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    Chapter 14 Sawhney PDF

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    Ahmed Naser

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Me asurement of Resistang, —_—_—.. = eaisiances, from the point of view of meas A Classification of Resistances. The classification | is as follows : and under may be classified as low resig © Low Resistances: AMlresistances of the order Of 1A oun 12. upwards 10 about 0.1 gy (i) Mediu Resistance, This css EIS ards ae cased Sigh sis, order of 0. (iii) High Re istances of the j nniques, followed or meaguya The classficaicn ative) sbove is not sigid bu forms abasis fo |°CN “ “SUre ey, which may be different for different: classes. 14.2. Measurement of Medium Resistances- > resistances are : ituti id. ) Substitution method. @ Ammeter-Voltmeter method. 0 Sumineier method. ii) -Wheatstone bridge method. w) vitar since the instruments reg; I ‘Ammeter Voltmeter Method. This method is very eee onnections employed for a for ANG test are usually available in the laboratory. The {WO LYPES PCT es ometer and volina voltmeter method are shown in Figs. 14.1 (a) and (b). In both the cases, “e ‘the different methods used for measurement of ma, are taken, then the measured value of resistance is given by * olimeter reading __V (141) R 7 m * "ammeter reading @ ® Fig.14.1. Measurement of resistance by ammeter-voltmeter method. The measured value of resistance Ry» would be equal to the true value, R, if the ammeter resistan is zero and the volumeter resistance is infinite, so that the conditions in the circuit are not disturbed. Hower? in practice this is not possible and hence both the methods give inaccurate results. consider circuit of Fig. 14.1 (a) In this circuit the ammejer measures the true value of the cut through the resistance but the voltmeter does not measure the true voltage across the resistance. The volte! cates the sum of the vollages-across the ammeter and the ineasured resistance. Let R, be the resistance of the ammeter. ++ Voltage across the ammeter, Ve I Now, measured value of resistance, v_VetV, IR+IR, indi R+R vy A AEMENT OF RESETANCE x <. True value of resistance, 517 = an) (14.3) ‘Thus the measured value es a Of resistan, i i sistance is ues the true value is equal to the measured only if qe the true vat he : Ammeter resistance, 2, R, 1 is also clear from above that Relative error, ¢, = <= _ Ry is zero, 4 R “R a Its clear from Eqn. 14.5 that the error in n under measurement is large as compared to the intemal an Fig. 14.1 (2) should be used when measuring high eee” Lonsider the circuit of Fig. 14.1 (b), In this choo but the ammeter measures the si i Let R. be the resistance of rye yates through the resistan : stance of the voltmeter stance and the voltmeter. 4 Current through tHe voltmeter, 1, = V/Ry (14.5) mt ‘would be small if the value of resistance ‘ance of the atiimeter. Therefore the circuit of ; value ‘ 1 the voltmeter measures the truc value of voltage Measured value of resistance, . R, u ue a m1 pel, = VIRHVIR, = 14 RR, True value of resistance R= —Reaks = : : =———_ = Rk, | —————— a RyRy =? (age) mek From Eqn. 14.6'it is 4 js 7 a a e it eI Clear that the true value of resistance is equal to the measured value only if the resistance of voltmeter, R,, is infinite. However, if the resistance of voltmeter is very large as compared to the resistance under measurement : 7 or R>>Rwg, and therefore RyalR, is very small. Rn - We have : R= Re (1452) wan Thus the measured value of resistance is smaller than the true value . - Ryo —R Relative error, epee 14.8) 7 \ eo = 114.9) The value of Rna is approximately equal to R: Itis clear from Eqn. 14.9 thatthe error in measurement would be small ifthe value of resistance under measurement is very small as compared to the fesistance of the voltmeter, Hence the circuit of Fig 14. (b) should be_used when me: lance values. ea | f meter-Voltmeter method, in the two forms explained above, is a simple method but is, essentially acomparatively rough method, the accurac: being limited by accuracy of ammeter and oe on if corrections are made for the voltage drop across the ammeter dor sooner of ore ey and inf the shunting effect of voltmeter for connections of Fig 14.1 (b). Ifthe two instrum ts Sa and are read near full scale, the instrumental error in the result may be any thing from 0 to 1 1 ead near balf soale: the percentage error may be twice as great and [or Tower readings may.mount considerably i oe been in the possible error, of course is increased. tis cificult to bain accuracy Se Ee ean Pidet ‘asual conditions, and the error sometimes may be considerably much better than 1% in a resistance val CT oratory work in which high accuracy is 1 require ene coisa eal to od for resistance measurement depends upon the reve values suitability of a Pp’ istance he resistance of the meters enone ee ieee methods is at the resistance for w ‘The division point between t! by the two methods are equal. hhich the relative errors given a ‘AND MEASURING INSTRU = BLECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS = ‘The relative errors for the two eases are equal when: (See EON. 145 ood tg Fe k or wi RR _ salldigy When true value of resistance RavRR hod of Fig. 14.1 (a) is used white the met ances greater than the value given by Eqn. 14.10 ; ‘Ammeter-voltmeter méUiod, connection, F wer resist; method of 14,1 (6) is used. ere tat, ssistance, Ry bY that of voltmet asin Fig. 141 Goran wat Coyne weed he resistance of ammeter ont a oa enone 2. In ease of () the current meksured is 2 A and the voltage 180 V. Find A 1 reading of the volte fesistance R as a quotient of the readings and the true value of R. Also t i case of (aif the current indicated by the ammeter is 2 A. Solution; Case (6) See Fig. 14.1 (6) Measured value of resistance Raz = Vi = 180/2 = 90 2. ik Current through the voltmeter 7, = VR, = 180/2000 = 0.09 A: Current through the resistance Ig = J ~ fy = (2.0 - 0.09) A- True value of resistance (oo r Percentage error Case (a) See Fig. 14, eee Ve Vy + Vq = My +R) = 2 (0.01 + 94.24) = 188.50V. Reading tmeter ~ R ‘Example 14.2,)A resistance of approximate value of 80 @ 'is to be measured by voltmeter-ammeter ‘Gimmeter having a resistance of 2 0 and a $0 V voltmeter having a resistance of 50000. method using a Ma) Suggest which one of the two methods should be,used ? (2) Supposing in the suggested method the following measurements are made : T=042A° and = V=35.5-V, ‘What is the resulting error if the accuracy of the instruments is + 0.5% at full scale and the errors are standard deviations. : ‘Solution. (a) Value of resistance for which the errors are equal for the two types of connections op 4 R= VR, =N2 5000 = 100 YDS HSince the resistance td be measured has a value less than 100 Q, the method of Fig. 14.1 (6) should .__ be used as it results in smaller error. . st Measured value of resistance Ryq = Vil = 35.5/0.42 = 84.52 Q, ; resistance R= ( 1 1 . True value of Rea (Ral = 8452 ( aE) 601 * (0) Error in ammeter reading = (0.5/100) x 1 = 0.005 . Percentage error at 0.42 A reading = (0.005/0.42) x 100 = 1.19% Error in voltmeter reading = 0.5 x (50/100) = 0,25 V . Percentage error at 35,5 V reading = (0.25/35.5) x 100 = 0.704% 4 Since the errors correspond to standard deviations, error due to ammeter and voltmeter is : dive to ammeter ind volo, * 0708) = 1.3866, lute error voltmeter = + (1. . ae is specified a5 86 41.2 cer (138/100) x 86~ 2 1.2. . The a resistance R is measured er ‘Aad the vollge mearued a ees on isa los of Fig. 14.1 (a), The current meso is 10% Ss sess 0 V range, The scales of the ammetet ] ee MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE 19 voltmeter are uniform, the total scale divisions of ammeter are 100 and that of voltmeter are 150. The scales of these instruments are such that 1/10 of a scale division can be distinguished. The constructional error of the ammeter is + 0.3/% and that of volimeter + 0.4%, The resistance of the ammeter is 0.25 2. Calculate the value of R and the limits of possible error in the results. » Solution. Reading error of ammeter s+t—1 _ : 10 x 100 x 100 = + 0.1% Reading error of voltmeter et & + 10x 150 * 100 = + 0.087% Total error of ammeter 8 = 40.3401 0.4%. _ Total error of voltmeter BV = 204 + 0.067 = + 0.467%. Now, resistance R = VI and therefore ‘otal systematic error in measurement =48V 4 4 = + 0467 £ 04 = + 0.867% Measured value of resistance yy = 125/10 = 12.5 Q. ‘True value of resistance R=Ry ( ie a ) (See Eqn. 14.4) nt . =125 ( = te) = 12.25 a. Therpf6fe the value of R is specified as : 12.25 2 + 0.867% = 12.25 £0.11 2. 1442. Substitution method. The connection 37 diagram for this method is shown in Fig. 14.2. Ris the cl RIG unknown resistance while S is a standard variable a resistance: "A" is an ammeter and “7” is a regulating r oa Switch JR resistance. There is a switch for putting R and $ into the circuit alternately. ‘The switch is put at position ‘J and resistance thy is adjusted till the ammeter pointer is ata chosen scale Fig. 14.2. Substittuion method, variable resistance S in the circuit, unaltered, and provided that the emf of be equi wus the value of unknown resistance R is equal to the dial settin, ‘This is a more accurate method than the Ammeter-Voltmeter method, as encountered in the latter method. However. the accuracy of this method is greatly affected if there is any_ Change in the battery emf during the time the readings on the tw6 settings are taken. Thus in order to avoid errors on this account, a battery of ample capacity should be used so that its emf remains constant. The accuracy of the measurement naturally depends upon the constancy of the battery emf and of the resistance of the circuit excluding R and S, upon the sensitivity of the instrument, and upon the accuracy / with which standard resistance 5 is known. This method is not widely used for simple resistance measurements and is used in a modified form for the measurement of high resistances. The substitution principle, however, is very important and finds many appliceations.in bridge methods and in high frequency a.c. measurements. SBeomple’ 1 is used, The 4.4.)In a measurement of resistance by substitution method a standard 0.5 MQ resistor eter has a resistance of 10 kM and gives deflections as follows : Xe () With standard resistor, 41 divisions, (ii). With unknown resistance, 51 divisions. ‘49 Find the unknown resistance. : | 1 520 cer ig directly POPONY, on, ‘The deflection of the galvanomet ice of the inversely proportional to the total resistance nda resistor, unknown resistor and We BY tor in circuit and Q, with unknown resistor Vence, unknown resistance \ He |. Wheatstone Bridge. A very important device medsurement of medium resistances is the Wheatstone bridBe. Wheatstone bridge has-been in use longer than almost any eee od measuring instrument, It is still an accurate and reliable instrument a is extensively used in industry. The Wheatstone bridge isan instrum’ a for making comparison measurements and operates upon a null indicat Principle. This means the indication is independent of the ¢ a Cf the null indicating instrument or any of its characteristics. For th reason, very high degrees of accuracy can be acheived using ‘Wheatstone bridge. Accuracy of 0.1% is quite common with & ‘Wheatstone bridge as opposed to accuracies of 3% to 5% with ordinary ohmmer. for measurement of medium resistances. Fig 14.3 shows the basic circuit of a Wheatstone brid} four resistive arms, consisting of resistances P,Q, Rand S together with a source of emt (a battery) and aml detect usually a galvanometer G or other sensitive current meter. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference between PO to be balanced when there is no current through the galvanome! used in the Fig. 14.3. Wheatstone bridge. ts ¢ and d. The bridge is said er or when the potential difference across zero, This occurs when the voltage from point ‘b” to point ‘a’ equals the voltage from point ‘d’ to point ‘b°; or, by referring to the other battery terminal, when the voltage from point ‘d to point ‘c equals the voltage from point *b* to point ‘c’, For bridge balance, we can write : AP=hR (14.10) For the galvanometer current 0 be zero, the following conditions also exist : E she aid meee PQ asd . heieBs . where st ieleg nel RAS 413) * zen \ Combining Eqns. 14.11, 14,12 and 14,13 nd ee P Rplitying, we obtain : Peo "hay : from vile si “a rs Re o 4d) | are ‘abe fot ma sn for the balance of whe y 1415) a from Ban, 14.15 an tone bridge, If three of the resists Resh. d we obtain : \ Q. (1416) asuREMENT OF RESISTANCE M . sz. Pere agkasd ati tance $ ‘ = 5 called the ‘standard arm’ of the bridge and P and Q are called the : ae ae the bridge, the resistors which make up P, Q and S are mounted weet included together with a ‘aivmomie by dial switches, Battery and galvanometer switches, i & dry battery in the portable scts. P and Q normally it of four resistors each, the values being 10, 1 cls. : euler 5 dial decade arrangement of resistors. Fi 00, 1000 and 10,000 © respectively S consists of a 4 8. 14.4 shows the commercial form of Wheatstone bridge. Bottery Og Calvanameter > Terminale, mes Terminals @X} x1000 for connecting 0.001 unknown @X2 ros resistance Ratio'selector switch, x100 x1000 x10 Lock for” © battery Lock for © galvanometer Ohm at 20°C Fig, 14.4. Commercial form of Wheatstone bridge. wake Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge. Itis frequently desirable to know the galvanometer response tobe expecied-inra bridge which is slightly unbalanced so that a current flows in the galvanometer branch of the bridge network, This may be used for : () selecting a galvanometer with which a given unbalance may be observed in a specified bridge ‘rangement, ‘ (i) determining the minimum unbalance which can be observed with a given galvanometer in the specified bridge arrangement, and (ii) determining the deflection to be expected for a given unbalance. The sensitivity to unbalance can be computed by solving the bridge circuit for a small unbalance. The Solution is approached by converting the Wheatstone bridge of Fig. 14,3 to its “‘Thevenin Equivalent’ circuit. ume that the bridge is balanced when the branch resistances are P, OQ, R, S so that P/Q = R/S. Suppose ihe resistance R is changed to R + A R creating an unbalance. This will to cause an emf to appear across the galvanometer branch. With galvanometer branch open, the voltage drop between points a and b is : } EP. . | Ex hP=5 49 oq f EQR+AR Byth @+bR)=EaEER Therefore voltage difference between points d and b is : Similarly R+AR R+AR+S = End - Eas = (14.17) \ a _————— io INSTRUMENTS 5 AND MEASURIN | 522 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT ‘ pk ‘ and since Ps R+S ESAR ee ee nab —B-] = rsp ran +S) ent [ grapes Res) @1S"* ~ (14.18) SAR : (R+ SP as AR (R + S) Ri+ Rpt Re 7200+0.75+R, — 1200.75 +R, R, Re 0.75 Re 0.75 Re . Ri = Bakthi 12004075 +R 1200.75 +R Ra 1200.R,__/, 1200 Ru” Ra =FeaR,+R, 12004075 +8. = 720075 + Ri, MEASURING INSTRU, ny Fig. 1413. Delastar transformation for analysis of bridge of Fig. 14.12. The modified circuit is shown in Fig 14.14. : Rag w/)2,R20 Fig. 14.14. Configuration of bridge of Fig. 14.12 after Delta-star transformation. For balance, RitRo Rit Ry ROR ¢ 1200 Ry 0.75 R, 480+ Thoo7s+e, * * 0075-48, 600" ° 0375. or R, = 032. - neMeNT OF RESISTANCE ” 14,13. A Wher 3 mple atstone bridge i hen an Pia Coeta OuBTer tie rar orien Measuring the value of change of resistance of , sein Ba resistance of 100 0 each, ee, Al . The resistance of strai = sore ne of strain gauge R = 100 0. Suppose / is the current through each arm under 3 “ PR = P, where P = power dissipation. Hence, maximum permisible current / = VPIR = Pix102 = 0.05 A = 50 mA The maximum allowable voltage which can be applied tothe bridge = 2 x 50 x 10° x 100 = 10 V. « Voltage across the series resistor = 20-10 = 10 V. Current through the series resistor = 2x 50x10 = 100 x 107A, ‘i 10 «+ Resistance-of series resistor R= Tap apy = 100.0. Example 44.14, Jin a Carey-Foster's bridge a resistance of 1.0125 Q is compared with a standard resistance of 1, the slide wire has a resistance of 0,250 Qin 100 divisions. The ratio arms nominally tach 10 Q, are actually 10.05 and 9.95 © respectively. tae ll How far (in scale divisions) are the balance positions from those which would obtain of ratio arms vere true to their nominal value ? The slide wire is 100 cm long. Solution, Balance with ratio arms equal to nominal value. Let 1; be the distance of balance point on slide wire from the unknown resistance end in cm of slide wire. Let r be the resistance per om length of slide wire. 2, r= 20350. 0.00025 em as tength of wite'is 100 cm, Inthis case P = Q = 10 2, $ = 1,0000-0 and R = 1.0125 2. Under balance conditions : ies 10 _1.0125 +0. i $: Ss Fit ir oF 19 1.0000 + 0.025-0.00025 fy % 4 = 25 em. Thus the balance is obtained at 25 and 75 scale divisions, ® Balance arms equal to true values : a_ Now in this case P = 9.05 & and Q = 10.05 Q. \Under balance conditions : 9.95 1,0125 + 0.00025 1=0.005 _ 1.0125 0.00025 8 os omy, ‘10.05 ™ T0000 + 0.025 = 0.000025 1 % 1-+0.005 ~ 1.0250 - 0.00025 1, ‘Thus the balance i 95 cm. My, Massericree St ea Tie methods used for measurement of medium resistances are ‘eautble for meamurement of low resistances /.c., resistances having a Value under 1 Q. The reason is that ‘te retistance of leads and contacts, though small, are appreciable in comparison in the case of low resistances. Prt erample a contact resistance of 0.002 02 causes a negligible error when a resistance of 100 Q is being 8 0 aeasuReMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUM, 534 ELECTRICAL measured but the same contact resistance Voltmeter would cause an error of 10% if a low resistance of the value of 0.02 2 is measured. Hence special type of construction and techniques have to be used for the Measurement of low resistances in order to avoid serious errors occurring on account of the factors mentioned above. Low resistances are constructed with four terminals as shown in Fig. 14.10. One 1 air of terminals CC’ (called the current otimetr method for measuring 4 terminal ita, terminals) is used to lead current to and from Fig. 1415. A al 's PP”, called the potential termina, the resistor. The voltage drop is measured between the olher tWOIEMMITA | p's een terminals PP” an The voltage V, indicated in Fig. 14.15, is thus Jp times the FeSIE ONT Terminals CC \does not include any contact resistance drop that may be present at Ue Oct terminals, whi Resistors of low values are thus measured in terms of resistance, D6 NTT re becomes perfectly and precisely définite in value and is independent o OT olenmie current terminals. Contact resistance drop at the potential terminals need no! ee algo tds cee ss cee crossing at these terminals is usually extremely small or even zero for null meth Ae otalivaistion a now becomes a part of the potential circuit and is, therefore, a tegligible part o the potential circuit since potential circuits have a high value of resistance. 143.1. Methods for Measurement of Low Resistance. The methods for measurement of lox resistance are : | 1, Ammeter voltmeter method. (This method has been explained in Art, 14.2 on page 516) 2. Kelvin's double bridge method. 3. Potentiometer method (This is explained in chapter 15). 14.3.2. Kelvin Double Bridge Method of Measurement of Low Resistances The Kelvin bridge is a modification of the Whealstone bridge : and provides greatly increased accuracy in measurement of low value resistances. An understanding of the Kelvin bridge arrangement may be obtained by a study of the difficulties that arise in a Wheatstone bridge on account of the resistance of the leads and the contact resistances while measuring low valued resistors. Consider the bridge circuit shown in Fig. 14.15 where r represents the resistance of the Jead that connects the unknown resistance R to standard resistance S. Two galvanometer connections indicated by dotted lines, are possible. The connection may be vither to point ‘m’ or to point ‘n'. When the galvanometer is connected to point m, the resistance, r, of the connecting leads is added to the standard resistance, S, resulting in indication of too low an indication for unknown resistance R. When the connection is made to Point n, the resistance, 1, is added to the unknown resistance resultine 4, indication of too high a value for R. tn Suppose that instead of using point m, which giv or n, which makes the result high, we make teehee realty connection to any intermediate point «i’as shown by full line tc bridge. ; ris divided into two parts, r; and rz, such*that ne in Fig. 14.11. If at point:‘d’ the resista"* Fig. 14.16. Illustrating principle of Kelvies Yk Aiea: 1439) ypaSUREMENT OF RESISTANCE 535 the presence i ‘then the p Of ry the resistance of connecting lends, causes no error in the result, We have, =. P Rena. S+r) bt toh e nO A437) n P x Titty PaO ON yg h Ss retry = rand ry = P+Q a dr 0, We.can write Eqn, 14.37 P P ie le. 1a, as(R+ bs r) =¢(5+¢85") or Ra$s, (1438) fore we conclu i a sea a de that making the galvanometer connection as at c, the resistance of leads does. ‘The process described above is obviously not a practical vay of achieving the desired result, as there would certainly be J youble in determining the correct point for galvanometer gonnections. It does, however, suggest the simple modification, that two actual resistance units of correct ratio be connected eiween points m and n, the galvanometer be connected to the jmetion of the esistors. This is the actual Kelvin bridge rangement, which is shown in Fig. 14.17. “The Kelvin double bridge incorporates the idea of a second set of ratio arms—hence the name double bridge—and the use of four terminal resistors for the low resistance arms. Fig. 14.17 shows the schematic diagram of the Kelvin bridge. The first of ratio arms is P and Q. The second set of ratio arms, p and q jsused to connect the galvanometer to a point d at the appropriate potential between points m and n to eliminate the effect of Fig, 14.17. Kelvin double bridge. connecting lead of resistance r between the known resistance, R, and the standard resistance, Ss. ‘The ratio p/g is made equal to P/Q. Under balance conditions there is no current through the galvanometer, which means that the voltage drop between a and , Eas is equal to the voltage drop Eand between a and c. ‘ __P 2 @+or 6 Now Es = 59 Fg: and Eye=I[ R+S+ por) (14.39) 2 _p_{ +ar |- | Pe (14.40) wt Ema Rog pegtr [ata | oo For zero galvanometer deflection, Ens = Eana o Py ness Oto oi[R+ Pe P+Q ptaqtr p+qtr P. gr [t B (1441), or Pp - Ro S*oeger lO 4 Now, if P/Q = pig, Eqn. 14.41 becomes, is i i i indi that the resistance of Eng, 14.42 is the usual working equation for the Kelvin bridge. It indicates tha connecting lead, r, Has no effect on the measurement, provided that the two sets of ratio arms have equal ratios Eqn, 14.41 is useful, however, as it shows the error that is introduced in case the ratios are not exac ly equal. It indicates that it is-desirable to keep ras small as possible in order to minimize the errors in there is a difference between ratios P/Q and plq. ; The effect of thermo-clectric emfs can be eliminated by making another cénnections reversed. The true value of R being the mean of the two readings. aes (14.42) her measurement with the Battery Ss rts AND MEASURING INSTRUM, MEASUREME! ELECTRICAL 4 ou ws to 1.0 $2 The accuracies ay 536 * stance covere In a typical Kelvin bridge, the range of resistance as under : From 1000 12 to 1.0 Q : 0.05%. ait! From 100 ui to 1000 wi : 02%. 10 045% 4, prmoeleete $0 an 0.001 Srespectiey From 10 U2 to 100 wa : 0.5%. to 0.2, and £1 2, 0. ls bridge and is intended, In this bridge there are four intemal resistance odified form of the ers, and for the measuremeny : 1433, Kelvin Bridge Ohmmeter. This is 0 moO) oy ransform 2%. This instrument is dire ~ the rpid measurement ofthe winding resistances of MENTE er of 02%. of contact and earth conductor resistances. The ac ‘tial. | reading and the balance is obtained by rotating a single bridge ohmmeter. The ratio arms P/Q ang Fig. 14.18 gives the circuit diagram of a typical Kelvin ’P and p and a double slide wire enabling pla of Fig. 4.17 ae replaced by a combination of fixed restos 7 a the bridge ratio to be varied continuously between values aa 1000.2. The ratio dat i. calibrated i ist used and these range from 0.07 © e overall range of the instrumen, eras a Rinse range using 100 © standard resistor. Th ea is from 0.00005 9 to 105 Q. rent of unbalanced Kelvin bridge can be 14,33. Unbalanced Kelvin Bridge. The galvanometer cul bridge. The Thevenin source generator found by the same'Thevenin method as was used for Wheatstone : voltage, referring to Fig. 14.17 is : ~ (1443) PE, Eg = Eqs — Eand where Ess = 550° Boe P 10.5 08 Standard Resistors Current Range switch limiter ve eee Battery Key 029 Battery Fig. 1448, Kelvin bridge ohmmeter. ah a + 7 - Eamd = Ey 14.44) Rass OF Or : P+qtr ‘The circuit forthe Thevenin equivalent resittance as seen from in Fig. 14.19 (a) where Ry is the resistance in “he battery circuit, - SUREMENT OF RESISTANCE MEAS 537 b & Q R a c R Ss m1 in Pp q 4 - rm) ' ; o Fig. 14.19. Equivalent circuit for calculation of resistance of Kelvin bridge. However, R. S, r and R, are usually very small and may be neglected with no appreciable-loss, in accuracy. The equivalent circuit then reduces to the one as shown in Fig. 14,19 (b). Therefore, Thevenin equivalent resistance =? Pq 0 ie te (14.45) ‘The galvanometer current zoe R+G +f 14.46) Example 14.15. A 4 terminal resistor of approximately 50 1. resistance was measured by means of a Kelvin bridge having the following component resistances : Standard resistor = 100.03 12 ; Inner ratio arms = 100.31 9 and 200 Q ; outer ratio arms = 100.24 Gand 200 © ; resistance of link connecting the standard and the unknown resistance = 700 ji. Calculate the unknown resistance to the nearest 0.01 12. Solution. From Eqn 14.41 the unknown resistance meee walt- | Q'. ptatrlQ p. 200 x 7 6 = 100.24 100.03 x 104 + 00 x 10" 100.24 tena) 200 100.31 + 200+700x 10 L200. 200 = 49.97 x 10-6 2 = 49.97 pQ. : Example 14.16. A Kelvin double bridge (shown in Fig. 14.17) each of the ratio-arms P= : = 1000 Q. The emf of the battery is 100 V and a resistance of 5 Q is included in the battery Cicuit. The galvanometer has a resistance of 500-2 and the resistance of the link connecting the unknown eo to the standard resistance may be neglected. The bridge is balanced when the standard resistance = 0001.2. ; | (@) Determine the value of unknown resistance. (b) Determine the current (approximate value) through the unknown resistance R at balance. (©) Determine the deflection of the galvanometer when the unknown resistance, R, is changed by 0.1 Percent from its value at balance. The galvanometer has a sensi 5 Ts AND MEASURING INSTRUMENT, 538 ELECTRICAL MEASUREME Solution. (a) At balance, the value of unknown resistance 1000 = 0,001 2. = ooo «000° istors P,Q and p, q are in parallel wig, (®) If we examine the Kelvin bridge circuit, we find the eee large values, the effect of ratios ans the resistance of tink, Since ris negligible and P, Q, p and 7 ha¥ can be neglected for the purpose of calculation of current. + Current under balance conditions E ___100___.. 20 A T= Bye Res ~ 540,001 +0.0001 where R, = resistance in the battery circuit (©) The value R is changed by 0.1 per cent. 2 New value of R = 1.001 x 0.001 = 0.001001 ©. Voltage between points a and c Fig. 14.17) p= —RtStr path — Basr=0 ad Ree R+ Str Rp+tRt+S 4 pe S$ _ 0.001 + 0.001001 x 100 = 40x 10% 7 From Eqns. 14.43 and 14.44, Ep = Exp - Bans i alg rien A 00 _ 2.001008) 40 «102 =(Peo7 5) oe = ( 7000+ 1000 ~ 0.001 +0.001001 = 0.01 x 103 V= 0.01 mY. (considering r = 0) a Since R, S, r and Rg are quite small as compared'to P, Q, P and g, we can use circuit of Fig. 14.19 (b). For the calculation of internal resistacne, Ro as viewed from terminals d and b. : __ PQ pq__ 1000 x 1000 , 1000 x 1000 = 1999 o. = Bq + p+q ~ 100041000 ~ 1000+ 1000 Oe Galvanometer current Ey (0.01 x 103 i I, -R+o 7000+ 500 = 0.0067 x 106 A = 0.0067 pA. ~. Deflection of galvanometer @ = SiJ, = 200 x 0.0067 = 1.34 mm, . 14.4, Measurement of High Resistance. High resistance of the order of hundreds or thousands of megohm are often encountered in electrical equipment, and frequently must be measured. Commion examples are: (@ insulation resistance of components and built up electrical equipment like machines and cables + (ii) resistance of high resistance circuit elem ike it ircuil Ga leakage yealsiance of capactirs aus Uke in vacuum tnbe circuits; (iv) volume resistivity of a material, ie., the resi unit distance with all conduction from face to face Bhemanan i © fares of unit area separated PY (0) Surface resistivity, ie, the resistance between two linec of waite ee eta 3 lines being on the surface of the material and all conduction bei nit length and unit distance apart, the 14.4.1. Difficulties in Measurement of High Resistances, tej en ee: measurements, hence simple circuits are used. Since the resistang very small currents are encountered in the measurement circu ices under measurement have high values, () The insulation resistance of the resistor may be comm, ies Thus leakage currents are produced, ‘These leakage currents ae neasured and must be eliminated from the measurement, ree pASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE 539 ney generally vary from day to day, iapredictable complications, ji) Due to electrostatic puenetng Fields can also effect te nny chaMEES can appear in the measuring circuit causing error, asurem i ae te be eauly tera ents considerably. Therefore, critical points of the measuring ‘depending upon the humidity conditions and therefore cause additional ii’) In order to obtain definite ratios i ; . so Us circuit nl Soe ditbtion with respect to surroundings, one (iv) In measurement of insulation resistance the specimen often has eonsiderabl it ication of 2 direct voltage a large chara specimen often has considerable capacitance. On Oe ol Furth a large charging current flows initially which gradually decays down after ashort interval. a Es insulating materials possess the property of dielectric absorption. i.c., after the main charging current has decayed down, further charge is slowly absorbed over a considerable period of time, ps for minutes or even hours. Thus measurement of true conduction current should be delayed until after the cessation of the charging and absorbing currents. But since the absorbing currents take a considerably Jong time to decay, it is usually inevitable that the conduction current measured includes some absorption in current. The testing conditions, including the time between the application of voltage and observation of the current, must be specified. (v) When measuring the resistance of low conductivity conductors, insulating materials and products. the effect of various factors upon their resistance should be taken into account. Thus. a change in the temperature of cardboard from 20° to 40°C is accompanied by a 13 fold change in its resistance, changes in humidity form 10 to 60 percent cause a 30 fold change in resistance of porcelain. Besides temperature and humidity. the kind of current employed for measurement, the magnitude and duration of the applied voltage, and other factors also effect the resistance being measured. (vi) Fairly high voltages are used in tests in order to raise the currents to reasonable values in order tobe measured. So normally a sensitive galvanometer or micro-ammeter is required and adequate steps have 40 be taken to prevent damage to these delicate instruments. A voltage supply of 100 V upto a few kV is often used depending upon the nature and breakdown voltage of the test object. The powe supply unit is d.c. transistorized source. Proper smoothing and stabilization circuits are used to ensure constancy of voltage with time. 14.4.2, Use of Guard Circuit. Some form of guard circuits are generally used to eliminate the errors caused by leakage currents over insulation. Fig. 14.20 illustrates the operation of a guard circuit, In Fi 14.20 (a), a high resistance mountéd on a piece of insulating material is measured by the ammeter-voltmeter method. The micro-ammeter measures the sum of the current through the resistor (J) and the current through the leakage path around the resistor (i). The measured value of resistance computed from the readings indicated on the voltmeter and the micro-ammeter, will not’be true value but will be in error. In Fig. 14.20 (>) Resistance. lath terminal Guard ae |___-terminal e Ir t q R Hp eH an wo Fig. 14.20. Application of guard circuit for measurement of high resistance. MBASURING INSTRUMENTS ENTS AND surrounds the resistance ‘The guard terminal rent [ Buard terminal has been added to resistance terminal Block: © er. The leakage Curren DW terminal entirely and is connected to the battery side of the micro-amt the resistor and ne sae bypasses the mioro-ammeter which then indicates the current Ih Tr and microammeter. The guard correct determination of the resistance value from the readings © and thus there will be nO flow of current terminal and resistance terminal are almost at the same potentis between them. 14.43. Methods for Measurement of Hit 1, Direct deflection method. Loss of charge method: 3. Megohm bridge. F 4. Mes is is explained in Art. 9.8 page 314). : 4,16 (b). For hi Bina eccdon ‘Method. The direct deflection ‘method is basically that oF os aaa resistarices, such as insulation resistance of cables, a sensitive galvanometer O° sed in place of ie having a current sensitivity of at 1000 mm/pA at.a scale distance of 1 oe) Of 1 nA. Therefore tnicroammeter In fact many sensitive type of galvanometers can detect currents NON) , with an applied voltage of 1 KV, resistances as high as 10"? to 10 x 10!? Q can be meattio't A wha Llustraion af the direct deflection method used for measuring insulation restore of a cable is -shown in Fig. 14.21. The galvanometer G, measures the current fy between the conductor and the metal sheath, The leakage current /, over the insulating material is carried by the guard wire wound on the insulation and therefore does not flow through the galvanometer. Cables without metal sheaths can be tested in a similar way ifthe cable, except the end or ends on which connections are made, is immersed in water in a tank. Tbe water and the tank then form the retum path for the current. The cable is immersed in slightly saline water for about 24 hours and the temperature “is kept constant (at about 20°C) and then the measurement is taken as in Fig. 14.22. ‘The insulation resistance of the cable R= Vilp- = Eas) ELECTRICAL MEASURE! gh Resistance. The different methods employed are : Te Metallic Sheath Guard Yu wire Conductor Insulating material Fig, 14.21. Measurement of insulation resistance of cable Figt4.22. Me having sheath. tourer bckcaruy ee of cable _In some cases, tit ene gaat in observed and its by replacing the insu a standard high resistance (usu; scale is aft ri ero pve a defleaion ofthe sue ort a befor | MO\ the guvanemeter son bane rate, MBASUREMENT OF KesISTANCE ally desirable to include a protective center suring the early stages of measurement, and it is lve of this resistance should b ee caeevAlugd a te wrubtraced from the observed resistance value in order to determine / 'Be Battery of 500 V emf is required and its emf should remain constant throughout the test, Measurement of Volume and Surface Resistvit Ce : 4 ty. The u direct deflection method is often used for measurement electrode Sucrd of insulation resistance of insulating material samples v ax available in sheet form. In such cases we are interested SN TIES AY | inthe measurement of volume resistivity and the surface pecmmen sheet |"t resistivity of the material.— BSS = Fig. 14.23. shows the schematic diagram for Lower,electrode measurement of volume and surface resistivities of a Fig.1423, Measurement of volume and surface resistvitin specimen of insulating material. The specimen is provided of insulating material specimen. with tin foil or colloidal graphite electrodes ; the upper electrode having a guard ring. For measurement of volume resistivity (which in fact is the specific resistance) readings of voltage applied and the current through the galvanometer are taken, Leakage currents over the edge of the specimen will flow between the guard ring and the lower electrode and hence will not introduce error into the measurement. The volume resistivity, p, can be calculated as follows ; : Let 4, = diameter of the upper electrode dj, 1 = thickness of the specimen sheet, V; = reading of votImeter, and J; = current through galvanometer Gy. ‘ < Resistance of specimen R= Vijh,. But R= ptfnd? : dy _ ndyVy ++ Volume resistivity of specimen, p = —]~ = jp — 14.47) ‘The resistivity of a thin layer of dielectric materials is different from volume resistivity, not only because of an adherent humidity layer but also because of contamination, chemical alterations, absorption of gases, or structural modification. The resistance R, between two electrodes embedded in or attached to a dielectric medium is composed of volume resistance R, and surface resistance R, with 1/R, = 1/R, + 1/R,. The volume resistance, R, can be measured separately from surface resistance R, by means of guard tings as shown in Fig 14.20. : If we wnat to measure surface resistivity, the galvanometer is placed in position G;. In this position per and lower electrodes will the galvanometer measures the leakage current and current flowing between up) be eliminated from measurement. Let. : d, = diameter of lower electrode disc, fading of voltmeter current through galvanometer G. and -. Surface resistance Ry = Vola fo The Teakage caret ‘ows along a path of length ¢ and width rd, and therefore, surface resistivity, Rx dz _Mdr Vo (14.48) Ps 7 th ND MEASURING INSTRUMENT EMENTS 542 ELECTRICAL MEASUREME! 0. used. FOr Other forms of specimen and electrodes are al placed *-example, the electrades and guard ring may be mercury, either afer in specially machined recesses, in moulded insulating materials, rue metal rings on the surface of sheet materials. the YH Loss of Charge Method. in this metbod, (Fig. 14.20) oe insulation resistance R to be measured is connected in parallel Wt A capacitor C and a electrostatic voltmeter. The capacitor eed to some suitable voltage, by means of a battery having voltage ¥ AT is then allowed to discharge, through the resistance. The termin! voltage is observed overa considerable period of ime during discharge Fig. 1424. Loss of charge method, : ication of voltage The voltage across the capacitor at any instant ¢ after the pane VeVexp(-CR) or Viv = exp (~ 1 _ 0.4343 1 (14.49) C log. Vir C login Vi" ‘The variation of voltage v with time shown in Fig. 14.25. > 3 AT 2 log, loge % \ ii) iL t Fig. 14.25, Variation of voltage with time. Fig, 14.26. Plot of log, v-versus time. or Insulation resistance R = From Eqn, 14.49 it follows that if V, v, C and ¢ are known the value of R can be computed. If the resistance R is very large the time for an appreciable fall in voltage is very large and thus this process may become time consuming, Also the voltage-time curve will thus be very flat and unless great care is taken in measuring voltages at the beginning and end of the time t, a in the ratio V/v causing a considerable corresponding error in the measured v: may be obtained by change in the voltage V — v directly and cal R becomes : ’ 0.4343 serious error may be made : ‘alue of R. More accurate resulls ling this change as e, the expression for R= C login (14.50) V-e This change in voltage may be measured by a galvanometer However, form the experimental point of view, it may be adv discharge curve of the capacitor by ploting curve of log, » seat SADE 0 det itor | nt against tim termine the time f from the in Fig, 14.26 and thus determinaon of time 1 from this curve forthe yong”, vis SUFVE is Linear as show accurate results. lage to fall from V to y yields mor r REMENT OF RESISTANCE This method is applicable to some high = caances, bul it requires a capacitor i ince eS a capacitor of a very hi siesta 3 igh a the estan beg “a 1 ine ance being measured is the leakage resistance sp capactor a inthis ca8e auxiliary Rand C nits ot required. ‘Actually in this method we do not measure Fig. 1427 tne value of resistance since we assume here sos bale haat fate value of resistance of electrostatic voltmeter and the leakage resntnoe ofthe eapactor have infinite Majue. But in practice corrections must be applied to take into consideration the above two resistances. Fig 1427 shows the actual circuit of the test where Ry represents the lenkage resistance of capacitor, Then if is the resistance of R, and R in parallel the discharge equation for capacitance gives R= O38 € login Viv eae ‘The test is then repeated with the unknown resistance R, disconnected and the capacitor discharging through Ry. The value of R, obtained from this second test and substituted into the expression RaRR “RR, (14.52) ; f fgured. The method is very attractive if the G a ° ring effects of leakage in order to get value of R. The leakage resistance of the voltmeter, unless very high should also be taken into consideration. Megohm Bridge Method. Fig 14.28 (a) shows a very high resistance R with its two main terminals ‘Aand B, and a guard terminal, which is put on the insulation. This high resistance may be diagramatically resented as in Fig. 14.28 (). The resistance R is between main terminals A and B and the leakage resistances Rag and Rog between the main terminals A and B of from a ‘"Three terminal resistance’ Let us consider take the hypothetical case of a 100 MQ resistance. We assume that each of the leakage resistors is 100 MQ i.e., Rac = Rac = 100 MQ. Let this resistance be measured by an ordinary wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 14.29 (a). It is clear that the Wheatstone will bridge measure a resistance of ox = 67 MQ instead of 100 MQ thus giving an error of 33 percent. However if the same resistance is measured by a modified Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 14.29 (6) with the guard connection G ‘connected as indicated, the error in measurement is considerably reduced. For the arrangement shown in Fig. 14.29 (b) resistance Rac is Put in parallel with the galvanometer and thus it has no effect on the balance and only effects the sensitivity of the galvanometer slightly. The resistance 100 kQ and therefore for the arrangement shown Ryg = 100 MQ is put in parallel with a resistance P = th the measured value has an error of only 0.01 percent and this error is entirely negligible for measurements of this type. type. A A Rag, Insulaing $ / matrial G R I. High resistance Ree 8 8 ELECTRICAL MEASUREME! No @ Fig. 14.29, Use of guard circuit for measurement ‘The arrangement of Fig. 1430 illustrates the operation of a Megohm bridge. Fig. 14.30 shows the circuit of a completely self-contained Megohm bridge which includes power supplies, bridge members, amplifiers, and indicating . instrument. It has a range from 0.1 MQ to 10° MQ. The accuracy is within 3% for the lower part of the range to possible 10% above 10,000 MQ. Sensitivity for balancing against high resistance is obtained by use of adjustable high voltage supplies of 500 V or 1000 V and the use of a sensitive null indicating arrangement such as a high gain amplifier with an electronic voltmeter or a C.R.O. Solution. Let d = diameter of conductor, , ; L = length of cable, and @ 1 of high resistance. Amplitier Electronic voltmeter Fig. 14.30, Me ‘The dial on Q is calibrated 1 - 10 - 100 - 1000 MQ, with main decade Tien ing greater partol the dial space. Since unknown resistance R = PSIQ, the am Q is made, tapered, so Tee ie cial ealbrti® is approximately logarithmic in the main decade, 1 - 10. Arm S gives five multipliers, 0.1, 1, 10, 100 and 1000 ‘The junction of ratio arms P and Q is brought on the main panel and is designated as ‘Guard’ termitt- Example 14.17. Derive an expression for insulation resistance of single core cable, The conduct" le. The of acable has a diameter of 5 mm and the overall diameter of the ii Of the cable is 16,000 Q/km, calculate the specific resistance of nals Te te insulation in? material. D = diameter of insulated cable, © = resistivity of insulating material y sin! UP er, . ' 4 us consider an annular Ting of wi sas” B x from the centre as shown in mei a 1 resistancé of this annular ring jg 43! aplate WR Ark , Total insulation resistance of cable ’ | dx at) 2 2nxL Conductor. Insulation, D_2303p, D eae d= nk loi = OTe loan? Now in this example we have : pe2sx lor mid=5x 103m; jet km = 1000 m and R = 16,000 0, Fig. 14.31. Insulation resistance of cable, = RE 16000 x 1000 p= x is 0.367 logis Did = 0367 62.5 x 100m, Example 14.18, A test voltage is applied for several minutes erga ene Iength of cable and eanh. The galvanometer connected in series reads 250 divisions, the valué of universal shunt being 2.5 with a standard resistance of 1 MQ in circuit, the scale reading is 350, the value of shunt teing 1000. Calculate the insulation resistance of the cable. What would be the insulation resistance of the same cable of fength 100 metre ? Specific resistance between the conductor of a 400 metre Solution! Since we have a universal shunt with the galvahometer and therefore the current through the circuit is proportional to the deflection of the galvanometer times universal shunt multiplier. Deflection of galvanometer with unknown resistance ‘R’ is circuit 350 divisions and the shunt multiplier is 2.5. Current through the circuit with unknown resistance connected is : IpK x 250 x 2.5 = 625 K where K is a constant. Deflection of galvanometer with standard resistance ‘S’ is circuit is 250 divisions and the shunt multiplier is 1000. . ‘ . Current through the circuit with standard resistance connected is : I, = K x 350 x 1000 = 350,000 K. Now lp R=1,S=E, where E z+ Insulation resistance of 400 metre long cable. oltage of the source. Ts, _ 350,000. 1 _ 560 Ma. Ta 625 K x 1 = 56 ‘The insulation resistance is inversely proportional to length of cable and therefore insulation resistance of 1000/metre I se = 560 x (400/100) = 224 M22. Exampit( aA length of cable is tested for insulation resistance by the Joss of.charge method. i is is the cable conductor and-€agth, forming electrostatic infinite resistance is connected between : therewith a joint capacitance Or 600 pF Its observed that after charging the voltage falls from 250 V to Vin 1 minute. Calculate the insulation resistance of the cable. Solution. From Eqn 14.49 insulation resistnce of cable, 0.4343 ¢ 0.4343 x 6 ___ 199 x 10° © = 100,000 MQ. = Sogn Vie) 600% 10"? (login 250192) EASURING INSTRUME ° HLECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEAS ite | iti meter, with follow | : «sq ballistic galvanometer, wil ne i sae s cable is tested by loss of charge method sing > ial ean mer 30 . " jivisior Fesults : Discharged! immediately after electrification, deletion 200 GT ae oF 10 MG2, deflection pee Ctrification : () deflection 126 divisions, (i) when in parallel W divisions, Catculate the insulation re ad fet A be the resultant resistance of stance. . 0.4343 x 30 _ 0.4343 x 30 04345 > 30_ _ V4M3 X30 and R= T jog ig 200/100 0.301 C C login 200/126 0.201 C Pl R’_ 0.201 R~ 0301 x10 R¥I1O cable Solution. Suppose 2 is the insulation resistance of the Parallel combination of insulation resistance, R and the 10 MQ 0.667 or R’ = 0.667 R> Rx10 R+10 R=5MQ. or 0.667 R= electrical system is Measurement of Earth Resistance. The provision of an earth electrode for an system is, 1. All the parts of electrical equipment, like casings of machines, switches and circuit breakers, ead sheathing and armouring of cables, tanks of transformers, etc. which have to be at earth potential, must be connected to an earth electrode. The purpose of this is to protect the various parts of the installation, as well as the persons working against damage in case the insulation of a system fails at any point. By connecting these parts to an earthed electrode a continuous low resistance path is available for leakage currents to flow to carth. This current operates the protective devices and thus the faulty circuit is isolated in case a fault occurs, 2. The earth electrode ensures that in the event of overvoltage on the system due to lightning discharges or other system faults, those parts of equipment which are normally dead as far as voltages are concemed, do not attain dangerously high potentials. i | 3. In a three phase circuit the neutral of the system is earthed the circuit with respect to earth order to stabilize the potential of ‘An carth electrode will only be effective so long it has a low resistance to the earth and can camry large currents without deteriorating. Since the amount of current which an earth electrode will carry is difficult to measure, the resistance value of the earth electrode is taken as suffi 4 effectiveness. The resistance of earth electrode should be low to give good p iciently reliable indication of its rotection and it must be measured. ‘The main factors on which the resistance of any earthing system depends a f re: shape and material of earth electrode or electrodes used. Z. Depth in the soil at which the electrodes are burried, 3. Specific resistance of soil surrounding and in the nei Of the soil is not constant ut varies from one type of soil to another, The the sol effects its-specific resistance an hence the resistance of earth electra oe meta present a ectrode is not a constant factor but suffers seasonal variations. This calls for periodic testing to ensure tha the effective. S Ne earthing system remains reasonably ighbouthood of el lectrodes. The specific resistance yeAsURENENT OF RESISTANCE ‘qhe specific resistance of soils vari aries bet 7 _ Approximate figures for ance a Hits and i em ; aan its and is ve amend oF OMA MOISTUTE content, Ad ree fsa» 10" fim or money a ase of 300 10 400% in specific resistan uring e_year round. 43.1) Methods of Measuring Earth Resistant f 1, fall of Potential Method. Fig. 14.32 tii} @)—__ —— ows THe circuit for measurement of earth oy Battery Ammeter | resistance with fall of potential method. A .| Voltmeter tu rent is passed through earth electrode E to M— auxiliary electrode B (which is usually an | ison pike) inserted in earth at a distance away from the earth electrode. A second auxiliary Earth lol TORE? ectode A is inserted in earth between E and STITT A 8B. The potential difference V between E and Earth Auxiliory ——~ ‘Ais measured for a given current I. The flow electrode electrodes Y. af ground currents is shown in Fig. 14:33 (c). Fy casurement of earth resi ‘The lines of the first electrode current pee ear aT second electrode current converge. As a result the current density ismuch greater in the vicinity of the electrodes than at a distance from them. The potential distribution between the electrodes is shown in Fig. 14,33. (b). It is apparent from this curve that the potential rises in the proximity of electrodes E and B and is constant along the middle section. The resistance of earth, therefore, is Re = VII or Vea/l. The position of electrodes E and Bis fixed and the position of electrode A is changed and resistance measurements are done for various positions of electrode. A. A graph is plotted between earth res ance against the distance between electrode E and A. This graph is shown in Fig. 14.34. From Fig. 14.34, it is clear that the measured value of earth Tssstance depends upon the position of the auxiliary electrode A-The earth resistance reses rapidly initially. When the distanc® betneen earth electrode E and auxiliary electrode A is crease’ ithen becomes constant, and when the auxiliary electode © ae: the auxiliary electrode B, the oe pee ‘i i important anc s - dlacng of electrodes is hus Very IPO ec May be caused by it ing of tl yy incorrect placing ‘li de i ro Valve of resistance of earth, Re. is when the auxiliary electrort 14.33 Distibuton of potentials Feresen * i yart Ai at such a distance that the resistance Ties on (MS Aare earthing electrodes Tcurve of Fig. 14.30. S48 ELECTRIC ‘The spacing between the earth electr to get proper results, The distance may be 2. Earth Tester. The resistance of earth can be measured by-an earth tester shown in Fig 14,35. The ‘Earth Tester’” is a special type of Megear (See Art 9... Page..) and it has some additional constructional features and they are (i) a rotating current reverser, and (ii) @ rectifier. ‘ Both these additional features consist of simple commutators made up of ‘L” shaped segments, They are mounted on the shaft of the hand driven generator. Each commutator has four fixed brushes. One pair of cach set of brushes is 50 positioned that they make contact alternately with one segment and then with the other as the commutator rotates. The second pair of each of “Earth resistance | Ol pistance between electrodes E ond & Fig. 1434, Variation of earth resistance with distance between electrode E and A. set of brushes is positioned on the commutator so that continuous contact is made with one segment whatever the position of the commutator. ‘The earth tester has four termi rode & and the auxilia a few huridred ‘AL. MEASUREMEN ry J metre: Rectifier electrodes A. # 1 case the earth Tesistance is low, ghinue Ue large 5 oc 'e- Generator 0 ag Current s1§ AND MEASURING INSTRUM, s reverser Fig.14.35. Earth tester. Py, Py and Cy, Cy. Two terminals P, and C, are shorted to fom | a common point 10 be connected to the earth electrode. The other two terminals P, and C, are connect to auxiliary electrodes P and C respectively. The indication of the earth tester depends upon.the ritio of the voltage across tion of its pointer indicates the re: the current through the coil. The def the pressure coil al stance of earth directly. Althougt the “Earth Tester", which is a permanent magnet moving coil instrument and can operate on dic. only} by including the reverser and the rectifying device it is possible to make m in the soil. The sending of ac. current through the s The use of ac. passing through the the soil on account of electrolytic a end of the winding of surements with a.c. flo wing il has many ad al soll eliminates nny Mlvantages and therefore this system i8 ction, Also the hand $tfeets due to production of a back emit I instrument is free from effects of alternating oF Mit | one ae in the soi pxample.14.20. Ona 250 V supply a fault having A resist - cathe electric heater and the’ frame If en of 20 2 develops between the ines If sista the resistance of the substation earth elec" paSUREMENT OF RESISTANCE, te Syation. Fig. 14.36 shows the oe ouode ? agagramimaticn representation of the problem. pa Re the resistance of earth electrode at consumer end. -—— 1 200 » Voltage drop across the human body = 25 x 103 x 2000 =50 Vv. * | CDOY Heater: 25mA . Voltage between points a and b 2000 50 — 50 = 200 V. 7 1 ER: Resistonce 7 = =F, = 20 ane naeh bea Glectrog = = i: esist} bod! taal ‘Current 20447 24 austonce ody on consumer Current through human body - =I R ~" R+2000 225x102 A Fig. 14.36. Diagram of Example 14.20. 200 _R o A REDO = 25% 10% or 200 R= 0.6 + 1200 is of earth electrode on consumer end R ~ 6 2. 4146. Localization of Cable Faults. In this section, faults occurring in cables which are in use on lower Yiguibation voltages are considered. The common faults which ae likely to occur in such cables are : 1. Ground fault. ‘The insulation of the cable may breakdown cansing a flow of current from the core ofthe cable to the lead sheath or to the earth. This is called “Ground Fault” 2 Short circuit fault, Ifthe insulation between two conductors is faulty, a current flows between them. eda “Short Circuit Fault”’. {46:1 Methods Used for Localizing Ground and Short Circuit Faults. “The methods used localizing Anort circuit faults differ from those used for localizing open circuit faults. Ta the cane of multicore cables it is advisable, fist of al, fo ‘medsure insulation resistance of each core to earth and also between cores. ‘This enables us to sort out the core that is earthed in case of ground ; cores eS ted in ease of short circuit ful. Loop tests are used os ean etal ae rests can only be used ifa sound cable runs alongwith the faulty of ground and short cirucit faults. These ; sa ve of a Wheatstone bridge. The advantage of these ieSS cable or cables. The loop tests work on the ofa Tesi See : i i + ance of fault is connected in the bate tt tn te seal a ite stat sistance is high, the sensitivity is avesly affected. In tis + if array and Varley loop tests are bein described. rrray Loop Test. The connection for this ts! shown in Fig. 1437. Fig. 1437 (a) eats tothe round rig circuit fault = me ie ar rm vi ne as vpadactor i essentially’ a Wheststove bree consisting ci eee, 100 cn a fea galvanometer for indication of balance, ae of oe P,Q. Ram ade resistance bOxeS oF Slide WiTES: The resistors P, Q formi s x2 . ae? Q x» wn 14.53) =e Rt X=5+0 550 ound cable P Low resistang R ‘Sound cable connection HR S Low resistance| Foulty cable - connection Faulty coble Q ( Lf oy 7, Murray Hoop fet and the faulty cable. When the conducgy resistances are proportional to lengths " each cable. Then Fig. 1 . ind cable where (R + X) is total loop resistance formed by the Penis ie hhave the same cross-sectional area and the same TEST 0 jengih of 1; represents the length of the fault from the test en 2-2-2 (14.54) yr he ; Es P+O the length . ay be located when the length of the capy "is known, Als, the fault resistance does not alter the balance condi OTN | a ls th | battery circuit hence effects only the sensitivity of the bridge oa Ee atiion oH sesoindor fault resistance is high, difficulty may be experienced in obtaining the a if may’ nor BS potable i crease | in sensitivity and hence accurate determination of the position of the fault y i Poss ~ In such a | case, the resistance of the fault may be reduced by applying a high direct or alternating voltage — in consistance the ifsulation rating of the cable — on the line so as to carbonize the insulation at the point of the faut, “arley Loop Test. In this test we can determine experimentally the total loop resistance instead of calculating it from the known lengths of the cable and its resistance per unit length. The necessary connections for the ground fault are shown in Fig. 14.38 (a) and for the short circuit fault in Fig. 14.38 (b). The treatment ~ Sound: cable Sourd cable Low resistance resistone egal conection Foulty connectia s cable. — Short cit fault K 2 (a) single pole double a at and the resistance § is Tased wig chen iS.citcuit. Switch Kis first thrown to posite” (gas UREMENT OF RESISTANCI: 55\ et the value of S for ba Tl Whe x for balance be 5,. The ‘OUF AMS Of the Wh " stone bridge are PQ, R + x. 7 §, Oo aris determines R +X ic. the total loop re e ‘The switch K is then thrown to position pasnce be Sa, The four arms of the peice as P.O and ass) 2° and th : 5 bridge now are P, 3) 1S) are known, ridge is rebalanced, Let the new value of § for ~ prcieess _k Q RX +S, X45, 7 @ REX4S, ¢ R+X4+5 Peg i Hence X is known from th a ee xt (14.56) 1 in from the kno . ae ae (eS os deteenined fom Ea wn pe Of P,Q. 8 from this equation and R + X (the total ofa 14.55. Knowing the value of X, the position of determine. ae . the position of the fault is determined.» Xe x : Rex ay th Rex? P wd 14.57), where |) = length of fault from the test end and [= total length of conductor. Eqns. 14.54 (for Murray loop test) and 14.56 (for Varley loop test) are valid only wher i anit throughout tv Toop. Corretins rust be aed cae rset ful a ea fables are different or when the cross-section of the faulty cable is not uniform over its entire length. Since temperature affects the value of resistance, corrections must be applied on this account if the temperatures, of the two cables are different, Corrections may also have to be applied in case the cables have a number of joints. Example 1421. In a test for a fault to earth by Murray loop test, the faulty cable has a length of 5.2 km. The faulty cable is looped with a sound cable of the same Length and cross-section. The resistances ‘rratio arms are 100 & and 41.2 @ at balance, C:leutate the distance of the fault from the test end. Ifthe decade resistance boxes forming the ratio arms have limits of error of + 05% (standard deviation) af the dial reading, what is the limit of error in the above calculated result ” Soluton, Let X be the resistance ‘of cable from the test end:to place of fault and R + X be the total resistance of loop. P and Q are the ratio arms. X/R = QIP ay _ al2 = 0.292 x x =72 ee (X +R) = 0.292 (X +R). Let 1, be the distance of fault from test end Tbe the length of each eable and r resistance per unit fi length. e Distance ‘of fault from test end fy rh and X + R= 21. 0.292 x 2 x 8.2 = 203 ken Limiting fractional error of unknown ce . ° ax _4f/ 8P)?, (82282! (aes TN) tee 100 is eld [ ance aaa x 0. JO7/ UH) X 1000 = 21. . Teme G error of distance eta fora fault ¢o earth 08 20 me feng of ale ia Tn testy oer re aulty cable i Tooped wilh sr ele ofthe sae er having a resistance of 11:9 per L000 mene es afte ate twas of He SiN ME aot ayesitance 2.25 on on a I late the distance ‘of fault from the testing end o we ne Balance are in the a0 2.7 an egy of faulty ant sound cable eS are the resi end. be the distance ‘of fault from the “Solution. Suppose 7 arKl 2 Let be the length of each cable and I AND MEASURING INSTRUM Pay ,UREMENTS s SCTRICAL MEAS' 552 ELECTRIC. Referring to Fig. 14.37 (a). Q_(x+R) = 2 or x" 740 i) Ady nih = 000 ps R xe 11, 292) «520-176 0 7000 ~ 100 riers oan x 1.76 ‘Substituting these values in (i), we have : Fgqq.!1 = 2.7 + f= 432 m t. The circuit of Fig, 14.38 ) ‘ample 14.23. A short circuit fault is located by Varley eal ed the values of variable req; Aa is used or the purpose. The ratio arms are set at P= 5 2and Q = 100 aN TEN et te ~ Sare 16 Q for position 1 of switch K and 7 Q for position 2. ine dist of fault from the ‘on fica and have a resistance of 0.4 Q/km. Determine the length of each cable Trail So for position 2. L Solution. Let S; be the value of resistance 5, for position and X+Rani+r - R+xX_P @ Po Selec Hence resistance of loop E sah xi6=80 Ressitance of each cable 8/2 =4 2. ~. Length of each cable 4/0.4 = 10 kin. iti : RP At position 2 we have: S5—=—G R+X+5,_ P+. 8+7_5+10 399 m Xe 2 Q xe 1p TAA 3OM ++ Distance of fault from testing end = 3/0.4 = 7.5 km. Example1424, A Wheatstone bridge is connected for a Varley Loop test as shown in Fig. 1439 When the switch is in position 1, the bridge is balanced with R, = 1000 Q, R, = 2000 Q, Ry = 100.0. When Roz Sound 6V gastREMENT OF RESISTANCE "ig in position 2, the bridge i svt ge of tie earthed wire due is balanced with Ry = 1000, i sei erica gemma ge mt ata ind fault 0 2 2000/1000 = grou yecurred 7 = Ra + Ryy/10 o Re+Ry= 2000 a When the switch is at position 2 - 2000 _ Re +Ry—-R, 1000 = 994k, 198 +2 R, =200-R,° or R, = 0.67 Q “=, Resistance of fault from bridge = 9-67 X 1000 = 446.7 m. 0.15 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. (a) Classify the resistances from the point of view (b) Describe in brief the different ett = er ; 2, Describe the ammeter-voltmeter method of measurement See eee ee ae connected to the side of unknown resistance. Derive the condition hich deciger uhh evel oes a pa.cular set of ammeter, voltmeter and unknown resistance, Assume Sea os ie ame Describe the substitution method of measurement of medium resistan i (aie -Haiaateing att Ee cad depends sistances. List the factors on which the accuracy 4, Draw the circuit of a Wheatstone bridge and derive the conditions of balance, §, Derive the expression for bridge sensitivity for a Wheatstone bridge with equal arms. Find also ssi. for current through the galvanometer for a small unbalance ee ith ell si, Pd pe es Te & What are the different factors which affect the precision measurement of medium resistances with Wheattone bridge ? Explain how their effects are minimized/eliminated 1, Describe the working of a Carey Foster Slide-wire bridge. £. Draw the circuit of a Kelvin-Varley slide and explain its working and advantages §. What are the different problems associated with measurement of low resistances, Explain the principle of working 1p Kelvin's Double Bridge and explain hiow the effect of contact resistance and resistance of leads is eliminated. Draw the circuit of a Kelvin's Double Bridge used for measurement of low resistances. Derive the condition for balance. ; 11. What are the different difficultie ences Jin the measurement of high resistances ? Explain how ‘these difficulties are overcome. . measurements of insulation resistance of cables. 12, Explain the loss of charge method for rement 13. Differentiate between volume and surfa.2 resistvit 14, Describe the working of a Megohm bridge. 1S. What is the a or the value of Barth's rresisance. What are the factors which influence its value. Desctibe the fall of potential method for measurement of earth resistance, : 16. Describe the epee eid working of an Earth Tester. Explain how it ‘can be used for measurement of resistance of an earthing electrode. 17, Describe the Murray Loop ¢ 18. Describe the Varley loop test for lee: VED PROBLEMS ; vies Pi 10 Stresistance ave used to mensire A eSSaNeT bby ammeter- Mn rer 100)mA, calculate te valve of measured re STE th the unknown resistance . Explain the method of measuring them. 4 and short circuit faults-in cables, st -alization of groun¢ oo , Jrcuit faults in cables. ‘alization of ground and short ¢ 1. A volimeter of resistance 500 2am Voltmeter method. If the voltmeter if is across the resistance Dif the volimeteris pat across he on resist Gi) if the voltmeter is put s¢ro™ ter connected in series wi " th ammeter connected on the supply sie and the milliamm’ [Ans. 199 2; 333.91 ance Wil MEASURING MEASUREMENTS AND, INSTRUM iyi9 554 ELECTRICAL (.02 2 resistance are available, Cafe i -¢ and an ammeter of Os which the two Sica 2 eet 200 ey the aimee umes etd for wach ec value of resistance that ¢ jens RS. 2 oy measurements give equal errors. «cof 100KMin weed. The gulvance,. 3/In ameasurement of resistance by the substitution method * sed ress Balvanomete, he a resistance of 2000 82, and gives the following deflect (i) With unknown resistance : 46 divisions Gi) With standard resistance : 40 divisions. Ans. 86,7 i Find the value of unknown resistance. ay bridge ae as fOHIOWS? | ay pa = 50.0. 4, The four arms of a Wheatston oe AB = 10 oe 25D. A source of 10 V de. ix connécted scp alvanometer has a resistance of 20 (and is connected across BL " Ti peace the galvanometer ? my SAS mA: 40 gy 5. The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge "AB = 100 2; BC = 1000 2; CD seace of 100.2, a sensitivity of 100 mmibtA 2 are as fllo¥s ay @ and DA = 400 22 1d is connected across AC. A sourge ter and its deflection ifthe resistance ‘The galvanometer has a res of 4V de. is connected across BD. Calculate the current through the galvanonte! anare of arm DA is changed from 400 2 to 401 2. l 63 HA: 16.3 mm] 10.Q@and BC = 100.2; sandard-resistance acres CD= 102.1% ged from 22310 to 27670 2. when the resistor Ry was changed foy the difference between the resistances of Ry and Ro. The bridge is [Ans. 868 9) 6. Ina Wheatstone bridge, the ratio arms AB = shunt across 10 Q ratio arm has to be chan; Ry-in the arm DA, Calculate in magnitude balanced in both the cases. 7. A modified Wheatstone bridge network is constituted as follows : sata a resistance P in parallel with resistance p : BC is a resistance Q in parallel with a resistance q : CD aed DA are resistances R and S respectively. The nominal values of P. Q and S are each 10 9. With resistance Rin cuit, balance is obtained with p = 30,000 2 and q = 25,000. With R replaced by a standard resistance tr 10 © balance is obtained when p = 15,000 Q and q = 40.000 2. Calculate the value of R. z [Ans, 9.99952 0 8. A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the resistance of a resistor. The bridge was balanced withthe vahes thown in Fig, 1440. It is found that, due to presence of chemical impurities emfs are set up at points 21 and ts of respective values 12 mV and 22 mV with polarities being shown in the diagram. Calculate; Fig. 14.40, Dis ( the apparent value of X, (iy Re Deore ol ibis 1438, (i) the % error in the apparent value of Xe [Ans 103 @.; 1157:0:- 12 r gASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE ei 855 celvin bridge is balanced with i A : ead Taare ae 2 ‘ith the following Constants : Outer ratio arm 100.6 99.9 M6 2: Resininnce of link, Dts Seas n 100.Q and 1000.0 : Inner arms, ratio Calculate the value of unknown resistance sere pee eee mitio arms of a Kelvin brid r Ans. 0.000467 92 1 cy 2a 2 th Ts etme ain este a 0. Ade. current of 10 A is passed through the standant an Are rane der sence cane series With a theostat, il the unknown sesistance from a 2.2 V hatiery in Calculate the deflection of the Ivanometer, Neglect the f produce a deflection of 1 iam. tesistance ofthe link. Find also the resistance unbalance .- Calculate insulation resistance of a eable in whic (Ans. 3320 mim : 06 pO} Me 300 fe in which the voltage falls from 100 to 80 V in 20 s. The capacitance [Ans. 20800 MEQ] 12, Accable immersed in a testing tank is charged to a voltage of 200 V with an electrostatic voltmeter connected between core and tank, After one minute's electrification, the eable and voltmeter are isolated and is found that in20 i poes Gls 150 V. The testis repeated with a resistance of 20 MQ between core and tank and the voltage is f ail to 100 V in the same time. Calculate the insulation resistance of the cable; that of the volmeter is given as 50 MQ. “ 1B. Te following obvereations were made for a loss. of charge method for the determination of a high resistance R, The charged eapacitor of capacitance 12.5 11F was connected across an electrostatic voltmeter and R in parallel, and the voltage measured after intervals of time. time, § 0 100, | 200 [30077400 300 | 6 voltage, V 150 i | | a 65 s7 | 340 The further set of readings was taken with.resisior R removed from circuit, ag follows: time, s - 0 200 | 400 “an | voltige, V t 150 143 | 3] 121 The readings of voltmeter were subject to large random errors. Calculate the value of resistance R. [Ans. 52.5. MQ] 14, A high resistance of 200 MQ has a leakage resistancé of 400 MQ between each of its main terminals and the guard terminal. Find the percentage error in measurement if the above resistance is measured hy an ordinary ‘Wheatstone bridge without providing guard circuit [Ans. 20% low 15. Two mains are working at potential difference of 220 V. A 250 V volinicter having 10,000 Q/V when connected between positive main and earth reads 149 V and the reading ix 42 V when connected. between negative main the earth, Calculate the insulation resistance of each main with respect to earth, -[Ans. 1.73 amd 0.486 MQ] 16. A feeder cable 250 metre long has a fault to earth. The fault is localized by the following resistance measurements between earth and one end of cable (a) distant end insulated, 6.98 £2 (b) distant end earthed, 1.71 2. The cable has a total resistance of 1.80 Q. Find the resistance of fault and its distance from test end.: 17> In a Murray Loop test for ground fault on a 50) metre long cable having a resistance of 1.6 Q/km, the faulty cable is looped with a sound cable of same length and cross-section, If resistances of ratio ams are 3: 1, calculate the distance of the fault from the test end. . [Ans 250m] 18. A telephone line, 5 km long, has an earth fault 2.3 km from test end. If the resistance of the lines per km is 4.0 Q, what value of variable resistance will give balance in a Varley loop test. The ratio arms are equal, [Ans. 21.6 2} 19, A telephone wire having a resistance of 14.6 2 km, develops a fault to earth, When looped with a, sound wire of the same length, the total resistance is found to be 56.2. Ifthe value of variable resistance is 16.3 at balance in a Varley foop test with ratio arms equal, calculate the distance of fault, - (Ans. 1.36 km] 20. A Wheatsione bridge is connected for a Varley loop test ax shown in Fig. 14.41, When the switeh i 2, the bridge is balanced with Ry = 1000 2, Rp = 1002, Ry = 53.0, Wheh switch J isin postion b, the bridge is balanced with Ry= 1000 Q, Ry = 100 0 and Ry = 52.9 2. [the resistance of the shorted wire is 0.018 Q/m, what is the distance between the place of fault and,the bridge ragMnnts AND MBASURING INSTRUM a RLECTRICAL’ MBASUI Sound cable Foulty cable of Problem 14.20 E QUESTIONS neter-voltmeter method with resistance tance should be measured. his connection gives better accuracy n gives better accuracy Fig. 14.41, Diagram OBJECTIVE TYP! Tick (V) the most appropriate answer : 1. A resistance of value 10.9 approximately Is to be measured by ai of ammeter is 0.02 © and that of voltmeter ts 5000 0. The resis (@) by connecting the ammeter on the side of unknown resistance aS this 0 ‘known resistance as this connectior (b) by connecting the voluneter on the side of un (©) by any of the two connections, as both of them give equal accuracy. (d) none of the above. 2. A unknown resistance Is measured by substitution method. First a standard known resistance of 100 Q. is connected In serles with a circuit having a rheostat and a galvanometer. The battery voltage Is 10 V and the setting ofthe rheostat is $00 (and the galvanometer shows a deflection of 60°. After this test, the battery voltage goes down to 9 V and when the unknown resistance is substituted for the known resistance, the galvanometer again shows a deflection ‘of 60° with the same setting of the rheostat. The value of unknown resistance. (@ 1002 (b) 549 (),90. (d) none of the above. |. Equal resistances of 100 Q each are connected in each arm of a Wheatstone bridge which Is supplicd by 2 V battery source. The galvanometer of negligible resistance connected to the bridge can sense as low current as 1 WA. The smallest value of resistance that can be measured Is : (b) 2pQ (@ 20mQ (c) 20pQ (@) none of the above, 4. A Wass oe bridge has ratio arms of 1000 Q and 100 Q resistance, the standard resistance arms consists lecade resistance boxes of 1000, 100, 10, 1 Q steps. The maximum and minimum values of unknown resistance which can be determined with this set up Is ° a ena ye ; iB UNO. 10'0. 5, A Wheatstone bridge cannot be used {c £209 9 the abo, ct ot for precision measurements because errors are introduced into o® (a) resistance of connecting leads ) Beet aaiiects ) thermo-olectric emfs (@) all of the above, 6. A Kelvin Varley Slide consists of 4 decade di ldors, 7 . 10 KA resistance cach. The subsequent decades wil fey eoetde Is construct Leal of (a) 11 coils of 20 kA each, 11 coil of WOiD cooks A Sam ot von ’ (6) 11 coils of 10 kA each, 11,coils of § KO éach, 10 aa a 80 KO each 1 10 coils of 1 kA each ch, 11 coils of 80 Q. ei 1 10 coils of 89 Q ck fT OF RESISTANCE, ros ’ stances are provided pow es ded with fom +e com ep in sistance value tential circuy;, yf eliminate the effect of theres aes dette oo fo eliminate the effect of leads tric emfs 'Ve of the nature of contacts at the 7 current terminsls ¢ Kelvin’s Double Bridge two se 1 eee ss one direction and t ts of readings are correrrninate the effect of erie ae Ith direction’ ie when measu timinte the effect of resistance of Tend (@ eamect for changes in battery voltage : STiminate the effect of thermo-clectic emfs 557 iring a low resistance, one wi cun tance, rent reversed. ‘This is done t Euiee @ igh resistances are provided with a 3 (@) bypass the leakage current Buard terminal. This guard terminals used 0 iso, ©) Batten iy Ste none of the above. ing Insulation , When measur resistance of JH Tort circuited because, of cables using d.. source, the galvanometer used should b fa cables have 2 Tow valve of initial resistance urn © ales bave a high value of capacitance which draws a hi 6) ables have 3 Jow value of capacitance which draws a hij igh value of charging current {@ none of the above a high value of charging current 11, Aetreular plece of specimen has a surface resista ' Mface resistivity , of the specimen is — a R, Its diameter is d and the thickness is. The n@R, oT ME. Ry ; ee R, OTe os nd in, The value of resistance of an earthing electrode depends upon : (a) shape and material of electrode (0) depth to which electrode is driven into earth. (6) specific resistance of soil (@ all of the above. \3, From the point of view of

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