materials

Article
The Influence of the Aircraft Operating Fluids on the
Mechanical Parameters of the Airport
Surface Concrete
Wojciech Żebrowski 1, *, Paweł Wolka 2 and Marzena Kurpinska 3
1 Astra Technologia Betonu Sp. z.o.o, 83-010 Straszyn, Poland
2 Astra Benedykt Karczewski, 83-010 Straszyn, Poland; pawel@astra-polska.com
3 Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland;
marzena.kurpinska@pg.edu.pl
* Correspondence: w_zebrowski@wp.pl




Received: 5 June 2020; Accepted: 2 July 2020; Published: 10 July 2020


Abstract: The authors of the article assessed the impact of operating fluids used to service aircraft on
changing mechanical parameters of cement concrete intended for airport pavement. The research
concerned concrete designed with the use of CEM I 42.5N LH NA low-alkali cement, broken granite
aggregate, fine washed aggregate, and admixtures. The analysis included the assessment of changes
in differences in endurance parameters over various research periods of up to 140 days. The obtained
results allowed to carry out statistical analysis using the student’s T-test. Research has shown a
significant impact of operational fluids used in aircraft on the surface concrete properties of the
airport. A reduction in the compressive strength of concrete exposed to one of the tested operating
liquid to a reduction of 7.2% was observed over a period of 140 days, while there was no significant
impact of operating fluids on tensile strength at splitting.

Keywords: airport surface concrete; hydraulic oil; lubricating oil; concrete; operating fluids;
operating liquids; cement concrete

1. Introduction
Current and forecast air transport development trends indicate an intensive development of
domestic and international infrastructure of airports. The assumed evolution of air transport services
will generate a significant density of aircraft traffic at airports. The consequence of intensified,
safe aircraft take-off and landing operations is the need for ensuring adequate durability and
quality of concrete airport pavements. According to the literature data, research on obtaining
satisfactory performance characteristics of concrete used in airport pavements boiled down to providing
relatively high strength parameters with high frost resistance in the presence of de-icing agents [1].
Observations carried out in the airport pavement areas indicate the occurrence, often not taken into
account, of additional impacts resulting from the operation of aircraft. One of these types of impact
is the presence of operating fluids from aircraft on pavements. The visible effect of such events are
surface discoloration and surface damage.
The presence of operating fluids on the airport pavement should be associated with their
unintentional leakage from installations in the aircraft. These substances on the surface come not only
from the maintenance of aircraft, aimed at maintaining the operational capacity of the aircraft, but also
from the possibility of its failure and ground equipment (Figure 1). Most of the currently operated
aircrafts have a number of specialized installations, which include fuel, hydraulic, oil, and pneumatic
installations. Mechanical components that form complex technical systems are an integral part of the
installation. These systems significantly affect the technical efficiency of the aircraft, its service life,

Materials 2020, 13, 3081; doi:10.3390/ma13143081 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2020, 13, 3081 2 of 15

the time2020,
Materials it takes to prepare
xx, x FOR the aircraft for flight, and the safety of flights. They ensure interoperability
PEER REVIEW 2 of 15
of specific aircraft components. From the point of view of flight safety, aircraft systems are particularly
They ensure
important, asinteroperability of specific
they are responsible aircraft components.
for controlling the aircraft, inFrom thethe
which point
mainofenergy
view ofcarrier
flightissafety,
oil in
aircraft systems
hydraulic are particularly important, as they are responsible for controlling the aircraft, in
installations.
which the main energy carrier is oil in hydraulic installations.

Materials 2020, xx, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

They ensure interoperability of specific aircraft components. From the point of view of flight safety,
aircraft systems are particularly important, as they are responsible for controlling the aircraft, in
which the main energy carrier is oil in hydraulic installations.

(a) (b)

Figure1.1.Leaking
Figure Leakingoperational
operationalfluids
fluidson
onananairport
airportpavement
pavementasasa aresult
resultofofa abreakdown
breakdownofofaircraft
aircraft(a)
and ground equipment (b) [2]. (a) and ground equipment (b) [2].

Each installation is equipped with a safety valve ended with drainage (Figure 2). Based on the
experience of airport staff, it was noticed that in training flights lasting several minutes, as a result
of which the aircraft repeatedly takes off and lands, from the hydraulic system drainage, during a
single operation a significant amount of media is extracted onto the airport apron, e.g., in the case of
Su-22 fighter it is about 2 dm3 of hydraulic oil. This phenomenon is related to pressure equalization
(a)
in the pneumatic and hydraulic reservoir of the installation. (b)
The task of hydraulic oil in airplanes is
to transfer energy in hydraulic installations as well as damping vibrations in shock absorbers and
Figure 1. Leaking operational fluids on an airport pavement as a result of a breakdown of aircraft
vibration dampers. (a) and ground equipment (b) [2].

(a) ( b)

Figure 2. Removal of oil from the drainage installation (a) on the plate of airfield (b).

Each installation is equipped with a safety valve ended with drainage (Figure 2). Based on the
experience of airport staff, it was noticed that in training flights lasting several minutes, as a result
of which the aircraft repeatedly takes off and lands, from the hydraulic system drainage, during a
single operation a significant amount of media is extracted onto the airport apron, e.g., in the case of
Su-22 fighter it is about 2 dm (a)3 of hydraulic oil. This phenomenon(isb)related to pressure equalization
in the pneumatic 2.and
Figure
Figure hydraulic
2. Removal
Removal of of reservoir
oiloil from
from thetheof the installation.
drainage
drainage installation
installation The
(a)(a)
onontask
the
the of hydraulic
plate
plate of of oil(b).
airfield
airfield (b). in airplanes is
to transfer energy in hydraulic installations as well as damping vibrations in shock absorbers and
Lubricating
vibration dampers. oil is a universal mineral oil recommended for lubrication of aviation parts requiring
"light" oil, including
Lubricating oil mechanisms
is a universal of pivot joints,
mineral oilpivot pins, and shaft
recommended for joints. It is also
lubrication used to secure
of aviation parts
ground equipment
Each electronics
installation is equipped in both civil
with a and
safety military
valve aviation.
ended with drainage (Figure
requiring "light" oil, including mechanisms of pivot joints, pivot pins, and shaft joints. It is also used 2). Based on the
experience
to of airport
secure ground staff, itelectronics
equipment was noticed in that
bothin training
civil flights lasting
and military aviation.several minutes, as a result
of which the aircraft
Research repeatedly
on the impact takes off fluids,
of operating and lands, from the hydraulic
in conjunction with the system
thermaldrainage,
effects of during
exhausta
single operation
gases, a significant
were conducted by [3–7]amount of media is extracted
commissioned by the US onto the airport
Navy, US Airapron,Force,e.g.,
and in the case of
Royal
Su-22 fighter it is about 2 dm3 of hydraulic oil. This phenomenon is related to pressure equalization
in the pneumatic and hydraulic reservoir of the installation. The task of hydraulic oil in airplanes is
to transfer energy in hydraulic installations as well as damping vibrations in shock absorbers and
 Materials 2020, 13, 3081 3 of 15

Research
Materials 2020, xx, x FORon theREVIEW
PEER impact of operating fluids, in conjunction with the thermal effects of3 ofexhaust
15
Materials
Materials 2020,
2020,gases,
xx, xx, xPEER
were
x FOR FOR PEER REVIEW
conducted
REVIEW 3 of 153 Australian
by [3–7] commissioned by the US Navy, US Air Force, and the Royal of 15
Australian
Materials
Air2020, Airx FOR
xx,
Force. Force.
PEERHowever,
However,REVIEW these studies
these studies are limited
are limited in manyindetails
many and
details
are and are notpublished
not widely widely
3 of 15 or
Australian
Australian Air
Air Force.
published Force.
However,
or explicitly However,
verified.thesethese studies studies are limited
are limited in many in many details details
and and are not are widely
not widely
explicitly verified.
published
Australian or explicitly
Air Force. verified.
However, these studies are limited in many details and are not
published or Theexplicitly
aim aim
The of verified.
the study
of the study was wastotodetermine
determine the effect of
the effect ofhydraulic
hydraulicand and lubricating
lubricating oil onwidely
oil on strength
the the
The
published
The aim
strength aim
of or of the
explicitly
the study
characteristics study
wasof was
verified.
to to
determine
hardened determine
concrete.the the
effect
Many effect
of of
hydraulic
publications hydraulic and
indicateand lubricating
lubricating
the need oil foronoil on thein
the
research
characteristics of hardened concrete. Many publications indicate the need for research in this area.
strength
strength The characteristics
aim
thischaracteristics ofis the ofishardened
study
of hardened was to concrete.
concrete.determineMany Many publications
thedetermination
effect
publications toof the indicate
hydraulic
indicate andthelubricating
need for
theresearch
oil in onand inof
the
area.
This This
issue issue
particularly particularly
important important
due to the due of thethe
determinationneed
method for
ofof research
maintenance method repair
this
this area. area.
strengthThis
maintenance This
issue
and issue
characteristicsis isof particularly
hardened
particularly
repair of surfaces important
of important
concrete.
civil and Many
due due
to
military theto
publications the determination
indicate
determination
airports [8–12]. the
of theof
need thefor
method method
research
of ofin
of surfaces of civil and military airports [8–12].
maintenance
this area.
maintenance andThis and repair
repair issue of
is surfaces
of surfaces particularly
of civil of and
civil and military
important
military dueairports
airports the [8–12].
to[8–12]. determination of the method of
maintenance
2. and
Theoretical
2. Theoretical Basis repair
Basis of surfaces of civil and military airports [8–12].
2. Theoretical
2. Theoretical BasisBasis
Currently
Currently usedused operating
operating fluids fluids in aircraft
in aircraft areare a acomplex
complexchemical chemicalmixture.
mixture. In In addition to to the
themain
2. Theoretical
Currently Basis
used operating fluids in aircraft are a complex chemical mixture. In addition to the
Currently
maincomponentsused operating
components ofoffuels
fuelsfluids
andand inoils,
oils, aircraft
"additive
"additivearetechnology"
a complex
technology" chemical
is aisseparate mixture.
a separate In
field.field.
This addition
termterm
This to the
refers to enriching
refers to
mainmain components
Currently
components
additives
enriching ofused of operating
fuels fuels
and oils,
incorporated
additives and
incorporated into oils,
fluids
"additive "additive
theintoin aircraft technology"
technology"
operational
the are a complex
liquids
operational is aduringis achemical
separate
separate
liquids production
during field.
field.mixture.
Thisand This
term
production term
In addition
storage.refers refers
to
andContemporary to
to the
storage.
enriching
main
enriching additives
mineral
Contemporary additives
components oils ofincorporated
used
mineral fuels
incorporated theand
as oils into
main
used into
oils,the
component themain
as"additive operational
operational
the oftechnology"
liquids
lubricating
component liquids
is
during
oils, during
ofa depending
separate production
field.
production
lubricating on the
oils, This
and
methodsand
term
storage.
depending storage.
refers
of on to
purification
the
Contemporary
enriching
Contemporary
methods mineral
(refining),
of mineral
additives
canoils
purification oils
incorporated
used
be divided used
asinto
(refining), asinto
thecan the
main main
the
conventional component
be divided component
operational
andinto of
liquids lubricating
of lubricatingand
unconventional.
conventional during oils, oils,
production depending
depending on the
unconventional. and on the
storage.
methods
methodsContemporary ofConventional
purification
ofConventional
purification mineral (refining),
oils
(refining),
mineral used
can
mineral
oil is becan
as
oil be
is divided
the
divided
obtained main
intocrude
obtained
from into
component conventional
conventional
from oil in crude ofand
the andin unconventional.
lubricating
oilunconventional.
process oils,
thesolvent
of process depending ason
of solvent
refining wellthe
refining
as
Conventional
methods
Conventional
acid,as lye, of
well mineral
purification
mineral
andasadsorption oil is oil
(refining),is
obtained
acid, lye, refining. obtained
and adsorptioncanfrombe from
divided
crude
They consist crude
oil
refining.into
in oil
the in the
conventional
process
They consist
of 70–80% process
of
saturatedand of
solvent solvent
of 70–80% refining
hydrocarbons refining
unconventional. as
saturated wellas well
as as
hydrocarbons
(isoparaffinic
acid, acid,
lye,
andandlye, and adsorption
Conventional
adsorption
(isoparaffinic
naphthenic) mineral
and
and refining.
refining. oil is
naphthenic)
20–30% They They
obtained
and
long-chain consist consist
20–30%from of 70–80%
crude
of long-chain
70–80%
naphthenic-aromatic oilsaturated saturated
innaphthenic-aromatic
the process
and hydrocarbons
of solvent
hydrocarbons
aromatic and (isoparaffinic
refining
(isoparaffinic
aromatic
hydrocarbons. ashydrocarbons.
well
In turn,as
and
acid,naphthenic)
and naphthenic)lye,turn,
In
unconventional and
and and
adsorption
20–30% 20–30%
unconventional
ones are long-chain
refining.
long-chain They naphthenic-aromatic
consist
ones naphthenic-aromatic
obtained are
usingobtainedcatalytic of 70–80%
using catalytic
processes. and
and saturated
aromatic
Asaromatic hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbons
a hydrocarbons.
processes.
result Asofa the result In In
turn,
of
processes, turn,
(isoparaffinic
the processes,
oils
unconventional
and naphthenic)
unconventional
consisting ones
oils consisting ones
and are
20–30%
areof:obtained
of: alkylbenzenes, obtainedlong-chain
alkylbenzenes, using
using catalytic catalytic
naphthenic-aromatic
alkylnaphthenic,
alkylnaphthenic, processes.
processes. andAs
and isoparaffinic As
and
a result
isoparaffinic a result
aromaticof of the
hydrocarbons.
the processes,
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons processes, In
are obtained
are obtained oils
turn,
oils[13,14]. [13,14].
consisting
unconventional
consisting of: of:
Generally
Generally alkylbenzenes,
alkylbenzenes, ones mineral
speaking,
speaking, are alkylnaphthenic,
obtained
alkylnaphthenic,
mineraloil isoil ausing
is aand
mixture and
catalytic isoparaffinic
ofprocesses.
isoparaffinic
mixtureof hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons
As awhich
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons, which result ofare
arecontain
contain the
obtained
from obtained
processes,
from
12 45[13,14].
[13,14].
to12 oils
tocarbon
45 carbon
Generally
consisting
Generally
atoms atomsinspeaking,
speaking, of:
in mineral
alkylbenzenes,
mineral
molecules,
molecules, oil isoil
with
with is a mixture
aalkylnaphthenic,
mixture
different of of and
hydrocarbons,
hydrocarbons,
structures
structures isoparaffinic
and and which
degrees degreeswhich ofcontain
ofhydrocarbons
contain
saturation, from
fromconstituting
saturation, 12 12
45 tocarbon
aretoobtained 45
an carbon
constituting [13,14].
intermediate
an
atoms
Generally in
atoms intermediate
in for molecules,
speaking,
molecules,
further with with
mineral
furtherdifferent
forproduction. different
oil is a
Due tostructures
production. the Duestructures
mixture
limited of
to andand and
hydrocarbons,
degreesand
the insufficient
limited degrees whichof saturation,
contain
oftoinsufficient
saturation,
effectively meet from constituting
12
toconstituting to
the required
effectively 45 an an
carbon
meet lubricating
the
intermediate
atoms
intermediate in
functions
required forinfurther
molecules,
forlubricating
further devices production.
with
production.as well
functions different
Due
in as Due
tasks
devices to
to structures
the the
welllimited
aslimited
related to and
as and
the
tasks and
degrees insufficient
insufficient
protection
related ofof to
to toparts
saturation, effectively
effectively
metal
the protection meet
against meet
constituting
of metalthe the
corrosion an and
parts
required
intermediate
required lubricating
lubricating
againstchemical for
corrosion functionsfunctions
further
instability in in
production.
devices devices
over time,instability
and chemical as Due
wellas
mineral oils towell
as the
over as
tasks tasks
limited
related
are enriched
time, mineral related
and to theto the
insufficient protection
protection
with synthetic to
oils are substances of
enriched with of
effectively
metal metalmeet
parts parts
calledsynthetic the
performance
against
againstrequired corrosion
corrosion lubricating
additives
substances and and chemical
functions
chemical
presented
called performance in instability
instability
in Table 1devices
[15].over
additives asoverwell time,
time,
presented as intasks
mineral mineral
Table related
oils
1 [15].oils
are are
toenriched enriched
the protection with with of metalsynthetic
synthetic parts
substances
against
substances called
corrosion
called performance
performance and chemical additives
additivesinstability presented
presented over in Table in Table
time, 1 [15].
mineral oils are enriched with synthetic
1 [15].
substances called performance
TableTableadditives
1. Nature of thepresented
1. Nature ofaction
the actioninofTable 1 mineral
[15].
additives
of additives in in mineral oils [16–18].
oils [16–18].
TableTable 1. Nature
1. Nature of theof the action
action of additives
of additives in mineral
in mineral oils [16–18].
oils [16–18].
Table 1. Interphase
Nature ofInterphase
the action of additives in mineral oils [16–18]. Volume
Volume
Chemical
Interphase
Interphase Volume
Volume
Interphase Volume
Oxidation
Chemical Oxidation
Chemical Oxidation
Chemical Corrosion
Corrosion Oxidation
Chemical Corrosion Detergent
Detergent
Detergent
Corrosion
Detergent
Lubricant Depressor
Lubricant Depressor
Depressor
Lubricant
Viscosator
Depressor
Physical Lubricant Viscosator
Physical Physical Viscosator
Physical
Viscosator
Physical Dispergato Anti Foam Demulsifie
Dispergato Anti Foam
Dispergato Demulsifie
Anti Foam Demulsifie
Dispergato Anti Foam Demulsifie

Tribological Preservative Rheological

Nature of action PreservativeRheological
Nature Nature of action
of action Tribological Preservative
Tribological Rheological
Nature of action
Tribological Preservative Rheological
Nature of action
According to [19], technical oils are more aggressive for concretes with Portland cement than
According
According
with sulfate to [19],to [19],
technical
resistant technical
cement. oilsmore
oils are
The are
authorsmore aggressive
aggressive
[20] for concretes
for concretes
examined concretes with
with with Portland
Portland cement
different cement
than than
water/cement
According to [19], technical oils are more aggressive for concretes with Portland cement than with
with with sulfate
According
sulfate
ratios resistant
resistant
and tocement.
treated [19],
them cement.
technical The
The authors
with oils
mineral authors
are[20]
oil. [20]aggressive
more
examined
The examined
smallest concretesconcretes
for
reduction within with
concretes withdifferent
different
the Portland
strength ofwater/cement
cement
water/cement
oily than
concretes
sulfate resistant cement. The authors [20] examined concretes with different water/cement ratios and
ratiosratios
with and if
sulfate
and treated
occurred treated
them
the w/c them
resistantwith
≤ 0.5 with
cement.
mineral
index,mineral
The
whereas oil.ifsmallest
oil.authors
The The
w/c smallest
[20] thereduction
examined
reduction
≥ 0.6 reductionin thein
concretes the strength
with
instrength
strength different
ofwas of
oily oily concretes
water/cement
concretes
greater than 50%.
occurredtreated
ifw/c
the them with mineral oil. The smallest reduction in the strength of oily concretes occurred
50%. if the
ratios
occurred and
if the
Research has ≤w/c
treated 0.5
shown≤them
0.5 that
index, index,
with
whereas
thewhereas
mineral if w/c
type ofif≥w/c
oil. 0.6 ≥the
The
aggregate0.6reduction
theused
smallest reduction
reduction ininstrength
isinsignificant.
strength thewas was greater
strength
greater
Concrete oilythan
ofthan
with concretes
50%.
limestone
Researchw/c
occurred ≤
has
if 0.5 index,
shown
themuch
w/c ≤lesswhereas
that
0.5 if w/c
the whereas
index, type ≥ 0.6
of than the
ifaggregate
w/c reduction
0.6 used
≥used the in strength
isgranite
reduction significant.was greater
Concrete
inaggregate.
strength was thanwith50%. Research
50%. has
limestone
Research has shown
aggregate is that the type
resistant ofto aggregate
oil concrete iswith
significant. Concrete withgreater
According than
limestone
to research
aggregate
Research
aggregate is much
carried is
outhasmuch shown
less
by lessitthat
resistant
[21], resistant oilto
hastothe
been type oil than
than
shownof
concrete concrete
aggregate
that with
used
withdecrease
the granite granite
is aggregate.
in aggregate.
significant.
concrete According
Concrete
According
strength iswith
to to limestone
research
research
caused by the
carried
carriedaggregate
out out
by is by
[21], [21],
muchit has it
less has
been been
resistant
shown shown
to oil
thatthan that
the the
concrete decrease
decrease with
in in
granite
concrete
production of a thin insulation layer from oil. This layer insulates the cement grain against moistureconcrete strength
aggregate.
strength is
According
is caused caused
byto by the
research
the
production
carried
production out of
of a thin
and cement bya thin
[21], insulation
it
insulationThe
hydration. haslayer layer
been from
shown
from oil. process
hardening oil.
that This
This layer the layer
decreaseinsulates
insulates
stops and, asthe in the cement
concrete
cementthe
a result, grain
strength
grain against
strength against
is caused
moisture
increases moisture
by the
further.
and
and cement cement
production hydration.
of a thin
hydration. The
Theinsulation hardening
hardening layer process
fromstops
process stops
oil. This and,
and,layer as
as ainsulatesa result,
result, the the strength
thestrength
cement increases increases
grain against further.
moisture
further.
and cement hydration. The hardening process stops and, as a result, the strength increases further.
Materials 2020, 13, 3081 4 of 15

shown that the type of aggregate used is significant. Concrete with limestone aggregate is much less
resistant to oil than concrete with granite aggregate. According to research carried out by [21], it has
been shown that the decrease in concrete strength is caused by the production of a thin insulation layer
Materials 2020, xx, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15
from oil. This layer insulates the cement grain against moisture and cement hydration. The hardening
process
The agestops and,
of the as a result,
concrete and the
thestrength
durationincreases further.
of action The age liquids
of aggressive of the concrete and theConsidering
are essential. duration of
action of aggressive
the system: cement liquids are essential.
stone–mineral Considering
oil, from the pointthe system:
of view cement stone–mineral
of physical–chemical oil, from
activity and the
the
point of view of physical–chemical activity and the effect of reducing the strength
effect of reducing the strength of the hard body, we can discuss the action of wedging the structure of the hard body,
we can discuss
of concrete, the action
through of wedging
a lubricating the structure
liquid moving inof the
concrete, through
capillaries. Thisa lubricating liquidA.moving
is the so-called Rebinder in
the capillaries. This is the so-called A. Rebinder effect [22]. In studies carried out by [23],
effect [22]. In studies carried out by [23], it was shown that the decrease in strength due to the action it was shown
that
of oilthe
is decrease in strength
visible after due todays.
several dozen the action of oil is visible after several dozen days.
The morphology of hydration products was assessed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM)
at 2000× magnification under reduced vacuum at 60 Pa. Figure 3 shows the concrete structure of the
comparative samples Figure 3a,c,e and the samples of concrete treated with mineral oil Figure 3b,d,f.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Microscopic
Microscopicanalysis
analysisofofphotos
photosofofconcrete
concretesamples
samples not
not treated
treated (a, c,and
(a,c,e) e) and treated
treated (b,with
(b,d,f) d, f)
with mineral
mineral oil. oil.

The structure of non-oiled concrete is visibly different from the structure of oily concrete. In
the first case, the concrete structure is compact, the number of open pores is small, and the
isomorphic structures of hydrated calcium silicates are visible–C-S-H (Calcium Silicate Hydrate)
phase (Figure 3a,c) and Ca(OH)2–portlandite (Figure 3e). In the microscopic image, non-hydrated
Materials 2020, 13, 3081 5 of 15

The structure of non-oiled concrete is visibly different from the structure of oily concrete. In the
first case, the concrete structure is compact, the number of open pores is small, and the isomorphic
structures of hydrated calcium silicates are visible–C-S-H (Calcium Silicate Hydrate) phase (Figure 3a,c)
and Ca(OH)
Materials 2 –portlandite
2020, xx, x FOR PEER REVIEW(Figure 3e). In the microscopic image, non-hydrated cement clinker grains 5 of 15
are visible (Figure 3a), they show a transparent, weakly polarized continuous mass filled with Ca(OH)2
crystals
mass andwith
filled highly polarized
Ca(OH) poresand
2 crystals evenly distributed
highly polarizedthroughout
pores evenlythe distributed
volume (Figure 3e). In oily
throughout the
cross-sections, there is much less lime and calcite. In oily concrete, the structure
volume (Figure 3e). In oily cross-sections, there is much less lime and calcite. In oily concrete, the of cement stone is
changed, of
structure thecement
pores are
stonefilled with liquid-oil
is changed, (Figure
the pores 3b). In
are filled theliquid-oil
with presence (Figure
of strong metal
3b). hydroxides
In the presence
andstrong
of solutions
metal of sodium
hydroxides carbonate and potassium
and solutions carbonate,
of sodium oil isomerization
carbonate and potassium occurs. As a result
carbonate, oil
of isomerization, sometimes the oils dry up and form a film (Figure 3b).
isomerization occurs. As a result of isomerization, sometimes the oils dry up and form a film Most organic substances
do not react
(Figure with organic
3b). Most Ca(OH)2substances
. However,do organic acids,
not react with asCa(OH)
well as 2inorganic
. However, ones, cause
organic acid as
acids, corrosion
well as
to form calcium
inorganic salts. acid
ones, cause Polyhydric alcohols,
corrosion including
to form calcium oils,
salts.asPolyhydric
glycerides of fatty acids
alcohols, may undergo
including oils, as
hydrolysis and then decomposition into organic acids and alcohols. This happens
glycerides of fatty acids may undergo hydrolysis and then decomposition into organic acids and under the influence
of the alkaline
alcohols. environment
This happens underofthe concrete.
influenceAllofproducts of these
the alkaline reactionsofare
environment easily soluble,
concrete. and the
All products of
characteristic symptom is loosening and softening of the concrete surface [24,25],
these reactions are easily soluble, and the characteristic symptom is loosening and softening of the Figure 4.
concrete surface [24,25], Figure 4.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Diagram:
Diagram: absorption
absorption and
and wedging
wedging effect
effect of
of oil.
oil. Where:
Where: 1—direction
1—direction of
of liquid
liquid penetration;
penetration;
Q—wedging force; F—gap opening force according
Q—wedging force; F—gap opening force according to to the number of molecules; and T—molecular
T—molecular
bond
bond strength
strength in a solid.

3. Materials
3. Materials and
and Methods
Methods

3.1. Materials
3.1. Materials
To make concrete mixes CEM I 42.5N-MSR/NA Portland cement was used. The mentioned above
To make concrete mixes CEM I 42.5N-MSR/NA Portland cement was used. The mentioned
cement was approved by Air Force Institute of Technology and received permission to be used in the
above cement was approved by Air Force Institute of Technology and received permission to be
construction of airport pavements and airport infrastructure elements. The main cement components
used in the construction of airport pavements and airport infrastructure elements. The main cement
are Portland clinker (95–56%) and a setting time regulator in the form of a mixture of anhydrite and
components are Portland clinker (95–56%) and a setting time regulator in the form of a mixture of
gypsum. The Portland clinker component is a raw material with low Al2 O3 content and up to 0.60%
anhydrite and gypsum. The Portland clinker component is a raw material with low Al2O3 content
alkali Na Oeq content, up to 7% of C3 A tricalcium aluminate. The contents of individual cement
and up to2 0.60% alkali Na2Oeq content, up to 7% of C3A tricalcium aluminate. The contents of
components are presented in Table 2.
individual cement components are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Chemical composition of CEM I 42.5 N-MSR/NA cement.
Table 2. Chemical composition of CEM I 42.5 N-MSR/NA cement.
Content (%)
Material Content (%)
Material SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2 Oeq Cl- Loss on Ignition
Loss on Other
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2Oeq Cl- Other
Cement 21.0 3.64 3.13 66.03 0.79 2.51 0.39 0.05 Ignition
2.10 0.36
Cement 21.0 3.64 3.13 66.03 0.79 2.51 0.39 0.05 2.10 0.36
Particle
Particle Size and Particle
Size and ParticleSize
SizeDistribution
Distributionwaswasspecified
specifiedinin HELOS
HELOS (H3811)
(H3811) andand RODOS/T4,
RODOS/T4, R7
R7 instrument. Grain Size distribution curve
instrument. Grain Size distribution curve Figure 5.Figure 5.
Materials 2020, 13, 3081 6 of 15
Materials
Materials2020, xx,xx,
2020, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 6 of 15 15
6 of

X10.3 = 3.97
X10.3 µm
= 3.97 µm X50.3 = 17.86
X50.3 µm
= 17.86 µm X90.3 = 62.04
X90.3 µm
= 62.04 µm SMD = 14.59
SMD µm
= 14.59 µm Copt
C = 1.97%
= 1.97%
opt

X16.3 = 6.05
X16.3 µm
= 6.05 µm X84.3 = 49.51
X84.3 µm
= 49.51 µm X99.3 = 129.68
X99.3 µm
= 129.68 µm VMD
VMD= 27.41µm
= 27.41µm SYS=Y 98.13%
= 98.13%

Figure 5.
Figure Cementgrain
5. Cement grainsize
sizedistribution
distributioncurve
curveCEM
CEMII42.5
42.5N-MSR/NA.
N-MSR/NA.
Figure 5. Cement grain size distribution curve CEM I 42.5 N-MSR/NA.
In the concrete mixes, coarse aggregate of 2/8 mm and 8/16 mm fractions with a volume density of
InInthe
theconcrete
concretemixes,
mixes,coarse
coarseaggregate
aggregateofof2/82/8mm mmand
and8/16
8/16mmmmfractions
fractionswith
witha avolume
volume
2.67 kg/dm3 were used, derived from deep igneous rocks in the form of granite grits, in accordance
density
densityofof
2.67 kg/dm
2.67 kg/dmwere
3 3 wereused,
used,derived
derived from
from deep
deep igneous
igneousrocks
rocksinin
the form
the formofof
granite grits,
granite inin
grits,
with [26]. The fine aggregate for the mixes was natural sand washed with a fraction of 0/2 mm, with a
accordance with [26]. The fine aggregate for the mixes was natural sand washed with
accordance with [26]. The fine aggregate for the mixes was natural sand washed with a fraction of a fraction of
density of 2.65 kg/dm3 . The grain distribution of individual types of aggregates was made according
0/20/2
mm,
mm, with
witha density
a density ofof
2.65 kg/dm
2.65 3. The
kg/dm grain
3. The graindistribution ofof
distribution individual
individual types ofof
types aggregates
aggregateswaswas
to [27–29] and is presented in Figure 6.
made according to [27–29] and is presented in Figure
made according to [27–29] and is presented in Figure 6. 6.

Figure 6. Aggregate grain distribution curves: 0/2, 2/8, and 8/16 mm.
Figure 6. 6.
Figure Aggregate grain
Aggregate distribution
grain curves:
distribution 0/2,
curves: 2/8,
0/2, and
2/8, 8/16
and mm.
8/16 mm.
In order to achieve good homogeneity and workability of the concrete mix, an admixture with
strongInInorder
order toto
plasticizingachieve
effect
achieve good
washomogeneity
good used. At the
homogeneity and workability
same
and time, in of
workability the
order
of theconcrete
obtainmix,
toconcrete anan
concrete
mix, admixture
resistance
admixture with to
with
strong plasticizing
aggressive atmospheric
strong plasticizing effect was
factors
effect used. At
wasassociated the
used. At with same time,
cyclic time,
the same in
freezing order to
and thawing,
in order obtain
to obtain concrete
aeration
concrete resistance
admixture
resistance to
wasto
aggressive
used.
aggressive atmospheric
Drinking water from
atmospheric factors
the associated
factors mains was with
associated used
withcyclic
for thefreezing
cyclic tests.
freezing andandthawing,
thawing, aeration
aeration admixture
admixture waswas
used. Drinking water from the mains was used
used. Drinking water from the mains was used for the tests. for the tests.
3.2. Concrete Mix Design
3.2. Concrete
3.2. Concrete Mix
Mix Design
Concrete mixDesign
designs were designed in accordance with the requirements contained in [26].
Concrete strength
Concrete mix class
designs
Concrete mix designs C30/37werewas
were assumed.
designedinGranulation
designed inaccordance
accordance of mineral
with
with the mixtures
therequirements
requirements (Figure 7) was selected
contained
contained inin[26].
[26].
soConcrete
that thestrength
Concrete curve
strengthofclass
the mineral
class C30/37
C30/37 mixture
was remained
wasassumed.
assumed. within the field
Granulation
Granulation of
ofofmineral goodmixtures
mineral grain
mixturessize(Figure
limited
(Figure7)by the
7)was
was
boundary
selected so curves
that contained
the curve ofin Annex
the C,
mineral standards
mixture [26].
remained The amount
within
selected so that the curve of the mineral mixture remained within the field of good grain size of
the concrete
field of mix
good components
grain size
was
limited determined
limited bybythethe by the curves
boundary
boundary analytical-experimental
curves contained
contained ininAnnex
Annexmethod,
C,C, basing[26].
standards
standards on the
[26].The
The authors’
amount
amount experience
of concrete
of concrete [28].
mixmix
The included was
components
components requirements
wasdetermined of theby
determined standard
bythe [30] concerned exposuremethod,
theanalytical-experimental
analytical-experimental classes
method, XC4, XF4, on
basing
basing and XM1.
onthe Due to
theauthors'
authors'
the impact of
experience
experience mineral
[28]. The
[28]. oils
Theincludedon therequirements
included hardened concrete,
requirements ofofthe the
the exposure
standard
standard class
[30]
[30] XA2 wasexposure
concerned
concerned also takenclasses
exposure into account.
classesXC4,
XC4,
The
XF4,
XF4,ratio
and
and w/c
XM1. =
XM1. 0.4
Due resulting
Due totothethe from
impact the
impact requirements
ofof
mineral
mineral oils of
onon
oils the
thethestandard
hardened
hardened [26] was
concrete, adopted.
concrete, the Thanks
exposure
the exposure to the
class
class use
XA2XA2
ofwas
was a also
plasticizing
taken admixture,
into account. the
Theconsistency
ratio w/c = of S1
0.4 (10–40mm),
resulting from measured
the by
requirements
also taken into account. The ratio w/c = 0.4 resulting from the requirements of the standard [26] the cone
of fall,
the was received.
standard [26]
waswasadopted.
adopted.ThanksThankstotothe theuse
useofofa aplasticizing
plasticizingadmixture,
admixture,the theconsistency
consistencyofofS1S1(10–40mm),(10–40mm),
measured
measured bybythe cone
the cone fall, was
fall, wasreceived.
received. It It
enabled
enabled the thesurface
surface totobebe made
made ininsliding
slidingformwork.
formwork. TheThe
 Table 3. Concrete mix design with aggregate composition.

Ingredient Density (kg/dm3) Percentage (%)

Cement 3.10 13.73
Sand 0/2 mm 2.65 21.81
Materials 2020, 13,Granite
3081 2/8 mm 2.67 34.73 7 of 15

Granite 8/16 mm 2.67 24.24

Materials 2020, xx, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
It enabled the surface Water
to be made in sliding formwork.1.00 The air content of the concrete 5.49
mix ranged from
4.5%content
to 5.5%.ofThe Plast. [%] c.c. 1.14 is1.10
air thevolume
concrete fraction of individual
mix ranged from components
4.5% to 5.5%. of the
Theconcrete
volumemix shown
fraction in Table 3,
of individual
while the grain Air LP [%] c.c. 1.00 0.50
components of size distribution
the concrete mixcurve of the
is shown inaggregate composition
Table 3, while is shown
the grain in Figure 7.curve of the
size distribution
aggregate composition is shown in Figure 7.

Table 3. Concrete mix design with aggregate composition.

Ingredient Density (kg/dm3) Percentage (%)

Cement 3.10 13.73
Sand 0/2 mm 2.65 21.81
Granite 2/8 mm 2.67 34.73
Granite 8/16 mm 2.67 24.24
Water 1.00 5.49
Plast. [%] c.c. 1.14 1.10
Air LP [%] c.c. 1.00 0.50

Figure 7. Aggregate grain size distrubution curve.

Figure 7. Aggregate grain size distrubution curve.
Table 3. Concrete mix design with aggregate composition.
3.3. Aggressive Medium Ingredient Density (kg/dm3 ) Percentage (%)
Lubricating oil (Figure 8a) in accordance with
Cement 3.10 [31] and Hydraulic
13.73 mineral oil (Figure 8b) in
accordance with [32] were used
Sand as the aggressive2.65
0/2 mm medium in the tests.
21.81
Granite 2/8 mm 2.67 34.73
Granite 8/16 mm 2.67 24.24
Water 1.00 5.49
Plast. [%] c.c. 1.14 1.10
Air LP [%] c.c. 1.00 0.50

Figure 7. Aggregate grain size distrubution curve.

3.3. Aggressive Medium
(a)
Lubricating oil (Figure 8a) in accordance (b)
with [31] and Hydraulic mineral oil (Figure 8b) in
accordance with [32] were used as the aggressive medium in the tests.
Figure 8. Images of (a) lubricating oil and (b). hydraulic oil.

Table 4 presents the basic parameters of operating fluids used in the study.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Images
Figure 8. Images of (a)
of (a) lubricating oil and
lubricating (b).(b).
oil and hydraulic oil.oil.
hydraulic

Table 44 presents
Table presents the
the basic
basic parameters
parameters of
of operating
operating fluids
fluids used
used in
inthe
thestudy.
study.
Materials 2020, 13, 3081 8 of 15

Table 4. Basic physical characteristics of hydraulic and lubricating oil.

Kinematic Viscosity
Density in 15 ◦ C Acid Value
Oil Type in 20 ◦ C
(kg/m3 ) (mg KOH/g)
(mm/s2 )
Hydraulic Oil 13 870 <0.20
Lubricating Oil 9 870 <0.04

3.4. Research Methodology

3.4.1. Test Samples Conditioning

The process of research samples conditioning was divided into 3 parts. Initially, the formed
samples were stored in molds for 24 h, protected with foil against moisture loss. Subsequently to day 28,
the samples were conditioned according to the standard [30] in water at 20 ◦ C ± 2. After the standard
conditioning period, the samples were left in air-dry conditions for 14 days. Ultimately, the samples
were divided into control concrete samples (witnesses) and samples for testing the impact of hydraulic
liquids. Research periods were adopted as a multiple of the 28-day study period.

3.4.2. Compressive Strength

The compressive strength test was carried out on six cubic samples 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm
prepared in accordance with [33], control concrete and concrete exposed to a given oil based on the
standard procedure [34]. The strength press Controls MMC8 in accordance with [35] was used for
strength tests. The prepared sample for testing was placed centrically between the pressure plates in
such a way that the load was oriented perpendicularly to the direction of sample formation. The load
speed was set at 0.5 MPa/s and the test continued until the sample was destroyed [36]. Compressive
strength was calculated from formula (1).
F
fc = (1)
Ac
where: fc —compressive strength, in MPa, F—maximum load at failure, in kN, and Ac —transverse
surface area of the sample calculated on the basis of measurements in mm2 .

3.4.3. Tensile Strength at Splitting

Concrete tensile strength testing using the indirect method was carried out in accordance with [37]
on six 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm samples. The test was performed on samples of control concrete
and concrete exposed to operating fluids. The prepared sample was placed centrally in a steel frame
with curved loading elements, between standard spacers. The stress increase was set at 0.05 MPa/s.
The study was conducted until the sample was destroyed by stretching. Tensile strength at splitting
was calculated according to formula (2):

2·F
fct = (2)
π·L·d
where: f ct —tensile strength at splitting, in MPa; F—maximum load at destruction, in N; L—length of
sample contact line, in mm; and d—cross-sectional dimension, in mm.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Compressive Strength

The average results of the compressive strength of concrete with granite aggregate exposed to
hydraulic oil (GH) and control concrete stored in air-dry conditions (G-HK) are summarized in Figure 9.
The control concrete was characterized by a higher compressive strength compared to the concrete
 (G-HK) are summarized in Figure 9. The control concrete was characterized by a
The average results of the compressive strength of concrete with granite aggregate
higher compressive strength compared to the concrete exposed to the medium
exposed to hydraulic oil (GH) and control concrete stored in air-dry conditions
operation in each research period. As a result of the impact of hydraulic oil, a
(G-HK) are summarized in Figure 9. The control concrete was characterized by a
reduction
Materials 2020, 13,in strength of 1.2% (28 days), 3.8% (56 days), 2.8% (84 days), 1.7% (112
3081 9 of 15
higher compressive strength compared to the concrete exposed to the medium
days), 2.4% (140 days), and 3.7% (168 days) was
operation in each research period. As a result of the impact of hydraulic oil, a
exposed to theinmedium operation in (28 observed.
eachdays),
research period.
reduction strength of 1.2% 3.8% (56 As a result
days), 2.8%of the
(84impact
days),of1.7%
hydraulic
(112oil,
a reduction in strength of 1.2% (28 days), 3.8% (56 days), 2.8% (84 days), 1.7% (112 days), 2.4% (140 days),
days), 2.4% (140 days), and 3.7% (168 days) was
and 3.7% (168 days) was observed.
observed.

Figure 9. Compressive
Compressive strength
strength results
results of
of concrete
concrete exposed
exposed to
to hydraulic
hydraulic oil
oil (G-H)
(G-H) and
and control
concrete (G-HK).

Similar9.relationships
Figure Compressivewere
relationships were observed
observed
strength in of
results the case of the
inconcrete
the case oflubricating oil interaction.
the tolubricating
exposed hydraulic oil (G-H)
oil They
and are
interaction. shownare
They
control in
Figure
shown 10. Concrete
in Figure
concrete 10.exposed
(G-HK). Concretetoexposed
lubricating oil (GS) wasoil
to lubricating characterized by reduced strength
(GS) was characterized compared
by reduced to
strength
the control concrete
compared (G-SK),concrete
to the control respectively: 2.4%respectively:
(G-SK), (28 days), 4.6%, (56(28
2.4% days), 4.5%4.6%,
days), (84 days), 4.8% (112
(56 days), days),
4.5% (84
Similar
7.2% (140
days), relationships
days),
4.8% and 7.2%
(112 days), were
(168
7.2% observed
days).
(140 in the case of
days), and 7.2% (168 days). the lubricating oil interaction. They are
shown in Figure 10. Concrete exposed to lubricating oil (GS) was characterized by reduced strength
compared to the control concrete (G-SK), respectively: 2.4% (28 days), 4.6%, (56 days), 4.5% (84
days), 4.8% (112 days), 7.2% (140 days), and 7.2% (168 days).

Figure 10. Compressive strength results of concrete exposed to lubricating oil (G-S) and control concrete
(G-SK).
Figure Strength
4.2. Tensile 10. Compressive strength results of concrete exposed to lubricating oil (G-S) and control
When Splitting
concrete (G-SK).
The average
Figure results ofstrength
10. Compressive tensile strength
results ofatconcrete
splitting concrete
exposed with granite
to lubricating oil aggregate exposed to
(G-S) and control
hydraulic
4.2. Tensileoil (GH)
Strength
concrete (G-SK).and control
When oil (G-HK)
Splitting stored in air-dry conditions during various testing periods
are shown in Figure 11a. The reduction in strength compared to control concrete respectively: 2.5%
The average results of tensile strength at splitting concrete with granite aggregate exposed to
afterTensile
4.2. 28 days, 2.4% after
Strength When84 days, and 3.6% after 140 days of hydraulic oil exposure was observed.
Splitting
hydraulic oil (GH) and control oil (G-HK) stored in air-dry conditions during various testing
The are
periods average results
shown in of tensile
Figure strength
11a. at splittinginconcrete
The reduction with
strength granite aggregate
compared exposed
to control to
concrete
hydraulic oil (GH) and control oil (G-HK) stored in air-dry conditions during various testing
Materials 2020, xx, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
Materials 2020, xx, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
periods are shown in Figure 11a. The reduction in strength compared to control concrete
periods2020,
Materials are13,2.5%
respectively: shown
3081 in
after Figure
28 days,11a.
2.4%The reduction
after 84 days,inand
strength compared
3.6% after to control
140 days concrete
10 of 15
of hydraulic oil
respectively:
exposure was 2.5% after
observed. 28 days, 2.4% after 84 days, and 3.6% after 140 days of hydraulic oil
exposure was observed.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Results of tensile strength when splitting concrete
concrete exposed
exposed to (a) hydraulic
to (a) hydraulic oil
oil(G-H)
(G-H)and
and
Figure 11.
(b) lubricating Results
(b) lubricating of
oil (G-S)
oil (G-S) tensile strength
compared
compared when
to control
to control splitting
concrete
concrete (G-HK,concrete
(G-HK, exposed
G-SK).
G-SK). to (a) hydraulic oil (G-H) and
(b) lubricating oil (G-S) compared to control concrete (G-HK, G-SK).
Figure 11b
Figure 11b shows
shows the
the average
average results
results of
of tensile
tensile strength
strength when
when splitting
splitting concrete
concrete with
with granite
granite
Figure
aggregate 11b
aggregate exposed shows
exposed to the average
to lubricating
lubricating oil results
oil (G-S) of
(G-S) and tensile
and control strength
control oil
oil (G-SK) when
(G-SK) stored splitting
stored in concrete
in air-dry conditions granite
with
air-dry conditions during
during
aggregate
various exposed
test periods.to lubricating
As a result oil
of the(G-S) and
action control
of oil
lubricating(G-SK)
oil, a stored
reductionin air-dry
in conditions
strength
various test periods. As a result of the action of lubricating oil, a reduction in strength compared during
compared to
to
various
the test
the control periods.
control concrete As
concretewas a result
wasachieved of the action
achievedrespectively: of lubricating
respectively:3.7%3.7%after oil,
28 28
after a
days, reduction
2.4%
days, in strength
afterafter
2.4% 84 days, compared
and 3.6%
84 days, to
after
and 3.6%
the control
140 days.
after concrete
140 days. was achieved respectively: 3.7% after 28 days, 2.4% after 84 days, and 3.6%
afterView
140 days.
View of samples
of samples after
after the
the tensile
tensile strength
strength when
when splitting
splitting test
test is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 12.
12.
View of samples after the tensile strength when splitting test is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Fracture sample treated the lubricating oil.

Figure
Figure 12. Fracture sample
12. Fracture sample treated
treated the
the lubricating
lubricating oil.
oil.
4.3.
4.3. Statistical
Statistical Analysis
Analysis
4.3. Statistical Analysis
In
In order
order to to verify
verify the obtained test
the obtained test results,
results, aa statistical
statistical analysis
analysis was
was performed
performed by by means
means of of
In order
Student's t-testtoand
verify the obtained
analysis of test variance
post-hoc results, awith
statistical analysis
Fisher's LSD was performed
(Least Significant by means of
Differences)
Student’s t-test and analysis of post-hoc variance with Fisher’s LSD (Least Significant Differences)
Student's t-test
test and analysis
[38].of post-hocofvariance with0.05
Fisher's LSD (Least Significant
analyses.Differences)
All pp <
test using
using the
the R
R program
program [38]. The
The level significance
level of significance was adopted
0.05 was adopted in the
in the analyses. All < 0.05
0.05
test using
values the R program
wereinterpreted [38].
interpretedas as The level
indicating of significance
significant 0.05 was
relationships.adopted in the
The t-Student analyses. Allused
p < 0.05
values were indicating significant relationships. The t-Student test wastest was
used to compare to
values were interpreted as indicating significant relationships. The t-Student test was used to
the results obtained for concrete in two groups-concrete exposed to a given medium and control
Materials 2020, 13, 3081 11 of 15

concrete. The t-Student test for independent groups was chosen because separate results were obtained
for the analyzed concrete groups. The null hypothesis was adopted: the average results of concrete
exposed to the operating medium are equal to the average results of the control concrete and the
alternative hypothesis: the average results of the concrete exposed to the operating medium differ
from the average results obtained for the control concrete. The basis for statistical analysis were the
assumptions according to [39]:

- the distribution of results in each of the analyzed concrete groups is comparable to the
normal distribution;
- compared groups of concretes are equal;
- variances in the compared groups are similar; and
- the dependent variable is expressed on a quantitative scale.

The statistics used were according to formula (3):

X1 − X2 √
t= p · n−1 (3)
2 s1 2 − s2 2

where: X1,2 —average in individual samples, s1,2 2 —variance from individual trials, n—number
of attempts.
In Table 5, detailed results for individual concrete groups exposed to operating fluids are listed
together with significance level (p) values.

Table 5. The significance of differences between the mechanical parameters of concrete exposed to
operating fluids (G-H, G-S) and control concrete (G-HK, G-SK).

Compressive Strength
Days G-H G-HK G-S G-SK
Average ± SD 58.57 ± 1.16 59.28 ± 2.12 57.22 ± 0.83 58.6 ± 0.88
28
t-Student p = 0,484 p = 0,019
Average ± SD 59.8 ± 1.85 62.15 ± 1.11 58.18 ± 1.54 61.03 ± 0.67
56
t-Student p = 0.092 p = 0.002
Average ± SD 62.78 ± 1.63 64.63 ± 1.33 61.32 ± 1.45 64.2 ± 1.78
84
t-Student p = 0.057 p = 0.012
Average ± SD 63.68 ± 1.72 64.82 ± 1.54 60.95 ± 2.15 64.1 ± 2.05
112
t-Student p = 0.256 p = 0.027
Average ± SD 63.63 ± 1.91 65.35 ± 1.2 60.23 ± 1.42 64.9 ± 1.49
140
t-Student p = 0.024 <0.001
Tensile Strength at Splitting
Average ± SD 3.94 ± 0.09 4.03 ± 0.08 3.95 ± 0.08 4.11 ± 0.12
28
t-Student p = 0.097 p = 0.124
Average ± SD 4.03 ± 0.2 4.14 ± 0.16 4.1 ± 0.1 4.18 ± 0.13
84
t-Student p = 0.286 p = 0.24
Average ± SD 4.07 ± 0.1 4.17 ± 0.22 4.03 ± 0.21 4.2 ± 0.17
140
t-Student p = 0.326 p = 0.15

In the statistical T-student test a significance level of p = 0.05 was assumed. The test showed
that the differences between the strength of concrete exposed to operating fluids and control
Materials 2020, 13, 3081 12 of 15

concrete are statistically significant in selected research periods. In the case of the compressive
strength test, statistically significant differences occurred after 140 days of hydraulic oil exposure.
However, the examined feature in the case of lubricating oil was statistically significant in all
research periods.
The impact of operating fluids on the examined tensile strength feature during splitting in the
assumed research periods did not show statistically significant differences.

4.4. Comparasion of Results and Interpretations with Those of Other Workers

Considering operating fluids used in aircrafts reduce the tested strength parameters of hardened
concrete, the negative impact is particularly evident during the period of prolonged conditioning.
The observed decrease in strength after 140 days of the lubricating oil effect on cement concrete,
amounting to 7.2%, shows the significance of the problem posed in the article. Similar studies on the
impact of substances produced from crude oil processing, related to structural elements made of cement
concrete were conducted by the authors [40–55]. They present physical, chemical, and physical–chemical
mechanisms as the reasons for the decrease in concrete strength [40,43]. The authors used liquids with
an acid number <0.25 mg KOH/g for testing, therefore, basing on the authors’ experience [40–43],
the possibility of chemical degradation of the concrete structure was excluded. The likely decrease in
strength parameters should be associated with the presence of surfactants in the composition of oils.
The action of surfactants in the structure of concrete should be associated with the possibility of physical
and chemical phenomena leading to concrete degradation. These include the following: reduction of
surface energy in the concrete structure by adsorption of the interacting substance, partial stopping of
the hydration process as a result of concrete hydrophobization, and the presence of polar particles
weakening the binding of the hardened composite. However, the presence of oil in the concrete pore
structure has a positive effect on increasing the modulus of elasticity. Runkiewicz et al. [55] showed
that the coefficient of elasticity of concrete is greater until the liquid is squeezed out of the pores.
The resistance of the liquid before pushing it out of the pores reduces the deformation. A broader
explanation of the processes taking place in the internal structure of concrete requires further research.

5. Conclusions
The presented research was conducted to evaluate the influence aircraft operating fluids on the
parameters of hardened concrete with granite coarse aggregate. Laboratory results have made it
possible to draw the following conclusions:

• In the case of their leakage on the airport apron, the operational liquids used in tests for civil and
military aircraft have a significant impact on the strength properties of concrete and its durability.
• Depending on the type and properties of oils, their aggressiveness towards concrete varies.
It depends on the chemical activity of fatty acids and glycerin contained in oils, in relation to the
alkaline environment of the calcium hydroxide solution in the pores of hardening cement stone.
The degree of aggressiveness determines the reduction of concrete strength at the initial stage
of hardening.
• The short-term effect of oils in many cases can result in hydrophobization of concrete and, thus,
increase its corrosion resistance, water resistance, and frost resistance. However, this phenomenon
will depend on the type and composition of the oil. Oil-resistant concrete with a tight structure,
with closed pores and a minimum content of soluble calcium hydroxide will be resistant to oil.
For such concretes it is recommended to use special cements, e.g., resistant to sulfates and calcium
hydroxide binding additives.
• Long-lasting hydraulic and lubricating oil have a destructive effect on concrete. A reduction in
the compressive strength of concrete exposed to one of the tested media to 7.2% was observed
over a period of 140 days.
Materials 2020, 13, 3081 13 of 15

• Statistical analysis using the T-student test showed the significance of differences between the
parameters of the compressive strength of the concrete exposed to the effect of lubricating oil in
each test period. On the other hand, no significant impact of operating fluids on tensile strength
when cracking surface concrete was observed in all test periods (p > 0.05).
• The presented test results indicate a destructive impact of operating liquids on concrete airport
pavements. Given the above, and taking into account the need to ensure the safety of air operations,
the need to develop:

# preparations characterized by increased effectiveness in securing the surface layer of

cement concrete exposed to the effects of operating fluids;
# selection of the type and number of components, concrete should be characterized by
very good adhesion in the aggregate-slurry zone. It is possible to do by modifying the
composition of the concrete mix with mineral additives, e.g., based on aluminosilicates [52];
# in a situation of permanently changing properties of liquids used in the operation of aircrafts
and technology, conditions for the preparation and incorporation of surface concrete must
be carried out at the highest level, taking into account stringent requirements.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: W.Ż.; methodology: W.Ż.; validation: W.Ż.; formal analysis: M.K.;
investigation: W.Ż., resources: W.Ż.; data curation: W.Ż., P.W., and M.K.; writing—original draft preparation:
W.Ż., P.W., and M.K.; writing—review and editing: W.Ż. and M.K.; supervision: M.K.; project administration:
M.K. funding acquisition: M.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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