Throughout time, thoughts and ideas of life have been formed, stretching from abiogenesis and

spontaneous generation to the modern cell theory.  Here is a brief overview of the progression of
thoughts that have contributed to today's cell theory. The list tabulates key events in scientific
history and explores the profile of influential scientists and philosophers, who have contribute to
the Cell Theory.

Early ideas on Origins of the Cell Theory

ANAXIMANDER
A member of the Greeks in the sixth century B.C. who resided on the Ionian Islands. He is credited with coming up with the
primary thoughts of evolution. His perspective was that creatures from the sea were forced to come ashore, thereby evolving
into land creatures.

PLATO
Plato did not directly aid in the progress of biological thinking. His view was not experimental, but more philosophical. Many of
his students went on to influence the progression of biological studies in the field of classification.

THE ATOMISTS
The most noted of this group of Greek philosophers was Democritus (460 - 370 B.C.). He followed Anaximander's view of
evolution. Democritus is credited as being the father of atomic theory which connects directly to biology. One important theory
of his was simply that if you have nothing, nothing may be created out of it.

ARISTOTLE
Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.) was known for his experimental approach and numerous dissections. He was drawn to animal
classification in order to discover aspects of connection between the soul and the human body. Some of his animal
classifications still stand today. One of his famous thoughts is a foreshadowing of Mendelian genetic concepts:

"It is evident that there must be something or other really existing, corresponding to what we call by the name of
Nature. For a given germ does not give rise to any random living being, nor spring from any chance one, but each
germ springs from a definite parent and gives rise to a predictable progeny. And thus it is the germ that is the ruling
influence and fabricator of the offspring."
The DARK AGES
Following the Greeks, there was a downfall in scientific thought. This decline is usually attributed to the Christian Church, and
the power shift to the "barbaric" tribes.

LEONARDO DA VINCI,  RENE DESCARTES, and  WILLIAM HARVEY

These three scientific figures, thought not all living during the same time period, can be accredited with much of the
advancement of anatomical thought following the Dark Ages, such as discovering the circulation of blood.

The  MICROSCOPE
This instrument opened up new doors in the field of biology, by allowing scientists to gaze into a new world: the cellular world.
Galileo is credited with the invention of the microscope. Two of the main pioneers in microscope usage were Athanasius
Kircher and Antonie von Leeuwenhoek.

ROBERT  HOOKE
This English naturalist (1635 - 1703) coined the term "cell" after viewing slices of cork through a microscope. The term came
from the Latin word cella which means "storeroom" or "small container". He documented his work in the Micrographia, written
in 1665.

JEAN BAPTISTE  de  LAMARCK

The majority of this Frenchman's work (1744 - 1829) dealt with animal classification and evolution. He is credited with taking
steps towards the creation of the cell theory with this saying:
            "Every step which Nature takes when making her direct creations consists in organizing
             into cellular tissue the minute masses of viscous or mucous substances that she finds
             at her disposal under favorable circumstances."

The CELL:  an INDIVIDUAL UNIT of LIFE

In 1824, Rene Dutrochet discovered that "the cell is the fundamental element in the structure of living bodies, forming both
animals and plants through juxtaposition." However, the first sightings of the internal action of the cell were made by Robert
Brown. In Berlin, Johannes Muller created connections between biology and medicine, prompting the connective thinking of
his students, such as those of Theodore Schwann. Schwann created the term "cell theory" and declared that animals
consisted of cells. This declaration was made after that of Matthias Schlieden's (1804 - 1881) that plants are composed
of cells.

BIOGENESIS
German pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821 - 1902) altered the thought of cellular biology with his statement that "every cell
comes from a cell". Not even twenty years after this statement, processes of cell reproduction were being described--Virchow
had completed the thought behind the basic cell theory.

Introduction | Structures/Functions | Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes | Types | Reproduction | Theory | Glossary |

Credits

Within cells there is an intricate Cell wall Nucleolus

network of organelles that all have Centrioles Golgi
Chloroplasts apparatus
unique functions. These organelles Chromosomes Lysosome
allow the cell to function properly. Cytoskeleton Mitochondria
Arranged below according to location Endoplasmic Plasma
(nucleus, cytoplasm, and surface) is a reticulum membrane
description of common organelles. Nuclear Ribosomes
membrane Vacuoles
You may click on the organelle's name
 in the list below to directly reach the
feature on that structure.

 One or more per cell

 Spherical shape

 Denser than surrounding cytoplasm

Chromosomes
- Usually in the form of chromatin
- Contains genetic information
- Composed of DNA
- Thicken for cellular division
- Set number per species (i.e. 23 pairs for human)

Nuclear membrane
- Surrounds nucleus
- Composed of two layers
- Numerous openings for nuclear traffic

Nucleolus
- Spherical shape
- Visible when cell is not dividing
- Contains RNA for protein manufacture

 Collective term for cytosol and organelles contained within

 Colloidal suspension
 Cytosol mainly composed of water with free-floating molecules

 Viscosity constantly changes

Centrioles
- Paired cylindrical organelles near nucleus
- Composed of nine tubes, each with three tubules
- Involved in cellular division
- Lie at right angles to each other
Chloroplasts
- A plastid usually found in plant cells
- Contain green chlorophyll where photosynthesis takes place

Cytoskeleton
- Composed of microtubules
- Supports cell and provides shape
- Aids movement of materials in and out of cells

Endoplasmic reticulum
- Tubular network fused to nuclear membrane
- Goes through cytoplasm onto cell membrane
- Stores, separates, and serves as cell's transport system
- Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
- Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface

Golgi apparatus
- Protein 'packaging plant'
- A membrane structure found near nucleus
- Composed of numerous layers forming a sac

Lysosome
- Digestive 'plant' for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates
- Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal
- Vary in shape depending on process being carried out
- Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes
 Mitochondria
- Second largest organelle with unique genetic structure
- Double-layered outer membrane with inner folds called cristae
- Energy-producing chemical reactions take place on cristae
- Controls level of water and other materials in cell
- Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and
forms urea

Ribosomes
- Each cell contains thousands
- Miniature 'protein factories'
- Composes 25% of cell's mass
- Stationary type: embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum
- Mobile type: injects proteins directly into cytoplasm

Vacuoles
- Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal
- Contains water solution
- Contractile vacuoles for water removal (in unicellular organisms)

Cell wall
- Most commonly found in plant cells
- Controls turgity
- Extracellular structure surrounding plasma membrane
- Primary cell wall: extremely elastic
- Secondary cell wall: forms around primary cell wall after growth is complete

Plasma membrane
- Outer membrane of cell that controls cellular traffic
- Contains proteins (left, gray) that span through the membrane and allow passage of materials
- Proteins are surrounded by a phospholipid bi-layer.

Chapter 1: Types of Cells

The major differences between Prokaryotic and Eukarotic cells are that prokaryotes don't
have a nucleus and rarely have membrane bound organelles, (the only exception I have
heard of is bacteria with vacuoles). The both do have DNA for genetic material, have a
exterior membrane, have ribosomes, accomplish similar functions, and are very diverse.
For instance, there are over 200 types of cells in the human body, that very greatly in
size, shape, and function.

Prokaryotes:
 Prokaryotes are cells without a nucleus. They have genetic materials but are
not enclosed within a membrane. These include bacteria and cyanophytes. The
genetic material is a single circular DNA and is contained in the cytoplasm, since
there is no nucleus. Recombination happens through transfers of plasmids (short
circles of DNA that pass from one bacterium to another). They do not engulf
solids nor do they have centrioles or asters. There are pictures of 2 prokaryotes
below. Prokaryotes have a cell wall made up of peptidoglycan.

Eukaryotes:
 These are cells with a nucleus, this is where the genetic material is surrounded
by a membrane much like the cells membrane. Eucaryotic cells are found in
humans and other multicellular organisms (plants and animals) also algae,
protazoa. They have both a cellular membrane and a nuclear membrane, also the
genetic material forms multiple chromosomes, that is linear and complexed with
proteins that help it 'pack' and is involved in regulation.

Eukaryotes are composed of both plant and animal cells. Plants vary from animal
cells in that they have large vacuoles, cell wall, chloroplasts, and a lack of
lysosomes, centrioles, pseudopods, and flagella or cilia. Animal cells do not have
the chloroplasts, and may or may not have cilia, pseudopods or flagella,
depending on the type of cell.
Go to Chapter 2: 'Parts of the Cell'
WWW Cell Biology Course Index
Go back to the Introduction.

Please send questions/comments/suggestions to: Mark Dalton at

markwdalton@gmail.com.

PLANTS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Table of Contents

General Plant Organization | Parenchyma | Collenchyma | Sclerenchyma | Xylem

Phloem | Epidermal Cells | Links

General Plant Organization | Back to Top

A plant has two organ systems: 1) the shoot system, and 2) the root system. The
shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds,
stems, flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has any). The root
system includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the roots, tubers,
and rhizomes.

Major organ systems of the plant body. The above image (left) is from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and
WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission. The above illustration
(right) is from
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Intr._Plant_Body_Spring_/Primary_
130_Lab_Images/Bean_whole_morphology

Plant cells are formed at meristems, and then develop into cell types which are
grouped into tissues. Plants have only three tissue types: 1) Dermal; 2) Ground;
and 3) Vascular. Dermal tissue covers the outer surface of herbaceous plants.
Dermal tissue is composed of epidermal cells, closely packed cells that secrete
a waxy cuticle that aids in the prevention of water loss. The ground tissue
comprises the bulk of the primary plant body. Parenchyma, collenchyma, and
sclerenchyma cells are common in the ground tissue. Vascular tissue transports
food, water, hormones and minerals within the plant. Vascular tissue includes
xylem, phloem, parenchyma, and cambium cells.
Two views of the structure of the root and root meristem. Images from Purves et
al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com)
and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Plant cell types rise by mitosis from a meristem. A meristem may be defined as
a region of localized mitosis. Meristems may be at the tip of the shoot or root (a
type known as the apical meristem) or lateral, occurring in cylinders extending
nearly the length of the plant. A cambium is a lateral meristem that produces
(usually) secondary growth. Secondary growth produces both wood and cork
(although from separate secondary meristems).

Parenchyma | Back to Top

A generalized plant cell type, parenchyma cells are alive at maturity. They
function in storage, photosynthesis, and as the bulk of ground and vascular
tissues. Palisade parenchyma cells are elogated cells located in many leaves just
below the epidermal tissue. Spongy mesophyll cells occur below the one or two
layers of palisade cells. Ray parenchyma cells occur in wood rays, the
structures that transport materials laterally within a woody stem. Parenchyma
cells also occur within the xylem and phloem of vascular bundles. The largest
parenchyma cells occur in the pith region, often, as in corn (Zea ) stems, being
larger than the vascular bundles. In many prepared slides they stain green.

Diagram of leaf structure. Note the arrangement of tissue layers within the leaf.
Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer
Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with
permission.

Cross-section of a stained leaf of Syringia. The above images is modified from

gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Leaf/Syringa_leaf/Cross_Section/Sy
ringa_Blade_composite_large.

Diagram of a series of parenchyma cells. Image from

http://www.biosci.uga.edu/almanac/bio_104/notes/apr_9.html.
Lily Parenchyma Cell (cross-section) (TEM x7,210). Note the large nucleus
and nucleolus in the center of the cell, mitochondria and plastids in the
cytoplasm. This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used
with permission.

Collenchyma | Back to Top

Collenchyma cells support the plant. These cells are charcterized by
thickenings of the wall, the are alive at maturity. They tend to occur as part of
vascular bundles or on the corners of angular stems. In many prepared slides
they stain red.
Collenchyma cells. Note the thick walls on the collenchyma cells occurring at
the edges of the Medicago stem cross section. The above image is cropped from
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Cells_and_Tissues/Medicago_Stem/
Collenchyma.

Diagram of some collenchyma cells. The above image is from

http://www.biosci.uga.edu/almanac/bio_104/notes/apr_9.html.

Sclerenchyma | Back to Top

Sclerenchyma cells support the plant. They often occur as bundle cap fibers.
Sclerenchyma cells are characterized by thickenings in their secondary walls.
They are dead at maturity. They, like collenchyma, stain red in many
commonly used prepared slides.

A common type of schlerenchyma cell is the fiber.

Sclerenchyma cells. The above (left) image is cropped from
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Cells_and_Tissues/Scherenchyma/F
ibers_-_Tilia_Phloem/Stem_cross_section_1000x. The above (right) image is from
http://www.biosci.uga.edu/almanac/bio_104/notes/apr_9.html.

Some sclerenchyma cells occur in the fruits of Pear. These cells (sclereids or
stone cells) give pears their gritty texture. View stone cells by clicking here.

Xylem | Back to Top

Xylem is a term applied to woody (lignin-impregnated) walls of certain cells of
plants. Xylem cells tend to conduct water and minerals from roots to leaves.
While parenchyma cells do occur within what is commonly termed the "xylem"
the more identifiable cells, tracheids and vessel elements, tend to stain red with
Safranin-O. Tracheids are the more primitive of the two cell types, occurring in
the earliest vascular plants. Tracheids are long and tapered, with angled end-
plates that connect cell to cell. Vessel elements are shorter, much wider, and
lack end plates. They occur only in angiosperms, the most recently evolved
large group of plants.
Xylem cells. The above image (left) is from
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Stem/Zea_cross_section/Vascular_
Bundle_labelled. The above image (right) is from
http://www.biosci.uga.edu/almanac/bio_104/notes/apr_9.html.

Tracheids, longer, and narrower than most vessels, appear first in the fossil
record. Vessels occur later. Tracheids have obliquely-angled endwalls cut
across by bars. The evolutionary trend in vessels is for shorter cells, with no
bars on the endwalls.
Conducting cells of the xylem; tracheids (left) are more primitive, while the
various types of vessels (the other three) are more advanced. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Conductive Vessel Element in Mountain Mahogany Wood (SEM x750). This
image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
Phloem | Back to Top

Phloem cells conduct food from leaves to rest of the plant. They are alive at
maturity and tend to stain green (with the stain fast green). Phloem cells are
usually located outside the xylem. The two most common cells in the phloem
are the companion cells and sieve cells. Companion cells retain their nucleus
and control the adjacent sieve cells. Dissolved food, as sucrose, flows through
the sieve cells.
Phloem cells. The above (left) image is cropped from
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Cells_and_Tissues/Cucurbita_Stem/
Cross_Section/Phloem/Sieve-plate. The above (right) image is from
http://www.biosci.uga.edu/almanac/bio_104/notes/apr_9.html.
Phloem cells as seen in longitudinal section. Note the longitudinal view of the
sieve plate inside the large sieve tube cell. Right image is a diagram of the
longitudinal view of phloem cells. The above image(left) is cropped from
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Cells_and_Tissues/Cucurbita_Stem/
Longitudinal_Section/Sieve-plate_l.s. Right image is from Purves et al., Life: The
Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH
Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Epidermal Cells | Back to Top
Epidermis

The epidermal tissue functions in prevention of water loss and acts as a barrier
to fungi and other invaders. Thus, epidermal cells are closely packed, with little
intercellular space. To further cut down on water loss, many plants have a waxy
cuticle layer deposited on top of the epidermal cells.

Guard Cells

To facilitate gas exchange between the inner parts of leaves, stems, and fruits,
plants have a series of openings known as stomata (singular stoma). Obviously
these openings would allow gas exchange, but at a cost of water loss. Guard
cells are bean-shaped cells covering the stomata opening. They regulate
exchange of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide through the stoma.

Scanning electron micrograph of Equisetum (horsetail or scouring rush)

epidermis. Note the oval stomatal apparatuses in the center of the stem. The
above image is from http://www.mcs.csuhayward.edu/sem/images/horsel4.gif.
Epidermal cells, including guard cells, of corn. The above image is from
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Leaf/Corn_epidermal_peel.

Pea Leaf Stoma, Vicea sp. (SEM x3,520). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at
www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.