wear, 2013 and Farfan,
2013).
13. Vanity Sizing– changing the size on the tag to a lower size than what the garment
actually is (Clifford, 2011).
7
CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
Physical Activity, Body Change and Apparel Fit of Athletes
According to the World Health Organization (WHO, Global, 2013), many diseases and
six percent of deaths, globally, are caused by lack of exercise. Although physical activity does
not necessarily mean sports participation or organized exercise as defined by the WHO (Global,
2013), research by the Physical Activity Council (2012) found that regular participation in
organized school exercise makes an adult up to four times more likely to participate in adult
sports. This is important for long-term health since physical activity tends to reduce
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, depression, and skeletal problems such as hip and spine
injuries (WHO, Physical, 2013). Rangul, Holmen, Bauman, Ratberg, Kurtze, and Midthjell
(2010) found that boys who did not participate in sports were more likely to become inactive.
Kaestner and Xin (2010) found that women who participated in sports in high school were less
likely to be obese as adults. Parker-Pope (2010) added that sports benefits for teenagers were
beneficial, lowering pregnancy rates and raising grades and self-esteem. They noted that
participation in sports had a lasting effect on the education and employment levels of adult
women. The positive effects of sports participation are also apparent in adolescence. In a report
to the LA84 Foundation, Hartmann (2008) reported that a strong correlation was found between
students who participate in sports activities and high academic achievement. First lady, Michelle
Obama even joined in, encouraging a national campaign to increase the health of children
(Parker-Pope, 2010). Although, cause and effect cannot be established and there are many other
factors such as parental support to be considered, academic achievement does increase with
sports participation. Steinfeldt, Gilchrist, Halterman, Gomory, and Steinfeldt (2011) found some
8
negative aspects to sports participation, noting that for men the drive for muscularity can take a
physical and psychological toll if they feel they are not meeting the norms set by their peers and
society.
Andreoli, Monteleone, Van Loan, Promenzio, Tarantino and De Lorenzo (2001) found
that athletes competing in high impact sports had a higher bone mineral density and appendicular
muscle mass than the control groups. Resistance training, according to Chilibeck, Calder, Sale,
and Webber (1997), increased the strength and muscle mass of women in a ten-week training
program. Jones, Rutherford and Parker (1989), ascertain that many research studies show greater
strength increases than muscle size increases, which generally do not occur until about the
twelfth week of training. What causes these changes to occur and muscle size to increase after
that point has not been fully discovered with the current research, but putting the muscles under
high force has been found to damage the muscle fibers and cause cell divisions in the muscle to
repair the damage, (Jones, Rutherford and Parker, 1989). This cell division builds the muscle
mass of the affected muscle. Douda, Laparidis and Tokmakidis (2002), reported that long-
distance runners have smaller skinfold measurements, higher lean muscle mass and lower fat
measurements than the average population. Muscle fiber number was increased with weight
training in a study done by Gonyea, Sale, Gonyea and Mikesky (1986). The results of all of
these studies show that athletic participation does have an effect on the physique of the athlete.
The psychological changes appear to be overwhelmingly positive as far as achievement and
attitude, but the changes that separate them from the average population can have some negative
effects on their ability to find clothing that fits properly.
Athletes tend to have unique problems with fit of their clothing. Centeno (2012)
discussed the differences in body builder physiques and the lack of proportion compared to the
9
average person. According to this article ninety-five percent of clothing available in stores does
not fit the bodies of extreme athletes. The only ready-to wear clothing available that does fit
these athletes is extremely casual wear designed mainly for exercise. Although body builders
exemplify the extremes of body disproportion, it is common for athletes to have body changes as
a result of their exercise regimens (Andreoli, et al. 2000). Several studies pointed out these
changes, such as gymnast’s well-developed leg muscles, swimmer’s large shoulders, and football
player’s enlarged necks, shoulders, and legs (Chilibeck, Calder, Sale and Webber, 1997; Douda,
Laparidis and Tokmakidis, 2002; Gonyea, Sale, Gonyea and Mikesky, 1986; Jones, Rutherford
and Parker, 1988). The sculpting of the body through exercise is what many athletes strive for,
but the resulting fit issues of the clothing available through ready-to-wear markets can cause
problems for the athletes that they may not have foreseen. Entrepreneurs of online businesses
such as BestCustomShirt.com and Casualmale.com have acknowledged and are offering a
solution for adult athletes (Athletic, 2012). For adolescent athletes, similar businesses do not
exist.
Body Image, Body Satisfaction and Body Shape
Body image and body satisfaction are complex issues that affect all aspects of human life
and have intrigued researchers such as Jourard, Secord and Cash to devote their lives to this
study. Cash (2004) stated that while writing his doctoral dissertation he became interested in
body image and body satisfaction and his research in these areas has guided his professional
career. His extensive research led to the publication of a scientific journal, Body Image: An
International Journal of Research, as a platform for other researchers to work and publish their
findings in this area (Cash, 2004). Jourard and Secord (1955) wrote that how a person feels
about their body changes how secure they feel overall. This security affects other aspects of
10
their lives as well. Noles, Cash and Winstead (1985) found a direct link between body image
and depression when tested across several body indices. Kakeshita and Almeida (2008)
measured body dissatisfaction as a difference between actual and desired body mass index (BMI)
and found that females are more dissatisfied with their bodies than males. Muennig, Jia, Lee and
Lubetkin (2008) reported that as the dissatisfaction with body size increases, so does the number
of “unhealthy days” for the participant. Their research indicated the possibility that a negative
body image may increase the propensity to suffer from obesity that can cause various health
problems. Martin (2010) found that in the United States, our body ideals are developed, for
example, the media, dolls played with by young children, video games and models in the fashion
industry. Body satisfaction or dissatisfaction is likewise affected. This research accentuated the
need to find realistic body ideals to decrease the negative effect of body dissatisfaction. The
fashion industry has come under fire for the use of extremely thin models. According to Conti
(2007), the British Fashion Council took responsibility for promoting a healthy body image and
although they did not set specific limits, they urged designers to choose healthy models over
sixteen years of age. The employment of anorexic models in high fashion has been discouraged
because of the increasing prevalence of eating disorders. According to the National Eating
Disorders Association (2005), ten million females and one million males suffer from anorexia or
bulimia and for many of them it could cost them their lives. On college campuses, eating
disorders are common and the practice of dieting to try to attain unrealistic body images is often
reported, (“Female College Students, 2011). This report listed eating disorders as the most
deadly mental illness and also found that elite athletes have a significantly higher rate of
disordered eating patterns than other respondents. The American Journal of Public Health
reported that a person’s health is more accurately predicted by the difference in their actual
11
weight and the body weight they wish they had than it is by body mass index, (“Health effects
of,” 2008). Trautmann, Worthy and Lokken (2007) found that women who were unhappy with
their bodies used clothing to camouflage their appearance, avoided bright colors and some
silhouettes and did not like to shop. They also found that these women were more likely to
engage in eating disordered behaviors such as anorexia and bulimia.
Body dissatisfaction is common among adolescents, and according to McCabe and
Ricciardelli (2001) included a desire for a decrease in body weight for females and increase in
weight and muscle mass for males. They found significantly greater body dissatisfaction among
females than males and among those with higher BMI. According to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (2011), BMI is used to screen children for possible weight related
problems. McCabe and Ricciardelli (2001) reported that pressure to conform to societal body
image came from parents, peers and the media. O’Dea and Caputi (2001) found that body image
and weight control are important to many children ages six to nineteen. They reported that the
self-esteem of children in the middle to high socioeconomic status was more affected by feeling
overweight than that of children with low socioeconomic status (O’Dea and Caputi, 2001). This
study determined that body weight is an issue and negatively affected self-esteem. Mikolajczyk,
Iannotti, Farhat and Thomas (2012) found that body satisfaction perceptions are established by
the age of ten and no significant changes in those perceptions were noted as the children
matured.
The importance of body image and self-esteem of children was indicated by Black,
Sussman, Unger, Pokhrel and Sun (2010). The authors found that children who had high levels
of body consciousness were more likely to be involved in substance abuse. The link between
body consciousness and substance abuse varied by gender but the authors suggested drug
12
programs targeted toward children who are unhappy with their bodies in an effort to curb
substance abuse in adolescence (Black, Sussman, Unger, Pokhrel and Sun, 2010). Depression is
common among adolescents. Approximately twenty percent of adolescents suffer from
depression before adulthood according to Stice, Hayward, Cameron, Killen and Taylor (2000).
They concluded that higher rates of depression among females were noted in subjects with eating
disorders and body-image issues following puberty. A striking statistic of a longitudinal study
done by Stice and Whitenton (2002) was that one-fourth of the early adolescent respondents
reported body dissatisfaction.
It is widely accepted that there is body dissatisfaction among adolescents. Researchers
are finding ways to counter this trend. O’Dea and Abraham (2000) tested an educational
program in Sydney, Australia focused on self-esteem. They concluded that students involved in
the program were able to improve their self-esteem and body satisfaction. With these
improvements, the importance of athletic ability, beauty, and what others thought of them
became less important. The program focused specifically on self-esteem to improve body image.
Dorak (2011) found that for adolescent girls, athletic participation seemed to have a
protective effect on their self-esteem and body image. Barber, Eccles and Stone (2001) also
found high school students involved in sports reported positive feelings. Although they
acknowledged parental involvement and social acceptance had some effect, it still appeared the
participation in sports was linked to a more positive adolescent identity. Caglar and Asci (2010)
found many reasons for students to participate in sports and physical activities including fitness,
fun, and to improve skills.
Although sports involvement appeared to help most adolescents with their body image
and body satisfaction, Bucholz, Mack, McVey, Feder and Barrowman (2008) tested a program to
13
counterbalance the pressures found in other sports programs that promote strong weight control
and tend to increase disordered eating. Their program had a moderate effect and they are
encouraging implementation of this program and follow up research.
Clifford (1971) researched adolescent body satisfaction through the years of rapid growth
and found that adolescents of all ages worry about their weight, body size, and body shape.
Clifford reported that the data did not contradict earlier findings of Stolz and Stolz in 1944, but
highlighted the importance of body image for adolescents. The lack of a correlation between age
and body satisfaction were not found, leading to the conclusion that all adolescents are worried
about weight regardless of their actual age throughout the maturity process (Clifford, 1971).
Body Image and Apparel
Chattaraman and Rudd (2006) studied the relationship of clothing and the body and noted
that their data agreed with earlier studies concluding that women are dissatisfied with their lower
torso and thighs. They found a definite relationship between body image, body size and the
clothing that women find aesthetically preferable. Rudd and Lennon (2001) challenged the
textile and clothing professionals to make a difference in our world of increasing body
dissatisfaction. They proposed the development of undergraduate courses that would focus on
body image. Their proposed courses would enlighten the students to factors encountered in
everyday society that cause us to develop distorted body images. The course content could also
help the students understand why and how we learn to judge beauty and develop body image
preferences. It would point out how the beauty, fitness, and weight-loss industries prey upon
consumer insecurities to increase their company profits (Rudd and Lennon, 2001).
14
Fit and Sizing Issues in the Apparel Industry
Clifford (2011) reported that vanity sizing, the practice of adjusting the size on the label
to reflect a lower size than what the garment actually measures, is a common practice. Gerstein
(2011), revealed the practice of cutting tags out of clothing so size eight models will not refuse to
wear a garment with a size ten on the tag. The focus of these articles points to an increasing
problem in the apparel industry, the problem of fit issues of garments available in ready to wear
stores (Doshi, 2006). Terbush (2011) pointed out that a size eight in one brand might be the
same actual size as a size twelve in another brand. Women are getting larger and clothing sizes
are decreasing, making it difficult for the customer to know what size to buy. Terbush (2011)
also pointed out that more expensive brands are adding inches to the standard sizes to attract
customers. Weidner (2010) found that customers realized that some apparel companies use
vanity sizing. This research also found that although these customers responded that they found
apparel sizing to be inconsistent, they were still mostly satisfied with the sizes and the fit of
apparel (Weidner, 2010). Nike and other companies reported at the Dutch trade association for
fashion, interior design, carpets and textiles, (MODINT) seminar that companies are beginning
to realize that when they solve the fit issues for their clothing lines, customers become satisfied
and are more likely to buy their garments at full price. They are using 3D body scan technology
to redefine their target customers and make clothing that consistently fits this target customer (“If
it’s about apparel,” 2011). Bye and LaBat (2005) reported that fifty percent of women and sixty-
two percent of men say they cannot find clothing that fits their bodies. Fit sessions are one of the
most important parts of the production process, and typically ninety-four percent of garments go
through two or three fitting sessions before going to the manufacturer (Bye and LaBat, 2005).
Ashdown and O’Connell (2006) indicated that the first step in the fit session process is to choose
15
a fit model that approximates the size and shape of the target customer. Problems with fit
reported by DesMarteau (2000) included pants sagging, drooping in the shoulders, tight fitting
mid-sections of shirts, and bunching in the crotch of pants. These problems became more
apparent when tightly fitted styles were popular. Roach (2002) determined a need for national
sizing. She stated sizing from the fifties through the seventies as one of the problems with fit,
since customers today have different body proportions than people from earlier decades (Roach,
2002) and suggested new national surveys that include use of [TC]2 body scanners.
Bye and McKinney (2007) surveyed forty-six women regarding clothing they keep in
their wardrobes even though they do not fit. It was reported that some of the reasons women
keep clothing that does not fit well were for sentimental value; they thought the garment would
fit them again someday; they spent a lot of money on it; or simply that they really liked the
garment. Discarding garments that no longer fit may seem to be a decision that is logical and
easy to make, but women in this study exposed other thoughts and feelings that cloud an
otherwise clear decision (Bye and McKinney, 2007). The decision to retain a garment that does
not fit well became, for these women, one that can be economic, emotional, psychological, and
possibly physical in nature.
Tselepis and de Klerk (2004) studied the apparel fit of early adolescent female
consumers. The researchers found that this age group has not been studied much in the past, and
in light of the fact they used their clothing to feel better about themselves, the proper fit of their
clothing was important. A need was indicated for further study with this consumer age group to
determine if changes were necessary. Tselepis and de Klerk (2004) found that adolescents are
interested in their looks and clothes. In a later study, de Klerk and Tselepis, (2007) found that
16
early-adolescents are concerned about the emotional effects of their clothing as much as the
functionality of their garments.
Consumer’s perceptions of fit also altered their overall satisfaction with a product
according to Anderson, Brannon, Ulrich, Presley, Woronka, Grasso and Stevenson (2001). Even
with exact measurements, the nuances of fit according to the customer had to be accounted for in
the production process.
Body Scanning and Associated Research
Ashdown and Loker stated in the National Textile Center Annual Report in November of
2001, that three-dimensional body scanning technology is a new technology that is rapidly
developing. Indeed, 3D technology has made improvements over the last decade and expansion
of the technology is on the rise. DesMarteau (2005) discussed body scanning and the current
applications being used in the apparel industry. Retailers are gathering information about the
size and shape of their customers, and Levi’s used body scan data to recommend which jeans
best fit their shoppers (DesMarteau, 2005). Other retailers using 3D body scan technology
according to a report by DesMarteau (2004), over 130 at the time, included After Hours Formal
Wear, Charming Shoppes Inc., David’s Bridal, Federated Department Stores, Li & Fung and VF
Corp. Body scanning is becoming a popular technological solution to apparel fit and design
problems. In 2006, [TC]2 body scanned 155 swimmers in the development phase of some of
Speedo’s performance swimwear line (“[TC]2 NX12”, 2006). Mass customization of garments
was another use for 3D technology being explored according to Simmons and Istook (2003).
Cornell University College of Human Ecology listed 1941 as the year that the last survey
was conducted to determine the standard sizes of the population (The 3D Body Scanner, 2011).
They concluded that this was not an accurate measurement for today’s population. Roach (2002)
17
also noted the need for a national sizing survey. Lee (1994) stated that for a garment to truly be
high quality it must fit properly. Through the studies at Cornell University, researchers found
ways to visualize the fit of clothing to accurately analyze the comfort of garments. By
measuring the space between the garment and the body through the use of 3D body scan
technology the fit of the garment could be accurately analyzed. Based on responses of the
participants, the virtual try-on application was found to have the most positive response (The 3D
Body Scanner, 2011). Ashdown, Mete and Rucker (2010) stated that data from 3D body scans
was the information lacking to actually be able to fix apparel fit problems. Another advantage of
3D technology is that garments can be virtually fitted onto multiple digital models and the virtual
models can be compared side-by-side to analyze the best fit, zooming in and out and turning the
models as needed, (Ashdown, Loker, Schoenfelder and Lyman-Clarke, 2004).
Fit and sizing of garments is just one of the issues that apparel companies must face.
Loker, Ashdown and Schoenfelder, (2005) found sizing was generally based on one fit model
that was representative of the target customer. This was also usually done in a 2D format. They
discussed how 3D images could assist in sizing for the apparel industry by increasing the fitting
of apparel from a single fit model to sizing data from thousands of people separated into age and
gender categories. Connell, Ulrich, Knox, Hutton, Bruner and Ashdown (2004) collaborated on
a project to develop virtual fit models based on the body shapes and sizes that are common in the
United States, including regular, petite, and plus sizes.
Current research has determined that physical activity is important for people to remain
healthy. High school sports has been found to be beneficial in many ways including increasing
positive body image, academic achievement, and the likelihood of adolescents remaining active
throughout their adult lives. Extreme athletic participation makes finding clothing that fits
18
properly more difficult for athletes. Body image, body satisfaction, and body shape are
important to adolescents according to existing research. Research is lacking, however, with
regard to apparel fit issues reported by high school students. Technological advances have been
made in 3D body scanning that could be instrumental in correcting fit problems prevelant in the
apparel industry. This body of research led to the development that implemented 3D body
scanning technology, in conjunction with a survey to complete the objectives of this study. The
main objectives of this study were to first determine whether high school students have the
perception that they have problems finding clothing that fits their bodies. Second, was to
determine if the problem is common among both athletes and non-athletes or if one group finds
fit of apparel more problematic. The third objective was to determine if body image and body
satisfaction have an effect on the likelihood of athletes and non-athletes reporting problems with
fit issues of clothing available from ready-to-wear stores.
19
Chapter 3
Methodology
the perception that they have problems finding clothing that fits their bodies as well as the
second objective which was to determine if the problem is common among both athletes and
The purpose of this study was to test six hypotheses concerning the perceived apparel fit
of high school athletes and non-athletes and to determine whether body image and body
satisfaction had an influence on the perceived fit issues reported by participants. To obtain this
information, 3D body scans and questionnaires were necessary to test these hypotheses.
The hypotheses tested for this study are written in null hypotheses form for ease of testing. The
hypotheses are as follows:
20
problems.
non-athletes.
Considering the changes to an adolescent athlete’s body, this study addressed whether
athletic programs are helpful to the students when purchasing ready-to-wear garments or if their
involvement made them more likely to have fit issues. This research could help industry
designers and producers of adolescent apparel more clearly understand their target market. This
information combined with data from body scan research in the future could provide the
necessary information for the apparel industry to develop garments with improved fit for their
target customers.
Population and Sample
School districts in a mid-southern state agreed to participate in this study and determined
access to possible research subjects. A signed parental permission form was required for all
participants under the age of eighteen. Participation was voluntary and a total of 107 participants
(male n=34, female n=73) completed the study (Table 1). Upon completion of the survey and
scan participants were given the chance to enter their names in a drawing for an iPad. All
participants were enrolled in ninth (n=59, 55%), tenth (n=18, 17%), eleventh (n=17, 16%), and
twelfth (n=13, 12%) grades at the participating mid-southern regional schools (Table 2). Their
ages were between fourteen and nineteen years of age (Table 3) and the ethnicity of the
21
participants was largely Caucasian (77%) with the remaining (23%) split among several
ethnicities as documented in Tables 4.
Table 1
Gender of Participants by frequency and percentage

Sex Frequency (n=) Percentage
Male 34 32
Female 73 68
Total 107 100
Table 2
Grade Level of Participants by frequency and percentage

Grade Level Frequency (n=) Percentage
9th 59 55
10th 18 17
11th 17 16
12th 13 12
Total 107 100
22
Table 3
Age of Participants by frequency and percentage

Age Frequency (n=) Percentage
12-13 18 17
14-15 53 50
16-17 29 27
18-19 7 7
Total 107 100
Table 4
Ethnicity of Participants by frequency and percentage

Frequency (n=) Percentage
American Indian/Alaska Native 4 4
Asian 3 3
African American 5 5
Caucasian 82 77
Hispanic/Latino 10 9
American Indian/Caucasian 1 1
African American/Caucasian 1 1
Other 1 1
Total 107 100
A total of seventy athletes and thirty-seven non-athletes completed the study. The
breakdown of athletes versus non-athletes by number and percentage is illustrated in Table 5.
Nearly twice as many athletes participated in the study as non-athletes.
23
Table 5
Sports Participation by frequency and percentage

Athlete 70 65
Non-Athlete 37 35
Total 107 100
Each of the participating athletes listed all sports in which they are active. Table 6 includes all
sports listed on the questionnaire and the frequency of participation by sport. The sport with the
most participants was basketball (n=18), followed by volleyball (n=16), football (n=10) and
cheer (n=10). All other sports had less than ten participants completing the survey with a total of
111 sports participants. This number (n=111) is different from the total number of participants
in the study because athletic respondents were often involved in more than one sport.
24
Table 6
Sports Participation by Individual Sport frequency and percentage

Baseball 5 5
Basketball 18 17
Cheer 10 9
Cross Country 4 4
Dance 6 6
Football 10 9
Golf 6 6
Soccer 8 8
Softball 5 5
Swimming 2 2
Tennis 3 3
Track 8 8
Volleyball 16 15
Wrestling 3 3
Other 7 7
Total 111
Instruments
Instruments used to effectively gather data for this study included the TC2KX16 3D Body
Scanner and a four-part survey to measure body image including the Body-Image Ideals
Questionnaire (Cash, 2000a), body image compared to a 3D body scan, body satisfaction as
measured on the Body Area Satisfaction Scale (Cash, 2000b), and apparel fit as measured by an
25
Apparel Fit survey developed by the researcher. Demographics were also collected for each of
the participants.
TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner
3D body scan data was collected using the TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner. The scanner
creates a dot plot image of each participant. The TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner is completely
portable, allowing all data collection to take place at the participating schools. After transporting
and assembling the TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner, calibration of the instrument was completed
according to directions provided by TC2 to ensure consistency of measurements between
locations of data collection.
Questionnaire
A questionnaire consisting of four parts was assembled (Appendix A). Demographics
were also colleced with regard to the participants’ gender, grade level, age, sports participation
and individual sports in which athletic respondents were involved.
Part I of the survey consisted of the Body Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) developed
by Cash and Szymanski in 1995. The BIQ includes eleven, two-part questions. Cash (2000a)
indicated that body-image satisfaction was dependent on, “(1) the extent to which an individual
believes that his/her physical characteristics match his/her physical ideals, and (2) the importance
associated with having or attaining those ideals (BIQ, p. 1). Part A of each question asked the
respondent to report their ideal of different body parts (height, skin complexion, hair texture and
thickness, facial features, muscle tone and definition, body proportions, weight, chest or breast
size, physical strength and physical coordination), on a scale of zero to three, (0 = Exactly As I
Am, 1 = Almost As I Am, 2 = Fairly Unlike Me, 3 = Very Unlike Me). Part B of each question
asked the participant about how important the ideal of each body part was to them with possible
26
answers of zero to three, (0 = Not Important, 1 = Somewhat Important, 2 = Fairly Unlike Me, 3 =
Very Unlike Me). For each question (1-11), answers of zero were recoded as -1. After the
recoding of all zero responses, a score for each question was figured by multiplying Part A x Part
B. To find the BIQ score, the score for each question was added together and that total was
divided by eleven to compute a mean of answers one through eleven. Cash (2000a) reported the
results of sample tests for the BIQ as men (M = 1.31, SD = 1.35) and women (M =1.75, SD =
1.38) with an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of (M = .81 and M = .76) respectively.
Permission to use this instrument was purchased from the author. Possible scores, according to
Cash (2000a) were between -3 and +9. Low scores indicated maximum congruence and high
scores indicated maximum discrepancies across all physical attributes.
Table 7 BIQ Psychometrics
BIQ Psychometrics
Men Women
Norms M = 1.31 M = 1.75
SD = 1.35 SD = 1.38
(N = 192 across 2 samples) (n = 896 across 5 samples)
Internal Consistency
M = .81 M = .76
(Cronbach’s alpha)
Cash (2000a, p. 4)
Part II of the questionnaire included a series of body shapes, both male and female,
reprinted with permission from The Dietitians of Canada that represent different sizes and shapes
of the human body (“The Body Test,” 1988). Respondents were asked to circle the shape, as
illustrated in Figure 1, that they felt best represented their body shape.
27
Figure 1
Dietitians of Canada Body Silhouettes (“The Body Test,” 1988).
The shape chosen by the participant was compared to the body scan dot plot image captured by
the TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner to determine whether the participant reported an accurate or
distorted body image.
Part III of the questionairre contained the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS), a
subscale of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) developed by
Cash (2000b). The BASS measured how satisfied subjects are with their appearance. It is
comprised of nine questions with respect to different body aspects. Respondents were asked to
28
rate their satisfaction on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = Very Dissatisfied, 2 = Mostly Satisfied,
3 = Neither Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied, 4 = Mostly Satisfied, 5 = Very Satisfied). To obtain a
BASS score, the answers from each of the nine questions were added together and that total was
divided by nine resulting in a mean score for all questions. High scores indicate high satisfaction
and low scores indicate dissatisfaction. Cash (2000b) reported the BASS score in test samples of
males as (M = 3.50, SD = .63), and the female scores as (M = 3.23, SD = .74), based on sample
size (Ns = 804 women and 333 men) as illustrated in Table 8 . Permission to use the instrument
was purchased from the author.
Table 8
BASS
Males Females
(n = 333) (n = 804)
Mean 3.50 3.23
Standard Deviation .63 .74

Internal Consistency
.77 .76
1 month retest
.86 .74
(Cash 2000b, p.6)
Part IV of the survey consisted of questions relating to perceived apparel fit. Questions
included different parts of apparel such as sleeves, legs, or body. Possible answers were reported
on a scale of one to five, (1 = Too Short, 2 = Somewhat Short, 3 = Just Right, 4 = Somewhat
Long, 5 = Too Long or 1 = Too Tight, 2 = Somewhat Tight, 3 = Just Right, 4 = Somewhat
Loose, 5 = Too Loose). The Apparel Fit Survey was pilot tested in an Apparel Studies class (N
= 50). No problems as to the clarity of questions, ease of responding, or time required to respond
were reported.
29
Collection of Data
Letters were written to Superintendents and Athletic Directors of mid-southern regional
schools (Appendix B) to ask permission to conduct the research study. Both public and private
schools from a mid-southern region of the United States participated. Meetings with school
personnel informed the faculty and staff of research plans and answered questions and concerns.
A website was set up to allow parents and participants to gain access to information regarding
the study. Informative flyers were provided to participating schools which included the website
address. Information on the website included safety of the body scan procedure, study
information, suggestions for proper scan wear and a link to a parental permission form
(Appendix C). A copy of the safety information for the TC2KX16 Body Scanner is found in
Appendix D. Each participant under the age of eighteen was required to have a signed parental
consent form. The permission form is found in Appendix E. Scan wear consisting of tight fitting
clothing was available if the participants did not have their own acceptable clothing. The
University of Arkansas Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved the study (IRB Protocol #
12-09-092). A copy of the IRB is found in Appendix F. After receiving IRB approval and
permission from schools, the researcher mobilized and assembled the TC2KX16 3D Body
Scanner at the participating schools. The body scanner was calibrated at each location to ensure
consistency of the scans. After collecting a signed parental permission form for each participant,
the questionnaires were coded to guarantee anonymity of the participants. When the
questionnaire was completed and collected by the researcher, the code of the participant was
entered into the TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner. Participants were given body scan wear consisting
of tank tops and tight fitting leggings, if needed. The researcher instructed the participant on the
proper stance in the scanner, entered the corresponding participant code number and the scan
30
commenced. After checking the image to ensure a complete scan was obtained, the participant
was instructed to leave the body scanner and was thanked for their participation in the study.
The participant was then given the opportunity to enter the drawing for the iPad.
The researcher compared the 3D body scan (Appendix G) of each participant to a
transparency of the body scale images from Part II of the questionnaire to determine the actual
body shape of the participant. The transparency was laid over the dot-plot image and each body
area was compared to find the silhouette that most closely resembled the actual body shape and
size recorded by the TC2KX16 body scan image. This was compared to the body shape chosen
by the participant to determine variance of body image as defined in this study.
The data from the BIQ and BASS sections of the survey were recoded according to the
instructions supplied by Cash to convert that data into individual BIQ and BASS scores. The
BIQ score is figured by multiplying Part A of each of the BIQ questions by Part B of that
question. A mean for all BIQ questions is then computed. The BASS is a mean of the responses
on each of the BASS questions. All data was entered into Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) data analysis software for analysis. T-tests and Chi-square tests were employed
to test each of the research hypotheses:
H2 = There is no difference in the reported difficulty of athletes and non-athletes finding
ready-to-wear garments that fit properly without alteration.
problems.
31
non-athletes.
32
Chapter 4

Results
the perception that they have problems finding clothing that fits their bodies as well as well as
the second objective which was to determine if the problem is common among both athletes and
The purpose of this study was to test six hypotheses concerning the perceived apparel fit
of high school athletes and non-athletes and to determine whether body image and body
satisfaction had an influence on the perceived fit issues reported by participants. The hypotheses
tested for this study are written in null hypotheses form for ease of testing. The hypotheses are
as follows:
H2 = There is no difference in the reported difficulty of athletes and non-athletes finding
ready-to-wear garments that fit properly without alteration.
H4 = High school athletes report a body satisfaction score (BASS) equal to that of
non-athletes.
33
problems.
non-athletes.
The data were interpreted to determine the perceived apparel fit issues reported by high
school athletes and non-athletes. Six hypotheses were tested to determine if there was a
difference in the reported problems of finding ready-to-wear apparel between the two groups,
athletes and non-athletes. Body satisfaction and body image were tested and analyzed to
determine the possible effect on fit issue perceptions.
Sample Profile
School districts in a mid-southern state that agreed to participate in this study determined
access to possible research subjects. Signed parent permission forms were required for all
participants under the age of eighteen. Participation was voluntary and a total of 107 participants
(male n=34, female n=73) completed the study. All participants were enrolled in ninth (n=59,
55%), tenth (n=18, 17%), eleventh (n=17, 16%), and twelfth (n=13, 12%) grades at the
participating mid-southern regional schools. The ages of the respondents were between fourteen
and nineteen years of age and the ethnicity of the participants was largely Caucasian (77%) with
the remaining (23%) split among several ethnicities as documented in Tables 1-4. A total of
seventy athletes and thirty-seven non-athletes completed the study. Participants were given the
opportunity to enter their names in a drawing for an iPad as an incentive to participate.
Perceived Fit Issues of High School Athletes and Non-Athletes
Hypothesis I. High school athletes are no more likely than non-athletes to have
distorted body image. A Chi-square test was performed and no relationship was found between
34
body image accuracy and participation in organized high school sports, x2 (1, N=107) = 1.11, p =
.292. Although nearly half of the non-athletes reported an inaccurate body image, when
compared to athletes, the difference was statistically insignificant at the p<.05 level (p=0.292) as
illustrated in Tables 9 and 10.
Table 9
Crosstabulation of Body Image Accuracy for Sport Participation
Sig.
Dependent Variable Sport Participation x2 df
(2-tailed)
Body Image Accuracy Athlete vs. Non-athlete 1.112 1 0.292
p< .05
Table 10
Chi-square test
Accurate Body Image Inaccurate Body Image
Athlete 32 38
Non-Athlete 13 24
Total 45 62
Body image defined as accurate or distorted was scored by calculating the absolute value of the
3D body scan recorded by the TC2KX16 minus the respondent’s chosen body shape (Part II of the
questionnaire). An independent sample t-test was employed to analyze the results. There was a
significant difference in the scores for athlete (M=0.67, SD=0.70) and non-athlete (M=1.08,
SD=1.04) conditions; t(105)=-2.43, p=0.033. Results are shown in Tables 11 and Table 12.
35
Table 11
Independent sample t-test comparison of means for body image accuracy as reported as absolute
value
Sig.
Dependent Variable Sport Participation t df
(2-tailed)
Body Image Accuracy Athlete vs. Non-athlete 2.43 105 0.033
p< .05
Table 12 Body Image Accuracy Athletes/Non-Athletes
Independent variable sport participation means for body image accuracy
Dependent Variable Sport Participation N Mean SD SE
Athlete 70 0.67 0.70 0.08

Body Image Accuracy
Non-athlete 37 1.08 1.04 0.17
The data analysis failed to reject the hypothesis when looking at body image as accurate versus
distorted. There was not a significant difference in accuracy of body images between the athletes
and non-athletes. The analysis rejected the hypothesis when body image was analyzed as an
absolute value of the difference between the body scan image and the silhouette chosen by the
participant. There was a significant difference in the absolute mean values of body image
accuracy of athletes and non-athletes.
Hypothesis II. There is no difference in the reported difficulty of athletes and non-
athletes finding ready-to-wear garments that fit properly without alteration. Question 34 of the
questionnaire dealt directly with this hypothesis asking the participant to rate their experience
36
about how often clothing they purchase in a store has to be altered. The responses on a Likert
Scale of one through 5 (1 = Often, 2 = Somewhat Often, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Almost Never, and
5 = Never) were analyzed. There was no significant difference in the means of the two groups
when a t-test of independent samples was run to compare athletes (M = 3.71, SD = 1.05) and
non-athletes (M = 3.70, SD = 1.18); t(105)=0.052, p=0.959. Results are displayed in Tables 13
and 14.
Table 13
Independent sample t-test comparison of means for alteration frequency of athletes and non-
athletes
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Alterations Needed Athlete vs. Non-athlete 0.052 105 0.959
p< .05
Table 14
Independent variable sport participation means for alteration frequency of ready to wear
clothing
Athlete 70 3.71 1.05 0.13

Alterations Needed
Non-athlete 37 3.70 1.18 0.19
37
Analysis of the data failed to reject Hypothesis II. The data did not show a statistically
significant difference in whether athletes and non-athletes have to alter clothing purchased in a
store.
Hypothesis III. Athletes have a body image (BIQ) score equal to that of non-athletes.
Part I of the questionnaire was the Body Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) developed by Cash
and Szymanski in 1995 and consisted of eleven, two-part questions. Cash (2000a) indicated that
body-image satisfaction was dependent on, “(1) the extent to which an individual believes that
his/her physical characteristics match his/her physical ideals, and (2) the importance associated
with having or attaining those ideals (BIQ, p. 1). Part A of each question asked the respondent to
report their ideal of different body parts (height, skin complexion, hair texture and thickness,
facial features, muscle tone and definition, body proportions, weight, chest or breast size,
phyusical strength, and physical coordination), on a scale of zero to three, (0 = Exactly As I Am,
1 = Almost As I Am, 2 = Fairly Unlike Me, 3 = Very Unlike Me). Part B of each question
asked the participant about how important the ideal of each body part was to them with possible
answers of zero to three, (0 = Not Important, 1 = Somewhat Important, 2 = Fairly Unlike Me, 3 =
Very Unlike Me). For each question (1-11), answers of zero were recoded as -1. After the
recoding of all zero responses, a score for each question was figured by multiplying (Part A x
Part B). To find the BIQ score, the score for each question was added together and that total was
divided by eleven to compute a mean of answers one through eleven. Cash (2000a) reported
that, “The potential range of these composite BIQ scores is: -3 (for very important congruence
across all physical attributes) to +9 (For very important and maximum discrepancies across all
physical attributes)” (p. 3).
38
There was not a statistically significant difference in the BIQ scores of athletes (M =
1.64, SD=1.18) and non-athletes (M = 2.10, SD 1.98); t(103)=-1.49, p=0.133. Data is illustrated
in Tables 15 and 16. Degrees of freedom for this test were 103 due to missing data.
Table 15
Comparison of sample means by sport participation using independent samples t-tests for BIQ
scores
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BIQ Score Athlete vs. Non-athlete -1.490 103 0.133
p< .05
Table 16
Independent variable sport participation means for BIQ scores
Athlete 69 1.64 1.18 0.14

BIQ Scores
Non-athlete 36 2.10 1.98 0.33
The hypothesis that athlete’s BIQ scores were equal to the BIQ scores of non-athletes
failed to be rejected. There was not a statistically significant difference between the BIQ scores
of athletes and non-athletes.
Hypothesis IV. High school athletes report a body satisfaction score (BASS) equal to
that of non-athletes. The Body Areas Satisfaction Scale developed by Cash (2000b) is a subscale
of the Multidimensional Body-self Relations Questionnaire. High scores indicate higher rates of
body satisfaction and lower scores indicate some dissatisfaction. BASS scores are computed by
39
finding a mean of all nine questions. Athletes in this study returned a BASS score (M = 3.55,
SD = 0.66) and non-athletes scored (M = 3.74, SD =1.93); t(104)=-.750, p=0.282. Data
illustrated in Tables 17 and 18.
Table 17
Comparison of sample means by sport participation using independent samples t-tests for BASS
Scores
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BASS Score Athlete vs. Non-athlete -0.75 104 0.455
p< .05
Table 18
Independent variable sport participation means for BASS scores
Athlete 70 3.55 0.66 0.08

BASS Score
Non-athlete 36 3.74 1.93 0.32
These scores were higher than the adult norms reported by Cash (2000b) indicating higher rates
of body satisfaction in this sample as compared to the sample tested by Cash. The t-test for
independent samples resulted in no statistically significant difference in the scores of athletes and
non-athletes on the BASS subscale. Hypothesis IV failed to be rejected because the scores of
athletes did not differ significantly from the scores of non-athletes.
40
Hypothesis V. Body satisfaction and body image perceptions do not change the
perception of apparel fit problems. A Chi-Square test was completed to test whether body image
changes the perception of apparel fit problems. An accurate body image for this test was
reported if the respondent chose the body shape in Part II of the questionnaire that was the same
as the body shape actually recorded by the 3D body scan taken by the TC2KX16 3D Body
Scanner. A distorted image was reported if the subject chose a body image either smaller or
larger than the actual body scan. The absolute values were reported to divide the scores into
accurate versus distorted. The direction of the distortion was not recorded for this test. Of the
107 respondents, accurate body image was reported by n = 45 and distorted body image was
reported for n = 62 subjects. Fit issues were reported by all forty-five of the participants with
accurate body image and fifty-eight of the sixty-two participants with distorted body image.
Only four of the 107 respondents indicated no fit issues of their apparel. Results of the Chi-
Square test reported a significance level of 0.082. The hypothesis failed to be rejected, there is
no evidence that there is a difference in perceived fit issues of apparel when two groups,
separated by body image accuracy are compared. Two of the cells, (50%) had lower than
expected values. According to the assumptions of the Chi-square test, expected frequencies
should be at least five. If over twenty percent of the cells have a frequency less than five, the
statistical power is lost and the results become invalid (Field, 2005).
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the BIQ scores of participants
with accurate body image (M=1.77, SD=1.37) and distorted body image (M=1.81, SD=1.62),
t(103)=-0.132, p=0.60. Data reported in Tables 19 and 20. The hypothesis failed to be rejected
because the data did not show a statistically significant difference in the BIQ scores of
participants with accurate versus distorted body images.
41
Table 19
Comparison of sample means by body accuracy using independent samples t-tests for BIQ scores
Sig.
Dependent Variable Body Image Accuracy t df
(2-tailed)
BIQ Scores Accurate vs. Distorted -.0132 103 0.896
p< .05
Table 20
Independent variable body image accuracy means for BIQ scores
Body Image
Dependent Variable N Mean SD SE
Accuracy
Accurate 44 1.77 1.37 0.21

BIQ Score
Distorted 61 1.81 1.62 0.20
Hypothesis VI - High school athletes report the same level of difficulty buying ready-to-
wear as non-athletes. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the mean scores
on Question 34 of the survey for athletes (M=3.61, SD 1.05) and non-athletes (M=3.27,
SD=1.37); t(105)=1.45, p=0.064 This question asked the participant if they have a difficult time
buying clothing in retail stores. Responses were on a Likert Scale of one to five, (1 = Often, 2 =
Somewhat Often, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Almost Never, and 5 = Never). The t-Test indicated no
statistically significant difference in the responses of the two groups. Results are illustrated in
Tables 21 and 22. Hypothesis VI failed to be rejected. The data did not show a statistically
significant difference (p= .064) in the mean scores of purchasing difficulty of athletes and non-
athletes.
42
Table 21
Comparison of sample means by sport participation using independent samples t-tests for
purchasing difficulty
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Purchasing Difficulty Athlete vs. Non-athlete 1.446 105 0.151
p< .05
Table 22
Independent variable sport participation means for purchasing difficulty
Athlete 70 3.61 1.05 0.13

Purchasing Difficulty
Non-athlete 37 3.27 1.37 0.23
43
CHAPTER 5
Summary, Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations
Summary
The survey and 3D body scan were used to collect data comparing the perceived fit issues
of high school athletes and non-athletes. Body image and body satisfaction were measured by
the survey and compared to the perceived apparel fit of the two groups. Hypothesis tested for
this study were:
H5 = Body satisfaction and body image do not change the perception of apparel fit problems.
non-athletes.
Findings of the research, resulting from the analysis of the data, failed to reject all of the
hypotheses except Hypothesis I. The data failed to reject hypothesis I with regard to athletes
being no more likely than non-athletes to have distorted body image when the data was analyzed
using only two outcomes, accurate or distorted. The hypothesis was rejected, however, when the
strength of the body image distortion was measured as an absolute value of the difference
between the body scan image and the silhouette chosen by the participant. A statistically
significant difference was seen in the mean scores of body image accuracy of athletes and non-
athletes. Athletes indicated a more accurate body image than non-athletes in this sample.
44
Perceived apparel fit issues were reported by a high percentage (96%) of the participants.
Of the 107 respondents completing the survey and body scan, only four indicated that they have
no apparel fit issues.
Conclusions
The variable, athlete versus the non-athlete variable did not have a significant outcome in
the final results of this research. The chi-square test for apparel fit and body image did not
indicate a statistically significant difference. Lower than expected values were reported in fifty
percent of the cells, which is required to conduct a valid Chi-Square Test. Increasing the sample
size could prove beneficial for conducting future research using the Chi-Square test method. The
number of schools allowing the data to be collected limited the research sample size. With more
participating schools, the data analysis could return different results.
According to data results, a large percentage (96%) of high school students studied
reported apparel fit issues of some kind. To find conclusive results of apparel fit issues of high
school students, further study to actually measure the fit would need to be conducted. This study
measured only the perceived apparel fit issues of these respondents.
Answers to Research Questions
Are high school athletes more or less likely to have distorted body image than non-
athletes? The research indicated that athletes are less likely to have a distorted body image than
non-athletes. Do athletes and non-athletes indicate difficulty finding ready-to-wear apparel that
fits them properly without alteration? There was no statistical difference between the reported
alteration likelihood of the two groups. The mean scores of 3.70 and 3.71 fall closer to “almost
never” on the survey. Do athletes indicate a higher body image score than non-athletes? There
was not a significant difference in the BIQ scores of athletes and non-athletes. Do athletes
45
indicate better body satisfaction than non-athletes? The BASS scores of athletes and non-
athletes did not show a significant difference in body satisfaction. Do body satisfaction and body
image change the likelihood of having fit issues? Overall, high school students in this sample
indicated a high likelihood (96%) of reporting fit issues of apparel. Due to small sample size, the
body satisfaction and body image of the sample did not indicate significance. Do high school
athletes have a more difficult time purchasing ready-to-wear than non-athletes? There was no
statistically significant difference in the difficulty of ready-to-wear purchases of athletes and
non-athletes.
Implications
High school athletes and non-athletes studied for this research project showed a high
percentage of issues with the fit of garments available in retail stores. With such high levels of
dissatisfaction, the possibilities of lost sales to this large market group are possible.
Recommendations
Further study needs to be done to collect the same data from a larger sample to see if
significant differences are found. A larger sample size could show statistical significance that
was not apparent in this study. This study needs to be duplicated to include more schools to
reduce bias based from a small number of schools. This study was limited to a small
geographical area of a mid-southern region of the United States. For increased significance of
the results, other regions of the United States should be included in subsequent research to verify
the results across the population of American high school students.
46
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53
APPENDIX A
54
QUESTIONNAIRE
Please answer the following questions.
1. Gender
_____ Male _____ Female
2. Age
_____ 12-13 _____ 14-15 _____ 16-17 _____ 18-19
3. Grade Level
_____ 7th _____ 8th _____ 9th _____ 10th _____ 11th _____ 12th
4. Ethnicity
______ American Indian/Alaska Native
______ Asian
______ African American
______ Caucasian
______ Hispanic/Latino
______ Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
______ Other
5. Do you participate in organized school sports?

_____ Yes
_____ No
55
6. If so, please check each sport you participate in.
_____ Baseball
_____ Basketball
_____ Cheer
_____ Cross Country
_____ Dance
_____ Football
_____ Golf
_____ Soccer
_____ Softball
_____ Swimming
_____ Tennis
_____ Track
_____ Volleyball
_____ Wrestling
_____ Other (Please Specify Below) _____________________________
56
PART I. Body Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ)
Instructions. Please read carefully:

Each item on this questionnaire deals with a different physical characteristic. For each
characteristic, think about how you would describe yourself as you actually are. Then think about
how you wish you were. The difference between the two reveals how close you come to your
personal ideal. In some instances, your looks may closely match your ideal. In other instances,
they may differ considerably. On Part A of each item, rate how muchyou resemble your
personal physical ideal by circling a number from 0 to 3.
Your physical ideals may differ in their importance to you, regardless of how close you come to
them. You may feel strongly that some ideals embody the way you want to look or to be. In other
areas, your ideals may be less important to you. On Part B of each item, rate how
importantyour ideal is to you by circling a number on the 0 to 3 scale.
1. A. My ideal height is:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________
Exactly As Almost As Fairly Very

I Am I Am Unlike Me Unlike Me
B. How important to you is your ideal height?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________
Not Somewhat Moderately Very

Important Important Important Important
2. A. My ideal skin complexion is:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

57
B. How important to you is your ideal skin complexion?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

3. A. My ideal hair texture and thickness are:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you are your ideal hair texture and thickness?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

4. A. My ideal facial features (eyes, nose, ears, facial shape) are:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you are your ideal facial features?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

58
5. A. My ideal muscle tone and definition is:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you is your ideal muscle tone and definition?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

6. A. My ideal body proportions are:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you are your ideal body proportions?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

7. A. My ideal weight is:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

59
B. How important to you is your ideal weight?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

8. A. My ideal hair texture and thickness are:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you are your ideal hair texture and thickness?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

9. A. My ideal physical strength is:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you is your ideal strength?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

60
10. A. My ideal physical coordination is:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you is your physical coordination?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

11. A. My ideal overall physical appearance is:
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

B. How important to you is your overall physical appearance?
0 1 2 3
___________________________________________________________________

(BIQ ©Thomas F. Cash, Ph.D.)
61
PART II.
12. Please circle the body shape under the appropriate category (i.e. women or men) that
you think best represents you.
62
PART III. Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS)
13-21. Instructions: Use this 1 to 5 scale to indicate how dissatisfied or satisfied you are with
each of the following areas or aspects of your body:
1 2 3 4 5
Very Mostly Neither Mostly Very

Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied
Nor
Dissatisfied
______ 13. Face (facial features, complexion)

______ 14. Hair (color, thickness, texture)
______ 15. Lower torso (buttocks, hips, thighs, legs)
______ 16. Mid torso (waist, stomach)
______ 17. Upper torso (chest or breasts, shoulders, arms)
______ 18. Muscle tone
______ 19. Weight
______ 20. Height
______ 21. Overall appearance
(MBSRQ ©Thomas F. Cash,

Ph.D.)
PART IV. Apparel Fit

Instructions: For each question below, please circle the number that most accurately describes
your experience when shopping for clothing.
22. When purchasing tops I find that the sleeves are:
Too Short Somewhat Short Just Right Somewhat Long Too Long
1 2 3 4 5
23. When purchasing tops I find the body of the top to be:
Too Tight Somewhat Tight Just Right Somewhat Loose Too Loose
1 2 3 4 5
63
24. When purchasing tops I find the chest/bust of the top to be:
1 2 3 4 5
25. When purchasing tops I find the length of the top to be:
1 2 3 4 5
26. When purchasing tops I find the collar to be:
1 2 3 4 5
27. When purchasing tops I find the shoulders to be:
1 2 3 4 5
28. When purchasing tops I find the sleeves to be:
1 2 3 4 5
29. When purchasing pants I find the length to be:
1 2 3 4 5
30. When purchasing pants I find the waistband to be:
1 2 3 4 5
64
31. When purchasing pants I find the hip area to be:
1 2 3 4 5
32. When purchasing pants I find the thighs to be:
1 2 3 4 5
33. Clothing I purchase in the store has to be altered:
Often Somewhat Often Sometimes Almost Never Never
1 2 3 4 5
34. I have difficult time buying clothing in retail stores:
Often Somewhat Often Sometimes Almost Never Never
1 2 3 4 5
65
APPENDIX B
66
April 6, 2012
Dr. XXXXX, Superintendent

XXXXX Public Schools
XXXXX
XXXXXX, AR XXXXX
Dear Dr. XXXX:
We are writing to request permission to conduct a research study. We are currently enrolled in
the Apparel Studies graduate program at the University of Arkansas and are in the process of
writing our Master’s theses under the direct supervision of Dr. Laurie M. Apple and Dr. Kathleen
R. Smith.
We hope that the school administration will allow us to recruit male and female athletes and non-
athletes from grades 7 through 12 to complete a questionnaire and 3D body scan. All collected
data will be coded to ensure the anonymity and privacy of each participant. Interested students
will be given a consent form to be signed by their parent or guardian and returned to the primary
researcher at the beginning of the survey process.
The 3D body scan is a noninvasive procedure. The Cartesia Portable 3D Body Scanner BS02
collects a 3D point cloud image of the student from which body measurements can be extracted.
Student participants will change into appropriate clothing for scanning in a private area.
If approval is granted, student athlete participants will complete the surveys and body scans in a
private setting on the school site during the school’s appointed athletic physical times. Non-
athlete data will be collected during health or physical education classes. The collected data will
be pooled for the thesis project; individual results will remain confidential and anonymous. No
costs will be incurred by either your school or the individual participants. Each participant will
have the opportunity to enter a drawing for a free iPad as an incentive for their participation.
Thank you for your consideration. We would be happy to address any questions or concerns.
You may reach us at the following: Stephanie Hopper, skhopper@uark.edu, Lauren Speight,
lspeight@uark.edu, or Dr. Laurie Apple, lapple@uark.edu or (479) 575-4576.
Sincerely,
Stephanie Hopper Lauren Speight Dr. Laurie M. Apple, Advisor
Enclosure
67
cc: XXXXXXXXX, Athletics Director
APPENDIX C
68
Website: https://hesc.uark.edu/7290.php
University of Arkansas Apparel Studies Research Project

The Purpose: The Apparel Studies program at the University of Arkansas is conducting a 3D
Body Scanning Research Study in grades 7-12 to determine the influence of organized athletic
program participation on body image and self-perceptions.
Participants: This study will examine male and female athlete and non-athlete middle school,
junior high school, and high school students*.
The Study: 3D Body Scanning Technology will be used along with a questionnaire to identify
satisfaction with apparel fit.
3D_Body_Scanner Risk_Assessment.pdf
The body scan is a quick, non-invasive process from which body measurements can be extracted.
Participants will complete the surveys and body scans in a private setting on the school site
during school hours.
The body scanner is no larger than a changing room in a retail store.
Privacy for student participants will be ensured by the set-up of the scanning area and by the
researchers.
69
Clothing for the scan must be form fitting and should be limited
to:
1. Yoga/Exercise Pants (fitted, no flared leg)

2. Running/Jogging/Exercise Tank or Bra
3. Fitted Camisole or Tank
4. Undergarments (no boxers)
5.
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and only group data will be reported. Students
may withdraw from the study at any time.
Parental_Consent_Form.pdf
Questions should be addressed to Dr. Laurie M. Apple (479) 575-4576 or Dr. Kathleen R.
Smith (479) 575-2577.
*Participants will have the opportunity to enter a drawing for an iPad after completing
surveys and scan. A name will be drawn per school district.
70
APPENDIX D
71
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77
APPENDIX E
78
University of Arkansas 3D Body Scanning Research
Study
INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE
You are invited to participate in a research study about body image and satisfaction with apparel
fit. participate in this study because you are enrolled in grades 7 through 12.
WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT THE RESEARCH STUDY
Who are the Principal Researchers?
Stephanie K. Hopper, Graduate Student Dr. Laurie M. Apple, PhD Lauren E. Speight, Graduate
Student Dr. Kathleen R. Smith, EdD
What is the purpose of this research study?
You are being asked to
This study will examine athlete and non-athlete middle school, junior high school and high
school students’ self-perceptions of body image and apparel fit satisfaction. The purpose of this
study is to examine the influence of organized athletic program participation on body image and
self-perception. By using 3D body scanning technology, body scan images will be obtained to
accurately determine the size and shape of male and female athlete and non-athlete middle,
junior and high school students. Your participation is entirely voluntary and only group data will
be reported. You maintain the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Should you have any
questions, please contact Dr. Laurie M. Apple (479) 575-4576 or Dr. Kathleen R. Smith (479)
575-2577. Thank you in advance for your participation.
Who will participate in this study?
Male and female students enrolled in 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11thand 12thgrades will participate in
this study.
What am I being asked to do?
Body scan images will be obtained using a 3D body scanner. The body scan is a quick,
noninvasive process from which body measurements can be extracted. A short survey will also
be completed.
Your participation will require the following:
6. Each participant is required to provide and wear their own fitted clothing. This is required for
an accurate scan. Examples of appropriate clothing include but are not limited to the
following: yoga/exercise pants (fitted, no flare leg), running/jogging/exercise tank or bra,
fitted camisole or tank, biking shorts and undergarments (no boxers).
79
7. Each participant will complete a short survey.
8. The questionnaire will include an identification code that will also be used to identify each
participant’s body scan. All data will be confidential and accessed only by the
researchers; data will be destroyed upon completion of the study.
9. Each participant will be taken to a private location. The researchers will indicate where to
change into appropriate clothing and will give instructions on completing the body scan.
The researchers will exit the changing/scanning room and complete the scan. Once the
scan is completed, the participant will be told to exit the body scanner.
10. After this final step, their participation is complete.
What are the possible risks or discomforts?
The risk of photo sensitive seizure is considered minimal. If a student indicates that they have
photo light sensitivity on the consent form, they will not be allowed to participate in the study.
What are the possible benefits of this study?
This research could identify the importance of athletic programs in schools and could identify fit
issues and /or unhealthy body image perceptions.
How long will the study last?
Completion of questionnaire will take approximately 3 minutes. Completion of the body scan
process will also take approximately 3 minutes.
Will I receive compensation for my time and inconvenience if I choose to participate in this
study?
No. Student participants will have the opportunity to enter his or her name, grade level and
school into a drawing for an iPad. One participant within the school district will be chosen.
Will I have to pay for anything?
No, there will be no cost for your participation.
80
University of Arkansas 3D Body Scanning Research Study
What are the options if I do not want to be in the study?
If you do not want to be in this study, you may refuse to participate. Also, you may refuse to
participate at any time during the study.
How will my confidentiality be protected?
All information will be kept confidential to the extent allowed by applicable State and Federal
law. All information will be coded with an identification number to ensure the confidentiality of
your data. Data will be kept in a secure location and destroyed upon completion of the study.
Will I know the results of the study?
At the conclusion of the study you will have the right to request feedback about the results. You
may contact the principal researchers, Stephanie K. Hopper, Lauren E. Speight, Dr. Kathleen R.
Smith or Dr. Laurie M. Apple.
What do I do if I have questions about the research study?
You have the right to contact the principal researchers for any concerns that you may have. You
may also contact the University of Arkansas Research Compliance office listed below if you
have questions about your rights as a participant, or to discuss any concerns about, or problems
with the research.
Iroshi (Ro) Windwalker, CIP Institutional Review Board Coordinator Research

Compliance University of Arkansas 210 Administration Building Fayetteville, AR 72701 Ph.
479-575-2208 Fax 479-575-3846 irb@uark.edu
Title: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MIDDLE AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE

AND NON-ATHLETE SELF- PERCEPTIONS OF BODY IMAGE AND SATISFACTION
WITH APPAREL FIT USING 3D BODY SCAN TECHNOLOGY
Title: A COMPARISON OF PERCEIVED FIT ISSUES OF APPAREL AS IT PERTAINS TO

BODY IMAGE AMONG HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETES AND NON-ATHLETES USING 3D
BODY SCANNING TECHNOLOGY
The current studies will examine athlete and non-athlete students’ (grades 7 through 12) self-
perceptions of body image and apparel fit satisfaction. Your participation will involve
completing a survey and a 3D body scan. The body scan is a quick, noninvasive process. This
research could identify the importance of athletic programs in schools and could identify fit
issues and unhealthy body image perceptions. Participants will have the opportunity to enter a
drawing for an iPad after completing the survey and body scan. One participant within the school
district will be chosen. Your child’s participation is entirely voluntary and only group data will
be reported. Your child maintains the right to withdraw from the study at any time.
I have read the above statement and understand the purpose of the study as well as the potential
81
benefits and risks that are involved. I understand that participation is voluntary. I understand that
no rights have been waived by signing the consent form.
If you have any questions, please contact Stephanie Hopper (479-575-4826), Lauren Speight
(479-575-4826), Dr. Laurie Apple (479- 575-4576) or Dr. Kathleen Smith (479-575-2577),
School of Human Environmental Sciences, Dale Bumpers College of Agricultural, Food and Life
Sciences, University of Arkansas.
Has your child ever experienced photo sensitive seizures or seizures caused by flashing lights?
Yes_____ No_____
Student Signature
___________________________________________________________________________
Parent or Guardian
Signature___________________________________________________________________
82
APPENDIX F
83
84
APPENDIX G
85
SAMPLE BODY SCAN
86

A Comparison of Perceived Fit Issues of Apparel As It Relates To

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University of Arkansas, Fayetteville

A Comparison of Perceived Fit Issues of Apparel as

Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

Stephanie Kay Hubert

school student’s apparel.

completing the study (96%) reported fit issues of ready-to-wear apparel.

Dr. Laurie M. Apple

Dr. Kathleen R. Smith

Dr. Cynthia K. Moore

completed. My life has been truly blessed by your friendship.

your wisdom and love.

Statement of the Problem 3

Purpose of the Study 3

Objectives of the Study 4

Limitations of the Study 5

Definitions of Key Terms 5

II. LITERATURE REVIEW 8

Physical Activity, Body Change and Apparel Fit of Athletes 8

Body Image, Body Satisfaction and Body Shape 10

Body Image and Apparel 14

Fit and Sizing Issues in the Apparel Industry 15

Body Scanning and Associated Research 17

Population and Sample 21

TC2KX16 3D Body Scanner 26

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS

Permission Letter Sent to Schools 67

Research Study Website 69

Safety of Photic Stimulus 72

Parental Permission Form 79

IRB Approval Form 84

Sample Body Scan 86

Table 1 Gender of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 22

Table 2 Grade Level of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 22

Table 3 Age of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 23

Table 4 Ethnicity of Participants by Frequency and Percentage 23

Table 5 Sports Participation by Frequency and Percentage 24

Table 6 Sports Participation by Individual Sport Frequency and Percentage 25

Table 7 BIQ Psychometrics 27

Table 8 BASS Sample Scores 29

Table 9 Cross tabulation of Body Image Accuracy for Sport Participation 35

Table 10 Chi-Square Test 36

Table 11 Body Image Accuracy Reported as Absolute Value 36

Table 12 Body Image Accuracy by Sport Participation 36

Table 13 Alteration Frequency of Athletes and Non-Athletes 37

Table 14 Alteration Frequency Means of Athletes and Non-Athletes 37

Table 15 BIQ Score Means of Athletes and Non-Athletes 39

Table 16 BIQ Scores by Sport Participation 39

Table 17 BASS Score Means of Athletes and Non-Athletes 40

Table 18 BASS Scores by Sport Participation 40

Table 19 Comparison of Body Image Accuracy and BIQ Score 42

Table 20 Body Image Accuracy and BIQ Score Means 42

Table 21 Comparison of Purchasing Difficulty Means by Sport Participation 43

Figure 1 Dietitians of Canada Body Silhouettes 28

available in ready to wear stores

such as BestCustomShirt.com and Casualmale.com have acknowledged and are offering a

of clothing targeted for the adolescent customer.

Statement of the Problem

Purpose of the Study

that better fit their target customers.

Objectives of the Study

athletes? Do athletes indicate better body satisfaction perception than non-athletes? Do

hypotheses were written in null hypotheses form for ease of testing.