The Isagoge of Athir al-Din al-Abhari

(d. 1265 CE)

Translated by Hamza Karamali

Copyright Hamza Karamali 2012 and 2016

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‫‪1. Author’s Introduction‬‬ ‫‪ .١۱‬ﻣﹸُﻘﹶَﺪﹼّﹺِﻣﹶَﺔﹸُ ﺍاﻟﻤﹸُﻮٔﻟﹼّﹺِﻒ‬

‫‪In the Name of Allah, Most Merciful‬‬ ‫ﺑﺴﻢ ﺍاﻟﻠﻪ ﺍاﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺍاﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ‬
‫‪and Compassionate.‬‬
‫ﻧﹶَـﺤﹾْـﻤﹶَـﺪﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﻠـﻪﹶَ ﺗﹶَـﻌـﹶَﺎﻟـﹶَﻰ ﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﺗﹶَـﻮﹾْﻓﹺِـ ـﻴﻘﹺِـﻪﹺِ‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﻧﹶَـﺴﹾْـﺎٔﻟﹸُـﻪﹸُ ﻫﹺِـﺪﹶَﺍاﻳﹶَـﺔﹶَ ‪I praise Allah Most High for His god-‬‬
‫‪given success, ask Him for guidance to‬‬
‫ﻃﹶَـﺮﹺِ ـﻳﻘﹺِـﻪﹺِ‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﻧﹸُـﺼﹶَـﻠـﱠﻲ ﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﺳﹶَـﻴﹺِـﹼّﺪﻧـﹶَﺎ ﻣﹸُـﺤﹶَـﻤﱠـﺪﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻋﹺِـﺘـﹾْﺮﺗﹺِـﻪﹺِ ‪His path, and send blessings on our‬‬
‫‪master Muhammad and his family, one‬‬
‫‪and all.‬‬ ‫ﺍأﺟﹾْﻤﹶَﻌﹺِﻴﻦﹶَ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﺑﹶَـﻌﹾْـﺪﹸُ ﻓﹶَـﻬـﺬﹺِﻩهﹺِ ﺭرﹺِﺳـﹶَﺎﻟﹶَـﺔﹲٌ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺍا ـﻟﻤﹶَـﻨﹾْـﻄﹺِـﻖﹺِ‪ .‬ﺍأﻭوﹾْﺭرﹶَﺩدﹾْﻧـﹰًﺎ ﻓﹺِـ ـﻴﻬـﹶَﺎ ﻣـﹶَﺎ ‪This is a treatise on logic in which I‬‬
‫‪have mentioned what someone who‬‬
‫ﻳﹶَـﺠﹺِـﺐﹸُ ﺍاﺳﹾْـﺘﹺِـﺤﹾْـﻀـﹶَﺎﺭرﹸُﻩهﹸُ ﻟﹺِـﻤﹶَـﻦﹾْ ﻳﹶَـﺒﹾْـﺘﹶَـﺪﹺِﻯىٔ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺷـﹶَﻲﺀءٍ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ ‪begins studying any one of the sci-‬‬
‫‪ences must keep in mind.‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﻌﹸُﻠﹸُﻮﻡمﹺِ‪.‬‬

‫ﻣﹸُ ـﺴﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻌﹺِ ـﻴ ـﻨﹰً ـﺎ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟ ـﻠ ـﻪﹺِ ﺗﹶَ ـﻌﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﻰ‪ ،‬ﺍإﻧﱠ ـﻪﹸُ ﻣﹸُ ـﻔﹺِ ـﻴ ـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﺨﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﺮﹶَ ‪[I have written this treatise] while‬‬
‫‪seeking the help of Allah Most High,‬‬
‫‪for verily He is the benefactor of good-‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﺠﹶَﻮﺩدﹺِ‪.‬‬
‫‪ness and bounty.‬‬
‫‪Isagoge:‬‬ ‫ﺍإﻳﺴﹶَﺎﻏﹸُﻮﺟﹺِﻲ‪:‬‬

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2. Expressions ‫ ﺍاﻷﻟﻔﺎﻅظ‬.٢۲

2.1 Kinds of Expression- ‫ ﺩدﹺِﻻﻻﺕتﹸُ ﺍاﻷﻟﻔﺎﻅظ‬٢۲٬١۱

Significations

A meaningful expression’s significa- ُ‫ﺍاﻟـ ـﻠﱠـ ـﻔﹾْـ ـﻆﹾْ ﺍاﻟـ ـﺪﱠﺍاﻝلﱡ ﻳﹶَـ ـﺪﹸُﻝلﱡ ﻋﹶَـ ـﻠﹶَـ ـﻰ ﺗﹶَـ ـﻤﹶَـ ـﺎﻡمﹺِ ﻣﹶَـ ـﺎ ﯗۇﺿﹺِـ ـﻊﹶَ ﻟﹶَـ ـﻪﹸ‬
tion of its exact meaning is called a
complete signification, its signification ُ‫ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـﻟﻤﹸُـﻄـﺎﺑﹶَـ ﹶَﻘـﺔﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﺟﹸُـﺰﹾْ ﹺِﺋـﻪﹺِ ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـﻟﺘﱠـﻀﹶَـﻤﱡـﻦﹺِ ﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻥنﹶَ ﹶَﻟـﻪﹸ‬
of part of its meaning (if it has a part)
is called a partial signification, and its .ِ‫ﺟﹸُﺰﹾْﺀءﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻋﹶَﻠﹶَﻰ ﻣﹶَﺎ ﻳﹸُﻼﹶَﺯزﹺِﻣﹸُﻪﹸُ ﻓﹺِﻲ ﺍاﻟﺬﱠﻫﹾْﻦﹺِ ﺑﹺِﺎﻻِﻟﹾْﺘﹺِﺰﹶَﺍاﻡمﹺ‬
signification of a meaning that is ratio-
nally implied by its exact meaning is
called an implicative signification.
An example is the expression, ِ‫ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْ ـﺴﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻓﹶَ ـﺈﻧﱠ ـﻪﹸُ ﻳﹶَ ـﺪﹸُﻝلﱡ ﻋﹶَ ـﻠﹶَ ـﻰ ﺍاﻟ ـﺤﹶَ ـ ﹶَﻴ ـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹺِ ﺍاﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـﺎﻃﹺِ ـﻖﹺ‬
“human”, which completely signifies
the concept, “rational animal”, partial- ِ‫ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـﻟﻤﹸُـﻄـﹶَﺎﺑﹶَـﻘﹶَـﺔﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﺍأﺣﹶَـﺪﹺِﻫﹺِـﻤـﹶَﺎ ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـﻟﺘﱠـﻀﹶَـﻤﱡـﻦﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﻗـﺎﺑﹺِـﻞﹺ‬
ly signifies the concepts, “rational”
and, “animal”, and implicatively signi- .ِ‫ﺍاﻟﺘﱠﻌﹶَﻠﹼّﻢﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺻﹺِﻨﹶَﺎﻋﹶَﺔﹺِ ﺍاﻟﹾْﻜﹺِﺘﹶَﺎﺑﹶَﺔﹺِ ﺑﹺِﺎﻻِﻟﹾْﺘﹺِﺰﹶَﺍاﻡمﹺ‬
fies the concept, “something that is ca-
pable of learning and writing”.

2.2 Basic and Composite ُ‫ ﺍاﻟﻠﻔﻆﹸُ ﺍاﻟﻤﹸُﻔﺮﹶَﺩدﹸُ ﻭوﺍاﻟﻤﹸُﺮﹶَﻛﱠﺐﹸ‬٢۲٬٢۲

Expressions

Expressions are either basic or ِ‫ﺛﹸُـﻢﱠ ﺍا ـﻟﻠﱠـﻔﹾْـﻆﹸُ ﺍإﻣـﹶَﺎ ﻣﹸُـﻔﹾْـﺮﹶَﺩدﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﱠـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻻﹶَ ﻳﹸُـﺮﹸُﺍاﺩدﹸُ ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـﻟﺠﹸُـﺰﹾْﺀء‬
composite.
An expression is basic when it is not ‫ ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻻٕﻧﹾْ ـﺴﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣﱠ ـﺎ‬.ُ‫ﻣﹺِ ـﻨﹾْ ـﻪﹸُ ﺩدﹺِﻻﹶَﻟﹶَ ـﻪﹲٌ ﻋﹶَ ـﻠﹶَ ـﻰ ﺟﹸُ ـﺰﹾْﺀءِ ﻣﹶَ ـﻌﹾْ ـ ﹶَﻨ ـﺎﻩهﹸ‬
comprised of sub-expressions that sig-
nify part of its meaning, like the ex- ‫ﻣﹸُـ ـﻮٔﻟﱠـ ـﻒﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﱠـ ـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻻﹶَ ﻳﹶَـ ـﻜﹸُـ ـﻮﻥنﹸُ ﻛﹶَـ ـﺬﻟﹺِـ ـﻚﹶَ ﻛﹶَـ ـﺮﺍاﻣﹺِـ ـﻲ‬
pression, “human”.
.ِ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﺤﹺِﺠﹶَﺎﺭرﹶَﺓةﹺ‬
An expression is composite when it is
comprised of sub-expressions that sig-
nify part of its meaning, like the ex-
pression, “someone who throws
stones”.

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2.3 Universal and Singular ‫ ﺍاﻟﻠﻔﻆﹸُ ﺍاﻟﻜﹸُﻠﹼّﹺِﻲ ﻭوﺍاﻟﺠﹸُﺰﺋﹺِﻲ‬٢۲٬٣۳
Expressions

Basic expressions are either universal ُ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟ ـﻤﹸُ ـﻔﹾْ ـﺮﹶَﺩدﹸُ ﺍإﻣﱠ ـﺎ ﻛﹸُ ـﻠﹺِﹼّ ـﻰﱞ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ﱠﻟ ـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻻﹶَ ﻳﹶَ ـﻤﹾْ ـﻨﹶَ ـﻊﹾْ ﻧﹶَ ـﻔﹾْ ـﺲﹸ‬
or singular.
An expression is universal when its ِ‫ﺼـﻮﱡﺭرﹺِ ﻣﹶَـﻔﹾْـﻬـﹸُﻮﻣﹺِـﻪﹺِ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹾْ ﻭوﹶَﻗـﹶَﻮﻉعﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺸـﱠﺮﻛﹶَـﺔﹺِ ﻓﹺِـﻴـﻪﹺِ ﻛـﺎﻹ ـﻧﺴـﺎﻥنﹺ‬ َ‫ﺗﹶَـ ﹶ‬
mere conception does not prevent its
predication to multiple instances, such ِ‫ﺼـ ـﻮﱡﺭرﹺ‬
َ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣﱠـ ـﺎ ﺟﹸُـ ـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِـ ـﻲﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﱠـ ـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹶَـ ـﻤﹾْـ ـﻨﹶَـ ـﻊﹸُ ﻧﹶَـ ـﻔﹾْـ ـﺲﹸُ ﺗﹶَـ ـ ﹶ‬
as the expression, “human”.
.‫ﻣﹶَﻔﹾْﻬﹸُﻮﻣﹺِﻪﹺِ ﻣﹺِﻦﹾْ ﺫذﻟﹺِﻚﹶَ ﻛﹶَﺰﹶَﻳﹾْﺪﹴٍ ﻋﹶَﻠﹶَﻤﹰًﺎ‬
An expression is singular when its
mere conception prevents its predica-
tion to many instances, such as the
proper-noun expression, “Zayd”.

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3. The Five Universals ‫ ﺍاﻟﻜﹸُﻠﹼّﹺِﻴﹼّﺎﺕتﹸُ ﺍاﻟﺨﹶَﻤﺲ‬.٣۳

Universals are either essential or ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻰﱡ ﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺫذﹶَﺍاﺗﹺِـﻲﱞ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﱠـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹶَـﺪﹾْﺧﹸُـﻞﹸُ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺣﹶَـﻘﹺِـ ـﻴﻘﹶَـﺔﹺ‬
nonessential.
A universal is essential when it enters ِ‫ﺟﹸُ ـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِ ـﻴﱠ ـﺎﺗﹺِ ـﻪﹺِ ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﺤﹶَ ـﻴﹶَ ـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹺِ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـﺴﹾْ ـﺒﹶَ ـﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻟﹶَ ـﻰ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْ ـﺴﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹺ‬
into the essence of its species’, like the
concept, “animal” with respect to the ُ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـ ـﻔﹶَـ ـﺮﹶَﺱسﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣﱠـ ـﺎ ﻋﹶَـ ـﺮﹶَﺿﹺِـ ـﻲﱞ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﱠـ ـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹸُـ ـﺨﹶَـ ـﺎﻟﹺِـ ـ ﹸُﻔـ ـﻪﹸ‬
concepts, “human” and, “horse”.
.ِ‫ﻛﹶَﺎﻟﻀﱠﺎﺣﹺِﻚﹺِ ﺑﹺِﺎﻟﻨﹺِﹼّﺴﹾْﺒﹶَﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻟﹶَﻰ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻥنﹺ‬
A universal is nonessential when it is
otherwise, like the concept, “some-
thing that laughs” with respect to the
concept, “human”.

3.1 Essential Universals ‫ ﺍاﻟﻜﹸُﻠﹼّﹺِﻴﹼّﺎﺕتﹸُ ﺍاﻟﺬﱠﺍاﺗﹺِﻴﱠﺔ‬٣۳٬١۱

Essential universals are either: (1) ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـﺬﱠﺍاﺗـﻲﱡ ﺍإﻣـﹶَﺎ ﻣﹶَـﻘـﹸُﻮﻝلﹲٌ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺟﹶَـﻮﹶَﺍاﺏبﹺِ ﻣـﹶَﺎ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺑﹺِـﺤﹶَـﺴﹶَـﺐﹺ‬
predicated of multiple concepts in re-
sponse to the question, “What are they ‫ﺍاﻟ ـﺸﱠ ـﺮﻛﹶَ ـﺔﹺِ ﺍاﻟ ـﻤﹶَ ـﺤﹾْ ـﻀﹶَ ـﺔﹺِ ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﺤﹶَ ـ ﹶَﻴ ـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹺِ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟ ـﻨﹺِﹼّ ـﺴﹾْ ـﺒﹶَ ـﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻟﹶَ ـﻰ‬
solely with respect to what is common
between them?”, in which case they ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـﻔﹶَـﺮﹶَﺱسﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﺠﹾْـﻨﹾْـﺲﹸُ ﻭوﹶَﻳﹸُـﺮﹾْﺳﹶَـﻢﹸُ ﺑﹺِـﺎٔﻧﱠـﻪﹸُ ﻛﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻰﱞ‬
are termed genera (jins).
A genus is nonessentially defined as a ‫ﻟﺤﻘـﺎﺋﹺِـﻖﹺِ ﻓـﹺِﻲ‬ ‫ﻣﹶَـﻘـﹸُﻮﻝلﹲٌ ﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﻛﹶَـﺜﹺِـﻴـﺮﹺِﻳـﻦﹶَ ﻣﹸُـﺨﹾْـﺘﹶَـ ـﻠﻔﹺِـﻴـﻦ ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـ ـ‬
universal that is predicated of multiple
universal concepts with different .َ‫ﺟﹶَﻮﹶَﺍاﺏبﹺِ ﻣﹶَﺎ ﻫﹸُﻮﹶ‬
essences in response to the question,
“What are they?”, e.g., the concept,
“animal” with respect to the concepts,
“human” and, “horse”.

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Or they are: (2) predicated of multiple ِ‫ﺟـﻮﹶَﺍاﺏبﹺِ ﻣـﹶَﺎ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺑﹺِـﺤﹶَـﺴﹶَـﺐﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﺮﹺِﻛﹶَـﺔﹺ‬
َ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﻣﹶَـﻘـﹸُﻮﻝلﹲٌ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﹶ‬
concepts in response to the question,
“What are they with respect to what is ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺨﹸُـﺼـﹸُﻮﺻﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹺِ ﻣﹶَـﻌـﹰًﺎ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـﻟﻨﹺِﹼّـﺴﹾْـﺒﹶَـﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻟـﹶَﻰ ﺍأﻓﹾْـﺮﹶَﺍاﺩدﹺِﻩهﹺ‬
common between them and with re-
spect to what they are, essentially?”, in ‫ﻧﹶَ ـﺤﹾْ ـﯘ ﺯزﹶَﻳﹾْ ـﺪﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﻋﹶَ ـﻤﹾْ ـﺮﹴٍﻭو ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـﻮﹾْﻉعﹸُ ﻭوﹶَﻳﹸُ ـﺮﹾْﺳﹶَ ـﻢﹸُ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎٔﻧﱠ ـﻪﹸُ ﻛﹸُ ـﻠﱠ ـﻰﱞ‬
which case they are termed species
(naw‘). َ‫ﻣﹶَ ـﻘﹸُ ـﻮﻝلﹲٌ ﻋﹶَ ـﻠﹶَ ـﻰ ﻛﹶَ ـﺜﹺِ ـﻴ ـﺮﹺِﻳ ـﻦﹶَ ﻣﹸُ ـﺨﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻠﹺِ ـﻔﹺِ ـﻴ ـﻦﹶَ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟﹾْ ـﻌﹶَ ـﺪﹶَﺩدﹺِ ﺩدﹸُﻭوﻥنﹶ‬
A species is nonessentially defined as
a universal that is predicated of multi- .َ‫ﺍاﻟﺤﹶَﻘﹺِﻴﻘﹶَﺔﹺِ ﻓﹺِﻲ ﺟﹶَﻮﹶَﺍاﺏبﹺِ ﻣﹶَﺎ ﻫﹸُﻮﹶ‬
ple singular concepts with different
identities (but the same essence) in re-
sponse to the question, “What are
they?”, e.g., the concept, “human”
with respect to the concepts, “Zayd”
and, “‘Amr”.
Or they are: (3) not predicated in re- ‫ﺟـﻮﹶَﺍاﺏبﹺِ ﻣـﹶَﺎ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺑﹶَـﻞﹾْ ﻣﹶَـﻘـﹸُﻮﻝلﹲٌ ﻓـﹺِﻲ‬ َ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﻏﹶَـﻴﹾْـﺮﹸُ ﻣﹶَـﻘـﹸُﻮﻝلﹴٍ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﹶ‬
sponse to the question, “What is it?”
but rather in response to the question, ُ‫ﺟﹶَـﻮﹶَﺍاﺏبﹺِ ﺍأﻱيﹸُ ﺷﹶَـﻲﹾْﺀءٍ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺫذﹶَﺍاﺗﹺِـﻪﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ﱠﻟـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹸُـﻤﹶَـﻴﹺِﹼّـﺰﹸ‬
“Which kind of thing is it, essential-
ly?”, in which case they are termed ِ‫ﺍاﻟ ـﺸﱠ ـﻲﹾْﺀءﹶَ ﻋ ـﻤﱠ ـﺎ ﻳﹸُ ـﺸﹶَ ـﺎﺭرﻛﹸُ ـﻪﹸُ ﻓﹺِ ـﻲ ﺍاﻟ ـﺠﹾْ ـﻨﹾْ ـﺲﹺِ ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـﺎﻃﹺِ ـﻖﹺ‬
specific differences (fasl).
A specific difference is nonessentially ُ‫ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻔﹶَـﺼﹾْـﻞﹸُ ﻭوﹶَ ﹸُﻳـﺮﹾْﺳﹶَـﻢﹸُ ﺑﹺِـﺎٔﻧﱠـﻪﹸ‬،ِ‫ﺑـﹺِﺎ ـﻟﻨﹺِﹼّـﺴﹾْـﺒﹶَـﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻟـﹶَﻰ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺈﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺ‬
defined as a universal that is predicat-
ed of a species-concept in response to َ‫ﺟـﻮﹶَﺍاﺏبﹺِ ﺍأﻱيﱠ ﺷﹶَـﻲﹾْﺀءٍ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶ‬
َ‫ﻛﹶَـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻰﱞ ﻳﹸُـﻘـﹶَﺎﻝلﹸُ ﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻲﹾْﺀءِ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﹶ‬
the question, “What kind of thing is it,
essentially?”, e.g., the concept, “ratio- .ِ‫ﻓﹺِﻲ ﺫذﹶَﺍاﺗﹺِﻪﹺ‬
nal” with respect to the concept,
“human”.

3.2 Nonessential Universals ‫ ﺍاﻟﻜﹸُﻠﹼّﹺِﻴﹼّﺎﺕتﹸُ ﺍاﻟﻌﹶَﺮﹶَﺿﹺِﻴﱠﺔ‬٣۳٬٢۲

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Nonessential universals are either in- ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍأﻣﱠ ـﺎ ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﻌﹶَ ـﺮﹶَﺿﹺِ ـﻲﱠ ﻓﹶَ ـﺎٕﻣﱠ ـﺎ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﻳﹶَ ـﻤﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻨﹺِ ـﻊﹶَ ﺍاﻧﹾْ ـﻔﹺِ ـﻜﹶَ ـﺎﻛﹸُ ـﻪﹸُ ﻋﹶَ ـﻦﹺ‬
separable universals (‘arad lazim) or
separable universals (‘arad mufariq). َ‫ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻌﹶَـﺮﹶَﺽضﹸُ ﺍاﻟﱠـﻼﹶَﺯزﹺِﻡمﹸُ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻻ ﻳﹶَـﻤﹾْـﺘﹶَـﻨﹺِـﻊﹶَ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶ‬،ِ‫ﺍا ـﻟﻤـﹶَﺎﻫﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹺ‬
A nonessential universal is termed in-
separable when it is inseparable from .ُ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﻌﹶَﺮﹶَﺽضﹸُ ﺍاﻟﻤﹶَﻔﹶَﺎﺭرﹺِﻕقﹸ‬
the essence that it is predicated of.
A nonessential universal is termed sep-
arable when it is separable from the
essence that it is predicated of.
Both inseparable and separable univer- ٍ‫ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُ ـﻞﱡ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﺣﹺِ ـﺪﹴٍ ﻣﹺِ ـﻨﹾْ ـﻬﹸُ ـﻤﹶَ ـﺎ ﺍإﻣﱠ ـﺎ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﻳﹶَ ـﺨﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﺺﱠ ﺑﹺِ ـﺤﹶَ ـﻘﹺِ ـﻴ ـﻘﹶَ ـﺔﹴ‬
sals are either: (1) only predicated of a
single essence, in which case they are ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﺣﹺِـﺪﹶَﺓةﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﺨـﹶَﺎﺻﱠـﺔﹸُ ﻛـﹶَﺎ ـﻟﻀـﱠﺎﺣﹺِـﻚﹺِ ﺑـﹺِﺎﻟﹾْـﻘﹸُـﻮﱠﺓةﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـﻔﹺِـﻌﹾْـﻞﹺ‬
termed exclusive universals (khassa),
e.g., the concept, “something that َ‫ﻟﹾْـﻼٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺗﹸُـﺮﹾْﺳﹶَـﻢﹸُ ﺑﹺِـﺎٔﻧﱠـﻬـﹶَﺎ ﻛﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻴﹶَـﺔﹲٌ ﺗﹸُـﻘـﹰًﺎﻝلﹸُ ﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﻣـﹶَﺎ ﺗﹶَـﺤﹾْـﺖﹶ‬
laughs” (whether potentially or actual-
ly) with respect to the concept, .‫ﺣﹶَﻘﹺِﻴﻘﹶَﺔﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﺣﹺِﺪﹶَﺓةﹴٍ ﻓﹶَﻘﹶَﻂﹾْ ﻗﹶَﻮﹾْﻻﹰً ﻋﹶَﺮﹶَﺿﹺِﻴﹰًﺎ‬
“human”.
An exclusive universal can be
nonessentially defined as a universal
that is only nonessentially predicated
of a single essence.
Or they are: (2) predicated of many ُ‫ﺣـﺪﹶَﺓةﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹾْـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻌﹶَـﺮﹶَﺽضﹸ‬
ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﻳﹶَـﻌﹸُـﻢﱠ ﺣﹶَـﻘـﹶَﺎﺋﹺِـﻖﹶَ ﻓﹶَـﻮﹾْﻕقﹶَ ﻭوﹶَﺍا ﹺ‬
different essences, in which case they
are termed general universals (‘arad ِ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﻌﹶَ ـﺎﻡمﱡ ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﻤﹸُ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻨﹶَ ـﻔﹺِﹼّ ـﺲﹺِ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟﹾْ ـﻘﹸُ ـﻮﱠﺓةﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﻔﹺِ ـﻌﹾْ ـﻞﹺِ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟ ـﻨﹺِﹼّ ـﺴﹾْ ـﺒﹶَ ـﺔﹺ‬
‘amm), e.g., the concept, “something
that breathes” (whether potentially or ‫ﻟﹾْـﻼٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹶَ ﻭوﹶَﻏﹶَـﻴﹾْـﺮﹺِﻩهﹺِ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﺤﹶَـﻴـﹶَﻮﺍاﻧـﹶَﺎﺕتﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻳـﹸُﺮﺳﹶَـﻢﹸُ ﺑﹺِـﺎٔﻧﱠـﻪﹸُ ﻛﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻰﱞ‬
actually) with respect to the concept,
“human” and the concepts of other ً‫ﻳﹸُ ـ ﹶَﻘ ـﺎﻝلﹸُ ﻋﹶَ ـﻠﹶَ ـﻰ ﻣﹶَ ـﺎ ﺗﹶَ ـﺤﹾْ ـﺖﹶَ ﺣﹶَ ـﻘﹶَ ـﺎﺋﹺِ ـﻖﹶَ ﻣﹸُ ـﺨﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻠﹺِ ـﻔﹶَ ـﺔﹴٍ ﻗﹶَ ـﻮﹾْﻻﹰ‬
kinds of animals.
A general universal can be nonessen- .‫ﻋﹶَﺮﹶَﺿﹺِﻴﹰًﺎ‬
tially defined as a universal that is
nonessentially predicated of many dif-
ferent essences.

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4. Definitions ُ‫ ﺍاﻟﻘﹶَﻮﻝلﹸُ ﺍاﻟﺸﺎﺭرﹺِﺡحﹸ‬.٤

Essential definitions (hadd) are com- ِ‫ﺍاﻟﺤﹶَﺪﱡ ﻗﹶَﻮﹾْﻝلﹲٌ ﺩدﹶَﺍاﻝلﱞ ﻋﹶَﻠﹶَﻰ ﻣﹶَﺎﻫﹺِﻴﱠﺔﹺِ ﺍاﻟﺸﱠﻲﹾْﺀء‬
posite expressions that signify the
definiendum’s essence. They are either
complete (tamm) or incomplete
(naqis).
Complete essential definitions are ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﻫﹾْـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ﱠﻟـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹶَـﺘﹶَـﺮﹶَﻛﱠـﺐﹸُ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹾْ ﺟﹺِـﻨﹾْـﺲﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻲﹾْﺀءِ ﻭوﹶَﻓﹶَـﺼﹾْـﻠﹺِـﻪﹺ‬
composed of the definiendum’s proxi-
mate genus and specific difference, ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﻘﹶَ ـﺮﹺِﻳ ـﺒﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﻦﹶَ ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﺤﹶَ ـﻴﹶَ ـﻮﺍاﻥنﹺِ ﺍاﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـﺎﻃﹺِ ـﻖﹺِ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟ ـﻨﹺِﹼّ ـﺴﹾْ ـﺒ ـﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻟﹶَ ـﻰ‬
such as the concept, “rational animal”
with respect to the concept, “human”. .‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹾْﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﺤﹶَﺪﱡ ﺍاﻟﺘﱠﺎﻡمﱡ‬

Incomplete essential definitions are ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺤﹶَـﺪﱡ ﺍا ـﻟﻨـﱠﺎﻗﹺِـﺺﹸُ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹾْـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ﱠﻟـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹶَـﺘﹶَـﺮﹶَﻛﱠـﺐﹸُ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹾْ ﺟﹺِـﻨﹾْـﺲﹺ‬
composed of the definiendum’s remote
genus and proximate specific differ- ِ‫ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻲﹾْﺀءِ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﺒﹶَـﻌﹺِـﻴـﺪﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻓﹶَـﺼﹾْـﻠﹺِـﻪﹺِ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻘﹶَـﺮﹺِﻳـﺐﹺِ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻟﹾْـﺠﹺِـﺴﹾْـﻢﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﻨـﱠﺎﻃﹺِـﻖﹺ‬
ence, such as the concept, “rational
physical object” with respect to the .ِ‫ﺑﹺِﺎﻟﻨﹺِﹼّﺴﹾْﺒﹶَﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻟﹶَﻰ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻥنﹺ‬
concept, “human”.
Nonessential definitions are composite
expressions that distinguish the
definiendum from all other concepts
without signifying its essence. They
are either complete or incomplete.
Complete nonessential definitions are ِ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟ ـﺮﱠﺳﹾْ ـﻢﹸُ ﺍاﻟ ـﺘﱠ ـﺎﻡمﱡ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹾْ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﱠ ـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹶَ ـﺘﹶَ ـﺮﹶَﻛﱠ ـﺐﹸُ ﻣﹺِ ـﻦﹾْ ﺟﹺِ ـﻨﹾْ ـﺲﹺ‬
composed of the definiendum’s proxi-
mate genus and inseparable exclusive ِ‫ﺻﹼّـﻪﹺِ ﺍا ﱠﻟـﻼﹶَﺯزﹺِ ﹶَﻣـﺔﹺِ ﹶَﻟـﻪﹸُ ﻛـﹶَﺎ ـﻟﺤﹶَـﻴـﹶَﻮﺍاﻥنﹺ‬
ِ‫ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻲﹾْﺀءِ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻘﹶَـﺮﹺِﻳـﺐﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺧﹶَـﻮﹶَﺍا ﹺ‬
universals, such as the concept, “an
animal that laughs” with respect to the .ِ‫ﺍاﻟﻀﱠﺎﺣﹺِﻚﹺِ ﻓﹺِﻲ ﺗﹶَﻌﹾْﺮﹺِﻳﹾْﻒﹺِ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻥنﹺ‬
concept, “human.”

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‫‪Incomplete nonessential definitions are‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﺮﱠﺳﹾْـ ـﻢﹸُ ﺍاﻟـ ـﻨﱠـ ـﺎﻗﹺِـ ـﺺﹸُ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹶَـ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ﱠﻟـ ـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹶَـ ـﺘﹶَـ ـﺮﹶَﻛﱠـ ـﺐﹸُ ﻣﹺِـ ـﻦﹾْ‬
‫‪composed of multiple nonessential‬‬
‫‪universals which, in their entirety, are‬‬ ‫ﺣـﺪﹶَﺓةﹴٍ‬
‫ﻋﹶَـﺮﹶَﺿﹺِـﻴـﱠﺎﺕتﹴٍ ﺗﹶَـﺨﹾْـﺘﹶَـﺺﱡ ﺟﹸُـﻤﹾْـﻠﹶَـﺘﹸُـﻬـﹶَﺎ ﺑﹺِـﺤﹶَـﻘﹺِـ ـﻴﻘﹶَـﺔﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﺍا ﹺِ‬
‫‪inseparable from the definiendum’s‬‬
‫‪essence, such as the concept, “some-‬‬ ‫ﻛﹶَ ـﻘﹶَ ـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِ ـﻨﹶَ ـﺎ ﻓﹺِ ـﻲ ﺗﹶَ ـﻌﹾْ ـﺮﹺِﻳ ـﻒﹺِ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْ ـﺴﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹺِ ﺍإﻧﱠ ـﻪﹸُ ﻣﹶَ ـﺎﺵشﹴٍ ﻋﹶَ ـﻠﹶَ ـﻰ‬
‫‪thing that walks on two feet, has broad‬‬
‫‪nails, whose skin is not covered by fur,‬‬ ‫ﻗﹶَـ ـﺪﹶَﻣﹶَـ ـﻴﹾْـ ـﻪﹺِ‪ ،‬ﻋﹺِـ ـﺮﹺِﻳـ ـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻇﹾْـ ـﻔﹶَـ ـﺎﺭرﹺِ‪ ،‬ﹶَﺑـ ـﺎﺩدﹺِﻱي ﺍاﻟﹾْـ ـﺒﹶَـ ـﺸﹶَـ ـﺮﹶَﺓةﹺِ‪،‬‬
‫‪who stands upright, and who is capa-‬‬
‫‪ble of laughter,” with respect to the‬‬ ‫ﻣﹸُﺴﹾْﺘﹶَﻘﹺِﻴﻢﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﻘﹶَﺎﻣﹶَﺔﹺِ‪ ،‬ﺿﹶَﺤﱠﺎﻙكﹲٌ ﺑﹺِﺎﻟﻄﱠﺒﹾْﻊﹺِ‪.‬‬
‫”‪concept, “human.‬‬

‫‪-9-‬‬
‫‪5. Propositions‬‬ ‫‪ .٥‬ﺍاﻟﻘﻀﹺِﻴﱠﺔ‬

‫ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻘﹶَـﻀﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹸُ ﻗﹶَـﻮﹾْﻝلﹲٌ ﻳﹶَـﺼﹺِـﺢﱡ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﻳﹸُـﻘـﹶَﺎﻝلﹶَ ﻝلﹺِ ﺻـﹶَﺎﺩدﹺِﻕقﹲٌ ﻓﹺِـﻴـﻪﹺِ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ‪Propositions are composite expres-‬‬
‫‪sions that can be true or false.‬‬
‫ﻛﹶَﺎﺫذﹺِﺏبﹲٌ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﻫﹺِـﻲﹶَ ﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺣﹶَـﻤﹾْـﻠﹺِـﻴﱠـﻪﹲٌ‪ :‬ﻛﹶَـ ﹶَﻘـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﺯزﹶَﻳﹾْـﺪﹲٌ ﻛـﹶَﺎﺗﹺِـﺐﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺷـﹶَﺮﻃﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹲٌ ‪Propositions are either (1) categorical‬‬
‫‪(hamliyya), e.g., “Zayd is someone‬‬
‫ﻣﹸُـﺘﱠـﺼﹺِـﻠﹶَـﺔﹲٌ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻧﹶَـﺖﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻤﹾْـﺲﹸُ ﻃـﹶَﺎﻟﹺِـﻌﹶَـﺔﹰً ﻓـﹶَﺎ ـﻟﻨﱠـﻬـﹶَﺎﺭرﹸُ ‪who writes,” or (2) conjunctive condi-‬‬
‫‪tional (shartiyya muttasila), e.g., “if‬‬
‫ﻣﹶَـﻮﹾْﺟـﹸُﻮﺩدﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺷﹶَـﺮﹾْﻃﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـﻨﹾْـﻔﹶَـﺼﹺِـﻠﹶَـﺔﹲٌ ‪.‬ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻌﹶَـﺪﹶَﺩدﹸُ ”‪the sun has risen, then it is daytime,‬‬
‫‪or (3) disjunctive conditional (shar-‬‬
‫‪tiyya munfasila), e.g., “numbers are ei-‬‬ ‫ﺍإﻣﱠﺎ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﻳﹶَﻜﹸُﻮﻥنﹶَ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺟﹰًﺎ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻓﹶَﺮﹾْﺩدﹰًﺍا‪.‬‬
‫”‪ther even or odd.‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـﺠﹸُـﺰﹾْﺀءﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹸُ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟـﺤﹶَـﻤﹾْـﻠﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹺِ ﻳﹸُـﺴﹶَـﻤﱠـﻰ ﻣﹶَـﻮﹾْﺿﹸُـﻮﻋﹰًـﺎ ‪The first part of a categorical proposi-‬‬
‫)`‪tion is termed the subject (mawdu‬‬
‫‪and the second part is termed the pred-‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﺜﱠﺎﻧﹺِﻲ ﻣﹶَﺤﹾْﻤﹸُﻮﻻﹰً‪.‬‬
‫‪icate (mahmul).‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟ ـﺠﹸُ ـﺰﹾْﺀءﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹸُ ﻣﹺِ ـﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟ ـﺸﱠ ـﺮﹾْﻃﹺِ ـﻴﱠ ـﺔﹺِ ﻳﹸُ ـﺴﹶَ ـﻤﱠ ـﻰ ﻣﹸُ ـﻘﹶَ ـﺪﱠﻣﹰً ـﺎ ‪The first part of a conditional proposi-‬‬
‫‪tion is termed the antecedent (muqad-‬‬
‫‪dam) and the second part is termed the‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﺜﱠﺎﻧﹺِﻲ ﺗﹶَﺎﻟﻴﹰًﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪consequent (tali).‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـﻘﹶَـﻀﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹸُ ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﻣـﻮﺟﹶَـﺒﹶَـﺔﹲٌ ﻛـﻘﹶَـﻮﻟـﻨـﺎ ﺯزﹶَﻳـﺪﹲٌ ﻛـﺎﺗﹺِـﺐﹲٌ ﻭوﺇإﻣـﺎ ‪Propositions are either (1) affirmative,‬‬
‫‪e.g., “Zayd is writing,” or (2) negative,‬‬
‫”‪e.g., “Zayd is not writing.‬‬ ‫ﺳﺎﻟﹺِﺒﹶَﺔﹲٌ ﻛﻘﹶَﻮﻟﹺِﻨﺎ ﺯزﹶَﻳﺪﹲٌ ﻟﹶَﻴﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِﻜﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹴٍ‪.‬‬

‫‪Each of the two is either (1) singular‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤـﺎ ﺫذﹶَﻛـﹶَﺮﻧـﺎ‬

‫ﺨﺼـﻮﺻـﺔﹲٌ ـ‬
‫ﻨﻬﻤـﺎ ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﻣﹶَـ ـ‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﻭوﺍاﺣﹺِـﺪﹶَﺓةﹴٍ ﻣﹺِـ ـ ـ‬
‫)‪(as in the previous examples), or (2‬‬
‫‪universally quantified, e.g., “Every‬‬ ‫ﺴـﻮﱠﺭرﹶَﺓةﹲٌ ﻛﹶَـﻘـﹶَﻮﻟﹺِـﻨـﺎ ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﺇإ ـﻧﺴـﺎﻥنﹴٍ ﻛـﺎﺗﹺِـﺐﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﻻ‬
‫ﻭوﺇإﻣـﺎ ﻛﹸُـﻠﹼّﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـ ﹶَ‬
‫‪human writes,” and, “No human‬‬
‫‪writes,” or (3) particularly quantified,‬‬ ‫ﺴـﻮﱠﺭرﹶَﺓةﹲٌ‬
‫ﺷـﹶَﻲﺀءﹶَ ﻣـﹺِﻦ ﺍاﻹ ـﻧﺴـﺎﻥنﹺِ ﺑﹺِـﻜـﺎﺗﹺِـﺐﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﺇإﻣـﺎ ﺟـﹸُﺰﺋﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـ ﹶَ‬
‫‪e.g., “Some human writes,” and “Some‬‬
‫‪human does not write,” or (4) un-‬‬ ‫ﻛﹶَـﻘـﹶَﻮﻟﹺِـﻨـﺎ ﺑﹶَـﻌـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻹ ـﻧﺴـﺎﻥن ﻛـﺎﺗـﺐ ﻭو ﺑﹶَـﻌـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻹ ـﻧﺴـﺎﻥنﹺِ‬
‫‪quantified, e.g., “Humans write,” and,‬‬
‫”‪“Humans do not write.‬‬ ‫ﻟﹶَـﻴـﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِـﻜـﺎﺗﹺِـﺐﹴٍ ﻭوﺇإﻣـﺎ ﺃأﻥن ﻻ ﻳﹶَـﻜـﻮﻥنﹶَ ﻛـﺬﻟـﻚ ﻛﹶَـﻘـﹶَﻮﻟﹺِـﻨـﺎ‬

‫ﺍاﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥنﹸُ ﻛﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹲٌ ﻭوﺍاﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥنﹸُ ﻟﹶَﻴﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِﻜﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹴٍ‬

‫‪- 10 -‬‬
‫ﻛﻘـﻮ ـﻟﻨـﺎ ﺇإﻥن ﻛـﺎﻧـﺖ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻤـﺲﹲٌ ‪Conjunctive conditional propositions‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﻤﹸُـﺘﱠـﺼﹺِـﻠـﺔﹰً ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﻟـﺰﻭوﻣﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹲٌ ـ‬
‫‪are either (1) really conjunctive, e.g.,‬‬
‫ﻛﻘـﻮ ـﻟﻨـﺎ ﺇإﻥن ‪“If the sun has risen then it is day-‬‬
‫ﻟﻨﻬـﺎﺭرﹸُ ﻣـﹶَﻮﺟـﹸُﻮﺩدﹲٌ ﻭوﺇإﻣـﺎ ﺍاﺗﹼّﹺِـﻔـﺎﻗﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹲٌ ـ‬
‫ﻃـﺎﻟﹺِـﻌـﺔﹰً ﻓـﺎ ـ ـ‬
‫‪time,” or (2) coincidentally conjunc-‬‬
‫‪tive, e.g., “If humans are rational then‬‬ ‫ﻛﺎﻥن ﺍاﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥنﹸُ ﻧﺎﻃﹺِﻘﺎ ﻓﺎﻟﺤﹺِﻤﺎﺭرﹸُ ﻧﺎﻫﹺِﻖﹲٌ‬
‫”‪donkeys bray.‬‬
‫‪Disjunctive conditional propositions‬‬ ‫ﻛﻘـﻮ ـﻟﻨـﺎ ﺍا ـﻟﻌـﺪﺩد ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﺯزﻭوﺝجﹲٌ‬
‫ﻘﻴﻘﻴـﺔﹲٌ ـ‬
‫ﻭوﺍا ـﻟﻤﹸُـ ـﻨﻔﹶَـﺼﹺِـ ﹶَﻠـﺔﹸُ ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﺣﹶَـ ـ ـ ـ ﱠ‬
‫‪are either (1) strongly exclusive, e.g.,‬‬
‫‪“Numbers are either even or odd,” or‬‬ ‫ﻭوﺇإﻣـﺎ ﻓـﺮﺩدﹲٌ ﻭوﻫـﻲ ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﻣـﺎﻧﹺِـﻌﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﺠﹶَـﻤـﻊﹺِ ﻓﹶَـﻘـﹶَﻂ ﻛﹶَـﻘـﹶَﻮ ـﻟﻨـﺎ‬
‫‪(2) merely truth-exclusive, e.g., “This‬‬
‫)‪this is either a tree or a boulder,” or (3‬‬ ‫ﺣﺠﹶَـﺮﹰًﺍا ﻭوﺇإﻣـﺎ‬
‫ﻫـﺬﺍا ﺍا ـﻟﺸـﱠﻲﺀءﹸُ ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﺇإﻥن ـﻳﻜـﻮﻥنﹶَ ﺷﹶَـﺠﹶَـﺮﹰًﺍا ﺃأﻭو ـ‬
‫‪merely falsity-exclusive, e.g., “Zayd is‬‬
‫‪either in the sea or he is not‬‬ ‫ﻛﻘـﹶَﻮﻟﹺِـﻨـﺎ ﺯزﹶَﻳـﺪﹲٌ ﺇإﻣـﺎ ﺃأﻥن ـﻳﻜـﻮﻥنﹶَ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫ﻣـﺎﻧﹺِـﻌﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺧﹸُـﻠﹸُـﻮﹼّﹴٍ ﻓﹶَـﻘـﻂ ـ‬
‫”‪drowning.‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟﺒﹶَﺤﺮﹺِ ﻭوﺇإﻣﺎ ﺃأﻥن ﻻ ﻳﹶَﻐﺮﹶَﻕقﹶَ‬

‫ﻛﻘـﻮ ـﻟﻨـﺎ ‪Disjunctive conditional propositions‬‬

‫ﻟﻤﻨﻔﺼـﻼﺕت ﺫذﻭوﺍاﺕتﹺِ ﺍأﺟـﺰﺍاﺀءٍ ـ‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﻗـﹶَﺪ ﺗﹶَـﻜـﻮﻥنﹸُ ﺍا ـ ـ ـ ـ‬
‫‪can have more than two parts, e.g.,‬‬
‫‪“One of any pair of numbers is either‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﻌﺪﺩد ﺇإﻣﺎ ﺯزﺍاﺋﺪﹲٌ ﺃأﻭو ﻧﺎﻗﹺِﺺﹲٌ ﺃأﻭو ﻣﹸُﺴﺎﻭوﹴٍ‬
‫‪greater than its counterpart or less than‬‬
‫‪its counterpart or equal to its‬‬
‫”‪counterpart.‬‬

‫‪- 11 -‬‬
‫‪6. Propositional Reasoning‬‬ ‫‪ .٦‬ﺍاﻻﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝل ﺍاﻟﻤﹸُﺒﺎﺷﹺِﺮ‬

‫‪6.1 Contradiction‬‬ ‫‪ ٦٬١۱‬ﺍاﻟﺘﻨﺎﻗﹸُﺾ‬

‫ﺍا ـﻟﺘﱠـﻨـﹶَﺎﻗﹸُـﺾﹸُ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﺧﹾْـ ﹺِﺘـﻼﹶَﻑفﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻘﹶَـﻀﹺِـﻴﱠـﺘﹶَـﻴـﻦﹺِ ﺑـﹺِﺎﻟﹾْﺎٕ ـﻳﺠـﹶَﺎﺏبﹺِ ‪Contradictory opposition (tanaqud) is‬‬
‫‪for two propositions to differ in affir-‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟ ـﺴﱠ ـﻠﹾْ ـﺐﹺِ ﺑﹺِ ـﺤﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﺚﹸُ ﻳﹶَ ـﻘﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻀﹺِ ـﻲ ﻟﹺِ ـﺬﹶَﺍاﺗﹺِ ـﻪﹺِ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﺗﹶَ ـﻜﹸُ ـﻮﻥنﹶَ ‪mation and negation such that the dif-‬‬
‫‪ference intrinsically implies the truth‬‬
‫ﺧـﺮﹶَﻯى ﻛـﺎﺫذﹺِﺑﹶَـﺔﹰً ‪ .‬ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﺯزﹶَﻳﹾْـﺪﹲٌ ‪of one and the falsity of the other, e.g.,‬‬
‫ﺍإﺣﹾْـﺪﹶَﺍاﻫﹸُـﻤـﹶَﺎ ﺻـﹶَﺎﺩدﹺِﻗﹶَـﺔﹰً ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔ ﹾْ‬
‫‪“Zayd is writing,” and “Zayd is not‬‬
‫”‪writing.‬‬ ‫ﻛﹶَﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹲٌ‪ .‬ﺯزﹶَﻳﹾْﺪﹲٌ ﻟﹶَﻴﹾْﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِﻜﹶَﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹴٍ‪.‬‬

‫‪In order for two propositions to contra-‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﻻﹶَ ﻳﹶَـ ـﺘﹶَـ ـﺤﹶَـ ـﻘﱠـ ـﻖﹸُ ﺫذﻟﹺِـ ـﻚﹶَ ﺍإﻻﱠ ﺑﹶَـ ـﻌﹾْـ ـﺪﹶَ ﺍاﺗﹺِﹼّـ ـﻔﹶَـ ـﺎﻗﹺِـ ـﻬﹺِـ ـﻤﹶَـ ـﺎ ﻓﹺِـ ـﻲ‬
‫‪dict each other, they must be identical‬‬
‫)‪in eight aspects: (1) their subject, (2‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟـ ـﻤﹶَـ ـﻮﹾْﺿﹸُـ ـﻮﻉعﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﻤﹶَـ ـﺤﹾْـ ـﻤﹸُـ ـﻮﻝل ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﺰﱠ ﹶَﻣـ ـﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﻤﹶَـ ـﻜـ ـﺎﻥنﹺِ‬
‫‪their predicate, (3) their time, (4) their‬‬
‫‪place, (5) their relation, (6) their po-‬‬ ‫ﻜـ ـﻞﹺِﹼّ‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﺿﹶَـ ـﺎﻓﹶَـ ـﺔ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـ ـ ﹸُﻘـ ـﻮﹶَﺓةﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـ ـﻔﹺِـ ـﻌﹾْـ ـﻞﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﺠﹸُـ ـﺰﹾْﺀءِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـ ـ ﹸُ‬
‫‪tentiality and actuality, (7) their whole-‬‬
‫‪ness and part-ness, and (8) their‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﺸﱠﺮﹾْﻁطﹺِ‪ .‬ﻧﹶَﺤﹾْﯘ ﺯزﹶَﻳﹾْﺪﹲٌ ﻛﹶَﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹲٌ‪ ،‬ﺯزﹶَﻳﹾْﺪﹲٌ ﻟﹶَﻴﹾْﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِﻜﹶَﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹴٍ ‪.‬‬
‫‪conditions.‬‬
‫‪An example is “Zayd is writing,” and‬‬
‫”‪“Zayd is not writing.‬‬
‫ﻓﹶَـﻨﹶَـﻘﹺِـﻴـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟـﻤﹸُـﻮﺟﹶَـﺒﹶَـﺔﹺِ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻴﱠـﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻧﹶَـﻤﹶَـﺎ ﻫﹺِـﻲﹶَ ﺍاﻟـﺴﱠـﺎﻟﹺِـﺒﹶَـﺔﹸُ ‪The contradiction of an affirmative‬‬
‫‪universally quantified proposition is its‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟ ـﺠﹸُ ـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِ ـﻴﱠ ـﺔﹸُ ﻛﹶَ ـ ﹶَﻘ ـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِ ـﻨﹶَ ـﺎ ﻛﹸُ ـﻞﱡ ﺍإﻧﹾْ ـﺴﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹴٍ ﺣﹶَ ـ ﹶَﻴ ـﻮﺍاﻥنﹲٌ‪ ،‬ﻭوﹶَﺑﹶَ ـﻌﹾْ ـﺾﹸُ ‪corresponding negative particularly‬‬
‫‪quantified proposition. For example,‬‬
‫‪the contradiction of, “Every human is‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻟﹶَﻴﹾْﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِﺤﹶَﻴﹶَﻮﺍاﻥنﹴٍ‪.‬‬
‫‪an animal,” is, “Some human is not an‬‬
‫”‪animal.‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﻧﹶَ ـﻘﹺِ ـﻴ ـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟ ـﺴﱠ ـﺎﻟﹺِ ـﺒﹶَ ـﺔﹺِ ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﻜﹸُ ـﻠﹺِﹼّ ـﻴﱠ ـﺔﹺِ ﺍإﻧﱠ ـﻤﹶَ ـﺎ ﻫﹺِ ـﻲﹶَ ﺍاﻟ ـﻤﹸُ ـﻮﺟﹶَ ـﺒﹶَ ـﺔﹸُ ‪The contradiction of a negative univer-‬‬
‫‪sally quantified proposition is its cor-‬‬
‫ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﻻﹶَ ﺷﹶَـﻲﹾْﺀءﹶَ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﺑﹺِـﺤﹶَـﻴـﹶَﻮﺍاﻥنﹴٍ‪ ،‬ﻭوﹶَﺑﹶَـﻌﹾْـﺾﹸُ ‪responding affirmative particularly‬‬
‫‪quantified proposition. For example,‬‬
‫‪the contradiction of, “No human is an‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﺣﹶَﻴﹶَﻮﺍاﻥنﹲٌ‪.‬‬
‫‪animal,” is, “Some human is an‬‬
‫”‪animal.‬‬

‫‪- 12 -‬‬
‫‪Contradictory opposition between‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﻤﹶَـﺤﹾْـﺼـﹸُﻮﺭرﺗـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻻﹶَ ﻳﹶَـﺘﹶَـﺤﹶَـﻘﱠـﻖﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﺘﱠـﻨـﹶَﺎﻗﹸُـﺾﹸُ ﺑﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻨﹶَـﻬﹸُـﻤـﹶَﺎ ﺍإﻻﱠ‬
‫‪quantified propositions requires that‬‬
‫‪the propositions differ in quantity be-‬‬ ‫ﺑﹶَـﻌﹾْـﺪﹶَ ﺍاﺧﹾْـﺘﹺِـﻼﹶَ ـﻓﻬﹺِـﻤـﹶَﺎ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹶَـﻤﹺِﹼّـﻴﱠـﺔﹺِ ﻟﹺِﺎٔﻥنﱠ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻴﱠـ ـﺘﻴﹾْـﻦﹺِ ﻗﹶَـﺪﹾْ‬
‫‪cause it is possible for two universally‬‬
‫‪quantified propositions to both be false‬‬ ‫ﻛـﻞﱡ ﺍإﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹴٍ ﻛـﹶَﺎﺗﹺِـﺐﹲٌ‪ ،‬ﻭوﹶَﻻﹶَ ﺷﹶَـﻲﹾْﺀءﹶَ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ‬
‫ﻜـﺬﹺِﺑـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﹸُ‬
‫ﺗﹶَـ ﹾْ‬
‫‪at the same time (e.g., “Every human‬‬
‫‪writes,” and “No human writes.”) and‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْ ـﺴﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹺِ ﺑﹺِ ـﻜﹶَ ـﺎﺗﹺِ ـﺐﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟ ـﺠﹸُ ـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِ ـﻴﱠ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﻦﹺِ ﻗﹶَ ـﺪﹾْ ﺗﹶَ ـﺼﹾْ ـﺪﹸُﻗ ـﺎﻥنﹺِ‬
‫‪it is possible for two particularly‬‬
‫‪quantified propositions to both be true‬‬ ‫ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﺑﹶَـﻌﹾْـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻛـﹶَﺎﺗﹺِـﺐﹲٌ‪ ،‬ﻭوﹶَﺑﹶَـﻌﹾْـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ‬
‫‪at the same time (e.g., “Some human‬‬
‫‪writes,” and “Some human does not‬‬ ‫ﻟﹶَﻴﹾْﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِﻜﹶَﺎﺗﹺِﺐﹴٍ‪.‬‬
‫‪write.”).‬‬

‫‪6.2 Conversion‬‬ ‫‪ ٦٬٢۲‬ﺍاﻟﻌﹶَﻜﺲ‬

‫ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﻌﹶَ ـﻜﹾْ ـﺲﹸُ ﻫﹸُ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﻳﹶَ ـﺼﹺِ ـﻴ ـﺮﹶَ ﺍاﻟ ـﻤﹶَ ـﻮﹾْﺿﹸُ ـﻮﻉعﹶَ ﻣﹶَ ـﺤﹾْ ـﻤﹸُ ـﻮﻻﹰً ‪Conversion (‘aks) is the transposition‬‬
‫‪of the subject and predicate in a way‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﻤﹶَـ ـﺤﹾْـ ـﻤﹸُـ ـﻮﻝلﹸُ ﻣﹶَـ ـﻮﹶَﺿﹸُـ ـﻮﻋﹰًـ ـﺎ ﻣﹶَـ ـﻊﹶَ ﺑﹶَـ ـﻘﹶَـ ـﺎﺀءِ ﺍاﻟـ ـﺴﱠـ ـ ﹾْﻠـ ـﺐﹺِ ‪that preserves the proposition’s nega-‬‬
‫‪tion or affirmation as well as its truth‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻳﺠﹶَﺎﺏبﹺِ ﺑﹺِﺤﹶَﺎﻟﹺِﻪﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﺘﱠﺼﹾْﺪﹺِﻳﻖﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﺘﱠﻜﹾْﺬﹺِﻳﺐﹺِ ﺑﹺِﺤﹶَﺎﻟﻪﹺِ ‪or falsity. [h: Commentators explain‬‬
‫‪that mentioning falsity is a mistake in‬‬
‫]‪the original text.‬‬
‫‪The affirmative universally quantified‬‬ ‫ﺼـﺪﹸُﻕقﹸُ‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﻤـﹸُﻮﺟﹶَـﺒﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻴﱠـﺔﹸُ ﻻﹶَ ﺗﹶَـﻨﹾْـﻌﹶَـﻜﹺِـﺲﹸُ ﻛﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻴﱠـﺔﹰً ﺍإﺫذﹾْ ﻳﹶَـ ﹾْ‬
‫‪proposition does not convert to a uni-‬‬
‫‪versally quantified proposition because‬‬ ‫ﻗﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹸُـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﺍإﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹴٍ ﺣﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻻﹶَ ﻳﹶَـﺼﹾْـﺪﹸُﻕقﹸُ ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﺣﹶَـﻴـﹶَﻮﺍاﻥنﹲٌ‬
‫‪it is possible for a proposition like,‬‬
‫‪“All humans are animals,” to be true‬‬ ‫ﺇإﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹲٌ ﺑـﹶَﻞ ﺗﹶَـﻨﹾْـﻌﹶَـﻜﹺِـﺲﹸُ ﺟﹸُـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹰً ﻟﹺِﺎٔﻧﱠـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﺍإﺫذﹶَﺍا ﺍاﻗﹸُـﻠﹾْـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ‬
‫‪without its converse, “All animals are‬‬
‫‪humans,” being true.‬‬ ‫ﺍإﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹴٍ ﺣﹶَـﻴﹶَـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹲٌ ﻳﹶَـﺼﹾْـﺪﹸُﻕقﹸُ ﺑﹶَـﻌﹾْـﺾﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﺤﹶَـﻴﹶَـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹺِ ﺍإﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹲٌ‪،‬‬
‫‪Instead, it converts to a particularly‬‬
‫ﻓﹶَـﺎٕﻧـﱠﺎ ﻧﹶَـﺠﹺِـﺪﹸُ ﺷﹶَـﻴﹾْـﯩـٔﺎ ﹶَﻣـﻮﹾْﺻـﹸُﻮﻓـﹰًﺎ ﺑـﹺِﺎﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺤﹶَـ ﹶَﻴـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹺِ ‪quantified proposition because when-‬‬
‫‪ever a proposition like, “All humans‬‬
‫‪are animals,” is true, its converse,‬‬ ‫ﻓﹶَﻴﹶَﻜﹸُﻮﻥنﹸُ ﺑﹶَﻌﹾْﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﺤﹶَﻴﹶَﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹺِ ﺍإﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻧﹰًﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪“Some animals are humans,” will also‬‬
‫‪be true because the original proposi-‬‬
‫‪tion entails the existence of something‬‬
‫‪that is both a human and an animal.‬‬

‫‪- 13 -‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﻤـﹸُﻮﺟﹶَـﺒﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﺠﹸُـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹸُ ﺍأﻳﹾْـﻀـﹰًﺎ ﺗﹶَـﻨﹾْـﻌﹶَـﻜﹺِـﺲﹸُ ﺟﹸُـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹰً ﺑﹺِـﻬـﺬﹺِﻩهﹺِ ‪The affirmative particularly quantified‬‬
‫‪proposition also converts to a particu-‬‬
‫‪larly quantified proposition by the‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﺤﹸُﺠﱠﺔﹺِ‬
‫‪same reasoning.‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺴـﱠﺎﻟﹺِـﺒﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻴﱠـﺔﹸُ ﺗﹶَـﻨﹾْـﻌﹶَـﻜﹺِـﺲﹸُ ﺳـﹶَﺎﻟﹺِـﺒﹶَـﺔﹰً ﻛﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻴﱠـﺔﹰً‪ ،‬ﻭوﹶَﺫذﻟﹺِـﻚﹶَ ‪The negative universally quantified‬‬
‫‪proposition converts to a negative uni-‬‬
‫ﺻـﺪﹶَﻕقﹶَ ﻻﹶَ ﺷﹶَـﻲﹾْﺀءﹶَ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻥنﹺِ ‪versally quantified proposition. This is‬‬
‫ﺑﹶَـﻴﹺِﹼّـﻦﹲٌ ﺑﹺِـﻨﹶَـﻔﹾْـﺴﹺِـﻪﹺِ ﻟﹺِﺎٔﻧﱠـﻪﹸُ ﺍإﺫذﹶَﺍا ﹶَ‬
‫‪self-evidently true because whenever,‬‬
‫‪“No human is a boulder,” is true, “No‬‬ ‫ﺑﹺِﺤﹶَﺠﹶَﺮﹴٍ‪ ،‬ﺻﹶَﺪﹶَﻕقﹶَ ﻻﹶَ ﺷﹶَﻲﹾْﺀءﹶَ ﻣﹺِﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟﺤﹶَﺠﹶَﺮﹺِ ﺑﹺِﺎٕﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻥنﹴٍ‪.‬‬
‫‪boulder is a human,” must also be true.‬‬
‫ﻜـﺲﹶَ ﻟﹶَـﻬﹶَـﺎ ﻟﹸُـﺰﹸُﻭوﻣﹰًـﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﹶَـﺎٕﻧﱠـﻪﹸُ ‪The negative particularly quantified‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹴٍـﺴﱠـﺎﻟﹺِـﺒﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺍاﻟـﺠﹸُـﺰﹾْﺋﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹸُ ﻻﹶَ ﻋﹶَـ ﹾْ‬
‫‪proposition does not have a converse‬‬
‫ﻳﹶَ ـﺼﹾْ ـﺪﹸُﻕقﹸُ ﺑﹶَ ـﻌﹾْ ـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟ ـﺤﹶَ ـ ﹶَﻴ ـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹺِ ﻟﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎٕﻧﹾْ ـﺴﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹴٍ‪ ،‬ﻭوﹶَﻻﹶَ ‪because it is possible for “Some ani-‬‬
‫‪mal is not human,” to be true without‬‬
‫‪its converse being true.‬‬ ‫ﻳﹶَﺼﹾْﺪﹸُﻕقﹸُ ﻋﹶَﻜﹾْﺴﹸُﻪﹸُ‪.‬‬

‫‪- 14 -‬‬
7. Deductive Arguments ‫ ﺍاﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱس‬.٧۷

A deductive argument (qiyas) is a ْ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻘﹺِـﻴـﺎﺱسﹸُ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﻗﹶَـﻮﹾْﻝلﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـﻮٔﻟﱠـﻒﹲٌ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹾْ ﺍأﻗﹾْـﻮﹶَﺍاﻝلﹴٍ ﻣﹶَـﺘـﹶَﻰ ﺳﹸُـﻠﹺِﹼّـﻤﹶَـﺖﹾ‬
composition of propositions which,
when accepted as true, intrinsically en- . ُ‫ﻟﹶَﺰﹺِﻡمﹶَ ﻋﹶَﻨﹾْﻬﹶَﺎ ﻟﹺِﺬﹶَﺍاﺗﹺِﻬﹶَﺎ ﻗﹶَﻮﹾْﻝلﹲٌ ﺁآﺧﹶَﺮﹸ‬
tails the truth of another proposition.
Deductive arguments are either: (1) ‫ ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﺟﹺِـﺴﹾْـﻢﹴٍ ﻣﹸُـﻮٔﻟﱠـﻒﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ‬:‫ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺍاﻗﹾْـﺘﹺِـﺮﹶَﺍاﻧﹺِـﻲﹲٌ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‬
categorical syllogisms (qiyas iqtirani),
such as, “Every corporeal body (jism) .ٌ‫ﻣﹸُﻮٔﻟﱠﻒﹴٍ ﺣﹶَﺎﺩدﹺِﺙثﹲٌ ﻓﹶَﻜﹸُﻞﱡ ﺟﹺِﺴﹾْﻢﹴٍ ﺣﹶَﺎﺩدﹺِﺙثﹲ‬
is composed and everything that is
composed is created, therefore every
corporeal body is created,”
or: (2) conditional syllogisms (qiyas ً‫ ﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻧﹶَـﺖﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻤﹾْـﺲﹸُ ﻃـﹶَﺎﻟﹺِـﻌﹶَـﺔﹰ‬:‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺍاﺳﹾْـﺘﹺِـﺜﹾْـﻨـﹶَﺎﺋﹺِـﻲﹲٌ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‬
isthithna’i), such as, “If the sun has
risen then it is daytime, but it is not ٍ‫ﻓﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـ ﹶَﻬ ـﺎﺭرﹸُ ﻣﹶَ ـﻮﹾْﺟﹸُ ـﺪﹲٌ ﻟ ـﻜﹺِ ـﻦﹺِ ﺍاﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـ ﹶَﻬ ـﺎﺭرﹸُ ﻟﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِ ـﻤﹶَ ـﻮﹾْﺟﹸُ ـﻮﺩدﹴ‬
daytime, therefore the sun has not
risen.” . ٍ‫ﻓﹶَﺎﻟﺸﱠﻤﹾْﺲﹸُ ﻟﹶَﻴﹾْﺴﹶَﺖﹾْ ﺑﹺِﻄﹶَﺎﻟﹺِﻌﹶَﺔﹴ‬

7.1 Categorical Syllogisms ‫ ﺍاﻟﻘﹺِﻴﺎﺱس ﺍاﻻﻗﺘﹺِﺮﺍاﻧﻲ‬٧۷٬١۱

The term that is repeated in both ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﻤﹸُـﻜﹶَـﺮﱠﺭرﹸُ ﺑﹶَـ ﹾْﻴـﻦﹶَ ﻣﹸُـﻘﹶَـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَـﺘﹶَـﻲﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﻘﹺِـﻴـﹶَﺎﺱسﹺِ ﻳﹸُـﺴﹶَـﻤـﱠﻰ ﺣﹶَـﺪًّﺍا‬
premises of a categorical syllogism is
called the middle term (hadd awsat). .َ‫ ﻭوﹶَ ﹶَﻣـﻮﹾْﺿـﹸُﻮﻉعﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﻤﹶَـﻄﹾْـﻠـﹸُﻮﺏبﹺِ ﻳﹸُـﺴﹶَـﻤـﱠﻰ ﺣﹰًـﺪًّﺍا ﺍأﺻﹾْـ ﹶَﻐـﺮﹶ‬.َ‫ﺳـﻂﹶ‬
َ‫ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﹶ‬
The subject of the conclusion is called
the minor term (hadd asghar). The .َ‫ﻭوﹶَﻣﹶَﺤﹾْﻤﹸُﻮﻟﹸُﻪﹸُ ﻳﹶَﺴﹶَﻤﱠﻰ ﺣﹶَﺪًّﺍا ﺍأﻛﹾْﺒﹶَﺮﹶ‬
predicate of the conclusion is called
the major term (hadd akbar).
The premise that contains the minor ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﻤﹸُـﻘﹶَـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺍاﻟﱠـﺘـﹺِﻲ ﻓﹺِـ ـﻴﻬـﹶَﺎ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﺻﹾْـﻐﹶَـﺮﹸُ ﺗﹸُـﺴﹶَـﻤـﱠﻰ ﺻﹸُـﻐﹾْـﺮﹶَﻯى‬
term is called the minor premise and
the premise that contains the major .‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﱠﺘﹺِﻲ ﻓﹺِﻴﻬﹶَﺎ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻛﹾْﺒﹶَﺮﹸُ ﺗﹸُﺴﹶَﻤﱠﻰ ﻛﹸُﺒﹾْﺮﹶَﻯى‬
term is called the major premise.

- 15 -
‫‪7.1.1 The Figures of the Cate-‬‬ ‫‪ ٧۷٬١۱٬١۱‬ﺃأﺷﻜﺎﻝل ﺍاﻟﻘﹺِﻴﺎﺱس ﺍاﻻﻗﺘﹺِﺮﺍاﻧﻲ‬
‫‪gorical Syllogism‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﻫﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﯩٔ ـﺔﹸُ ﺍاﻟ ـﺘﱠ ـﺄﻟﹺِ ـﻴ ـﻒﹺِ ﺗﹸُ ـﺴﹶَ ـﻤﱠ ـﻰ ﺷﹶَ ـﻜﹾْ ـﻼﹰً‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﺷﹾْ ـﻜ ـﺎﻝلﹸُ ‪The compositional form of the premis-‬‬
‫‪es is called the figure of the categorical‬‬
‫‪syllogism. The categorical syllogism‬‬ ‫ﺍأﺭرﹾْﺑﹶَﻌﹶَﺔﹲٌ‪.‬‬
‫‪has four figures.‬‬
‫‪The first figure is when the middle‬‬ ‫ﻟﹺِﺎٔﻥنﱠ ﺍاﻟ ـ ـﺤﹶَ ـ ـﺪﱠ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﹾْﺳﹶَ ـ ـﻂﹶَ ﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛﹶَ ـ ـﺎﻥنﹶَ ﻣﹾْ ـ ـﺤ ـ ـﻤﹸُ ـ ـﻮﻻﹰً ﻓﹺِ ـ ـﻲ‬
‫‪term is the predicate of the minor‬‬
‫‪premise and the subject of the major‬‬ ‫ﺍا ـﻟﺼﱡـ ﹾْﻐـﺮﹶَﻯى ﻣﹶَـﻮﹾْﺿـﹸُﻮﻋـﹰًﺎ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹸُـ ﹾْﺒـﺮﹶَﻯى ﻓﹶَـﻬﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻜﹾْـﻞﹸُ‬
‫‪premise. The fourth figure is the oppo-‬‬
‫‪site. The third figure is when the mid-‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹸُ‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻥنﹶَ ﺑـﹺِﺎﻟﹾْـﻌﹶَـﻜﹾْـﺲﹺِ ﻓﹶَـﻬﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟـﺮﱠﺍاﺑﹺِـﻊﹸُ‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻥنﹶَ‬
‫‪dle term is the subject in both premis-‬‬
‫‪es. The second figure is when it is the‬‬ ‫ﻣﹶَـﻮﹾْﺿـﹸُﻮﻋـﹰًﺎ ﻓﹺِـ ـﻴﻬﹺِـﻤـﹶَﺎ ﻓﹶَـﻬﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﺜـﱠﺎﻟﹺِـﺚﹸُ‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻥنﹶَ ﻣﹶَـﺤﹾْـﻤـﹸُﻮﻻﹰً‬
‫‪predicate in both premises.‬‬
‫ﻓﹺِﻴﻬﹺِﻤﹶَﺎ ﻓﹶَﻬﹸُﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﺜﱠﺎﻧﹺِﻲ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻜﹾْـﻞﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﺜـﱠﺎﻧـﹺِﻲ ﻣﹺِـﻨﹾْـﻬـﹶَﺎ ﻳﹶَـﺮﹾْﺗﹶَـﺪﱡ ﺍإﻟـﹶَﻰ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹺِ ﺑﹶَـﻌﹶَـﻜﹺِـﺲﹺِ ‪The second figure returns to the first‬‬
‫‪figure through conversion of the major‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜﹸُـﺒﹾْـﺮﹶَﻯى‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺜـﱠﺎﻟﹺِـﺚﹸُ ﻳﹶَـﺮﹾْﺗﹶَـﺪﱡ ﺍإﻟﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻪﹺِ ﺑﹺِـﻌﹶَـﻜﹾْـﺲﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺼﱡـﻐﹾْـﺮﹶَﻯى‪premise. The third figure returns to the .‬‬
‫‪first figure through conversion of the‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـﺮﱠﺍاﺑﹺِـﻊﹸُ ﻳﹶَـﺮﹾْﺗﹶَـﺪﱡ ﺍإﻟﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻪﹺِ ﺑﹺِـﻌﹶَـﻜﹾْـﺲﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺘﹶَـﺮﹾْﺗﹺِـﻴـﺐﹺِ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﺑﹺِـﻌﹶَـﻜﹾْـﺲﹺِ ‪minor premise. The fourth figure re-‬‬
‫‪turns to the first figure by reversing the‬‬
‫‪order or through conversion of both‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﻤﹸُﻘﹶَﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَﺘﹶَﻴﹾْﻦﹺِ ﺟﹶَﻤﹺِﻴﻌﹰًﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪premises.‬‬
‫ﻜـﻞﹸُ ‪The figure that concludes most com-‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْـﻜـﺎ ﹺِﻣـﻞﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﺒﹶَـﻴﹺِﹼّـﻦﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٕﻧﹾْـﺘـﹶَﺎﺝجﹺِ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹸُ‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـ ﹾْ‬
‫‪pletely and most clearly is the first fig-‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟـﺮﱠﺍاﺑﹺِـﻊﹸُ ﻣﹺِـﻨﹾْـﻬـﹶَﺎ ﺑﹶَـﻌﹺِـﻴـﺪﹲٌ ﻋﹶَـﻦﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﻄﱠـﺒﹾْـﻊﹺِ ﺟﹺِـﺪًّﺍا‪ .‬ﻭوﺍا ﱠﻟـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻟﹶَـﻪﹸُ ‪ure. The fourth figure is extremely un-‬‬
‫‪natural to reason with. Someone with a‬‬
‫ﻃﹶَـﺒﹾْـﻊﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـﺴﹾْـﺘﹶَـﻘﹺِـﻴـﻢﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻋﹶَـﻘﹾْـﻞﹲٌ ﺳﹶَـﻠﹺِـﻴـﻢﹲٌ ﻻﹶَ ﻳﹶَـﺤﹾْـﺘـﹶَﺎﺝجﹸُ ﺍإﻟـﹶَﻰ ﺭرﹶَﺩدﹺِﹼّ ‪sound nature and intellect will not‬‬
‫‪need to return the second figure to the‬‬
‫‪first.‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﺜﱠﺎﻧﹺِﻲ ﺍإﻟﹶَﻰ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹺِ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻧﱠ ـﻤﹶَ ـﺎ ﻳﹸُ ـﻨﹾْ ـﺘﹺِ ـﺞﹸُ ﺍاﻟ ـﺜﱠ ـﺎﻧﹺِ ـﻲ ﻋﹺِ ـﻨﹾْ ـﺪﹶَ ﺍاﺧﹾْ ـﺘﹺِ ـﻼﹶَﻑفﹺِ ﻣﹸُ ـﻘﹶَ ـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻴﹾْ ـﻪﹺِ ‪The second figure only concludes‬‬
‫‪when its premises differ in affirmation‬‬
‫‪and negation.‬‬ ‫ﺑﹺِﺎﻟﹾْﺎٕﻳﺠﹶَﺎﺏبﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﺴﱠﻠﹾْﺐﹺِ‪.‬‬

‫‪- 16 -‬‬
‫ﻫـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﱠـﺬﹺِﻱي ﻳﹸُـﺠﹾْـﻌﹶَـﻞﹸُ ﻣﹺِـﻌﹶَـﻴـﹶَﺎﺭرﹰًﺍا ﻟﹺِـﻠﹾْـﻌﹸُـﻠـﹸُﻮﻡمﹺِ ‪The first figure is the criterion of the‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻜﹾْـﻞﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹸُ ﹸُ‬
‫‪knowledge of conclusions so we will‬‬
‫ﻓﹶَ ـ ﹶَﻨ ـﻮﺭرﹺِﺩدﹸُﻩهﹸُ ﻟﹺِ ـﻴﹸُ ـﺠﹾْ ـ ﹶَﻌ ـﻞﹶَ ﺩدﹸُﺳﹾْ ـﺘﹸُ ـﻮﺭرﹰًﺍا ﻭوﹶَﻟ ـﻴﹸُ ـﺴﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻨﹾْ ـﺘﹶَ ـﺞﹶَ ﻣﹺِ ـﻨﹾْ ـﻪﹸُ ‪describe it in order for it to be an‬‬
‫‪example from which the details of oth-‬‬
‫ﺍا ـﻟﻤﹶَـﻄـﹶَﺎﻟﹺِـﺐﹸُ ﻛﹸُـﻠﱡـﻬـﹶَﺎ‪ .‬ﻭوﹶَﺷﹶَـﺮﹾْﻁطﹸُ ﺍإﻧﹾْـﺘـﹶَﺎﺟﹺِـﻪﹺِ ﺍإ ـﻳﺠـﹶَﺎﺏبﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﺼﱡـ ﹾْﻐـﺮﹶَﻯى ‪er figures can be concluded. The con-‬‬
‫‪dition of its having a conclusion is that‬‬
‫‪the minor premise be affirmative and‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُﻠﹺِﹼّﻴﱠﺔﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﻜﹸُﺒﹾْﺮﹶَﻯى‪.‬‬
‫‪the major premise be universally‬‬
‫‪quantified.‬‬
‫‪It has four concluding modes:‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺿﹸُﺮﹸُﻭو ﺑﹸُﻪﹸُ ﺍاﻟﻤﹸُﻨﹾْﺘﹺِﺠﹶَﺔﹸُ ﺍأﺭرﹾْﺑﹶَﻌﹶَﺔﹲٌ‪:‬‬
‫‪(1) “Every corporeal body is com-‬‬
‫ﺴـﻢﹺِ ﻣﹸُـﻮٔ ﱠﻟـﻒﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُـﻞﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـﻮٔ ﱠﻟـﻒﹴٍ ‪posed and everything that is composed‬‬
‫ﺍا ـﻟﻀﱠـﺮﹾْﺏبﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﻭوﱠﻝلﹸُ‪ :‬ﻛﹶَـﻞﱡ ﺟﹺِـ ﹾْ‬
‫‪is created, therefore every corporeal‬‬
‫”‪body is created,‬‬ ‫ﻣﹸُﺤﹾْﺪﹶَﺙثﹲٌ ﻓﹶَﻜﹸُﻞﱡ ﺟﹺِﺴﹾْﻢﹴٍ ﻣﹸُﺤﹾْﺪﹶَﺙثﹲٌ‪.‬‬
‫‪(2) “Every corporeal body is com-‬‬
‫ﺍا ـﻟﺜـﱠﺎﻧـﹺِﻲ‪ :‬ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﺟﹺِـﺴﹾْـﻢﹴٍ ﻣﹸُـﻮٔﻟﱠـﻒﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻻﹶَ ﺷﹶَـﻲﹾْﺀء ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﻤﹸُـﻮٔﻟﱠـﻒﹺِ ‪posed and nothing that is composed is‬‬
‫‪beginningless, therefore no corporeal‬‬
‫”‪body is beginningless,‬‬ ‫ﺑﹺِﻘﹶَﺪﹺِﻳﻢﹴٍ‪ ،‬ﻓﹶَﻼﹶَ ﺷﹶَﻲﹾْﺀءﹶَ ﻣﹺِﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺠﹺِﺴﹾْﻢﹺِ ﺑﹺِﻘﹶَﺪﻳﻢﹴٍ‪.‬‬
‫‪(3) “Some corporeal body is composed‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟ ـﺜﱠ ـﺎﻟﹺِ ـﺚﹸُ‪ :‬ﺑﹶَ ـﻌﹾْ ـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﺠﹺِ ـﺴﹾْ ـﻢﹺِ ﹸُﻣ ـﻮٔﻟﱠ ـﻒﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُ ـﻞﱡ ﹸُﻣ ـﺆﹼّﻟﹺِ ـﻒﹴٍ ‪and everything that is composed is cre-‬‬
‫‪ated, therefore some corporeal body is‬‬
‫‪created,” and‬‬ ‫ﺣﹶَﺎﺩدﹺِﺙثﹲٌ ﻓﹶَﺒﹶَﻌﹾْﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺠﹺِﺴﹾْﻢﹺِ ﺣﹶَﺎﺩدﹺِﺙثﹲٌ‪.‬‬
‫‪(4) “Some corporeal body is composed‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟ ـﺮﱠﺍاﺑﹺِ ـﻊﹸُ‪ :‬ﺑﹶَ ـ ﹾْﻌ ـﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْ ـﺠﹺِ ـﺴﹾْ ـﻢﹺِ ﻣﹸُ ـﻮٔﻟﱠ ـﻒﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻻﹶَ ﺷﹶَ ـﻲﹾْﺀءﹶَ ﻣﹺِ ـﻦﹶَ ‪and nothing that is composed is begin-‬‬
‫‪ningless, therefore some corporeal‬‬
‫”‪body is not beginningless.‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﻤﹸُﻮٔﻟﱠﻒﹺِ ﺑﹺِﻘﹶَﺪﹺِﻳﻢﹴٍ ﻓﹶَﺒﹶَﻌﹾْﺾﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺠﹺِﺴﹾْﻢﹺِ ﻟﹶَﻴﹾْﺲﹶَ ﺑﹺِﻘﹶَﺪﹺِﻳﻢﹴٍ‪.‬‬

‫‪7.1.2 Premises of the Categori-‬‬ ‫‪ ٧۷٬١۱٬٢۲‬ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺍاﻟﻘﹺِﻴﺎﺱس ﺍاﻻﻗﺘﹺِﺮﺍاﻧﻲ‬

‫‪cal Syllogism‬‬

‫ﻛ ـ ـﺐﹶَ ﻣﹺِ ـ ـﻦﹾْ )‪A categorical syllogism is either: (1‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْ ـ ـﻘﹺِ ـ ـﻴﹶَ ـ ـﺎﺱسﹸُ ﺍاﻻِﻗﹾْ ـ ـﺘﹺِ ـ ـﺮﹶَﺍاﻧﹺِ ـ ـﻲﱡ ﺍإﻣﱠ ـ ـﺎ ﺍأﻥنﹾْ ﻳﹶَ ـ ـﺘﹶَ ـ ـﺮﹶَ ﱠ‬
‫‪composed of two categorical proposi-‬‬
‫;‪tions as in the examples shown above‬‬ ‫ﺣﹶَﻤﹾْﻠﹺِﻴﱠﺘﻴﹾْﻦﹺِ ﻛﹶَﻤﹶَﺎ ﻣﹶَﺮﱠ‬

‫‪- 17 -‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹾْ ﻣﹸُـﺘﱠـﺼﹺِـﻠﹶَـﺘﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻦﹺِ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻧﹶَـﺖﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻤﹾْـﺲﹸُ ‪or: (2) composed of two conjunctive‬‬
‫‪conditional propositions, e.g., “If the‬‬
‫ﻃﹶَ ـﺎﻟﹺِ ـﻌﹶَ ـﺔﹰً ﻓﹶَ ـﺎﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـﻬﹶَ ـﺎﺭرﹸُ ﻣﹶَ ـﻮﹾْﺟﹸُ ـﻮﺩدﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُ ـﻠﱠ ـﻤﹶَ ـﺎ ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﻥنﹶَ ﺍاﻟ ـﻨﱠ ـﻬﹶَ ـﺎﺭرﹸُ ‪sun has risen, then it is daytime and‬‬
‫‪whenever it is daytime, the earth is il-‬‬
‫ﻣﹶَـ ـﻮﹾْﺟﹸُـ ـﻮﺩدﹰًﺍا ﻓـ ـﺎﻟﹾْﺎٔﺭرﹾْﺽضﹸُ ﻣﹸُـ ـﻀﹺِـ ـﻴـ ـﯩٔـ ـﺔﹲٌ ﻳﹸُـ ـﻨﹾْـ ـﺘﹺِـ ـﺞﹸُ ﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛﹶَـ ـﺎﻧﹶَـ ـﺖﹺِ ‪luminated therefore if the sun has‬‬
‫”‪risen, the earth is illuminated,‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟﺸﱠﻤﹾْﺲﹸُ ﻃﹶَﺎﻟﹺِﻌﹶَﺔﹰً ﻓﹶَﺎﻟﹾْﺎٔﺭرﹾْﺽضﹸُ ﻣﹸُﻀﹺِﻴﯩٔﺔﹲٌ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﻣﹸُـﺮﹶَﻛﱠـﺐﹲٌ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹶَ ﻣﹸُـﻨﹾْـﻔﹶَـﺼﹺِـﻠﹶَـﺘﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻦﹺِ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﻋﹶَـﺪﹶَﺩدﹴٍ ﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ‪or: (3) composed of two disjunctive‬‬
‫‪conditional syllogisms, e.g., “Every‬‬
‫ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹲٌ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻓﹶَ ـﺮﹾْﺩدﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﻛﹸُ ـﻞﱡ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹴٍ ﻓﹶَ ـﻬﹸُ ـﻮﹶَ ﺍإﻣﱠ ـﺎ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹺِ ﺍاﻟ ـﺰﱠﻭوﹾْﺝجﹺِ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ‪number is either even or odd and every‬‬
‫‪even number is either the double of an‬‬
‫ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻔﹶَـﺮﹾْﺩدﹺِ ﻳﹸُـﻨﹾْـﺘﹺِـﺞﹶَ ﻛﹸُـﻞﱡ ﻋﹶَـﺪﹶَﺩدﹴٍ ﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﻓﹶَـﺮﹾْﺩدﹲٌ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹸُ ﺍاﻟـﺰﱠﻭوﹾْﺝجﹸُ ‪even number or the double of an odd‬‬
‫‪number therefore every number is ei-‬‬
‫‪ther an odd number or the double of an‬‬ ‫ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹸُ ﺍاﻟﹾْﻔﹶَﺮﹾْﺩدﹺِ‪.‬‬
‫‪even number or the double of an odd‬‬
‫”‪number.‬‬

‫‪7.2 Conditional Syllogisms‬‬ ‫‪ ٧۷٬٢۲‬ﺍاﻟﻘﹺِﻴﺎﺱس ﺍاﻻﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ‬

‫‪If the conditional premise of a condi-‬‬ ‫ﻃﻴـﺔﹸُ ﺇإﻥن ﻛـﺎﻧـﺖ‬

‫‪tional syllogism is conjunctive, then‬‬
‫‪affirming the antecedent entails the‬‬
‫‪consequent, e.g., “If this thing is a‬‬
‫‪human then it is an animal but it is, in‬‬
‫‪fact, a human, therefore it is an ani-‬‬
‫‪mal,” and denying the consequent en-‬‬
‫‪tails a denial of the antecedent, e.g., “If‬‬
‫‪this thing is a human then it is an ani-‬‬
‫‪mal, but it is not an animal, therefore it‬‬
‫”‪is not a human.‬‬
‫ﺳﺘﺜﻨـﺎﺋـﻲ ﻓـﺎ ـﻟﺸـﱠﺮ ـ‬
‫ﻟﻘﻴـﺎﺱس ﺍاﻻ ـ ـ ـ‬
‫ﻭوﺃأﻣـﺎ ﺍا ـ ـ‬
‫ﻣﹸُ ـﺘﱠ ـﺼﹺِ ـﻠ ـﺔﹰً ﻓ ـﺎﺳ ـﺘﹺِ ـﺜ ـﻨ ـﺎﺀءﹸُ ﻋﹶَ ـﻴ ـﻦﹺِ ﺍاﻟ ـﻤﹸُ ـﻘﹶَ ـﺪﱠﻡم ﻳ ـﻨ ـﺘﹸُ ـﺞﹸُ ﻋﹶَ ـﻴ ـﻦﹶَ‬
‫ﺍا ـﻟﺘـﱠﺎﻟـﻲ ﻛﹶَـﻘـﹶَﻮﻟﹺِـﻨـﺎ ﺇإﻥن ﻛـﺎﻧﹶَـﺖﹾْ ﻫـﺬﺍا ﺍا ـﻟﺸـﱠﻲﺀءﹸُ ﺇإ ـﻧﺴـﺎﻧـﺎ ـﻓﻬـﻮ‬
‫ﺣﹶَ ـﻴﹶَ ـﻮﺍاﻥنﹲٌ ﻟ ـﻜﹺِ ـﻨﱠ ـﻪﹸُ ﺇإﻧ ـﺴ ـﺎﻥنﹲٌ ﻓﹶَ ـﻬﹸُ ـﻮ ﺣﹶَ ـﻴﹶَ ـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﺳﹾْ ـﺘﹺِ ـﺜﹾْ ـﻨﹶَ ـﺎﺀءﹸُ‬
‫ﻘﻴـﺾﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﻤﹸُـﻘﹶَـﺪﱠﻡمﹺِ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﺍإﻥنﹾْ‬
‫ﻧﹶَـﻘﹺِـﻴـﺾﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺘـﱠﺎﻟـﹺِﻲ ﻳﹸُـﻨﹾْـﺘﹾْـﺞﹸُ ﻧﹶَـ ـ‬
‫ﻛـﹶَﺎﻥنﹶَ ﻫـﺬﹶَﺍا ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻲﹾْﺀءﹸُ ﺍإﻧﹾْـﺴـﹶَﺎﻧـﹰًﺎ ﻓﹶَـﻬﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺣﹶَـﻴﹶَـﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹲٌ ـﻟﻜﹺِـﻨﱠـﻪﹸُ ﻟﹶَـﻴﹾْـﺲﹶَ‬

‫ﺑﹺِﺤﹶَﻴﹶَﻮﹶَﺍاﻥنﹴٍ ﻓﹶَﻼﹶَ ﻳﹶَﻜﹸُﻮﻥنﹸُ ﺍإﻧﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻧﹰًﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪- 18 -‬‬
‫‪If the conditional premise of a condi-‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍإﻥنﹾْ ﻛـﹶَﺎﻧﹶَـﺖﹾْ ﻣﹸُـﻨﹾْـﻔﹶَـﺼﹺِـﻠﹶَـﺔﹰً ﺣﹶَـﻘﹺِـ ـﻴﻘﹺِـﻴﱠـﺔﹰً ﻓـﹶَﺎﺳﹾْـﺘﹺِـﺜﹾْـﻨـﹶَﺎﺀءﹸُ ﻋﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻦﹺِ‬
‫‪tional syllogism is disjunctive and‬‬
‫‪strongly exclusive then (1) affirming‬‬ ‫ﺍأﺣﹶَـﺪﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﺠﹸُـﺰﹾْﺀءﹶَﻳﹾْـﻦﹺِ ﻳﹸُـﻨﹾْـﺘﹺِـﺞﹸُ ﻧﹶَـﻘﹺِـﻴـﺾﹶَ ﺍا ـﻟﺠﹸُـﺰﹾْﺀءِ ﺍا ـﻟﺜـﱠﺎﻧـﹺِﻲ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‬
‫‪one of the two terms entails the denial‬‬
‫‪of the other, e.g., “Numbers are either‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﹾْـﻌﹶَـﺪﹶَﺩدﹸُ ﺍإﻣـﱠﺎ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹲٌ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻓﹶَـﺮﹾْﺩدﹲٌ ـﻟﻜﹺِـﻨﱠـﻪﹸُ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹲٌ ﻳﹸُـﻨﹾْـﺘﹺِـﺞﹸُ ﺍأﻧﱠـﻪﹸُ ﻟﹶَـﻴﹾْـﺲﹶَ‬
‫‪even or odd and this number is even‬‬
‫‪therefore it is not odd,” and (2) deny-‬‬ ‫ﺑﹺِـ ـﻔﹶَـ ـﺮﹾْﺩدﹴٍ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻟـ ـﻜﹺِـ ـﻨﱠـ ـﻪﹸُ ﻓﹶَـ ـﺮﹾْﺩدﹲٌ ﻳﹸُـ ـﻨﹾْـ ـﺘﹺِـ ـﺞﹸُ ﺍأﻧﱠـ ـﻪﹸُ ﻟﹶَـ ـﻴﹾْـ ـﺲﹶَ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺟﹰًـ ـﺎ‬
‫‪ing one of the two terms entails the af-‬‬
‫‪firmation of the other.‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﺳﹾْﺘﹺِﺜﹾْﻨﹶَﺎﺀءﹸُ ﻧﹶَﻘﹺِﻴﺾﹺِ ﺍأﺣﹶَﺪﹺِﻫﹺِﻤﹶَﺎ ﻳﹸُﻨﹾْﺘﹺِﺞﹸُ ﻋﹶَﻴﹾْﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟﺜﱠﺎﻧﹺِﻲ‪.‬‬

‫‪- 19 -‬‬
‫‪8. The Matter of Deductive‬‬ ‫‪ .٨۸‬ﻣﹶَﻮﺍاﺩدﱡ ﺍاﻷﻗﻴﹺِﺴﺔ‬
‫‪Arguments‬‬

‫‪There are [h: six] kinds of propositions‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْﻴﹶَﻘﹺِﻴﻨﹺِﻴﱠﺎﺕتﹸُ ﺍأﻗﹾْﺴﹶَﺎﻡمﹲٌ‪:‬‬

‫‪that noninferentially afford certain‬‬
‫‪knowledge.‬‬
‫ﺍأﺣﹶَـﺪﹸُﻫـﹶَﺎ ﺍأﻭوﱠﻟﹺِـﻴـﱠﺎﺕتﹲٌ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﺍاﻟـﻮﹶَﺍاﺣﹺِـﺪﹸُ ﻧﹺِـﺼﹾْـﻒﹸُ ﺍاﻻِﺛﹾْـﻨﹶَـﻴﹾْـﻦﹺِ ‪(1) Basic judgments (awwaliyyat),‬‬
‫‪such as, “one is half of two,” and “the‬‬
‫”‪whole is greater than the part.‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْﻜﹸُﻞﱡ ﺍأﻋﹾْﻈﹶَﻢﹸُ ﻣﹺِﻦﹶَ ﺍاﻟﺠﹸُﺰﹾْﺀءِ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﻣﹸُـﺸـﹶَﺎﻫﹶَـﺪﹶَﺍاﺕتﹲٌ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﺍا ـﻟﺸﱠـﻤﹾْـﺲﹸُ ﻣﹸُـﺸﹾْـﺮﹺِﻗﹶَـﺔﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﺍا ـﻟﻨـﱠﺎﺭرﹸُ ‪(2) Observational judgments (musha-‬‬
‫”‪hadat), such as, “the sun is shining,‬‬
‫”‪and “the fire is burning.‬‬ ‫ﻣﹸُﺤﹾْﺮﹺِﻗﹶَﺔﹲٌ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﻣﹸُﺠﹶَﺮﱠﺑﹶَﺎﺕتﹲٌ ﻛﹶَﻘﹶَﻮﹾْﻟﹺِﻨﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﺍاﻟﺴﱠﻘﹶَﻤﹸُﻮﻧﹺِﻴﹶَﺎ ﻣﹸُﺴﹶَﻬﹺِﹼّﻠﹶَﺔﹲٌ ﻟﹺِﻠﺼﱠﻔﹾْﺮﹶَﺍاﺀءِ‪(3) Tested judgments (mujarrabat), .‬‬

‫‪such as, “Sagmunya relieves yellow-‬‬
‫”‪sickness.‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺣﹶَـﺪﹾْﺳﹺِـﻴـﱠﺎﺕتﹲٌ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﻧـﹸُﻮﺭرﹸُ ﺍا ـﻟﻘﹶَـﻤﹶَـﺮﹺِ ﻣﹸُـﺴﹾْـﺘﹶَـﻔـﹶَﺎﺩدﹲٌ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹾْ ﻧـﹸُﻮﺭرﹺِ ‪(4) Intuited judgments (hadsiyyat),‬‬
‫‪such as, “the light of the moon comes‬‬
‫”‪from the light of the sun.‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻟﺸﱠﻤﹾْﺲﹺِ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﻣﹸُ ـﺘﹶَ ـﻮﹶَﺍاﺗﹺِ ـﺮﹶَﺍاﺕتﹲٌ ﻛﹶَ ـﻘﹶَ ـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِ ـﻨﹶَ ـﺎ‪ :‬ﻣﹸُ ـﺤﹶَ ـﻤﱠ ـﺪﹲٌ ﺻ ـﻠ ـﻰ ﺍاﻟ ـﻠ ـﻪ ﻋ ـﻠ ـﻴ ـﻪ ‪(5) Mass-transmitted observations‬‬
‫‪(mutawatirat), such as, “Muhammad‬‬
‫ﺠـﺰﹶَﺓةﹸُ ﻋﹶَـﻠـﹶَﻰ ﻳﹶَـﺪﹺِﻩهﹺِ )‪(Allah bless him and give him peace‬‬
‫ﺳﻠـﻢ ﺍاﺩدﱠﻋـﻰ ﺍا ـﻟﻨﱡـﺒﹸُـﻮﱠﺓةﹶَ‪ ،‬ﻭوﹶَﻇﹶَـ ﹶَﻬـﺮﹶَﺕتﹺِ ﺍا ـﻟﻤﹸُـﻌﹾْـ ﹺِ‬
‫ﻭو ـ‬
‫‪claimed prophecy and manifested‬‬
‫”‪miracles.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﻗﹶَـﻀـﹶَﺎﻳـﹶَﺎ ﻗﹺِـﻴـﹶَﺎﺳـﹶَﺎﺗﹸُـﻬـﹶَﺎ ﻣﹶَـﻌﹶَـﻬـﹶَﺎ ﻛﹶَـﻘﹶَـﻮﹾْﻟﹺِـﻨـﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﺍاﻟﹾْﺎٔﺭرﹾْﺑﹶَـﻌﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﺯزﹶَﻭوﹾْﺝجﹲٌ ‪(6) Subconsciously inferred judgments‬‬
‫‪(qadaya qiyasatuha ma‘aha), such as,‬‬
‫ﺑﹺِـﺴﹶَـﺒﹶَـﺐﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﺳﹶَـﻂﹴٍ ﺣـﹶَﺎﺿﹺِـﺮﹴٍ ﻓـﹺِﻲ ﺍاﻟـﺬﹺِﹼّﻫﹾْـﻦﹺِ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻻِﻧﹾْـﻘﹺِـﺴـﹶَﺎﻡمﹸُ ‪“four is an even number,” which is‬‬
‫‪deduced via an intermediary premise‬‬
‫‪present in the mind, namely, that four‬‬ ‫ﺑﹺِﻤﹸُﺘﹶَﺴﹶَﺎﻭوﹺِﻳﹶَﻴﹾْﻦﹺِ‪.‬‬
‫‪can be divided into two equal parts.‬‬

‫‪- 20 -‬‬
‫‪9. The Five Arts‬‬ ‫‪ .٩۹‬ﺍاﻟﺼﹼّﹺِﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕتﹸُ ﺍاﻟﺨﹶَﻤﺲ‬

‫ﺍاﻟﹾْـﺒﹸُـﺮﹾْﻫـﹶَﺎﻥنﹸُ ﻫﹸُـﻮﹶَ ﻗﹺِـﻴـﹶَﺎﺱسﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـﻮٔﻟﱠـﻒﹲٌ ﹺِﻣـﻦﹾْ ﻣﹸُـﻘﹶَـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣـﹶَﺎﺕتﹴٍ ﻳﹶَـﻘﹺِـ ـﻴﻨﹺِـﻴـﺔﹴٍ ‪Proof (burhan) is a syllogism that is‬‬
‫‪composed of certain premises and thus‬‬
‫‪affords certain conclusions.‬‬ ‫ﻟﹺِﺎٕﻧﹾْﺘﹶَﺎﺝجﹺِ ﺍاﻟﹾْﻴﹶَﻘﹺِﻴﻨﹺِﻴﱠﺎﺕتﹺِ‪.‬‬

‫ﻫـ ـﻮﹶَ ﻗﹺِـ ـﻴﹶَـ ـﺎﺱسﹲٌ ﹸُﻣـ ـﻮٔﻟﱠـ ـﻒﹲٌ ﻣﹺِـ ـﻦﹾْ ﻣﹸُـ ـﻘﹶَـ ـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَـ ـﺎﺕتﹴٍ ‪Dialectics (jadal) is a syllogism com-‬‬‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﺠﹶَـ ـﺪﹶَﻝلﹸُ ﻭوﹶَ ﹸُ‬
‫‪posed of premises that are well-known‬‬
‫ﻤـ ـﺔﹴٍ ﻋﹺِـ ـﻨﹾْـ ـﺪﹶَ ﺍاﻟـ ـﻨﱠـ ـﺎﺱسﹺِ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻋﹺِـ ـﻨﹾْـ ـﺪﹶَ ‪or accepted among the generality of‬‬
‫ﻣﹶَـ ـﺸﹾْـ ـ ﹸُﻬـ ـﻮﺭرﹶَﺓةﹴٍ ﺃأﻭو ﻣﹸُـ ـﺴﹶَـ ـﻠﱠـ ـ ﹶَ‬
‫‪people or between the two disputing‬‬
‫ﺍاﻟﺨﹶَﺼﹾْﻤﹶَﻴﹾْﻦﹺِ ﻛﹶَﻘﹶَﻮﹾْﻟﹺِﻨﹶَﺎ‪ :‬ﺍاﻟﹾْﻌﹶَﺪﹾْﻝلﹸُ ﺣﹶَﺴﹶَﻦﹲٌ ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﻈﱡﻠﹸُﻢﹸُ ﻗﹶَﺒﹺِﻴﺢﹲٌ‪parties, e.g., “Justice is good,” and .‬‬
‫”‪“Oppression is bad.‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟ ـﺨﹶَ ـﻄﹶَ ـﺎﺑﹶَ ـﺔﹸُ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹺِ ـﻲﹶَ ﻗﹺِ ـﻴﹶَ ـﺎﺱسﹲٌ ﻣﹸُ ـﻮٔﻟﱠ ـﻒﹲٌ ﻣﹺِ ـﻦﹾْ ﻣﹸُ ـﻘﹶَ ـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَ ـﺎﺕتﹴٍ ‪Rhetoric (khataba) is a syllogism that‬‬
‫‪is composed of premises that are ac-‬‬
‫‪cepted because they are presented by‬‬ ‫ﻣﹶَﻘﹾْﺒﹸُﻮﻟﹶَﺔﹴٍ ﻣﹺِﻦﹾْ ﺷﹶَﺨﹾْﺺﹴٍ ﻣﹸُﻌﹾْﺘﹶَﻘﹶَﺪﹴٍ ﻓﹺِﻴﻪﹺِ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻣﹶَﻈﹾْﻨﹸُﻮﻧﹶَﺔﹴٍ‪.‬‬
‫‪someone who one admires or a syllo-‬‬
‫‪gism that is composed of probabilistic‬‬
‫‪premises.‬‬
‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـ ـﺸﹺِﹼّـ ـﻌﹾْـ ـﺮﹸُ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹸُـ ـﻮﹶَ ﻗﹺِـ ـﻴﹶَـ ـﺎﺱسﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـ ـﻮٔﻟﱠـ ـﻒﹲٌ ﹺِﻣـ ـﻦﹾْ ﻣﹸُـ ـﻘﹶَـ ـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَـ ـﺎﺕتﹴٍ ‪Poetics (shi‘r) is a syllogism that is‬‬
‫‪composed of imagined premises that‬‬
‫‪one is attracted to or repulsed from.‬‬ ‫ﻣﹸُﺘﹶَﺨﹶَﻴﱠﻠﹶَﺔﹴٍ ﺗﹶَﻨﹾْﺒﺴﹺِﻂﹸُ ﻣﹺِﻨﹾْﻬﹶَﺎ ﺍاﻟﻨﱠﻔﹾْﺲﹸُ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﺗﹶَﻨﹾْﻘﹶَﺒﹺِﺾﹸُ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟـﻤﹸُـﻐﹶَـﺎﻟﹶَـﻄﹶَـﺔﹸُ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹺِـﻲﹶَ ﻗﹺِـﻴﹶَـﺎﺱسﹲٌ ﻣﹸُـﻮٔﻟﱠـﻒﹲٌ ﻣﹺِـﻦﹾْ ﻣﹶَـﻘﹶَـﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَـﺎﺕتﹴٍ ‪Fallacious reasoning (mughalata) is a‬‬
‫‪syllogism composed of false premises‬‬
‫ﻛﹶَ ـﺎﺫذﹺِﺑﹶَ ـﺔﹴٍ ﺷﹶَ ـﺒﹺِ ـﻴ ـﻬﹶَ ـﺔﹴٍ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟﹾْ ـﺤﹶَ ـﻖﹺِﹼّ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﺑﹺِ ـﺎﻟﹾْ ـﻤﹶَ ـﺸﹾْ ـﻬﹸُ ـﻮﺭرﹺِ ﺍأﻭوﹾْ ﻣﹺِ ـﻦﹾْ ‪that resemble true or well-known‬‬
‫‪premises or of baseless false premises.‬‬
‫ﻣﹸُﻘﹶَﺪﹺِﹼّﻣﹶَﺎﺕتﹴٍ ﻭوﹶَﻫﹾْﻤﹺِﻴﱠﺔﹴٍ ﻛﹶَﺎﺫذﹺِﺑﹶَﺔﹴٍ‬

‫‪The only reliable argument is proof.‬‬ ‫ﻭوﹶَﺍاﻟﹾْﻌﹸُﻤﹾْﺪﹶَﺓةﹸُ ﻫﹸُﻮﹶَ ﺍاﻟﹾْﺒﹸُﺮﹾْﻫﹶَﺎﻥنﹸُ ﻻﹶَ ﻏﹶَﻴﹾْﺮﹸُ ‪.‬‬

‫‪The end.‬‬ ‫ﺍاﻧﹾْﺘﹶَﻬﻰ‪.‬‬

‫‪- 21 -‬‬