07 Teaching Science To Children

Module 1: KPLI SR Science Major Unit 1: Teaching Science To Children
UNIT 1 TEACHING SCIENCE TO CHILDREN
SYNOPSIS:
This unit contains four topics. The first topic is about understanding of science in
which you will explore the meaning of science and its elements. The second topic
describes about current Primary School Science Curriculum in detail. Here you will
learn about the aims, objectives and the focus of primary school science curriculum.
Primary School Science Curriculum focuses on scientific skills, thinking skills,
scientific attitudes, teaching and learning strategies. The third topic explains the
learning theories for Primary School Science and the fourth topic is about teaching
and learning methods using Inquiry and Discovery approach.
Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
1. explain the meaning of science and its role in daily life;

2. describes the main components of Primary School Science Curriculum;
3. identify and apply appropriate learning strategies of Primary Science in the
classroom and
4. explain the use of various questioning techniques used to promote inquiry
5. explain the use of the inquiry methods in the teaching and learning of primary
science
TOPIC 1: Understanding Science
SCIENCE IS….
everywhere, using it all the time, scary, can be lethal,

discovery, exploration, learning more, theories, hypothesis,
interesting, exciting, expensive, profitable, intelligent, status
(Fleer.M, 1996. pg 7 )
A class of second year undergraduates gives this interesting collection of ideas. Are
some of your ideas included here?
The list certainly suggests that science has a complex nature and is likely to be
viewed differently by different individuals.
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What is science?
Science is defined differently depending on the individuals who view it.
• the layperson might define science as a body of scientific information;

• the scientist might view it as procedures by which hypotheses are tested;
• a philosopher might regard science as a way of questioning the truthfulness
of what we know.
All of these views are valid, but each presents only a partial definition of science. In
your opinion what does science mean?
Meaning of science
• Science is perceived as an inquiry process, observation, and reasoning about

the natural world. [K.T.Compton]
• Systematic knowledge which can be tested and proven for its truth.[translated
from Kamus Dewan]
• Science is a set of attitudes and a way of thinking on facts. [B.F Skinner]
• Science is the system of knowing about the universe through data collected
by observation and controlled experimentation. As data are collected, theories
are advanced to explain and account for what has been observed.
(Carin and Sund (1989) pg. 4 )
If you read these definitions of science, you will see three major elements:
processes (or methods), products, and human attitudes.
Elements of science can be visualised in this way:
Science as a Process
• Learning science information is more important than to memorizing the

content of science
• Scientific skill is a basic tool in understanding science.
• Process is emphasis on how the knowledge is gained.
• Using empirical procedures and analyses to describe the natural world
• It involves hands-on, mind-on and hearts-on experience
• It involves the formation of hypothesis, planning, experimenting, collecting
data, and analyses before making a conclusion.
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Science as a Product
Scientists have been collecting data for centuries. From these data, scientists have
formulated concepts, principles and theories. The factual data, concepts, principles
and theories are the products of science.
Figure 1 shows the hierarchical order of the science products.
Theory
Laws and
Principles
Concepts
Facts
Figure 1: Science Products
A scientific fact is the specific statement about existing objects or actual incidents.
We can use our senses to get facts.
Two criteria are used to identify a scientific fact:
1. it is directly observable
2. it can be demonstrated at any time.
A concept is an abstraction of events, objects, or phenomena that seem to have

certain properties or attributes in common. Fish, for example, possess certain
characteristics that set them apart from reptiles and mammals.
According to Bruner, (1956), a concept has five important elements:
1. name
2. definition
3. attributes
4. values
5. examples
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Principles and Laws also fall into the general category of a concept but in a broad
manner. These higher order ideas are used to describe what exists through empirical
basis. For example gas laws and the laws of motion.
Theory: Science goes beyond the classification and description of phenomena to the
level of explanation. Scientists use theories to explain patterns and forces that are
hidden from direct observation. The theory of atom, which states that all matter is
made up of tiny particles called atoms. There are millions of atoms, which would be
required to cover the period (.) at the end of this sentence. This is the example of
hidden observation.
Is the statement “the earth rotates on its axis” a scientific concept,

principle or theory?
Science as an Attitude
Do you see science as merely lists of facts, concepts, and principles? If yes, then you
are overlooking an important aspect of science – attitudes and values. Scientists are
persons trained in some field of science who study phenomena through observation,
experimentation and other rational, analytical activities. They use attitudes, such as
being honest and accurate in recording and validating data, systematic and being
diligent in their work. Therefore, when planning teaching and learning activities,
teachers need to inculcate scientific attitudes and values to the students. For
example, during science practical work, the teacher should remind pupils and ensure
that they carry out experiments in a careful, cooperative and honest manner.
Teachers need to plan well for effective inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble
values during science lessons. They should examine all related learning outcomes
and suggested teaching-learning activities that provide opportunities for the
inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values.
Reflect on your earlier days in primary school. What can you still
remember about studying science? Can you recall your science
teacher teaching you science process skills and scientific values?
With the help of concept map, define science in your own words.
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Understanding science and technology and their applications towards the

welfare of mankind
Is there any relationship between science and technology?
In general, science can be regarded as the enterprise that seeks to understand

natural phenomena and to arrange these ideas into ordered knowledge whereas
technology involves the design of products and systems that affect the quality of life,
using the knowledge of science where necessary.
Science is intimately related to technology and society. For instance, science

produces knowledge that results in useful applications through devices and systems.
We have evidence of this all around us, from microwave ovens to compact disc
players to computers.
Select two scientific discoveries that have been used to improve the
earth’s environment. Also list some possible negative effects of using
these scientific discoveries.
Well done, take a break now!

Time for a cup of coffee before
you go to the next topic
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TOPIC 2: Primary School Science Curriculum
Historical Development of the Primary School Science Curriculum
Do you remember how you learn science while you were in primary school?
Are the children learning science the same way today?
After reading this topic you will able to note the changes the Primary School Science
Curriculum has undergone since 1968. The “Projek Khas” science curriculum was
implemented in schools from 1968 to 1984. Teachers were given guidebooks to help
them teach science for all primary levels using the scientific method. Later in 1985,
“Projek Khas” science curriculum was replaced by “Alam dan Manusia” which was
taught to standard four pupils onwards. This subject integrates knowledge from
various fields such as geography, history, science and health science. The main
focus of this subject is to relate knowledge to issues concerning society and
environment. The present primary school science curriculum, better known as
Kurikulum Sains Sekolah Rendah was introduced since 1994. This is in line with the
national educational philosophy to produce a progressive society competent in
science and technology. Teachers are trained to teach using the constructivism
approach, which employs student-based methods. Table 1 outlines the historical
development of the primary school science curriculum.
Table 1: Historical Development of the Primary School Science Curriculum
Projek Khas Alam dan Manusia Kurikulum Sains

Sekolah Rendah
Year 1968-1984 1985-1993 1994-now
Teacher’s Panduan Mengajar Buku Panduan Khas PuLSaR

Guide Sains
Teaching- Scientific Method Inquiry-discovery Constructivism

learning
strategies
In 2003, English is used as the medium of instruction in standard one. The science
curriculum has been designed to provide opportunities for students to acquire
science knowledge and skills, develop thinking skills and thinking strategies, and to
apply this knowledge and skills in everyday life. It also aims to inculcate noble values
and the spirit of patriotism in the students.
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By now, you would realize that the Primary School Science Curriculum is dynamic
and changes are made to meet the demands of the society and the nation. Can you
identify the main elements of the present Primary School Science Curriculum?
After reading this topic, you will be able to understand the key features of the primary
school science curriculum.
Basically, the Primary School Science Curriculum has two levels
• Level One is from Year 1 – 3

• Level Two is from Year 4 – 6
Level One
The aim of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level one is to develop
students’ interest in science and to nurture their creativity and their curiosity.
The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level one are to:
1. stimulate pupils’ curiosity and develop their interest about the world around
them.
2. provide pupils with opportunities to develop science process skills and
thinking skills.
3. develop pupils’ creativity.
4. provide pupils with basic science knowledge and concepts.
5. inculcate scientific attitudes and positive values.
6. create awareness on the need to love and care for the environment.
Level Two
The aims of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are to produce
human beings who are experienced, skilful and morally sound in order to form a
society with a culture of science and technology and which is compassionate,
dynamic, and progressive so that people are more responsible towards the
environment and are more appreciative of nature’s creation.
The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are to:
1. develop thinking skill so as to enhance the intellectual ability

2. develop scientific skills and attitude through inquiry
3. enhance natural interest in their surroundings
4. gain knowledge and understanding of scientific facts and concepts to assist in
understanding themselves and the environment
5. solve problems and make responsible decisions
6. handle the latest contributions and innovations in science and technology
7. practice scientific attitudes and noble values in daily lives
8. appreciate the contributions of science and technology towards the comfort of
life
9. appreciate arrangement and order in nature
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Do you know the main focus in our primary school science curriculum?
Primary School Science Curriculum focuses on:
I. Scientific skills
II. Thinking skills
III. Relationship between thinking skills and science process skills
IV. Scientific attitudes and noble values
V. Teaching and learning strategies
VI. Content organization
The main elements of the Primary School Science Curriculum are briefly described
as follows:
I. Scientific skills
Science emphasizes inquiry and problem solving. In inquiry and problem solving
processes, scientific and thinking skills are utilized. Scientific skills are important in
any scientific investigation such as conducting and carrying out projects.
Scientific skills encompass science process skills and manipulative skills.
Science Process Skills
Science process skills enable students to formulate their questions and find out the
answers systematically. Descriptions of the science process skills are as follows:
OBSERVING USING THE SENSE OF HEARING, TOUCH, SMELL, TASTE

AND SIGHT TO FIND OUT ABOUT OBJECTS OR EVENTS.
Classifying Using observations to group objects or events according to
similarities or differences.
Measuring and Using Making quantitative observations by comparing to a
Numbers conventional or non-conventional standard.
Making Inferences Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw
conclusions and make explanations of events
Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based on
prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected data.
Communicating Using words or graphic symbols such as tables, graphs, figures
or models to describe an action, object or event.
Using space-time Describing changes in parameter with time. Examples of
relationship parameters are location, direction, shape, size, volume, weight
and mass.
Interpreting data Giving rational explanations about an object, events or pattern
derived from collected data.
Defining operationally Defining all variables as they are used in an experiment by
describing what must be done and what should be observed.
Controlling variables Naming the fixed variable, manipulated variable, and responding
variable in an investigation.
Making Hypotheses Making a general statement about the relationship between a

manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an
observation or event. The statement can be tested to determine
its validity.
Experimenting Planning and conducting activities including collecting, analyzing
and interpreting data and making conclusions.
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Manipulative Skills
Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that enable

students to:
• Use and handle science apparatus and substances.

• Handle specimens correctly and carefully.
• Draw specimens, apparatus.
• Clean science apparatus.
• Store science apparatus.
Note: If you want to know how to apply scientific skills, please refer to unit 2.
II. Thinking Skills
Thinking is a mental process that requires an individual to integrate knowledge, skills

and attitude in an effort to understand the environment.
One of the objectives of the national education system is to enhance the thinking
ability of students. This objective can be achieved through a curriculum that
emphasizes thoughtful learning. Teaching and learning that emphasizes thinking
skills is a foundation for thoughtful learning.
Thoughtful learning is achieved if students are actively involved in the teaching and
learning process. Activities should be organized to provide opportunities for students
to apply thinking skills in conceptualization, problem solving and decision-making.
Thinking skills can be categorized into critical thinking skills and creative thinking
skills. A person who thinks critically always evaluates an idea in a systematic manner
before accepting it. A person who thinks creatively has a high level of imagination, is
able to generate original and innovative ideas, and modify ideas and products.
Thinking strategies are higher order thinking processes that involve various steps.
Each step involves various critical and creative thinking skills. The ability to formulate
thinking strategies is the ultimate aim of introducing thinking activities in the teaching
and learning process.
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Critical Thinking Skills
A brief description of each critical thinking skill is as follows:

ATTRIBUTING IDENTIFYING CRITERIA SUCH AS CHARACTERISTICS,
FEATURES, QUALITIES AND ELEMENTS OF A CONCEPT
OR AN OBJECT.
Comparing and Finding similarities and differences based on criteria such as
Contrasting characteristics, features, qualities and elements of a concept
or event.
Grouping and Classifying Separating and grouping objects or phenomena into
categories based on certain criteria such as common
characteristics or features
Sequencing Arranging objects and information in based on the quality or
quantity of common characteristics or features such as size,
time, shape or number.
Prioritizing Arranging objects and information in order based on their
importance or priority
Analyzing Examining information in detail by breaking it down into
smaller parts to find implicit meaning and relationships.
Detecting Bias Identifying views or opinions that have the tendency to support
or oppose something in an unfair or misleading way.
Evaluating Making judgments on the quality or value of something based
on valid reasons or evidence.
Making Conclusions Making a statement about the outcome of an investigation that
is based on a hypothesis.
Creative Thinking Skills
A brief description of each creative thinking skill is as follows:

GENERATING IDEAS PRODUCING OR GIVING IDEAS IN A DISCUSSION.
Relating Making connections in a certain situation to determine in a

certain situation to determine a structure or pattern of
relationship.
Making Inferences Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw
conclusions and make explanations of events.
Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based
on prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected
data
Making Generalizations Making a general conclusion about a group based on
observations made on, or some information from, samples of
the group.
Visualizing Recalling or forming mental images about a particular idea,
concept, situation or vision.
Synthesizing Combining separate elements or parts to form a general
picture in various forms such as writing, drawing or artifact.
Making Hypotheses Making a general statement about the relationship between a
manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an
observation or event. The statement can be tested to
determine its validity.
Making Analogies Understanding a certain abstract or complex concept by

relating it to a simpler or concrete concept with similar
characteristics.
Inventing Producing something new or adapting something already in
existence to overcome problems in a systematic manner.
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III. Relationship between Thinking skills and Science Process Skills
Science process skills are required in the process of finding solutions to a problem or
making decisions in a systematic manner. It is a mental process that promotes
critical, creative, analytical and systematic thinking. Mastering of science process
skills, possession of suitable attitudes and knowledge enable students to think
effectively. The mastering of science process skills involves the mastering of the
relevant thinking skills. The thinking skills that are related to a particular science
process skill are as follows:
Science Process Skills Thinking Skills

Observing Attributing
Comparing and contrasting
Relating
Classifying Attributing
Grouping and classifying
Measuring and Using Numbers Relating
Making inferences Relating
Analyzing
Making inferences
Predicting Relating
Visualizing
Using Space-Time Relationship Sequencing
Prioritizing
Interpreting data Comparing and contrasting
Analyzing
Detecting bias
Making conclusions
Generalizing
Evaluating
Defining operationally Relating
Making analogy
Visualizing
Analyzing
Controlling variables Attributing
Relating
Analyzing
Making hypotheses Attributing
Relating
Generating ideas
Making hypothesis
Predicting
Synthesizing
Experimenting All thinking skills
Communicating All thinking skills
Based on your teaching experience, explain why you need to infuse

thinking skills and science process skills in your lesson.
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IV Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values
Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientific attitudes

and noble values in students. These attitudes and values encompass the following:
• Having an interest and curiosity towards the environment.

• Being honest and accurate in recording and validating data.
• Being diligent and persevering.
• Being responsible about the safety of oneself, others, and the
environment.
• Realizing that science is a mean to understand nature.
• Appreciating and practicing clean and healthy living.
• Appreciating the balance of nature.
• Being respectful and well mannered.
• Appreciating the contribution of science and technology.
• Being thankful to God.
• Having analytical and critical thinking.
• Being flexible and open-minded.
• Being kind-hearted and caring.
• Being objective.
• Being systematic.
• Being cooperative.
• Being fair and just.
• Daring to try.
• Thinking rationally.
• Being confident and independent.
The inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values generally occurs

through the following stages:
• Being aware of the importance and the need for scientific attitudes
and noble values.
• Giving emphasis to these attitudes and values
• Practicing and internalizing these scientific attitudes and noble values
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V. Teaching and Learning Strategies
Teaching and learning strategies in science curriculum emphasize thoughtful

learning. Thoughtful learning is a process that helps students acquire knowledge and
master skills that will help them develop their minds to the optimum level. Thoughtful
learning can occur through various learning approaches such as inquiry,
constructivism, contextual learning, and mastery learning. Learning activities should
therefore be geared towards activating students’ critical and creative thinking skills
and not be confined to routine or rote learning. Students should be made aware of
the thinking skills and thinking strategies that they use in their learning. They should
be challenged with higher order questions and problems and be required to solve
problems utilizing their creativity and critical thinking. The teaching and learning
process should enable students to acquire knowledge, master skills and develop
scientific attitudes and noble values in an integrated manner.
Inquiry-discovery emphasizes learning through experiences. Inquiry generally means

to find information, to question and to investigate a phenomenon that occurs in the
environment. Discovery is the main characteristic of inquiry. Learning through
discovery occurs when the main concepts and principles of science are investigated
and discovered by students themselves. Through activities such as experiments,
students investigate a phenomenon and draw conclusions by themselves. Teachers
then lead students to understand the science concepts though the results of the
inquiry. Thinking skills and scientific skills are thus developed further during the
inquiry process. However, the inquiry approach may not be suitable for all teaching
and learning situations. Sometimes, it may be more appropriate for teachers to
present concepts and principles directly to students.
The use of variety of teaching and learning methods can enhance students’ interest
in science. Science lessons that are not interesting will not motivate students to learn
and subsequently will affect their performance. The choice of teaching methods
should be based on the curriculum content, students’ abilities, students’ repertoire of
intelligences, and the availability of resources and infrastructure. Different teaching
and learning activities should be planned to cater for students with different learning
styles and intelligences.
The following are brief descriptions of some teaching and learning methods.
Experiment
An experiment is a method commonly used in science lessons. In experiments,

students test hypotheses through investigations to discover specific science concepts
and principles. Conducting an experiment involves thinking skills, scientific skills, and
manipulative skills.
In the implementation of this curriculum, besides guiding students to carry out

experiments, where appropriate, teachers should provide students with the
opportunities to design their own experiments. This involves students drawing up
plans as to how to conduct experiments, how to measure and analyze data, and how
to present the results of their experiment.
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Discussion
A discussion is an activity in which students exchange questions and opinions based

on valid reasons. Discussions can be conducted before, during or after an activity.
Teachers should play the role of a facilitator and lead a discussion by asking
questions that stimulate thinking and getting students to express themselves.
Simulation
In simulation, an activity that resembles the actual situation is carried out. Examples
of simulation are role-play, games and the use of models. In role-play, students play
out a particular role based on certain pre-determined conditions. Games require
procedures that need to be followed. Students play games in order to learn a
particular principle or to understand the process of decision-making. Models are used
to represent objects or actual situations so that students can visualize the said
objects or situations and thus understand the concepts and principles to be learned.
Project
A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual or a group

of students to achieve a particular learning objective. A project generally requires
several lessons to complete. The outcome of the project either in the form of a report,
an artifact or in other forms needs to be presented to the teacher and other students.
Project work promotes the development of problem-solving skills, time management
skills, and independent learning.
Visits and Use of External Resources
The learning of science is not limited to activities carried out in the school compound.
Learning of science can be enhanced though the use of external resources such as
zoos, museums, science centres, research institutes, mangrove swamps, and
factories. Visits to these places make the learning of science more interesting,
meaningful and effective. To optimize learning opportunities, visits need to be
carefully planned. Students should be assigned tasks during the visit. No educational
visit is complete without a post-visit discussion.
Briefly explain how does a

visit to the museum help in
your science lesson.
Use of Technology
Technology is a powerful tool that has great potential in enhancing the learning of
science. Through the use of technology such as television, radio, video, computer,
and Internet, the teaching and learning of science can be made more interesting and
effective.
Computer simulation and animation are effective tools for the teaching and learning
of abstract or difficult science concepts. Computer simulation and animation can be
presented through courseware or Web page. Application tools such, as word
processors, graphic presentation software and electronic spreadsheets are valuable
tools for the analysis and presentation of data.
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Based on your experience, describe how students benefit when they

are involved in science projects?
Briefly explain how technology has made your science teaching more
interesting.
VI Content Organization
The science curriculum is organized around themes. Each theme consists of various
learning areas, each of which consists of a number of learning objectives. A learning
objective has one or more learning outcomes.
Learning outcomes are written in the form of measurable behavioural terms. In

general, the learning outcomes for a particular learning objective are organized in
order of complexity. However, in the process of teaching and learning, learning
activities should be planned in a holistic and integrated manner that enables the
achievement of multiple learning outcomes according to needs and context.
Teachers should avoid employing a teaching strategy that tries to achieve each
learning outcome separately according to the order stated in the curriculum
specifications.
The Suggested Learning Activities provide information on the scope and dimension
of learning outcomes. The learning activities stated under the column Suggested
Learning Activities are given with the intention of providing some guidance as to how
learning outcomes can be achieved. A suggested activity may cover one or more
learning outcomes. At the same time, more than one activity may be suggested for a
particular learning outcome. Teachers may modify the suggested activity to suit the
ability and style of learning of their students. Teachers are encouraged to design
other innovative and effective learning activities to enhance the learning of science.
Select a topic from Curriculum specifications Science Year 1/2/4 and

suggest a learning activity other than the suggested learning activities
given. Write the relevant learning outcome and predict the scientific
skills and values involved in carrying out the activity.
Well done, take a break now!

Time for a cup of coffee
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Topic 3: Learning theories for Primary Science
Science begins with the child. Questions such as “What is a shooting star?” and
“How can birds fly?” have been asked by thousands of children and have, throughout
history, elicited a hundred different answers. Can you make the child curious all
through his or her life? To maintain the child’s curiosity in science the teacher should
know how the child learns and sustain their curiosity throughout the lesson.
Do you know how children learn science?
Research and practical experience tell us a great deal about the factors, which assist
effective learning. We learn best when:
• We are learning about things which are important and have relevance to us;
• We are able to discuss our work with our peers – including the problems we
are having alternative approaches to our work;
• We are able to practise and to make mistakes without being judged;
• What we are learning is demonstrated and accompanied by clear instructions;
• We succeed, that is, when we can see an improvement in the quality of our
work
To understand how children learn we have to know the cognitive development of

children and cognitive learning theories. The Piaget’s theory offers fresh insight into
the child’s cognitive development. Children’s perceptions of the physical world are
affected by the limitations of their cognitive structure. Knowing this has helped
science curriculum developers to shape experiences for children that are within their
ability to perform. Cognitive learning theories like Bruner, Ausubel and Gagne offer
various types of learning. The constructivist approach says that children construct
their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and
reflecting on these experiences.
Piaget’s Theory: Cognitive development
Cognitive theorists believe that what you learn depends on your mental process and
what you perceive about the world around you. In other words, learning depends on
how you think and how your perceptions and thought patterns interact.
According to cognitive learning theorists, a teacher should try to understand what a
child perceives and how a child thinks and then plan experiences that will capitalize
on these. Jean Piaget proposes that children progress through stages of cognitive
development.
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Stages of Piaget’s Theories are:
1. Sensorimotor knowledge ( 0 to 2 year )

Objects and people exist only if child can see, feel, hear, touch or taste
their presence. Anything outside of the child’s perceptual field does not
exist.
2. Preoperational (Representational) knowledge ( 2 to 7 years )

The ability to use symbols begins. Although the child is still focused on the
“there and now” early in this stage, the child can use language to refer to
objects and events that are not in his or her perceptual field.
The child has difficulty understanding that objects have multiple
properties. He or she is not completely aware that a block of wood has
color, weight, height and depth all at once. The child does not “conserves”
attributes such as mass, weight, or number.
3. Concrete Operation ( 7 to 11 years )

The child can group objects into classes and arrange the objects in a
class into some appropriate order. The child understands the mass,
weight, volume, area and length are conserved. The child has some
difficulty isolating the variables in a situation and determining their
relationships. The concepts of space and time become clearer.
4. Formal Operation ( 12 years through adulthood )

The child is able to think in abstract terms, is able to isolate the variables
in a situation , and is able to understand their relationship to one another.
The child’s ability to solve complex verbal and mathematical problems
emerges as a consequence of being able to manipulate the meanings
represented by symbols.
Practical applications: Piaget’s Ideas for Science Classroom
1. Infants in the sensor motor stage ( 0 to 2 years )
Examples:
• Provide stimulating environment that includes eye-catching displays,
pleasant sound, human voices, and plenty of tender loving care so
that the infant becomes motivated to interact with the people and
things in his or her perceptual field.
• Provide stuffed animals and other safe, pliable objects that the child
can manipulate in order to acquire the psychomotor skills necessary
for future cognitive development.
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2. Preschoolers and children in the primary grades ( 2 to 7 years )
Examples:
• Provide natural objects such as leaves, stones, twigs, etc for the child
to manipulate.
• Towards the end of this stage, provide opportunities for the child to
begin grouping things into classes that is living/nonliving ,
animal/plant.
• Toward the end of this stage, provide experience that gives children
an opportunity to transcend some of their egocentricism. For
example, have them listen to other children’s stories about what was
observed on a trip to the zoo.
3. Children in the elementary grades ( 7 to 11 years )
Examples:
• Early in this stage, offer children many experiences to use the
acquired abilities with respect to the observation, classification and
arrangement of objects according to some property. Any science
activities that should include the observation, collection, and sorting of
objects should be able to be done in some ease.
• As this stage continues, you should be able to introduce successfully
many physical science activities that include more abstract concepts
such as space, time and number. For example, children could
measure the length, width, height and weight of objects or count the
number of swings of a pendulum in a given time.
4. The middle school child and beyond ( 12 years through adulthood )
Examples:
• Emphasize the general concepts and laws that govern observed
phenomenon. Possible projects and activities include the prediction of
the characteristics of an object’s motion based on Newton’s Laws, the
making of generalizations about the outcomes of a potential
imbalance among the producers, consumers, and decomposers in a
natural community.
• Encourage children to make hypotheses about the outcomes of
experiments in absence of actively doing them. A key part of the
process of doing activities might appropriately be “pre-lab” sessions in
which the child writes down hypotheses about outcomes.
Give three reasons according to Piaget’s theory why teaching and

learning aids are important to ensure effective learning.
Select a topic from Year 4 primary science curriculum specification and

suggest two learning-teaching activities that suit Piagetian’s learning
theory.
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Bruner’s Theory: Discovery learning
Jerome Bruner’s research revealed that teachers need to provide children with
experiences to help them discover underlying ideas, concepts, or patterns. Bruner is
a proponent of inductive thinking, which means going from the specific to the
general. Using ideas from one’s experience and applying it in another situation is
also an example of inductive thinking.
Inductive approaches to learning rely more on providing students with a range of

experiences, which gradually increase their familiarity with new concepts, before
attempting to draw these together into a coherent understanding of the new concept.
Rather than being faced with the teacher’s definition of a concept at the beginning of
a topic, the student’s understanding of the concept is gradually constructed as a
result of exposure to a whole range of activities and experiences.
Inductive learning
Role-play Concept
formation
exercise
Practical Other
activity activities
Student definition of
concept
Figure 2 :Inductive approach to Instruction
Experiences with instances of a concept or principle
Discovering and forming a concept or principle
Figure 3: Inductive Approach
1-19
Practical applications: Bruner’s Ideas for Science Classroom
1. Emphasize the basic structure of new material
Examples:
• Use demonstrations that reveal basic principles. For example
demonstrate the law of magnetism by using similar and opposite poles of
a set of bar magnets.
• Encourage children to make outlines of basic points made in
textbooks or discovered in activities.
2. Present many examples and concept.
Examples:
• When presenting an explanation of the phases of the moon, have the
children observe the phases in a variety of ways, such as direct
observation of the changing shape of the moon in the evening s
demonstration of the changes using a flashlight and sphere, and
diagrams.
• Using magazine pictures to show the stages in a space shuttle
mission, have the class make models that show the stages and list the
stages on the chalkboard.
3. Help children construct coding system.
Examples:
• Invent a game that requires children to classify rocks.
• Have children maintain scrapbooks in which they keep collected leaf
specimens that are grouped according to observed characteristics.
Apply new learning to many different situations and kinds of problems.
Example:
• Learn how scientist estimate the size of populations by having children
count the number in a sample and estimate the numbers of grasshoppers
in a lawn and in a meadow.
4. Pose a problem to the children and let them find the answer.
Examples:
• Ask questions that will lead naturally to activities-why should wear
seatbelts? And what are some ingredients that most junk foods have ?
• Do a demonstration that raises a question in the children’s minds. For
example, levitate a washer using magnet or mix two colored solutions to
produce a third color.
5. Encourage children to make intuitive guesses.
Examples:
• Ask the children to guess the amount of water that goes down the
drain each time a child gets a drink of water from a water fountain.
• Give the children magazine photographs of the evening sky and have
them guess the locations of some constellations.
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Ausubel’s Theory: Reception learning and expository teaching
According to David Ausubel, a child learns as a result of the child’s natural tendency
to organize information into some meaningful whole. Ausubel says learning should
be a deductive process, i.e. children should first learn a general concept and then
move towards specifics.
In the deductive strategy, a concept or principal is define and discussed using

appropriate labels and terms, followed by experiences to illustrate the idea. It can
involve hypothetical-deductive thinking whereby the learner generates idea to be
tested or discovered. The deductive approach can be used to promote inquiry
sessions and to construct knowledge. The first phase presents the generalization and
rules about the concept or principles under study, and the second phase requires
students to find examples of the concepts or principles.
The teacher’s responsibility is to organize concepts and principles so that the child
can continually fit new learning into the learning that came earlier. Ausubel’s theories,
which stress preparation and organization, have practical applications for science
classrooms.
Deductive approaches to learning are appropriate on many occasions. Over-

dependence, however, may result in passive learning and an attitude amongst the
students that science knowledge is black and white and that there are correct
answers to all problems in science. Additionally, these approaches often fail to value
the understandings that students bring with them to the classroom which, as
research has clearly shown, are difficult to change in cases where students have
faulty or non-scientific understandings of concepts. Reliance on deductive
approaches also ignores the reality that students, like all other people, learn in a
variety of ways and that they have their own preferred learning styles.
Teacher
definition of
concept
Practical
Problems
activity
Examples
Figure 4: Deductive Learning
1-21
Receiving ideas and explanations of a concept or principle
Experiences with instances of a concept or principle
Figure 5: Deductive approach to Instruction
Ausubel’s Ideas for Your Science Classroom
1. Use advance organizers.

Examples:
• List, pronounce, and discuss science vocabulary words prior to
lessons that use new science terms
• Role-play situations that may develop on a field trip.
2. Use a number of examples.

Examples:
• Ask the children to give examples related to the science phenomena
observed in class from their own experiences.
• Use pictures and diagrams to show various examples of such things
as constellations, animals, clouds, plants, etc.
3. Focus on both similarities and differences

Examples:
• Discuss how plants and animals are the same and different.
• Explain what conventional and alternatives energy sources do and do
not have in common.
4. Present materials in an organized fashion.

Examples:
• Outline the content of particularly complicated lessons.
• Organize the materials needed for a science activity in such a way
that a sign indicates whether they are to be used at the beginning,
middle, or end of the activity.
5. Discourage the rote learning of material that could be learned more

meaningfully.
Examples:
• Children give responses to questions in activities or textbooks in their
own words.
• Encourage children to explain the results of science activities to one
another.
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Gagne’s Theory: Conditions of Learning Theory
A) Description
Although Gagne’s theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, the

focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. Gagne’s theory is very prescriptive.
In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training in
those days.
In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:
• verbal information
• intellectual skills
• cognitive strategies
• motor skills
• attitudes
The importance behind the above system of classification is that each

learning level requires a different internal and external condition, that is, each
learning level requires different types of instruction.
For cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice

developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be
exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagne also
contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity:
• stimulus recognition
• response generation
• procedure following
• use of terminology
• discriminations
• concept formation
• rule application
• problem solving
The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors

so that they can identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate
learning at each level. This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for
sequencing instruction. Gagne outlines the following nine instructional
events and corresponding cognitive processes gaining attention (reception)
1. informing learners of the objective (expectancy)

2. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
3. presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
4. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
5. eliciting performance (responding)
6. providing feedback (reinforcement)
7. assessing performance (retrieval)
8. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
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B) Practical Application
Gagne’s nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can

serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media
(Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992, as cited in Kearsley 1994a). In applying these
instructional events, Kearsley (1994a) suggests keeping the following
principles in mind:
1. Learning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction.

2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned.
3. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.
Gagne’s Ideas for Your Science Classroom
1. Verbal information
Examples:
• Have children recall science facts and concepts orally or in writing.
• Model the use of advance organizers such as diagrams and lists
of key words prior to children reading science material or
observing videotapes of science phenomena.
2. Intellectual Skills.
Examples:
• Have children “invent” rules that govern processes, find similarities
and differences, and predict outcomes.
• Emphasize the search patterns and regularities during hands-on
experiences. Whenever possible have children not only compare
organisms, objects, and phenomena but also contrast them.
3. Cognitive strategies.
Examples:
• Encourage children to find their own ways to remember
information and ideas.
• Model the use of mnemonic devices, diagrams, outlines,
journaling, audio taping, and other techniques for retaining ideas
4. Attitudes.
Example:
• Select content and experiences that are relevant to the child’s
daily life and intriguing to the child so that the child develops a
positive attitude toward science and chooses science-related
experiences during leisure time.
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5. Acquisition of motor skills.
Example:
• Through the use of discovery-oriented experiences provide
children with opportunities to use hand lenses, simple tools,
measuring devices, etc.
Activity 1:
Make a comparison between Bruner’s theory and Ausubel
’s theory.
Activity 2:
Choose a topic and describe briefly how you would teach
using inductive and deductive approaches.
Activity 3
Think of 3 ways to inculcate positive scientific values
among students while conducting an experiment in the
laboratory.
1-25
Constructivist Approach
What is constructivism?
Constructivism is basically a learning theory based on observation and scientific

study. It is about how people learn. It says that people construct their own
understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and
reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to
reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences. In doing so we may have to
change what we believe or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. The
constructivist learners are active creators of our own knowledge. To be constructivist
learners, we must ask questions, explore ideas and assess what we know.
Constructivism proposes that children learn as a result of their personal generation of
meaning from experiences. The fundamental role of a teacher is to help children
generate connections between what is to be learned and what the children already
know or believe. There are three principles that make up the theory of constructivism:
1. A person never really knows the world as it is. Each person constructs
beliefs about what is real.
2. What a person already believes, what a person brings to new situations,

filters out or changes the information that the persons’ senses deliver.
3. People create a reality based on their previous beliefs, their own abilities
to reason, and their desire to reconcile what they believe and what they
actually observe.
In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can have a number of different
teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students
to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving ) to create more
knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their
understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students’
preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and build on them.
Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is
helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies,
students in the constructivist classroom ideally become “expert learners”. This gives
them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom
environment, the students learn how to learn.
Traditional class versus constructivist class
The table below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. In the
constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own
process of learning. One of the teacher’s biggest job is becomes ASKING GOOD
QUESTIONS (The constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing
knowledge in a traditional classrooms too but its really a matter of emphasis being on
the student not the teacher).
1-26
TRADITIONAL CLASS CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASS
Teachers disseminate information to Teachers have discussed with their students

students and students are recipients of and help them construct their own knowledge.
knowledge.
Teacher’s role is directive, rooted in Teacher’s role is interactive, rooted in
authority . negotiation.
Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic ever changing

with our experiences.
Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.
Assessment is through testing correct Assessment includes student’s works,

answers. observations, and points of view, as well as
tests. Process is as important as product.
Table 2: Differences Between Traditional and Constructivist Classroom
Alternative Framework
Students enter the classroom with pre-existing ideas about the world which are
different to those held by scientists i.e. embody misconceptions.
Research indicates that student misconceptions about things which have a scientific
dimension or explanation:
• are extremely common (unsurprising given that children have been thinking
about and coping with the natural world for many years prior to their
exposure to a formal scientific education)
• hinder understanding of accepted scientific explanations (until they are
discarded by the learner, alternative concepts will not be learned)
• are not easily displaced (and will not usually be displaced simply through
revelation of the scientific explanation/concept or at the behest of the
teacher)
• can coexist with scientific concepts (in which case they are only used in
situations perceived as requiring a "scientific" answer/response, but not in
the student's everyday thinking about the world)
• can be found even among the "experts" (research indicates many scientists
and teachers unknowingly retain misconceptions e.g. in physics, the impetus
model of motion rather than the Newtonian one of inertia)
Techniques To Identify Alternative Frameworks :-
• Interview
• Questionnaires
• Prediction
• Observation
• Explanation
Displacing Misconceptions
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Misconceptions can be displaced and students will accept a scientific conception if :
• the student understands the meaning of the scientific conception

• the scientific conception is believable (this means that it must be
compatible with the student's other conceptions.
• the scientific conception is found to be useful to the student in interpreting,
explaining or predicting phenomena that cannot be satisfactorily
accounted for by the formerly held misconceptions (i.e. the scientific
concept must be seen to be better than the student's prior belief)
• the student progressively gains expertise in using the new scientific
concepts (a slow process requiring a long time period and gradual
building of knowledge through experience).
Applying Constructivism In The Classroom
The constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then guide students to
help them find their own answers. They use many techniques in the teaching
process.
In a constructivist classroom, Example

learning is
Constructed – students come to An elementary school teacher presents a class

learning situations with already problem to measure the length of the
formulated knowledge, ideas and “Mayflower”. Rather than starting the problem by
understandings. This previous introducing the ruler, the teacher allows students
knowledge is the raw material for to reflect and to construct their own methods of
the new knowledge they will measurement. One student offers the knowledge
create. that a doctor said he is four feet tall. Another
says she knows horses are measured in
“hands”. The students discuss these and other
methods they have heard about, and decide on
one to apply to the problem.
Active – students create new Groups of students in a science class are

understanding for him/herself. discussing a problem in physics. Though the
The teacher coaches, teacher knows the “answer” to the problem, she
moderates, suggests but allow focuses on helping students restate their
the students room to experiment, questions in useful ways. She prompts each
ask questions, try things that student to reflect on and examine his or her
don’t work. Learning activities current knowledge. When one of the students
require students’ full participation comes up with the relevant concept, the teacher
and they need to reflect on, and seizes upon it and indicates to the group that this
talk about, their activities. might be a fruitful avenue for them to explore.
They design and perform relevant experiments.
Afterward, the students and teacher talk about
what they have learned, and how their
observations and experiments helped them to
better understand the concept.
Reflective – students control Students keep journals in carrying out science

their own learning process by projects where they record how they feel about
reflecting on their experiences. the project, the visual and verbal reactions of
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This process makes them others to the project. Periodically the teacher
experts of their own learning. The reads these journals and holds a conference
teacher helps create situations with the student where the two assess (1) what
where the students feel safe new knowledge the student has created, (2) how
questioning and reflecting on the student learns best and (3) the learning
their own processes, either environment and the teacher’s role in it.
privately or in group discussion.
Collaborative –the constructivist A group of students carrying out an experiment

classroom relies heavily on to determine the melting point of naphthalene.
collaboration among students. They collaborate by doing different tasks
When students review and reflect simultaneously. One reads the temperature
on their learning processes while another reads aloud the time interval. At
together, they can pick up the same time another student tabulates the
strategies and methods from one reading and draws the cooling curve. Together
another they interpret the data and discuss the results.
INQUIRY BASED – STUDENTS SIXTH GRADERS FIGURING OUT HOW TO

USE INQUIRY METHODS TO PURIFY WATER INVESTIGATE SOLUTIONS
ASK QUESTIONS, RANGING FROM COFFEE-FILTER PAPER, TO
INVESTIGATE A TOPIC AND A STOVETOP DISTILLATION APPARATUS, TO
USE VARIETY OF PILES OF CHARCOAL, TO AN ABSTRACT
RESOURCES TO FIND MATHEMATICAL SOLUTION BASED ON THE
SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS. SIZE OF A WATER MOLECULE. DEPENDING
UPON STUDENTS RESPONSES, THE
TEACHER ENCOURAGES ABSTRACT AS
WELL AS CONCRETE, POETIC AS WELL AS
PRACTICAL, CREATIONS OF NEW
KNOWLEDGE.
Evolving- students have ideas An elementary teacher believes her students are
that they may later see were ready to study gravity. She creates an
invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to environment of discovery with objects of varying
explain new experiences. These kinds. Students explore the differences in weight
ideas are temporary steps in the among similar blocks of Styrofoam, wood and
integration of knowledge. lead. Some students hold the notion that heavier
Constructivist teaching takes into objects fall faster than light ones. The teacher
account students’ current provides materials about Galileo and Newton.
conceptions and builds from She leads the discussion on theories about
there. falling. The students then replicate Galileo’s
experiment by dropping objects of different
weights and measuring how fast they fall. They
see that objects of different weights actually fall
at the same speed, although surface area and
aerodynamic properties can affect the rate of fall.
1-29
Teaching Models Based On Constructivist Approach
Needham’s Five Phase Constructive Model
This learning model was proposed by Richard Needham (1987 ) in his work
‘Children Learning in Science Project’. It consists of five phases namely the
orientation, the generation of ideas, restructuring of ideas, application of ideas and
lastly the reflection .
Needham Five Phases Constructivist Model is shown in the table 3 below :-
PHASE PURPOSE METHODS

Orientation To attract students attention and Experiment, video and film show,
interest. demonstration, problem solving.
Eliciting of ideas To be aware of the student’s Experiment, small group
prior knowledge. discussion, concept mapping and
presentation.
Restructuring of ideas To realize the existence of
alternative ideas , ideas needs to
be improved, to be developed or
to be replaced with scientific
ideas.
Explanation and
exchanging ideas To determine the alternative ideas Small group discussion and
and critically assess the present presentation.
ideas.
Exposure to conflict
ideas
To test the validity of the present Discussion, reading, and
Development of ideas. teacher’s input.
new ideas
To improvise, develop or to Experiment, project and
evaluation replace with new ideas. demonstration.
To test the validity of the new

ideas.
Application of ideas To apply the new ideas to a Writing of individual’s report on
different situation. the project work.
Reflection To accommodate ones idea to Writing of individual’s report on
the scientific ideas. the project work, group
discussion, and personal notes.
Table 3: Needham Five Phases Constructivist Model
Adapted from “Buku Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid
III” ( 1995) ms 15-16.
Further reading:
Needham, R & Hill, P ( 1987 ), Teaching Strategies For Developing Understanding in
Science. University of Leeds.
1-30
Osborne Generative Model
The generative learning model, developed by Roger J. Osborne and Michael C.

Wittrock (1983), is both a model of how children learn and a model of how to teach
children. This constructivist model is based on the premise that children come to the
classroom with a body of prior knowledge that may or may not be compatible with the
new concept being presented in the science lesson. The learner must be able to
connect between prior knowledge and new information to successfully construct new
meanings. This teaching model outlines a series of steps for a well-designed lesson,
the preliminary, focus, challenge, and application phases as shown in the table 4
Interactive Model ( Faire And Cosgrove )
Learning is an interactive process (which actively engages the learner) not a passive
exercise in transmission of knowledge. Interactive learning promotes development of
scientific process skills, development of conceptual understandings, student
ownership of process and products of learning.
Learning begins with an initiating event, which motivates and directs the learner ' s
attention to the task of learning e.g.
• a question to be answered
• a problem to be solved
• a challenge to be met
• a discrepant event to be explained
Learning proceeds to children actively engaging in the learning process by:
• asking their own questions

• stating their own existing ideas
• proposing hypotheses
• designing fair tests
• investigating and exploring
• refining their ideas
• stating and presenting their findings
1-31
PHASE ACTIVITY
The preliminary phase - includes any activity that In conducting a lesson on buoyancy (sinking
allows the teacher to find out what prior knowledge the & floating), teacher may find that some
students have relevant to the new concept. This can students may lack a thorough understanding
be as simple as a brief pre-test, or it may include a of the concepts density, mass, and volume. A
quick demonstration or activity that provides a lack of this knowledge will block students’
discrepant event (an activity with a surprising, ability to put together a sound understanding
unexpected results). This is an opportunity for the of buoyancy. If the preliminary phase reveals
teacher to find out what prerequisite knowledge the that students lack that knowledge, the
students lack or what misconceptions the students teacher then knows she/he will have to
have that may interfere with their understanding of the include time to develop those prerequisite
concept. concepts.
The focus phase - provides an activity (which may be Students in small groups conduct an
a hands-on inquiry activity or a brain-teaser) that gives experiment investigating buoyancy of several
the students an opportunity to play around with an objects. Conducting these activities in small
example of the concept (such as playing around with groups is very effective. The students often
objects that sink or float). To create a discrepant event automatically experiment with the materials,
that stimulates the students’ curiosity, we would discuss their results, and challenge and test
include objects that students would expect to sink, but their explanations/ideas together.
which actually float.
The challenge phase - is a time for the students to Students present their findings and exchange
compare their own ideas with those of others. ideas; students debate and test out
Although this can be done individually, it is a powerful their explanations. Teacher explains
group learning activity. Class members are the concept of buoyancy.
encouraged to debate, challenge, and test each
other’s ideas, while the teacher encourages all the
students’ ideas and provides them with challenging
questions about their explanations. It is up to the
students to test the ideas and eliminate ideas that they
determine don’t work. The teacher facilitates this by
helping them figure out how to test out each idea.
When the teacher determines that the students are
cognitively ready to understand the scientific version
of the concept, the teacher can present the concept.
The application phase - provides students with In the lesson on buoyancy, the aluminum foil
opportunities to find out whether the concept is boat does not appear at first to fit the
applicable to a variety of situations. We suggest that standard concept. The concept must be re-
students be given opportunities to examine at least defined to include boats. Finally, the teacher
five situations to which the concept can be applied. can refine the students’ understanding by
New examples may provide new twists on the concept providing one or two non-examples of the
that will lead to a new round of discussion and testing concept, i.e., examples that look like they
should follow the rule but, on closer
examination, do not. This will help deter
students from automatically applying the new
concept to all situations.
Table 4: Phases Of The Generative Model
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The teacher 's role in an interactive learning environment
• Provide the initiation to learning (by posing the question, challenge, problem or
discrepant event and motivating the learners to the learning task).
• Facilitate the learning activities by:
 defining the learning environment (e.g. grouping, access to materials,

setting the time frame, defining expectations)
 probing children ' s ideas
 offering guidance in the formation of hypotheses
 helping children refine and focus their questions
 helping children set up their investigations
 providing feedback and encouragement in the children's design of fair
tests
 challenging children to test, apply, refine and extend their ideas.
Sequential activities in interactive model are shown in the schematic diagram

below :-
Preparation
Teacher and students choose a topic and
search for information.
Pre-requisite Knowledge
Teacher determines student’s prior
knowledge
Exploratory Activity
Students investigate the topic through reading ,
asking questions and discussion
Students Ask Questions

Students pose questions regarding the topic
Doing Research
Teacher and students select questions to study Comparison
in greater detail.
Observation
Additional Students present their findings and teacher
Questions observes for changes in students’ concepts.
Reflection
Teacher guides student to reflects on what they have
learned and how they have learned.
Figure 7: Schematic Diagram of Interactive Model

Adapted from “ Buku Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid III” ( 1995 ), ms
67.
1-33
Activity 1:
Define constructivism and its attributes in science classroom
practices.
Activity 2:
Discuss the various techniques to identify children’s
alternative framework on the topic electricity.
Activity 3:
Choose a topic of your specialize area and discuss briefly the
teaching and learning activities using constructivist approach.
1-34
Multiple Intelligence
Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory states that there are at least seven different ways of
learning anything, and therefore there are "seven intelligences": body/kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intra-personal, logical/mathematical, musical/rhythmic, verbal/linguistic
and visual/spatial. In addition most all people have the ability to develop skills in each
of the intelligences, and to learn through them. However, in education we have
tended to emphasize two of "the ways of learning": logical/mathematical and
verbal/linguistic.
Much of this material is from: Seven Ways of Knowing: Teaching for Multiple
Intelligences by David Lazear. 1991. IRI/Skylight Publishing, Inc. Palatine, IL.
• Body/Kinesthetic Intelligence
This intelligence is related to physical movement and the knowing/wisdom of the

body. Including the brain's motor cortex, which control bodily motion.
Body/kinesthetic intelligence is awakened through physical movement such as in
various sports, dance, and physical exercises as well as by the expression of
oneself through the body, such as inventing, drama, body language, and
creative/interpretive dance.
• Interpersonal Intelligence
This intelligence operates primarily through person-to-person relationships and

communication. Interpersonal intelligence is activated by person-to-person
encounters in which such things as effective communication, working together
with others for a common goal, and noticing distinctions among persons are
necessary and important.
• Intra-personal Intelligence
This intelligence relates to inner states of being, self-reflection, metacognition (i.e.

thinking about thinking), and awareness of spiritual realities. Intra-personal
intelligence is awakened when we are in situations that cause introspection and
require knowledge of the internal aspects of the self, such as awareness of our
feelings, thinking processes, self-reflection, and spirituality.
• Logical/Mathematical Intelligence
Often called "scientific thinking," this intelligence deals with inductive and
deductive thinking/reasoning, numbers, and the recognition of abstract patterns.
Logical mathematical intelligence is activated in situations requiring problem
solving or meeting a new challenge as well as situations requiring pattern
discernment and recognition.
• Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence
This intelligence is based on the recognition is based on the recognition of tonal

patterns, including various environmental sounds, and on a sensitivity to rhythm
and beats. Musical/rhythmic intelligence is turned on by the resonance or
vibration effect of music and rhythm on the brain, including such things as the
1-35
human voice, sounds from nature, musical instruments, percussion instruments,

and other humanly produced sounds.
• Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence
This intelligence, which is related to words and language both written and
spoken, dominates most Western educational systems. Verbal linguistic
intelligence is awakened by the spoken word, by reading someone's ideas
thoughts, or poetry, or by writing one's own ideas, thoughts, or poetry, as well as
by various kinds of humor such as "plays on words," jokes, and "twists" of the
language.
• Visual/Spatial Intelligence
This intelligence, which relies on the sense of sight and being able to visualize an
object, includes the ability to create internal mental images/pictures.
Visual/spatial intelligence is triggered by presenting the mind with and/or creating
unusual, delightful, and colorful designs, patterns, shapes, and pictures, and
engaging in active imagination through such things as visualization guided
imagery, and pretending exercises.
Well done, take a break

now! Time for a cup of
coffee before you move
on to the next topic
1-36
Topic 4: Teaching Primary Science by Inquiry and Discovery
In science, children are being encouraged to be the discoverers of the nature of

things. Children need to be engaged in ‘real experimentation’ and ‘discovering things
by themselves. Active participation of children in science lessons is possible through
inquiry and discovery methods. What do you understand by teaching primary science
by inquiry?
Inquiry
Inquiry is the process of defining and investigating problems, formulating hypotheses,

designing experiments, gathering data, and drawing conclusions about problems.
The figure 8 illustrates the basic steps in using the Inquiry Model
Set up the problem Provide experiences to

situation bring out essential
elements
Set up experiences to
bring out contrasting
elements
Learner applies concepts Learner forms concepts or

or generalization generalization
Figure 8: Basic Steps in Using the Inquiry Model
Source: Lang R.H,& McBeath A. ( ). Strategies and Methods for Student-centered

Instruction, pp 280
The steps of inquiry as suggested in the inquiry model are as follows:
1. Ask open-ended and high level questions, solicit and accept divergent
responses and probes and redirects;
2. Avoid telling answers or suggesting what students must do next; instead, act
only as a clarifier or facilitator;
3. Encourage and reinforce your students in taking more responsibility for
making learning discoveries;
4. Be supportive of their responses, suggestions, and deferring views and
interpretations, but insist that they back up their comments with logical
evidence;
5. Teach students how to phrase or write the concepts, principles or
generalization that they are forming;
6. Encourage them to act on current verified “best answer”, understanding that
additional evidence may lead to new “best answer”;
1-37
7. Teach and encourage students to distinguish between “healthy “ and

“negative” skepticism;
8. Encourage student-student interaction and sharing by stressing support and
cooperation rather than competition;
9. Point out any errors in logic, misuse of inferences or generalizations that are
too broad but allow your students to make their own correction as far as
possible, for if you supply corrections, you may defeat the purpose of inquiry;
10. Be sure to identify errors and verify conclusions and generalizations in non-
threatening ways.
The essence of inquiry approach is to teach pupils to handle situation, which they
encounter when dealing with physical world by using techniques applied by research
scientists. Inquiry means teachers design situations so that pupils are caused to
employ procedures research scientists used to recognize problems, to ask questions,
to apply investigational procedures, and to provide consistent descriptions,
predictions, and explanation which are compatible with shared experienced of the
physical world.
Discovery
Discovery is the mental process of assimilating concepts and principles. Discovery

processes include
• Observing
• Classifying
• Measuring
• Predicting
• Describing
• Inferring
A lesson can range from free discovery where the teacher’s role is minimal at one
end to pure expository learning where the teacher’s role is maximum at the other. In
between this expository-pure discovery continuum lays guided discovery. When both
rule and solutions are given, the teaching method is thoroughly expository; when
neither is given, it is pure discovery.
Teaching EXPOSITION (teacher GUIDED DISCOVERY EXPOLARION OR FREE

strategy lectures, instructs, DISCOVERY(INQUIRY)
demonstrates)
Teacher Active/Dominant Active/facilitator Facilitator

role
Student Passive or active Active Active

role
Source: Carin. A. and Sund. R. Teaching Science Through discovery (6th Edition) 1989. pp
91.
Figure 9: Dominance/passivity of science-teaching methods
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Guided Discovery
Guided discovery science teaching/learning methods blend teacher-centred and

student-centred techniques. The younger the children the more you must present
information and guide them; the older children, the less you present, the more they
will initiate work with you as a facilitator, resource person, and encourager, and
guide. Guided discovery science teaching/learning tries to help students learn to
learn. Guided discovery helps students acquire knowledge that is uniquely their own
because they discovered it themselves. Guided discovery is not restricted to finding
something entirely new to the world such as an invention or theory. It is a matter of
internally rearranging data so your students can go beyond the data to form concepts
new to them. Guided discovery involves finding the meanings, organization, and
structure of ideas.
Inquiry should not be confused with discovery. Discovery assumes a realist or logical
approach to the world, which is necessarily present in inquiry. Inquiry tends to imply a
constructionist approach to teaching science. Inquiry is open-ended and on going.
Discovery concentrates upon closure on some important process, fact, principle or
law, which is required by the science syllabus.
In this section, you will learn three inquiry methods commonly used in Primary School
Science. They are experimentation, investigation, and demonstration.
Experimentation
An experiment can also be defined as the setting up of a planned situation; the

situation is planned to provide data that will either support or not support your
hypothesis. If the manner in which a variable can be manipulated and the type of
response expected is clearly stated in the hypothesis, then much of the work in
planning how to collect data has been done. After that, you define the variables
operationally, specify the conditions under which the work will be carried out and you
are set to carry out the experiment. You observe and measure the variables and
repeat the procedure if necessary. Later you make inferences in trying to explain the
result while you are interpreting the data. Then you relate the data to your hypothesis
and then finally, you make another inference to come to the conclusion of the
experiment.
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The experimental process can be summarized in the following diagram:
Scientific Problem
Theory
Hypothesis
Conduct experiment
Observation and
data collection
Data analysis
Findings/Results
Conclusion
Figure 10: Steps in Experimentation
Students involved in experimentation should follow all the steps as shown in figure 10
so that they will master all the science process skills. However, when students are
given the experimental procedures and asked to carry out the activity, we do not
consider this as experimentation. This is because students are not undergoing all the
steps of experimentation but merely carrying out a learning activity.
1-40
Investigation
Investigations are one of the types of practical learning involved in science education.
Other types of practical work in science include demonstrations by the teacher and
illustrative work conducted by children. Illustrative is largely predetermined by the
teacher with one main route expected to lead to a conclusion. This has previously
been the bulk of practical science education in many schools.
In contrast, an investigation is largely determined by the children with many possible

routes and outcomes. Therefore, children have to take decisions at many points in
the investigation. It is not totally predetermined by the teacher, although the teacher
still manages the learning.
Investigations involved a number of interrelated intellectual and manual processes:
• Hypothesizing
• Questioning
• Planning
• Experimenting
• Measuring
• Recording data
• Interpreting evidence
• Evaluating evidence
• Making inferences
• Communicating
• Predicting
Although set out here as a list, these do not form a series of short steps in a linear
process. Investigating is more complex and cyclical in nature. More sophisticated
investigation will be more complex still, with several internal loops within the overall
cyclical process.
Demonstration
Demonstration is one of the common techniques used by primary science teachers.

The key feature is the division of the demonstration into three parts: prediction,
observation and explanation.
Predict – Observe – Explain (POE)
In a POE activity students are given a situation and are asked to predict what will
happen when some change is made. Having made their predictions, the change to
the situation is made and the students are asked to make careful observations of the
results of the change. Next, the students are asked to sort out and to explain the
differences between what they expected to happen and what did actually happen.
The strategy is readily applied to many situations in science, although in some
biological examples the changes might be slow.
Predictions
During the prediction stage, the purpose is to allow the teacher and the students to
become aware of what they are thinking. The wide range of understanding held by
the students about the situations emerges in the discussion.
1-41
A number of conditions apply;
1. The situation must be one in which students feel comfortable making a

prediction; the situation is sufficiently familiar to allow students to suggest an
adequate hypothesis and to offer supporting reasons why it might be true.
Situations in which students to guess because they don’t have sufficient pre-
knowledge are not useful for the POE technique.
2. Sometimes the teacher will deliberately choose a situation in which the result
will be a surprise for the majority of the students. However, this should not be
the rule. It is important that on many occasions, situations are selected in
which many of the students will be able to make correct predictions.
3. Students should feel able and should be encouraged to take risks in making
their predictions and to talk about their reasons without evaluations by the
teacher or the class. While students are making their predictions, the ideas of
right and wrong are irrelevant.
4. It’s important that commitment to a prediction is sort from every student prior
to the observation being made. Often it is appropriate that is be written-
reducing the threat for individuals.
Observations
The activity may be done as a teacher demonstration or as a student activity. The

teacher must ensure the students observe carefully and that they discuss these
observations. Often two students will observe the same event in very different ways,
commenting on different aspects of the situations or even seeing quite conflicting
things.
Explanations
The process of reconciling students’ predictions and their observations, which is the
final stage of the strategy, is usually not an easy task. Students will need a chance to
talk with on another about their explanations, the differences between their
predictions and observation and often further experiments will need to be suggested.
Explain how experimentation and investigation

can promote inquiry learning
1-42
Oral Questioning
What’s in a question, you ask: Everything. It is the way of evoking

stimulating responses or stultifying inquiry. It is, in essence, the very
core of teaching.
(Dewey, 1933. p.266 )
Since the age of Socrates, questions have been considered essential to effective
teaching. There are many ways you can use questions. You might, for instance, use
questions as a pre-test to discover what your students already know about the topic
or what aspect of the topic interest them most. You might begin a new lesson by
asking a challenging or thought- provoking question to motivate your students.
Questioning Procedures
Although questions vary widely in their content and form of delivery, there are certain
commonly used steps in the classroom question-and-answer process.
Get attention of all
Avoid
• Call-outs
Student must understand • Chorus answers
question and know
Ask question • Repeating
conditions of response
questions
• Repeating
answers
3 – 5 seconds • Run-on questions
Wait
• Leading questions
multiple questions
• Blanket questions
Spread question among • Yes/no questions
volunteers and non-
volunteers alike Call for response • Poor distribution
Wait briefly after Have students

students has
responded
respond to whole class
Figure 11: Basic steps in asking questions
1-43
The suggestions below can help you frame and use questions productively.
• Secure attention
Before you a single question, secure the undivided attention of the whole class.
By so doing, you will reinforce your students’ sense that they are part of the
classroom teaching/learning process. You can use eye contact, gestures, and
changes of position to secure and whole your students’ attention.
• Distribute questions widely
Distribute your questions widely, selecting students from among both volunteers
and non-volunteers to give answers. Avoid choosing responders to any set
patterns (e.g. by rows); if participation is predictable, students will be encouraged
to let their attention wander, and management problems are like to ensue.
• Distribute questions realistically
Encourage active participation in lesson development by matching the difficulty of

the questions to the capability of the students. Do this tactfully, however, to avoid
sending negative messages about certain students’ abilities. Treat incorrect
responses as “deferred successes” rather than as failures.
• Pause productively
When you have asked questions, pause for 3 to 5 seconds before you call on a
particular student to respond. This practice provide students with “think time”
during which you can look about the room as a signal that you may choose any
student to answer, and that no one “of the hook”.
• Use “wait time”
Once you have named a respondent, allow 3 to 5 seconds for a response.

Learning to use wait time effectively takes courage and perseverance: at first,
you may fear that if you wait 3 or more seconds after asking questions, your
lesson will drag. In fact, while that wait time may seem long to you, it seldom
does to the students. To encourage your students to frame their replies in
complete, well-worded and well-constructed statement, you must give them time
to think their answers through.
• Require courteous group behaviour
Train your students to raise a hand if they wish to volunteer an answer. This
courteous behaviour, which gives the floor to one person at a time, allows you to
acknowledge correct responses and use them more productively; a student
answer may lead to your next question or to a redirect (passing the question
along to another student to obtain clarification or comment) and, thus, become
part topic’s development. Also train your students to direct their answers to the
whole class and not just to you, to emphasize that answering question is part of a
cooperative learning experience, and that all students share responsibility for
lesson development.
1-44
How can you use different kinds of questions for different purposes?
According to Carin and Sund (1989), there are three classification systems that can
serve as a guide to evaluate questions.
1. Convergent and divergent

2. Levels of thinking using Bloom’s Taxonomy
3. Processes – Critical and Creative Thinking
In this section, you will discuss the convergent and divergent questions only. Further
reading on Levels of thinking using Bloom’s Taxonomy and Processes –Critical and
Creative Thinking please refer to Carin. A. and Sund. R. Teaching Science Through
discovery (6th Edition) 1989. pp 157- 160
Convergent questions (closed questions)
Convergent questions focus on specific, teacher acceptable answers, and reinforce

the “correct” answers you may be looking for
.
questions answers
Use convergent questions to guide the student and to evaluate what he or she sees,
knows, or feels about the event. Convergent questions help direct the student’s
attention to specific objects or events. They also sharpen the student’s recall or
memory faculties. These questions evaluate student’s observational and recall skill,
allow you to adjust your teaching to present ideas again, or go back to less
complicated ideas.
Divergent questions (open-ended questions)
Divergent questions are those that encourage a broad range of diverse responses.
answers
questions
answers
answers
Today’s science/technology/society complex problems often need more than one

solution. Therefore, divergent thinking is a particularly important skill. Using divergent
question will broaden and deepen your students’ responses and involve them in
thinking creatively and critically. Divergent questions stimulate children to become
better observers and organizers of the objects and events you present. Many of
these questions guide children in discovering things for themselves, help them to see
interrelationships, and make hypothesis or draw conclusions from the data.
1-45
1. Identify whether the following questions are convergent or divergent
Convergent/Divergent Questions Answers

1. What do you think I am going to do with this material?
2. What conclusions can you from the data/
3. Can anything else be done to improve the design?
4. Is baking powder a producer of a gas
5. Do you think heat caused the plant to wilt?
6. What can you tell me about pollution in this area from
the photograph?
7. Which of these animals would you like to be and why?
8. Would you say you have sufficient information to come
to that conclusion?
9. What ways can you make the lights burn with the wire,
switch, and battery?
10. What thins can you tell me about the world during the
time of the dinosaurs?
2. How do you change the other questions in 1. to make them more divergent?
1-46
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. Construct a concept map to show your overall understanding on the

Primary School Science Curriculum by using the following key concepts:
Scientific skills, thinking skills, scientific attitudes, teaching and

learning strategies, curriculum specification.
Concept maps should:

Be networks with nodes representing
concept terms and lines representing
directional relations between concept
pairs.
Be hierarchical with super ordinate
concepts at the apex when the subject
domain is clearly hierarchical.
Contain labeled links with appropriate
Guidelines on how linking words.
to construct a Contain cross links such that relations
concept map between sub branches of the network
are identified.
Be structural representations
generated by students freely and not
constrained by a given structure.
Be labeled by students in their own
words.
Be based on a few (say 10 or fewer)
important concepts in the subject
domain.
Either permit students to provide their
own terms in a subject domain, or
provide concept terms in the
assessment.
Contain sufficiently clear, unambiguous
instructions to permit students to
search memory in the desired manner
and to establish appropriate criteria
against which to test alternative
responses.
1-47
2. NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY
In consonance with the National Education Philosophy,

science education in Malaysia nurtures a Science and
Technology Culture by focusing on the development of
individuals who are competitive, dynamic, robust and resilient
and able to master scientific knowledge and technological
competency.
The National Science Education Philosophy aims to develop scientifically and

technologically literate Malaysians.
Can you identify the characteristics of a scientifically and technologically

literate citizen?
In your opinion, how can a scientifically and technologically literate citizen

contribute to a progressive society?
1-48
Summary
• Science is the study of natural phenomena in a systematic manner.

• The three major elements of science are processes, products and attitudes.
• Science is regarded as ordered knowledge of natural phenomena
• Technology uses the knowledge of science to design products to improve the
quality of life.
• Primary School Science Curriculum is divided into 2 levels: Levels 1 year 1-3;
Levels 2 year 4-6.
• The primary science curriculum focuses on scientific skills, thinking skills,
scientific values, content organization and teaching and learning strategies.
• According to Piaget’s cognitive theory, children undergo four stages of
cognitive development, namely,
 Sensorimotor stage (0 – 2 years)
 Pro-operational stage (2 – 7 years)
 Concrete-operational stage (7 – 11 years)
 Formal operational stage (11 – 14 years)
• Piagetian Theory implies that all children follow the same developmental
pattern regardless of culture and general ability. Children perceive things differently.
• In Bruner’s discovery Learning model, students’ involvement is active in the
learning process. The teachers’ role as a guide and advisor in the student’s search
for information rather than as a giver of information.
• Ausubel’s Verbal Learning model says that instructions should be systematic
and given in a deductive manner.
• Gagne’s Learning hierarchy is based on the idea that all learning must
proceed from simple to the complex in well-defined stages.
• In constructive approach students tries to make sense of what is taught by
trying to fit it with his/her experience. There are three commonly used teaching
models using constructivist approach; interactive model, generative model and
Needham’s five-phase model.
• Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory states that there are at least seven different
ways of learning anything, and therefore there are "seven intelligences":
body/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intra-personal, logical/mathematical,
musical/rhythmic, verbal/linguistic and visual/spatial.
• Inquiry in science teaching applies to any procedure where children are
involved in problem solving. Inquiry means going beyond the known information to
gain new knowledge.
• In the discovery approach, children are permitted to manipulate material and
to investigate on their own.
• In guided discovery lesson the teacher poses questions that lead the children
to investigate a common problem.
• In the experimental approach the children formulate and test hypotheses.
This approach teaches children to define and control variables in experimental
situations, to experiment, and to interpret data, as well as to hypothesize.
• Basic to student-centred instruction is the teacher’s ability to ask stimulating
questions that facilitate creative, critical thinking and the manifestation of multiple
talents. Questions can be classified as convergent or divergent.
References
1-49
Carin. A and Sund. R. B (1989), Teaching Science Through Discovery, 6th Ed. Merrill
Publishing Company, London
Esler W.K and Esler M.K (1996), Teaching Elementary Science, 7th Ed., Wadsworth
Publishing Company, Washington.
Fleer. M and Hardy. T (1996) Science for Children, Prentice Hall, Australia pg 7
Grant. P., Johnson. L and Sanders. Y.(1990), Better Links: Teaching Strategies in
the Science Classroom., STAV Publishing, Australia.
Martin. R., Sexton.C and Franklin. T(2001), Teaching Science For All Children, 2 nd
Ed., Allyn and Bacon, Singapore.
Ministry of Education Malaysia (2002), Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools,

Curriculum Specifications Science Year 2, Curriculum Development Centre,
Kuala Lumpur.
Trowbridge.L.W, Bybee. R.W and Powell J.C (2000) Teaching Secondary School
Science: Strategies For Developing Scientific Literacy, 7th Ed., USA.
http://www.ppk.moe.my
http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/res.../constructivism.htm
http://www.learningmatters.co.uk
1-50

07 Teaching Science To Children

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07 Teaching Science To Children

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Module 1: KPLI SR Science Major Unit 1: Teaching Science To Children

UNIT 1 TEACHING SCIENCE TO CHILDREN

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. explain the meaning of science and its role in daily life;

TOPIC 1: Understanding Science

everywhere, using it all the time, scary, can be lethal,

Science is defined differently depending on the individuals who view it.

• the layperson might define science as a body of scientific information;

• Science is perceived as an inquiry process, observation, and reasoning about

Elements of science can be visualised in this way:

• Learning science information is more important than to memorizing the

Figure 1 shows the hierarchical order of the science products.

Figure 1: Science Products

Two criteria are used to identify a scientific fact:

A concept is an abstraction of events, objects, or phenomena that seem to have

According to Bruner, (1956), a concept has five important elements:

Is the statement “the earth rotates on its axis” a scientific concept,

Understanding science and technology and their applications towards the

Is there any relationship between science and technology?

In general, science can be regarded as the enterprise that seeks to understand

Science is intimately related to technology and society. For instance, science

Well done, take a break now!

TOPIC 2: Primary School Science Curriculum

Historical Development of the Primary School Science Curriculum

Table 1: Historical Development of the Primary School Science Curriculum

Projek Khas Alam dan Manusia Kurikulum Sains

Teacher’s Panduan Mengajar Buku Panduan Khas PuLSaR

Teaching- Scientific Method Inquiry-discovery Constructivism

Basically, the Primary School Science Curriculum has two levels

• Level One is from Year 1 – 3

1. develop thinking skill so as to enhance the intellectual ability

Scientific skills encompass science process skills and manipulative skills.

Science Process Skills

OBSERVING USING THE SENSE OF HEARING, TOUCH, SMELL, TASTE

Making Hypotheses Making a general statement about the relationship between a

Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that enable

• Use and handle science apparatus and substances.

II. Thinking Skills

Thinking is a mental process that requires an individual to integrate knowledge, skills

Critical Thinking Skills

A brief description of each critical thinking skill is as follows:

Creative Thinking Skills

A brief description of each creative thinking skill is as follows:

Relating Making connections in a certain situation to determine in a

Making Analogies Understanding a certain abstract or complex concept by

III. Relationship between Thinking skills and Science Process Skills

Science Process Skills Thinking Skills

Based on your teaching experience, explain why you need to infuse

IV Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values

Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientific attitudes

• Having an interest and curiosity towards the environment.

The inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values generally occurs

V. Teaching and Learning Strategies

Teaching and learning strategies in science curriculum emphasize thoughtful

Inquiry-discovery emphasizes learning through experiences. Inquiry generally means

An experiment is a method commonly used in science lessons. In experiments,

In the implementation of this curriculum, besides guiding students to carry out

A discussion is an activity in which students exchange questions and opinions based

A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual or a group

Visits and Use of External Resources

Briefly explain how does a

Based on your experience, describe how students benefit when they

Learning outcomes are written in the form of measurable behavioural terms. In