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The Radio Amateur's 1981 PDF
The Radio Amateur's 1981 PDF
NOX
OLOUR
00
The Radio Amateur's
Handbook
/
Co-editors
Jay Rusgrove, W1VD
George Woodward, W1 RN
Contributors
George Collins, AD0W
Doug DeMaw, W1FB
Gerald Hall, K1TD
Gerald Hull, VE1BXC
John Lindholm, W1XX
John Montague, W0RUE
Bob Shriner, WA0UZO
Harold Steinman, K1FHN
Ed Tilton, W1HDQ
Glenn Williams, AF8C
1981
Fifty-Eighth Edition
V
Copyright © 1980 by
Newington, CT
November, 1980
J
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Contents
1 Amateur Radio
2 Electrical Laws and Circuits
8 Receiving Systems
11 Code Transmission
12 Single-Sideband Transmission
18 Wave Propagation
19 Transmission Lines
20 Antennas for High Frequency
The Amateur is Considerate ... He never knowingly uses the air in such a
way as to lessen the pleasure of others.
TWO
The Amateur is Loyal ... He offers his loyalty, encouragement and sup-
port to his fellow radio amateurs, his"local club and to the American Radio
Relay League, through which Amateur Radio is represented.
THREE
The Amateur is Progressive ... He keeps his station abreast of science. It is
and efficient. His operating practice is above reproach.
well-built
FOUR
The Amateur Friendly
is Slow and patient sending when requested,
. . .
FIVE
The Amateur is Balanced . Radio is his hobby. He never allows it to
. . in-
terfere with any of the duties he owes to his home, his job, his school, or his
'
community.
SIX
The Amateur is Patriotic ... His knowledge and his station are always
ready for the service of his country and his community.
— PAUL M. SEGAL
Chapter 1
Amateur Radio
1-2 Chapter 1
Bails!!
= m^=
Whether
landing
it's
in
trekking to the North Pole or flying high in the sky, where
the ground.
^^^^^^^
Radio, still in its infancy, was ordered out bands similar to what we have today: 160
Radio class or advice on how to get When the amateur
started, write the ARRL Club and Train- of existence until further notice. Many through 6 meters.
operators moved to 20 meters, the dream
ing Department for the name and address former Amateur Radio operators joined
the armed sevices and served with distinc- of coast-to-coast and transoceanic com-
of the nearest Elmer.
tion as radio operators, finding their skills munication without a relay station was
Looking Back to be much
needed. finally realized. (A more detailed history
by law; yet there were many hundreds of Hundred Meters and Down by Clinton B.
beginnings are slightly obscure, but elec-
formerly licensed amateurs just itching to DeSoto.)
trical experimenters around the turn of
the century, inspired by the experiments "get back on the air." The government
Public Service
of Marconi and others of the time, began had tasted supreme authority over the
radio services and was half inclined to Amateur Radio is a grand and glorious
duplicating those experiments and at-
among keep it. Hiram Percy Maxim, one of the hobby, but this fact alone would hardly
tempted communicate
to
founders of the American Radio Relay merit the wholehearted support given it by
themselves. were no regulatory
There
League, called the pre-war League's of- nearly all the world's governments at in-
agencies at that time and much in-
ficers together and then contacted all the ternational conferences. There are other
terference was caused by these "amateur"
until old members who could be found in an at- reasons. One of these is a thorough ap-
experimenters to other stations
tempt to re-establish Amateur Radio. preciation of the value of amateurs as
governments the world over stepped in
Maxim traveled to Washington, and DC sources of skilled radio personnel in time
and established licensing, laws and regula-
after considerable effort (and untold red of war. Another asset is best described as
tions to control the problems involved in
Amateur Radio was opened up "public service."
this new technology. "Amateur" ex- tape)
The "public service" record of the
perimenter stations were then restricted to again on October 1, 1919.
Experiments on shorter wavelengths amateur is a brilliant tribute to his work.
the "useless" wavelengths of 200 meters
were then begun with encouraging results. These activities can be roughly divided in-
and below. Amateurs suddenly found that expeditions and
was found that as the wavelength to two classes,
they could achieve communication over It
Table 1
A 8 C D £ F G H
F2, F3, ,
F4
145.800-148.000 A0 Limitations
(3,4) ,
A1, A2, A3, British Columbia 3' 3 3 1
A4, F1, F2, F3,
,
1) Phone privileges are restricted to holders Alberta 3' 3 3 3 1 1
F4 of advanced Amateur Radio Operators Certifi- Saskatchewan 3' 3 3 3 3 1 1 3
(3,4) 220.000-220.100 A0 ,
A1, A2, A3, cates, and of Commercial Certificates. Manitoba 3' 2 2 2 2 2 2 3'
A4 , F1, F2, F3, 2) Phone privileges are restricted as in foot- Ontario 3 1 1 1 1 2
F4 note 1, and to holders of Amateur Radio Opera- North of 50° N.
(9, 10, 13, 15) 220.000-220.500 tors Certificates, whose certificates have been Ontario 3' 2 1 1
(9, 10, 13, 15) 220.500-221.000 endorsed for operation on phone in these South of 50° N.
(10, 13, 14, 15) 221.000-223.000 bands. Province of Quebec 1 1 1 2
(9, 12, 13, 15) 223.000-223.500 3)Amplitude modulation (A2, A3, A4) shall North of 52° N.
(3, 4) 223.500-225.000 A0 ,
A1, A2, A3, not exceed ± 3 kHz (6A3). Province of Quebec 3 2 1
A4 ,
A5, F1, F2, 144.1-148 MHz bands and higher the carrier Prince Edward Island 3 2 1
1-4 Chapter 1
came along. Much later, transistors were them to industry with surprising results.
any year, and the blizzards of 1979 and
now integrated circuits are a part During World War II, thousands of
1980. When disaster strikes, amateurs are utilized;
amateurs contributed their
ready, with equipment not needing power of the everyday hardware in the Amateur skilled
Radio shack. This is because the amateur knowledge to the development of secret
from the electric company, to carry on
is constantly in the forefront of technical
radio devices, both in government and
communications for police,' fire depart-
progress. His incessant curiosity and private laboratories. Equally as impor-
ments, and relief organizations. The abili-
eagerness to try anything new are two tant, the prewar technical progress by
ty of radio amateurs to help the public in
reasons. Another is that ever-growing amateurs provided the keystone for the
emergencies is one big reason Amateur
Amateur Radio continually overcrowds its development of modern military com-
Radio has survived and prospered.
frequency assignments, spurring amateurs munications equipment.
Technical Developments to the development and adoption of new In the fifties, the Air Force was faced
techniques to. permit the accommodation with converting its long range com-
Amateurs started the hobby with spark-
of more stations. munications from Morse to voice; jet
gap transmitters, which took up great
Amateurs have come up with ideas in bombers had no room for skilled radio
hunks of frequency space. Then they
their shacks while at home and then taken operators. At the time, amateurs had been
moved on to tubes when these devices
Table 2
U.S. Amateur Radio Frequency Allocations
Limitations Frequency Band Emissions Limitations
Frequency Band Emissions Limitations Frequency Band Emissions
kHz
28.000-29.700 A1 A4, A5, F0, FT,
1800-2000 A1, A3 1, 2
8
28.000-28.500 F1 F2, F3, F4, F5, P 5,
3500-4000 A1
28.500-29.700 A3, F3, A5, F5 3300-3500 A0, A1, A2, A3,
3500-3775 F1
A4, A5, F0, F1,
3775-3890 A5, F5 50.000-54.000 A1
F2, F3, F4, F5,P 5, 12
3775-4000 A3, F3 4 50.100-54.000 A2, A3, A4, A5
F1, F2, F3, F5 5650-5925 A0, A1, A2, A3,
4383.8 A3J/A3A 13
A4, A5, F0, F1,
7000-7300 A1 3, 4 51.000-54.000 A0
F2, F3, F4, F5, P 5, 9
7000-7150 F1 3, 4 144-148 A1
7075-7100 A3, F3 11 144.100-148.000 A0, A2, A3, A4
A5, F5 4 A5, F0, F1, F2, GHz
7150-7225 3,
priate Commission engineer in charge and the borne operations will be permitted on this fre-
Limitations
on a appropriate military area frequency coordinator. quency. Additionally, all stations operating on
1) The use of frequencies in this band Is
i) Those portions of Texas and
New Mexico this frequency must be located in or within 50
shared basis with the Loran-A radionavigation nautical miles of the state of Alaska.
system and is subject to cancellation or revi- bounded by latitude 33*24' N., 33*53' N., and
longitude 105*40' W. and 106*40' W. 14) All amateur frequency bands above 29.5
sion, in whole or in part, by order of the Com-
ii) The state of Florida, including the
Key MHz are available for repeater operation except
mission/without hearing, whenever the Commis- 50.0-52.0MHz, 144.0-144.5 MHz, 145.5-146.0 MHz,
sion shall determine such action is necessary in
West area and the areas enclosed within circles
of 200-mile radius centered at 28°21' N, 80*43' 220.0-220.5 MHz, 431.0-433.0 MHz, and
view Loran-A radionavigation
of the priority of
W. and 30*30' N., 86*30' W. 435.0-438.0 MHz. Both the input (receiving) and
system. The use of these frequencies by ama-
The state of Arizona. output (transmitting) frequencies of a station in
teur stations shall not cause harmful interfer-
iii)
Amateur Radio 1 -5
U.S. 160-METER ALLOCATIONS
Segment! (kHz)
Input Power (Watts)
A 1800-1825
No operation, day or night B 1825-1850f
1 100 day, 25 night C 1850-1875
2 200 day, 50 night 1875-1900
3 500 day, 100 night 1900-1925 fThe range 1825-1830 kHz is used by DX sta-
4 1000 day, 200 night 1925-1950 tions attempting to contact North American
5 125 day, 25 night 1950-1975 stations. Use of this "DX Window" should be
6 250 day, 50 night 1975-2000 avoided by stations on this continent.
1 -6 Chapter 1
interested in the terest toamateurs the world over. ARRL World with Ham Radio is written for the
and experimentation. It is
previous contact with
sponsors an Intruder Watch Program so person without
relaying of messages by Amateur Radio.
Amateur Radio. designed to assist the
that unauthorized use of the amateur
It is
It is concerned with the
advancement of
prospective amateur to get into the hobby
the radio art. It stands for the radio frequencies may be detected and ap-
in the shortest possible time.Tune in the
maintenance of fraternalism and a high propriate action taken. At the head-
World comes complete with a code in-
standard of conduct. It represents the quarters of the League in Newington,
Connecticut, is a well-equipped struction and practice tape. For the per-
amateur in legislative matters.
laboratory to assist staff members in son seeking the General class or higher
One of .the League's principal purposes
preparation of technical material for QST license, there are the License Manual and
is to keep amateur activities so
well con-
and The Radio Amateur's Handbook. the ARRL Code Kit. The
'
ARRL
also
ducted that the amateur will continue to
Among its other activities, the League publishes a series of question and answer
justify his existence. Amateur Radio of-
maintains a Communications Department manuals for each class of license. All are
fers its. followers Countless pleasures and
concerned with the operating activities of available from either your local radio
unending satisfaction. It also calls for the ARRL.
shouldering of responsibilities the — League members. A large field organiza- store or the
studied, taken the test
standards, a tion is headed by a section communica- Once you have
maintenance of high
tions manager in each of the League's 73 and have received your, license, you will
cooperative loyalty to the traditions of
sections. There are appointments for find that there is no other thrill quite the
Amateur Radio, a dedication to its ideals
— qualified members in various fields, as same as Amateur Radio. You may decide
and principles so that the institution of
outlined in chapter 22. Special activities to operate on the lowest amateur band,
Amateur Radio may continue to operate
and contests promote operating skill. A 160 meters (see map). Or you may prefer
"in the public interest, convenience and
special place is reserved each month in to operate in the gigahertz bands (billions
necessity."
QST, the QST for amateur news from every sec- of cycles per second), where the entire
In addition to publishing
future of communications may lie.
ARRL maintains an active Amateur tion.
The ARRL publishes a library of infor- Whatever your interest, you are sure to
Radio station, W1AW, which conducts
mation on Amateur Radio. Tune in the find it in Amateur Radio.
code practice and sends bulletins of in-
c
^Jome of the manifestations of elec- ferred from one part of the circuit to there are materials that fall inbetween the
tricity and magnetism are familiar to another element by finding the numerical classifications of conductor and insulator,
everyone. The effects of static electricity values of entities called voltage and and might be labeled as semiconductors,
on a dry, wintry day, an attraction by the current. the latter term is applied exclusively to
magnetic north pole to a compass needle, Finally, there is the consideration of the materials where the motion of electrons
and the propagation and reception of fundamental properties of the matter that and holes is important.
radio waves are just a few examples. Less makes up the various circuit elements or
easily recognized as being electrical in devices. It is believed that all matter is Electrostatic Field and Potentials
nature perhaps, the radiation of light and made up of complex structures called All electrical quantities can
1
be ex-
even radiant heat from a stove are atoms which in turn are composed of pressed in the fundamental dimensions of
governed by the same physical laws that more or less unchangeable particles called time, force and length. In addition, the
describe a signal from a TV station or an electrons, protons and neutrons. Con-
,
quantity or dimension of charge is also
amateur transmitter. The ability to trans- struction of an atom will determine the required. The metric system of units
mit electrical energy through space with-
out any reliance on matter that might be
chemical and electrical properties of (SI — Systeme International d' Unites) is
matter composed of like atoms. The almost exclusively used now to specify
in that space (such as in a vacuum) or the periodic table of chemical elements a
is such quantities, and the reader is urged to 1
creation of a disturbance in space that can classification of such atoms. Electrons become familiar with this system. In the
produce a force are, topics that are play an important role in both the metric system, the basic unit of charge is
classified under the study of electromag- chemical and electrical properties of the coulomb. The smallest known charge
netic fields. Knowledge of the properties matter and elements where some of the is that of the electron which is
and definitions of fields is important in
understanding such devices as transmis-
electrons are relatively free to move — 1.6 X 10 " coulombs. (The proton
about. These materials are called conduc- has the same numerical charge except the
sion lines, antennas, and circuit-construction tors. On the other hand, elements where sign is positive.)
practices such as shielding. all of the electrons are tightly bonded in The concept of electrical charge is
Once a field nroblem is solved, it is the atomic structure are called insulators. analogous to that of mass. It is the mass
often possible to use the results over and Metals such as copper, aluminum, and of an object that determines the force
over again for other purposes. The field silver are very good conductors while of gravitational attraction between the
solution can be used to derive numerical glass, plastics, and rubber are good object and another one. A similar pheno-
formulas for such entities as resistance, insulators. menon occurs with two charged objects.
inductance and capacitance or the latter Although electrons play the principal If the charges can be considered to exist
quantities can be determined experi- role in the properties of both insulators at points in space, the force of attraction
mentally. These elements, then, form the and conductors, it is possible to construct (or repulsion if the charges have like signs)
building blocks for more complex con- matter with an apparent charge of is given by the formula
figurations called networks or circuits. opposite sign to that of the electron.
Since there is no need to describe the Actually, the electron is still the charge
physical appearance of the individual carrier but it is the physical absence of an
f - Q»Qz
elements, a pictorial representation is electron location that moves. However, it 4s-£r2
often used and it is cajled a schematic convenient to consider that an actual
is
diagram. However, each element must be charge carrier is present and it has been where Qi is the numerical value of one
assigned a numerical value, otherwise the labeled a hole. Materials in which the
schematic diagram is incomplete. If the
charge, Q2 is the other charge value, r is
motion of electrons and holes determine . the distance in meters.c is the permittivity
numerical values associated with the the electrical characteristics are called of the medium surrounding the charges,
sources of energy (such as batteries or semiconductors. Transistors, integrated and F is the force in newtons. In the case
generators) are also known, it is then and similar solid-state devices are
circuits of free space of a vacuum, t has a value of
possible to determine the power trans- made up from semiconductors. While 8.854 X 10| 2 and is the permittivity of
-
2*1 Chapter 2
.
free space. The product of relative permit- joules of energy to bring a charge of 1 cour
tivity and e o (the permittivity of free space) lomb from a point of voltage to any point
+1.25V
gives the permittivity for a condition on the sphere (as indicated by the dotted
/ where matter present. Permittivity is lines in Fig. 1). The direction of the force
\ + 1.67V~ >. is
on a charged particle at the surface of the
also called the dielectric constant and rela-
+25V V/ \
tive dielectric constants for plastics such surface of the sphere must be perpendicu-
and Teflon are 2.26 and lar to the surface. This is because charges
X \
as polyethylene
i / i A \a I
20 l3a |4o
2.1, respectively. (The relative dielectric are able to flow about freely on the con-
A 1*1 A
force with a direc-
*"y>». X
ductor but not off it.
.
i
v
i
»
'
1
J
r III 1
ters.)
will be zero. This motion of charge under
the influence of an electric field is a very
Fig. 1 — Field (solid lines) and potential (dotted
If instead of just two charges, a number
lines) lines Surrounding a charged sphere. important concept in electricity. The fate
of charged objects are present, the force
at which charge flows past a reference
on any one member likely to be a com-
point is defined as the current. A rate of 1
is
of f^ie charge. Thus, if a force of 1 newton indicate the direction of the force op a
4- existed on a test charge of 2 coulombs, the positive charge, At points away from the
field intensity would be 0.5 newtons/ sphere, less energy will be required to
coulomb. bring up a test charge from zero reference.
Consequently, a. series of concentric
VOLTS)
the charged sphere of Fig. 1 newton-meters (5 joules) to move a charge direction and magnitude of a force on a
charged object, also equal to the
of 2 coulombs from a point of zero energy it is
to a given point, the voltage or potential negative slope numerical value of the
would be 2.5 joules/coulomb.
at that point curve in Fig. 2. The slope of a curve is the
Because of the frequency of problems of rate of change of some variable with
this type,
' the dimension of joules/ distance and in this case, the. variable is
coulombs is given a special designation the potential This is why the electric field
is sometimes called the potential gradient
5 and one joule/coulomb is defined as 1
volt.Notice that if the voltage is divided (gradient being equivalent to slope). In the
by length (meters), the dimensions of field case of a curve that varies as the inverse of
intensity will be obtained and a field the distance, the slope at any point is
strength of one newton/coulomb is also proportional to the inverse of the distance
defined as one volt/meter. The relation- squared.
\ \ 1.25m
'
ship between field intensity and potential An examination of Fig. 1 would
indicate that the potential variation is
•
shape,
the surface. For instance, it will require 5 upon the size of the conductor, its
different radii.
Fig. 4 — Spark gaps with sharp points break formula that eliminated further con-
down at lower voltages than ones with blunt sideration of the field problem. The idea
surfaces even though the separation is the Fig. 5 — Potential and field strength along a of an electrical energy source was also
same. current-carrying conductor.
introduced. A similar analysis involving
2-3 Chapter 2
electrical energy. A combination of minus sign. The next source is V4, and it
+ V2 - + V3 - sources and resistances (or other ele- appears as a voltage rise so it is considered
I
—vw- Wv— ments) that are connected in some way is positive. Since the current flow in all .the
called a network or circuit. It is evident resistors is in the same direction, all the
that the energy consumed in a network potential drops have the same sign. The
must be equal to the energy produced. potential drop is the product of the
Applying this principle to the circuit current in amperes and the resistance in
shown in Fig. 6 gives an important ohms. The sums for the emfs and potential
extension of Ohm's Law. drops and the resulting current are given
In Fig. 6, a number of sources and by
resistances are connected in tandem or in >
6
Fig. —A series circuit illustrating the effects of series to form a circuit loop. It is desired to Sum of emf = V,+ V 4 = -10 + 5
emf and potential drop. determine the current I. The current can
be assumed to be flowing in either a
= —5 volts
required to determine the characteristics network equations are solved and the
direction can be corrected accordingly. In
of an electrical generator and an applica-
tion of chemistry would be involved in de-
order to solve the problem, it is necessary I = -yj- = -0.217 ampere
signing a chemical cell. However, it will be to find the sum of the emfs (which is
assumed that this problem has been proportional to the energy produced) and
to equate this sum to the sum of the Because the sign of the current is negative,
solved and that the energy source can be
potential drops (which is proportional to it actually flowing in a counterclock-
is
replaced with a symbol such as that used
the energy consumed). Assuming the wise direction. The physical significance
in Fig. 5.
electromotive force (emf) current is flowing in a clockwise direction, of this phenomenon is that one source is
The term is
the first element encountered at point a is being "charged." For instance, the circuit
applied to describe a source of electrical
an emf, VI, but it appears to be connected in Fig. 6 might represent a direct current
energy, and potential drop (or voltage
consumes "backward." Therefore, it receives a (dc) generator and a battery.
drop) is used for a device that
Resistance
larger area will have the lower resistance. that no. 28 has a resistance of 66.17 ohms
Given two conductors of the same size
per thousand feet. Since the desired
and shape, but of different materials, the
Resistance of Wijes resistance is 3.5 ohms, the length of wire
amount of current that will flow when a
The problem of determining the resis- required will be
given emf is applied will be found to vary
with what is called the resistance of the tance of a round wire of given diarneter
material. The lower the resistance, the and length — or its opposite, finding a 3.5
X 1000 = 52.89 feet.
and length of wire to supply a 66.17
greater the current for a given value of suitable size
were nickel instead of copper, the length having large conductance has low resis-
required for 3.5 ohms would be tance, and vice versa. In radio work the
term is used chiefly in connection with
3.5
vacuum-tube characteristics. The unit of
66.17 x 5.1
X 1000 = 10.37 feet conductance is the mho. A resistance of 1
ohm has a conductance of 1 mho, a .
R (ohms) Table 2
get rid of the heat quickly it may reach a
temperature that will cause it to melt or Conversion Factors for Fractional and
The equation above gives the value of Multiple Units
burn.
current when the voltage and resistance
Change
are known. It may be transposed so that
Skin Effect From To Divide by Multiply by
each of the three quantities may be found
The resistance of a conductor is not Units Microunits 1,000,000
the when the other two are known:
Milliunits 1000
same for alternating current as it is for (
*
Kilounits 1000
direct current. When the current is E = IR Megaunits 1,000,000
alternating there are internal effects that
Micro- Milliunits 1000
tend to force the current to flow mostly in units Units 1,000,000
the outer parts of the conductor. This (that is, the voltage acting equal to the
is Milli- Microunits 1000
decreases the effective cross-sectional area current amperes
in -
multiplied by the units Units 1000 .
of the conductor, with the result that the resistance in ohms) and Kilo- Units 1000
resistance increases. units Megaunits 1000
For low audio frequencies the increase
Mega- Units 1,000,000
in resistance is unimportant, but at radio units Kilounits 1000
frequencies this skin effect is so great that
practically all the current flow is confined
within a few thousandths of an inch of the (or, the resistance of the circuit is equal to the various units in common use. The
conductor surface. The rf resistance is the applied voltage divided by the prefixes attached to the basic-unit name
consequently many times the dc resistance, current). indicate the nature of the unit. These
and increases with increasing frequency. AH three forms of the equation are used prefixes are
^
In the rf range a conductor, of thin tubing almost constantly in radio work. It must
will have just as low resistance as a solid be remembered that the quantities are in micro — one-millionth (abbreviated u)
conductor of the same diameter, because volts, ohms and amperes; other units milli— one-thousandth (abbreviated m)
material not close to tile surface carries cannot be used in the equations without kilo — one thousand (abbreviated k)
practically no current. first being converted. For example, if the
mega — one million (abbreviated M)
current is in milliamperes it must be For example, 1 microvolt is one-millionth
Conductance
changed to the equivalent fraction of an of a volt, and 1 megohm is 1,000,000
The reciprocal of resistance (that is, ampere before the value can be sub- ohms. There are therefore 1,000,000
1/R) is called conductance. It is usually stituted in the equations. microvolts in one volt, and 0.000001
represented by the symbol G. A circuit Table 2 shows how to convert between megohm in 1 ohm.
2-5 Chapter 2
.
venient for the current, and 0.05 ampere X E2, and that across R3 is called E3, then
The following examples illustrate the use
of Ohm's Law: 1000 = 50 milliamperes. El= IR1 = X 5000 = 37.9 volts
0.0075.7
When a voltage of 150 is applied to a first resistance, Rl, then through the if
second, R2, and then back to the source. more decimal places, but as explained
circuit, the current is measured at 2.5
These resistors are connected in series. above a very high order of accuracy is not
amperes. What is the resistance of the
circuit? In this case R is the unknown, so The current everywhere in the circuit has necessary.
the same value. In problems such as this considerable
In the lower drawing, the current flows time and trouble can be saved, when the
150
R =-=- = = 60 ohms to the common connection point at the current is small enough to be expressed in
2.5
top of the two resistors and then divides, milliamperes, if the resistance is expressed
one part of it flowing through Rl and the in kilohms rather than ohms. When
No conversion was necessary because the
other through R2. At the lower con- resistance in kilohms is substituted direct-
voltage and current were given in volts ,
and amperes. nection point these two currents again ly in Ohm's Law the current will be mil-
combine; the total is the same as the liamperes if the emf is in volts.
How much current will flow if 250 volts
is applied to a 5000-ohm resistor? Since I current that flowed into the upper
Resistors in Parallel
is unknown common connection. In this case the two
resistors are connected in parallel. In a circuit with resistances in parallel,
E 250 the total resistance is less than that of the
.
1 = = = ° 5am P ere Resistors in Series lowest value of resistance present. This is
TT 5000
When a circuit has a number of because the total current is always greater
Milliampere units would be more con- resistances connected in series, the total than the current in any individual resistor.
resistance of the circuit is the sum of the The formula for finding the total resistance
many resistors as
the dots indicate that as R =
necessary may be added.
Example: Suppose that three resistors Rl
+ R2
+ R3 R4
T
6
SOURCE are connected to a source of emf as shown
OF EMF
in Fig; 10. The emf is 250 volts. Rl is 5000
ohms, R2 is 20,000 ohms, and R3 is 8000 where the dots again indicate that any
ohms. The total resistance is then number of resistors can be combined by
the same method. For only two resistances
SERIES (a very common case), the
R = Rl +R2 + R3 in parallel
formula becomes
= 5000 + 20,000 + 8000
= 33,000 ohms.
Rl X R2
R- =
SOURCE
OF EMF
|
y>R1
The current flowing in the circuit is then Rl + R2
O
000757 amp Example: If a 500-ohm resistor is
1
=f = nSo= -
Fig. 9 — Resistors connected in series and in (We need not carry calculations beyond R1R2 500X1200
parallel. three significant figures, and often two
R = + 1200
Rl +R2 500
will suffice because the accuracy of
600,000
measurements is seldom better than a few
17 00
percent.)
353 ohms
Voltage Drop
Ohm's Law applies to any part of a It is probably easier to solve practical
circuit as well as to the whole circuit. problems by a different method than the
Although the current is the same in all "reciprocal of reciprocals" formula. Sup-
three of the resistances in the example, the pose the three resistors of the previous
total voltage divides among them. The example are connected in parallel as
voltage appearing across each resistor (the shown in Fig. 1 1 The same emf, 250 volts,
.
voltage drop) can be found from Ohm's is applied to all three of the resistors. The
Fig. 10— An example of resistors in series. The Example: If the voltage across Rl (Fig. Law as shown below, II, being the current
solution of the circuit is worked out in the text. 10) is called El, that across R2 is called through Rl, 12 the current through R2
II
E
Rl
=
~ m = 50mA
250
-5
far, because the sum of the voltage drops
must equal the applied voltage. Since E2 Or, suppose a current of 20 milliamperes
appears across both R2 and R3. flows through a 300-ohm resistor; Then
E 250
12 = ~ = 12.5mA
R2 20 P = PR = (0.02) x 300 2
.
= 0.0004 X 300
E 250
= O.lTwatt
~ = 31.25 mA E2
R3 8 133
13
R3
= 16.6 mA
Note that the current was changed from
milliamperes to amperes before sub-
The total current is
stitution in the formula.
where 12 = current through R2 Electrical power in a resistance is
13 = current through R3
I = II +12 +13 turned into heat. The greater the power
The is 23.25
total mA, which checks the more rapidly the heat is generated.
= 50 +12.5 + 31.25
closelyenough with 23.3 mA, the current Resistors for radio work are made in
= 93.75 mA through the whole circuit. many sizes, the smallest being rated to
"dissipate" (or carry safely) about 1/8
Power and Energy watt. The largest resistors commonly used
The total resistance of the circuit is Power — the rate of doing work — is in amateur equipment will dissipate about
therefore equal to voltage multiplied by current. 100 watts.
The unit of electrical power, called the
_E_ 250 watt, is equal to one volt multiplied by one Generalized Definition of Resistance
R = = 2.66 kilohms
I 93.75 ampere. The equation for power therefore Electrical power is not always turned
= 2660 ohms into heat. The power used in running a
Resistors in Series-Parallel
P = EI
= 10.71 kfl
2-7 Chapter 2
—
some other form than heat. Therefore output; The efficiency in the above
motor, for example, is converted to
mechanical motion. The power supplied power used in heating is considered to be example is 60 percent.
to a radio transmitter is largely converted a loss, because it is not the useful power.
Energy
into radio .waves. Power applied to a The efficiency of a device is the useful
power output converted form) In residences, the power company's bill
loudspeaker is changed into sound waves. (in its
divided by the power input to the device. for electrical energy, not for power.
But in every case of this kind the power is is
part of the device receiving power, often Po = power output (watts) T = time in hours
In devices such as motors and vacuum percentage; that is, it tells what percent of amount of power had been used for a very
to obtain power in the input power will be available as useful short time.
tubes, the object is
Capacitance
insulation, called the dielectic constant
Suppose two metal plates are placed,
flat the current flows only during the time of is
charge and discharge, and this time is of that particular insulating material. The
close to each other (but not touching) and
very short. There can be no material itself is called a dielectric. The
are connected to a battery through a usually
continuous flow of direct current "through" dielectric constants of a number of
switch, as shown in Fig. 13. At the instant
a capacitor, but an alternating current can materials commonly used as dielectrics in
the switch is closed, electrons will be
pass through easily if the frequency is high capacitors are given in Table 3. If a sheet
attracted from the upper plate to the
of polystyrene is substituted for air
positive terminal of the battery, and the enough.
The charge or quantity of electricity between the plates of a capacitor, for
same number will be repelled into the
that can be placed on a capacitor is example, the capacitance will be increased
lower plate from the negative battery
terminal. Enough electrons move into one proportional to the applied voltage and to 2.6 times.
plate and out of the other to make the emf the capacitance of the capacitor. The
linits
between them the same as the emf of the larger the plate area and the smaller the
The fundamental unit of capacitance is
battery. spacing between the plate the greater the
If the switch is opened after the plates capacitance. The capacitance also depends
have been charged in this way, the top upon the kind of insulating material be-
Table 3
plate with a deficiency of electrons
is left tween the plates; it is smallest with air and Breakdown Voltages
Dielectric Constants
and the bottom plate with an excess. The insulation, but substitution of other Dielectric Puncture
plates remain charged despite the fact that insulating materials for air may increase Materia/ Constant' Voltage"
the battery no longer is connected. ,
the capacitance many times. The ratio of Air » 1.0 240
However, if a wire is touched between the the capacitance with some material other Alsimag 196 5.7 240
plates, to the Bakelite 4.4-5.4 300
two plates (short-circuiting them) the than air between the
Bakelite, mica-filled 4.7 325-375
excess electrons on the bottom plate will capacitance of the same capacitor with air
250-600
Cellulose acetate 3.3-3.9
flow through the wire to the upper plate, Fiber 5-7.5 150-180
C = 0.224 ^(n - 1)
where C = capacitance in pF
K= dielectric constant of material
between plates
A= area of one side of one plate in
square inches Fig. 1 5 — Fixed-value capacitors are seen at A. A large computer-grade unit is at the upper left. The
d = separation of plate surfaces in 40-u.F unit is an electrolytic capacitor. The smaller pieces are silver-mica, disk-ceramic, tantalum,
inches polystyrene and ceramic chip capacitors. The small black unit (cylindrical) is a pc-board-mount
n = number of plates electrolytic. Variable capacitors are shown at B. A vacuum variable is at the upper left.
4 *
1
= -j- = y = 0.571 hF Fig. 17 — An example of capacitors connected in
The same units must be used through- series. The solution to this arrangement is
out; that is, all capacitances must be worked out in the text.
Inductance
It is possible to show that the flow of This voltage "drop" (which has nothing constant associated with the circuit itself,
accom- to do with the voltage drop in any called the inductance of the circuit.
current through a conductor is
resistance in the circuit) is the result of an Inductance depends on the physical
panied by magnetic effects; a compass
opposing voltage "induced" in the circuit characteristics of the conductor. If the
needle brought near the conductor, for
example, will be deflected from its normal while the field is building up to its final conductor is formed into a coil, for
north-south position. The current, in value. When the field becomes constant example, its inductance is increased. A
the induced emf or back emf disappears, coil of many turns will have more
other words, sets up a magnetic field.
The transfer of energy to the magnetic since no further energy is being stored. inductance than one of few turns, if both
field represents work done by the source Since the induced emf opposes the emf coils otherwise physically similar.
are
of the source, it tends to prevent the Also, if is placed around an iron
a coil
of emf. Power is required for doing work,
and since power is equal to current current from rising rapidly when the core its inductance will be greater than it
multiplied by voltage, there must be a circuit is closed. The amplitude of the was without the magnetic core.
voltage drop in the circuit during the time induced emf is proportional to the rate at The polarity of an induced emf is
in which energy is being stored in the field. which the current is changing and to a always such as to oppose any change in
. ""Ml of emf. This tends to keep the current frequency of the order of 100 MHz, or
flowing even though the applied emf may higher is flowing. However, at much lower
Fig. 18 —
Assorted inductors. A rotary
be decreasing or be removed entirely.
(continuously variable) coil is at the upper left. frequencies the inductance of the same
Slug-tuned inductors are visible in the lower The unit of inductance is the henry. wire could be ignored because the induced
foreground. An rf choke (three pi windings) is Values of inductance used in radio voltage would be negligibly small.
seen at the lower right. equipment vary over a wide range.
Inductance of several henrys is required in Calculating Inductance
power-supply circuits (see chapter on The, approximate inductance of single-
power supplies), and to obtain such values may be calculated from
layer air-core coils
of inductance necessary to use coils of
it is the simplified formula
many turns wound oniron cores. In
radio-frequency circuits, the inductance =
L(wH)
values used will be measured in milli- 9a + 10b
henrys (a mH, one one-thousandth of a
henry) at low frequencies, and in micro- where L = inductance in microhenrys
a = coil radius in inches
henrys ( «H, one one-millionth of a henry)
2.0
L _ .375 X -375 X 48 X 48 „„
17fi
-V'-
*"
(9x.375)+(10 X 1.5)
n = V L(9a + 10 b)
13 13.5 29 81.6
14 15 30 90.5
' 101
15 16.8 31
16 18.9 32 113
17 21.2 33 127
18 23.6 34 '
143
19 26.4 35 158
20 29.4 36 175
21 33.1 37 198
22 37 38 224
23 41.3 39 248
t.O
0.9
— y
0.8
UJ
o >-
z ID 0.7
<
1- UJ
on _l 0.6
CD
o <
z H 0.5
>-
Z
_l 0.4
a. kl
t-
_j _l 0.3
o <t
">
2
0.2
0.1
1 2
1 2 3
.009
.01
SCALE A
SCALE C
h
X Q
UJ <t
I
> <
U.
O
z q:
UJ
u Nomograph for determining values of parallel resistances and inductances, and series capacitors.
D
Cf The dashed line shows that a total resistance of 50 ohms is obtained (B scaleLwhen 85 ohms (A
UJ scale) is placed in parallel with 125 ohms (C scale). For greater quantities of R, C and L (250 or
a u
o greater), add the necessary number of zeros to the numbers of scales A, B and C.
z
<t
H
U
4
a
<I
o
2-13 Chapter 2
1.0
-
NO. 34
NO. 40
0.1
(A)
IMPEDANCE
/
/
/ IDEAL
V INDUCTOR
/ /
/ /
/ /
// 0.5- IN. DIA ROD
//
/ INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE
,0.001
1.0 10
FREQUENCY
SELF- RESONANCE
J WIRE LENGTH (INCHES)
(B)
tance of the coil is increased 800 times be made that will function satisfactorily
If the dimensions are in inches, the by inserting the iron core since, other even through the vhf range that is, at —
numerical coefficients become 0.0117 for things being equal, the inductance will be frequencies up to perhaps- 100 MHz.
the first term and 0.00508 for the second proportional to the magnetic flux through Because a large part of the magnetic path
term. the coil. is through a nonmagnetic material, the
Suppose it is desired to find the induc- The permeability of a magnetic material permeability of the iron is low compared
tance of a wire 100 mm long and 2 mm in varies with the flux density. At low flux with the values obtained at power-supply
2-15 Chapter 2
,
are sufficiently separated so that no coil is If all the flux set up by one coil cuts all
in the magnetic field of another. the turns of the other coil, the mutual
That is, inductance has its maximum possible
value. If only a small part of the flux set
'total
= LI + L2 + L3 + L4 + . .
up by one coil cuts, the turns of the other
the mutual inductance is relatively small.
If inductors are connected in parallel
(Fig. 26) —
and the coils are sepa- Two coils having mutual inductance are
said to be coupled.
rated sufficiently, the total inductance is
The ratio of actual mutual inductance
given by
to the maximumpossible value that could
1 theoretically be obtained with two given
^total
—
J coils is called the coefficient of coupling
+ + + L4 T
LI L2 L3 between the coils. It is frequently ex-
pressed as a percentage. Coils that have
and for two inductances in parallel,
nearly the maximum possible (coefficient
= 1 or 100 percent) mutual inductance are
LI X L2
L = said to be closely, or tightly, coupled, but'
LI + L2 ifthe mutual inductance is relatively small
— Inductances in series and parallel. Thus the rules for combining inductances the coils are said to be loosely coupled.
Fig. 26
in series and parallel are the same for The degree of coupling depends upon the
resistances, if the coils are far enough physical spacing between the coils and
apart so that each is unaffected by how they are placed with respect to each
frequencies. The core is usually in the another's magnetic field. When this is not other. Maximum coupling exists when
form of a "slug" or cylinder that fits so the formulas given above' cannot be they have a common axis and are as close
inside the insulating form on which the used. together as possible (one wound over the
coil is wound. Despite the fact that with
other). The coupling is least when the coils
Mutual Inductance are far apart or are placed so their axes are
this construction the major portion of the
magnetic path for the flux is in air, the If two coils are arranged with their axes at right angles.
slug is quite effective in increasing the coil on the same line, as shown in Fig. 27, a The maximum possible coefficient of
inductance. By pushing the slug in and out current sent through coil 1 will cause a coupling is closely approached only when
of the the inductance can be varied
coil, magnetic field which "cuts" coil 2. the two coils are wound on a closed iron
over a considerable range. Consequently, an emf will be induced in core. The coefficient with air-core coils
* coil 2 whenever the field strength is may run as high as 0.6 or 0.7 if one coil is
changing. This induced emf is similar to wound over the other, but will be much
Eddy Currents and Hysteresis the emf of self-induction, but since it less if the two coils are separated.
When alternating current flows through appears in the second coil because of
Time Constant:
a coil wound on an iron core an emf will current flowing in the first, it is a •
Capacitance and Resistance
be induced, as previously explained, and "mutual" effect and from the results
since iron is a conductor a current will mutual inductance between the two coils. Connecting a source of emf to a
flow in the core. Such currents (called
eddy currents) represent a waste of power
because they flow through the resistance
of the iron and thus cause heating.
Eddy-eurrent losses can be reduced by
is, by cutting it
laminating the core; that
These strips or laminations
into thin strips.
must be insulated from each other by
painting them with some insulating
material such as varnish or shellac.
There is also another type of energy
loss: The iron tends to resist any change in
its magnetic state, so a rapidly-changing
current such as ac is forced continually to
supply energy to the iron to overcome this
"inertia.*' Losses of this sort are called
hysteresis losses.
Eddy-current and hysteresis losses in
iron increase rapidly as the frequency of
the alternating current is increased. For
can be used
this reason, ordinary iron cores
only at power and audio frequencies —
up to, say, 15,000 hertz. Even so, a very
good grade of iron or steel is necessary if
the core is to perform well at the higher
individual inductances, provided the coils setting up a magnetic field that induces an emf in the turns of coilno. 2.
C = capacitance in farads
R = resistance in ohms
2RC
Example: The time constant of a 2- M F TIME
capacitor and a 250,000-ohm (0.25 M)
where T = time constant in seconds
resistor
L = inductance in henrys
is
Fig. 29 — How the voltage across a capacitor R = resistance in ohms.
rises, with time, when charged through a
T = RC = 0.25 X 2 = 0.5 second
resistor. The lower curve shows the way in
which the voltage decreases across the The resistance of the wire in a coil acts as
capacitor terminals on discharging through the
If the applied emf
1000 volts, the is if itwere in series with the inductance.
same resistor.
voltage between the capacitor plates will Example: A coil having an inductance
be 630 volts at the end of 1/2 second. of 20 henrys and a resistance of 100 ohms
If C is in microfarads and R in has a time constant of
megohms, the time constant also is in
seconds. These units usually are more
L 20
convenient. T = = 0.2 second
a charged capacitor is discharged
If
R 100
2-17 Chapter 2
speed wjth which the field changes. The applications a resistance-capacitance (RC)
common result of opening the swjtch in a time constant is involved, and it is usually
1 00
circuit such as the one shown is that a necessary to know the voltage across the
spark or arc forms at the switch contacts 70 capacitor at some time interval larger or
at the instant of opening. If the inductance 2 SO smaller than the actual time constant of
is large and the current in the circuit is 40 the circuit as given by the formula above.
high, a great deal of energy is released in a < 30 Fig. 31 can be used for the solution of
2
very short period of time. It is not at all such problems, since the curve gives the
u.
O 20 voltage across the capacitor, in terms of
unusual for the switch contacts to burn or
H percentage of the initial charge, for
melt under such circumstances. The spark Z
UJ
or arc at the opened switch can be reduced (_) percentages between 5 and 100, at any
oc 10 '
in numerous devices, such as electronic RC will it take the voltage to fall to 10 volts?
keys, timing and control circuits, and In percentage, 10/150 = 6.7 percent.
and noise limiters. In nearly all such constant of the circuit. = 0.0027 second, or 2?7 milliseconds.
Alternating Currents
The term phase essentially means "time," phase measurements are made with re-
or the time interval between the in- spect to the lowest, or fundamental, fre-
stant when one thing occurs and the quency.
J
instant when a second related thing takes The time interval or "phase difference"
place. The later event is said to lag the under consideration usually will be less
earlier,while the one that occurs first is than one cycle. Phase difference could be
said to lead. In ac circuits the current measured in decimal parts of a cycle, but
amplitude changes continuously, so the it is rhore convenient to divide the cycle
concept of phase or time becomes into 360 parts or degrees. A phase degree
is therefore 1/360 of a cycle. The reason
Fig. 33 —
When two waves of the same
important. Phase can be measured in the frequency start their cycles at slightly different
ordinary time units, such as the second, for this choice is that with sine-wave times, the time difference or phase difference
but there is a more convenient method: alternating current the value of the is measured in degrees. In this drawing wave B
Since each ac cycle occupies exactly the current at any instant is proportional to starts 45 degrees (one-eighth cycle) later than
wave A, and so lags 45 degrees behind A.
same amount of time as every other cycle the sine of the angle that corresponds to
of the same frequency, we can use the the number of degrees — that is, length of
cycle itself as the time unit. Using the time — from the instant the cycle began.
cycle as the time unit makes the specifica- There is no actual "angle" associated with a/" \
// vX *
dent of the frequency of the current, so make this method of measurement clear. — w
f
z
\ /\ \
\\ vV
/
V/
'
long as only one frequency is under con- /
\\ /
sideration at a time. When two or more
frequencies are to be considered, as in the
Measuring Phase
Thephase difference between two
n X
y ,/
''90"
/
/ \ X
'
/ \ /
case where harmonics are present, the currents of the same frequency is the time (1/4 CYCLE)
•
or angle difference between corresponding
parts of cycles of the two currents. This is
shown in Fig. 33. The current labeled A V i \ / \ .
' *
A by 45 degrees. \
\
\ i
i
i
negative, and vice versa. The two waves could represent current, voltage,- or both.
degrees that are used as a measure of time or
phase. are thus completely out of phase. A and B might be two currents in separate
Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-18
repeat the events of the^first and second*
respectively, with this difference
5
the —
polarity of the applied voltage has --
Capacitive Reactance
The quantity of electric charge that can
be placed on a capacitor is proportional to
the applied emf and the capacitance. This
amount of charge moves back and forth in
the circuit once each cycle, and so the rate
of movement of charge —
that is, the cur-
rent —
proportional to voltage, capa-
is
purely resistive parts of circuits, Ohm's the capacitor is being charged. Hence the = 47.4 ohms
Law is just as valid for ac of any frequency current is positive, as indicated by the
as it is for dc. dashed line in Fig. 35. Inductive Reactance
2-19 Chapter 2
inductances from 0.1 #H to 10 henrys, for
frequencies between 100 hertz and 100
megahertz. The approximate value of
reactance can be read from the chart or,
where more exact values are needed, the
chart will serve as a check on the order of
magnitude of reactances calculated from
the formulas given above, and thus avoid
"decimal-point errors."
X = XI + X2 + X3 + X4
tional to the applied frequency. Also, reactance, but simply acts as though it
since the back emf is proportional to were a separate resistor connected in
With the coil. or for two in parallel,
inductance for a given rate of current series
current flows to generate an induced emf The situation is different when reac-
that equals and opposes the applied tances'of opposite kinds, are combined.
voltage.) --i Since the current in a capacitance leads
The combined effect of inductance and the applied voltage by 90 degrees and the
frequency is called inductive reactance, = current in an inductance lags the applied
E IX
also expressed in ohms, and the formula voltage by 90 degrees, the voltages at the
for it is terminals of opposite types of reactance
are 180 degrees out of phase in a series
XL = 2yfL circuit (in which the current has to be the
same through all elements), and the
where Xl = inductive reactance in ohms where E = emf in volts currents in reactances of opposite types
f = frequency in hertz I = current in amperes are 180 degrees out of phase in a parallel
L = inductance in henrys X = reactance in ohms circuit (in which the same voltage is
* = 3.14 The reactance in the circuit may, of applied to all elements). The 180-degree
Example: The reactance of a having coil course, be either inductive or capacitive. phase relationship means that the currents
Example: If a current of 2 amperes is or voltages are of opposite polarity, so in
an inductance of 8 henrys, at a frequency
of 120 hertz, is flowing through the capacitor of the the series circuit of Fig. 38A the voltage
example (reactance = 47.4 ohms) at
earlier E across the inductive reactance X L is of
L
X L = 2s-fL = 6.28 x 120 X 8 = 6029 ohms
opposite polarity to the voltage E c across
7150 kHz, the voltage drop across the
In radio-frequency circuits' the in- capacitor is the capacitive reactance c This if we X .
in kilohertz, the conversion factors for the If 120 hertz is applied to the
420 volts at B the total current, I, is equal to IL - Ic»
two units cancel, and the formula for 8-henry inductor of the earlier example, since the currents are 180 degrees out of
reactance may be used without first the current through the coil will be phase.
converting to fundamental units. Similarly, In the series case, therefore, the resul-
no conversion is necessary if the in- I = JL = J™L - .0697 A = 69.7 tant reactance of X L and X c is
X 6029
ductance is in microhenrys and the
frequency is in megahertz. mA X = X L — Xc
Example: The reactance of a 15-
microhenry coil at a frequency of 14 MHz Reactance Chart and in the parallel case (Fig. 38B),
FREQUENCY 10 I S 3 2
INTERPOLATION
nun i i i
SCALE
For Lac
Fig.37 —
Inductive and capacitive reactance vs. frequency. Heavy lines represent multiples of 10, intermediate light lines multiples of five: e.g., the
light linebetween 10 ^H and 100 hH represents 50 piH; the light line between 0.1 and 1 ^F represents 0.5 ^F, etc. Intermediate values can be
estimated with the help of the interpolation scale. Reactances outside the range of the chart may be found by applying appropriate factors to values
within the chart range. For example, the reactance of 10 henrys at 60 Hz can be found by taking the reactance to 10 henrys at 600 Hz and dividing by
10 for the 10-times decrease in frequency.
Note that in the series circuit the total and infinitely large in the parallel circuit.
reactance is negative if Xc is larger than
XL ; this indicates that the total reactance Reactive Power
is capacitive in such a case. The resultant In Fig. 38A the voltage drop across the
reactance in a series circuit is always inductor is larger than the voltage applied
smaller than the larger of the two in- to the circuit. This might seem to be an
dividual reactances. impossible condition, but it is not; the
In the parallel circuit, the resultant explanation is that while energy is being
reactance is negative (i.e., capacitive) if stored in the inductor's magnetic field,
Xl is larger than Xc , and positive (induc- energy is being returned to the circuit
tive) if XL is smaller than Xc
, but in every from the capacitor's electric field, and vice
case is always larger than the smaller of versa. This stored energy is responsible for
the two individual reactances. the fact that the voltages across reactances
In the special case where Xl = c , the X in series can be larger than the voltage
Fig. 38 —
Series and parallel circuits
total reactance is zero in the series circuit applied to them. containing opposite kinds of reactance.
2-21 Chapter 2
In a resistance the flow of current phase with the applied voltage while in a considered later in connection with tuned
reactance it is 90 degrees out of phase with circuits and transmission lines.
causes heating and a power loss equal to
PR. The power in a reactance is equal to the voltage, the phase relationship be- A series RX circuit can be converted in-
FX, but is not a "loss"; it is simply tween current and voltage in the circuit as to its parallel equivalent by means of the
power that is transferred back and forth a whole may be anything between zero formula
between the field and the circuit but not and 90 degrees, depending on the relative
Rc
2
+ X,
used up in .heating anything. To dis- amounts of resistance and reactance. *P
= and
tinguish this "nondissipated" power from
Series Circuits
the power which is actually consumed, the R/ + x 5
power When and reactance are
resistance in X„ =
unit of reactive is called the •
x c
modified by the addition of either series or "A Simple Approach to Complex Cir-
parallel elements, depending on which cuits," July, 1977 QST.
happens to be most convenient in the Another way to represent a complex im-
Fig.40 —
Circuit used as an example for
impedance calculations. particular case. Typical applications are pedance is to indicate the magnitude and
ductor lags the applied voltage (voltage Power Factor wave is applied to a circuit containing
leads the current), defining reactance, the current through the circuit
as the angle In the circuit of Fig. 40 an applied emf
will not have the same wave shape as the
by which the voltage at the terminals of of 250 volts results in a current of 2
the complex impedance leads the current applied voltage. This is because the
amperes, giving an apparent power of 250
makes for consistency — a negative value X 2 = 500 watts. However, only the reactance of an inductor and capacitor
of by which the
indicates the angle depend upon the applied frequency. For
resistance actually consumes power. The
voltage lags the current. Note that the arc the second-harmonic component of a
power in the resistance is'-
cosine formula will not produce a sign for complex wave, the reactance of the
= PR inductor is twice and the reactance of the
the phase angle unless the sign of the reac- P .= (2)
2
x 75 = 300 watts
tance is known. capacitor one-half their respective values
at thefundamental frequency; for the
The power consumed to the
ratio of the
Ohm Law for Impedance
's
apparent power is called the power factor
third harmonic the inductor reactance is
three times and the capacitor reactance
Ohm's Law can be applied to circuits of the circuit, and in this example the
.
Transformers
Two coils having mutual inductance without direct connection, and in the since no voltage will be induced in the
constitute a transformer. The coil con- process can be readily changed from one secondary if the magnetic field is not
nected to the source of energy is called the voltage level to another. Thus, if a device changing. If dc is applied to the primary
primary coil, and the other is called the to be operated requires, for example, 7 of a transformer, a voltage Will be induced
secondary coil. volts ac and only a 440-volt source is in the secondary only at the instant of
The usefulness of the transformer lies in available, a transformer can be used to closing or opening the primary circuit,
the fact energy can be
that electrical change the source voltage to that required. since it is only at these times that the field
transferred from one circuit to another A transformer can be used only with ac, is changing.
2-23 Chapter 2
2800 Although the secondary voltage is higher
X 117 = 7 x 117
than the primary voltage, the secondary
400
IRON CORE
current is lower than the primary current,
) < = 819 volts and by the same ratio.
<
> SECON-
)
(
DARY Power Relationships; Efficiency
Also, if an emf of 819 volts is applied to
)
(
indicates an iron-core transformer, the right one The current that flows in the primary
an air-core transformer. when no current is taken from the
where Po = power output from secondary
secondary is called the magnetizing current
Pi = power input to primary
of the transformer: In any properly
n = efficiency factor
designed transformer the primary induc-
The Iron-Core Transformer tance will be so large that the magnetizing The efficiency, n, always is less than 1. It
consumed by the transformer when the 0.65, for instance, the efficiency is 65
secondary coils of a transformer may be
wound on a core of magnetic material. secondary is "open v —
that is, not deliver- percent.
such frequencies. formers it may be assumed that the entire taken. The amount of power that the
primary current is caused by the secondary transformer can handle is determined by
Voltage and Turns Ratio "load." This is justifiable because the its own losses, because these heat the wire
For a given varying magnetic field, the magnetizing current should be very small and core. There is a limit to the
voltage induced in a coil in the field will be in comparison with the primary "load" temperature rise that can be tolerated,
proportional to the number of turns in the current at rated power output. because a too-high temperature either will
coil. If the two coils of a transformer are If the magnetic fields set up by the melt the wire or cause the insulation to
in the same field (which is the case when primary and secondary currents are to be break down. A transformer can be
both are wound on the same closed core) equal, the primary current multiplied by operated at reduced output, even though
itfollows that the induced voltages will be the primary turns must equal the secon- the efficiency is low, because the actual
proportional to the number of turns in dary current multiplied by the secondary loss will be low under such conditions.
each coil. In the primary the induced turns. From this it follows that The full-load efficiency of small power
voltage is practically equal to, and transformers such as are used in radio
opposes, the applied voltage, as described receiversand transmitters usually lies
earlier. Hence,
-(*)' between about 60 and 90 percent,
depending upon the size and design.
where Ip = primary current
Is = secondary current Leakage Reactance
rip = number of turns on primary
In a practical transformer not all of the
where Es = secondary voltage ns = number of turns on secondary
magnetic flux is common to both windings,
E p = primary applied voltage although in well-designed transformers
lis = number of turns on secondary
Example: Suppose that the secondary
the amount of flux that "cuts" one coil
of the transformer in the previous
rip = number of turns on primary and not the other is only a small percen-
example is delivering a current of 0.2
tage of the total flux. This leakage flux
ampere to a load. Then the primary causes an emf of self-induction; conse-
The ratio, ris/np is called the secondary-
current will be
to-primary turns ratio of the transformer. quently, there are small amounts of leakage
Fig. 42 —
The equivalent circuit of a transformer includes the effects of leakage inductance and
resistance of both primary and secondary windings. The resistance R is an equivalent resistance
c
representing the core losses, which are essentially constant for any given applied voltage and Example: A vacuum-tube af amplifier
frequency. Since these are comparatively small, their effect may be neglected in many
requires a load of 5000 ohms for optimum
approximate calculations.
performance, and is to be connected to a
loudspeaker having an impedance of 10
ohms. The 'turns ratio, primary to
serted in series with the circuit. It has, Example: A transformer has a primary- secondary, required in the coupling
therefore, a certain reactance, depending to-secondary turns ratio of 0.6 (primary transformer is
upon the amount of leakage inductance has 6/10 as many turns as the secondary)
and the frequency. This reactance is called and a load of 3000 ohms is connected to
leakage reactance. the secondary. The impedance looking
v = yTW =22.4
Current flowing through the leakage into the primary then will be k zr~ v io
reactance causes a voltage drop. This
voltage drop increases with increasing The primary therefore must have 22.4
current, hence it increases as more power 3000 X (0.6)
2
times as many turns as the secondary.
is taken from the secondary. Thus, the Impedance matching means, in general,
greater the secondary current, the smaller
= 3000 x 0.36 = 1080 ohms
adjusting the load impedance — by means
the secondary terminal voltage becomes. of a transformer or otherwise — to a
The resistances of the transformer wind- desired value. However there is also
ings also cause voltage drops when cur- By choosing the proper turns ratio, the another meaning. It is possible to show
rent is flowing; although these voltage impedance of a fixed load can be that any source of power will deliver its
drops are not in phase with those caused transformed to any desired value, within maximum possible output when the
by leakage reactance, together they result practical limits. If transformer losses can impedance of the load is equal to the
in a lower secondary voltage under load be neglected, the transformed or "reflected" internal impedance of the source. The
than is indicated by the turns ratio of the impedance has the same phase angle as impedance of the source is said to be
transformer. the actual load impedance; thus, if the "matched" under this condition. The
At power frequencies (60 Hz) the load is a pure resistance, the load pre- efficiency is only 50 percent in such a case;
voltage at the secondary, with a reason- sented by the primary to the source of just as much power is used up in the
able well-designed transformer, should not power also will be a pure resistance. source as is delivered to the load. Because
drop more than about 10 percent from The above relationship may be used in of the poor efficiency, this type of
open-circuit conditions to full load. The practical work even though it is based on impedance matching is limited to cases
drop in voltage may be considerably more an "ideal" transformer. Aside from -the where only a small amount of power is
than this in a transformer operating at normal design requirements of reasonably available and heating from power loss in
audio frequencies because the leakage low internal losses and low leakage the source is not important.
reactance increases directly with the reactance, the only requirement is that the
frequency. primary have enough inductance to Transformer Construction
operate with low magnetizing current at Transformers usually are designed so
Impedance Ratio the voltage applied to the primary. that the magnetic path around the core is
— one without
In an ideal transformer The primary impedance of a transfor- as short as possible. A short magnetic
losses or leakage reactance — the follow- mer — as it appears to the source of power path means that the transformer will
ing relationship is true; — is determined wholly by the load con- operate with fewer turns, for a given
nected to the secondary and by the turns applied voltage, than if the path were
ratio. If the characteristics of the trans- long. A short path also helps to reduce
Zp = Z s former have an appreciable effect on the flux leakage and therefore minimizes
impedance presented to the power source, leakage reactance.
the transformer is either poorly designed Two core shapes are in common use, as
where Zp = impedance looking into or is not suited to the voltage and shown in Fig. 43. In the shell type both
primary
terminals from frequency at which it is being used. Most windings are placed on the inner leg, while
source of power transformers will operate quite well at in the core type the primary and
Zs = impedance of load con- voltages from slightly above to well below secondary windings may be placed on
nected to secondary the design figure. separate legs, if desired. This is sometimes
Np /N s
= turns ratio, primary to
done when it is necessary to minimize
secondary Impedance Matching
capacitive effects between the primary and
Many devices require a specific value of secondary, or when one of the windings
Thata load of any given impedance
is, load resistance (or impedance) for op- must operate at very high voltage.
connected to the secondary of the timum operation. The impedance of the Core material for small transformers is
transformer will be transformed to a actual load that is to dissipate the power usually silicon steel, called "transformer
different value "looking into" the primary may differ widely from this value, so. a iron." The core is built up of laminations,
from the source of power. The impedance transformer is used to change the actual
, insulated from each other (by a thin
transformation is proportional to the load into an impedance of the desired coating of shellac, for example) to prevent
square of the primary-to-secondary turns value. This is called impedance matching. the flow of eddy currents. The laminations
ratio. From the preceding, are interleaved at the ends to make the
2-25 Chapter 2
core. As a rough indication, windings of
small power transformers frequently have
about six to eight turns per volt on a core .
transformer principle, but uses only one width of a given broadband transformer. ness of a transformer or inductor, which
winding. The line and load currents in the is possible when using a toroidal format.
common winding (A) flow in opposite direc- Core-Types in Common Use Therefore, toroids are excellent not only
tions, so that the resultant current is the dif-
For use in radio-frequency circuits in dc-to-dc converters, but at audio and
ference between them. The voltage across A is
proportional to the turns ratio. especially, a suitable core type must be radio frequencies up to at least 1000 MHz,
chosen to provide the Q
required by the assuming the proper core material is selected
designer. The wrong core material destroys for the range of frequencies over which the
magnetic path as continuous as possible the Q
of an rf type of inductor. device must operate. Toroid cores are
and thus reduce flux leakage. Toroid cores are useful from a few available from micro-miniature sizes well
The number of turns required in the hundred hertz well into the uhf spectrum. up to several inches in diameter. The latter
primary for a given applied emf is deter- Tape-wound steel cores are employed in can be used, as one example, to build a 20-
mined by the size, shape and type of core some types, of power supplies notably — kW balun for use in antenna systems.
material Used, and the frequency. The dc-to-dc converters. The toroid core is Another form taken in ferromagnetic
number of turns required is inversely pro- doughnut shaped, hence the name toroid transformers and inductors is the "pot-
portional to the cross-sectional area of the (Fig. 45). The principal advantage to this core" or "cup-core" device. Unlike the
2-27 Chapter 2
Table 6
Powdered-Iron Toroidal Com — AL Value* fcH/100 turns)
75-M/x 1-Mlx 2-M/x 6-M/x 10-Mix 12-Mix 0-Mix
41 -Mix 3-M/x
Green Grey Rd & Wh Bltie Red Yellow Black Gn S Wh Tan
Core = 75 = 35 M = 25 ji = 20 M = 10 M = 8 M = 6 M = 3 M = 1
M fi
MHz
Size 0.05-0.5 MHz 0.1-2 MHz 0.5-5 MHz 1-30 MHz 10-90 MHz 60-150 MHz 100-200 MHz ,150-300
NA —
Not av ailable in that size.
Turns = 100V I^h + A L Value (above.)
All frequency figures optimum. 'Updated values (1979) from Micrometals, Inc.
20 12 12 10 6 4 1
10 33
43 25 16 16 14 9 6 3
12
32 21 21 ' 18 13 8 5 1
14 54
28 24 17 13 7 2
16 69 41 28
37 37 32 23 18 10 4 1
18 88 53
47 47 41 29 23 14 '
6 1
20 111 67
53 38 30 19 9 2
22 140 86 60 60
67 49 39 25 13 4
24* 177 109 77 77
85 63 50 33 17 7
26 223 137 97 97
123 108 80 64 42 23 9
28 281 173 123
154 136 101 81 54 29 13
30 355 217 154
194 171 .127 103 68 38 17
32 439 272 194
247 218 162 132 88 49 23
34 557 346 247
304 268 199 162 108 62 30
36 683 424 304
389 344 256 209 140 80 39
38 875 544 389
492 492 434 324 264 178 102 51
40 1103 687
Physical Dimensions
Cross Cross
Inner Secf. Mean Outer Inner Secf. Mean
Outer
Area Length Core Dia. Dia. Height Area Length
Core Dia. Dia. Height
(in.) cm 2 cm Size (in.) (in.) (in.) cm 2 cm
Size (in.) (in.)
Inches x 25.4 = mm. Courtesy of Amidon Assoc., N. Hollywood, CA 91607 and Micrometals, Inc.
known as a trifilar one, and so forth (Fig. reference on the subject is by Ruthroff. 2
previous one with suitable insulation in
between. (Figs. 48 and 49). transmission- A 50). Itcan be argued that a transmission-
Ferrite Beads
line transformer is, conversely, one that line transformer is more efficient than a
uses windings which are configured to conventional one, but in practice it is diffi- Another form of toroidal inductor is
by twisting the wires together a given ing technical paper on the subject of toroi- but most beads are less than 0.25-inch
number of times per inch, or by laying the dal broadband transformers was pub- (6.3-mm) diameter. Ferrite beads are used
by Sevick, W2FMI. The 1
classic principally as vhf/uhf parasitic sup-
wires on the core (adjacent to one another) lished
at a distance apartwhich provides a two-
wire line impedance of a particular value.
In some applications these windings are 'Sevick, "Simple Broadband Matching Networks,"
!
Ruthroff, "Some Broadband Transformers," Proc.
IRE, Vol. 47, August 1959, p. 137.
called bifilar. A three-wire winding is QST, January 1976.
one made from beads. Miniature broad- Density @ 13 oer Gauss 1850 2350 2750 3500 3900
band transformers are sometimes fash- Residual Flux
Density Gauss 750 1200
ioned from ferrite beads. For the most 1200 1500 1250
part, ferrite beads can be regarded as Curie Temp. °C 500 300 130 150 160
small toroid cores. Vol. Resistivity ohm/cm x 10 8
1 1 x 10" 1 x 105 1 x 10* 5x10 s
Number of Turns Opt. Freq. Range MHz 15-25 \ .2-10 .01-1 .001-1 .001-1
Specific Gravity 4.7 4.7
The number of wire turns used on a 4.5 4.8 4.8
Loss 9.0 x 10" 5 2.2 x 10" 5 2.5 x 10- 5 9.0 x 10" 6
1
5.0 x 10' 6
toroid core can be calculated by knowing Factor u O @ 25 MHz. @ 2.5 MHz @ .2 MHz @ .1 MHz @ .1 MHz
the Al of the core and the desired
Coercive Force Oer. 2.40 1.60 0.30 0.18 0.18
inductance. The Al is simply the induc-
Temp. Co-eff %/°C
tance index for the core size and permeabi-
of initial Perm. 20-70°C 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.60
lity being used. Table 6 provides infor-
quency would be from 1 to 30 MHz. The OD - Outer diameter (inches) Ae - Effective magnetic cross-sectional area (in) 2
ID Inner diameter (inches)
Hi for that core
-
is 10. l
e - Effective magnetic path length (inches)
The required number of wire turns for a JHgt - Height (inches) Ve - Effective magnetic volume (in) 3
specified inductance on a given type of Ayy - Total window area (in)2 •A s - Surface area exposed for cooling (in)2
core can be determined by
'
Inches x 25.4 = mm. Courtesy of Amidon Assoc., N. Hollywood, CA 91607
Turns = 100 V desired L (^H) AL
where Al is obtained from Table 6. The
table also indicates how many turns of a
particular wire gauge can be close wound
Turns - 1000 V desired L (mH) -s- AL This will prevent the rough edges of the
to fill a specified core. For example, a core from abrading the enameled wire.
T-68 core will contain 49 turns of no. 24 where the Al for a specific core can be The inductance of a toroidal coil with
enameled wire, 101 turns of no. 30 taken from Table 7. Thus, if one required known A L is
enameled wire, and so on. Generally a 1-mH inductor and chose a no.
FT-82-43 toroid core, the number of turns
L = AL N
speaking, the larger the wire gauge the
would be
(-
100
r
higher the unloaded Q of the toroidal
inductor. The inductance values are based L and A L must be in the same units.
on the winding covering the entire Turns = 1000 V 1 + 557
Tables 8 and 9 cross-reference the ferrite
circumference of the core. When there is
= 1000 V 0.001795 toroidal cores offered by several sources.
space between the turns of wire, some
control over the net inductance can be = 1000 X 0.0424 = 42.4 turns Checking RF Toroidal Devices
effected by
compressing the turns or
The equations given previously will
spreading them. The -inductance will For an FT-82 size core no. 22 enameled provide the number of wire turns needed
increase if compression is used and will wire would be suitable as indicated in for a particular inductance, plus or minus
decrease when the turns are spread farther Table 6 (using the T-80 core size as the 10 percent. However, slight variations in
apart. nearest one to an FT-82). If the toroid core permeability may exist from one
Table 7 contains data for ferrite cores. core has rough edges (untumbled), it is production run to another. .Therefore, for
The number of turns for a specified suggested that insulating tape (3M glass circuitswhich require exact values of
inductance in mH versus the Al can be epoxy tape or Mylar tape) be wrapped inductance it is necessary to check the
determined by through the core before the wire is added. toroid winding by means of an RCL
2-29 , Chapter 2
— —
L UNDER TEST
Table 8
Ferrite Toroid Cores — Size Cross-Reference
(inches)
Amidon Indiana General Ferroxcube Magnetics, Inc.
OD ID Thickness Fair-Rite
40200TC
0.100 0.050 0.050
0.100 0.070 0.030 701 F426-1 -
—— t
F2062-T 40502
0.155 0.088
0.190 0.090 0.050
801
—- 213T050
1041T060 40601
0.230 0.120 0.060 FT-23 101 _ F303-1
0.230 0.120 0.120 901
i F867-1 40705
0.300 0.125 0.188
0.375 0.187 0.125 FT-37 201 F625-9 266T125 41003 Fig. 51 A —
Method for checking the induc-
FT-50 301 768T188 tance of a toroid winding by means of a dip
0.500 0.281 0.188
1101 F627-8 41306 meter, known capacitance value and a
0.500 0.312 0.250
1901 calibrated receiver. The self-shielding
0.500 0.312 0.500
FT-82 601 properties of a toroidal inductor prevent dip-
0.825 0.520 0.250
0.825 0.520 0.468 501 - — meter readings when the instrument is coupled
401 directly to the toroid. Sampling is done by
0.870 0.500 0.250
0.870 0.540 0.250 — 1801 F624-19 846T250 42206 means of a coupling link as illustrated.
1501 F2070-1 42507
1.000 0.500 0.250
1.000 0.610 0.250 1301
1.142 0.748 0.295 FT-114 1001 K300502 42908 Fig. 51 B —
(A) Illustration of a homemade
1.225 0.750 0.312 1601 winding shuttle for toroids. The wire is stored
1.250 0.750 0.375 1701 F626-12 on the shuttle and the shuttle is passed
1.417 0.905 0.591
K300501 through the center hole of the toroid, again
1.417 0.905 0.394
K300500 and again, the required number of turns is
until
528T500 43813 in place. (B) best to leave a 30* gap
is
1.500 0.750 0.500 It
3.375 1.925 0.500 F1707-15 siderably. (C) Edgewise view of a toroid core,
3.500 2.000 0.500 F 1707-1 Illustrating the method for counting the turns
5.835 2.50 0.625 F1824-1 accurately. (D)The low-impedance winding of a
toroidal transformer is usually wound over the
large winding, as shown. For narrow-band
applications the link should be wound over the
cold end of the main winding (see text).
Table 9
Ferrite Toroid Cores — Permeability Cross-Reference
2200 05
2300 3B7 G
2500 FT — 73 73 TC-12
2700 3E(3C8)
05P 3C5 F
3000
4700 06
5000 FT — 75 75 3E2A J
10,000
W
12,500 3E3
AL
X< = 2rfC End L <"H =
1
> 2rf
bridge or an RX
meter. If these in- illustration is necessary because the toroid
struments are not available, close approxi- has a self-shielding characteristic. The where Xc is the reactance of the known
mations can be "had by using a dip latter makes it difficult, and often capacitor value, f is in MHz and C is in
meter, standard capacitor (known value, impossible, to secure a dip in the meter u F. Using an example, where f is 3.5 MHz
stable type, such as a silver mica) and a reading when coupling the instrument (as noted on a dip meter) and C is 100 PF,
calibrated receiver against which to check directly to the toroidal inductor or L is determined by
the dipper frequency. Fig. 51A shows how transformer. The inductance can be
to couple a dip meter to a completed determined by Xl since Xl = Xc at X< - =455ohms
toroid for testing. The coupling link in the resonance. Therefore, 6.28 X 3.5 X 0.0001
The Decibel
It is useful to appraise signal strengths in Common logarithms (base 10) are used.
terms of relative loudness as registered by
the ear. For example, if a person estimates Voltage and Current Ratios
that the signal is "twice as loud" when the Note that the decibelis based on power
transmitter power is increased from 10 ratios. Voltage or current ratios can be
watts to 40 watts, he will also estimate that used, but only when the impedance is the
VO LTA 6E O ! /
c UR RENT
a 400-watt signal is twice as loud as a same for both values of voltage, or cur-
100-watt signal: The human ear has a rent.The gain of an amplifier cannot be o
(U
D 8 POV
logarithmic response. expressed correctly in dB if it is based on
This fact is the basis for the use of the the ratio of the output voltage to the input
relative-power unit called the decibel (dB). voltage unless both voltages are measured
A change of one decibel in the power level across the same value of impedance.
is just detectable as
a-ehange in loudness When the impedance at both points of
under ideal conditions. The number of measurement is the same, the following 1 (.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
decibels corresponding to a given power RATIO
formula may be used for voltage or cur-
ratio is given by the following formula: rent ratios: Fig. 52 —
Decibel chart for power, voltage and
current ratios for power ratios of 1:1 and 10:1.
In determining decibels for current or voltage
ratios the currents (or voltages) being com-
dB = 10 log
-f- dB = 20 log -r^- or 20 log pared must be referred to the same value of
I]
1
.
impedance.
2-31 Chapter 2
1 5
Table 10 )
Voltage Voltage
Voltage
Voltage or
or or
or
Current Power Current Power
'Power Current Power
Current Ratio 4B Ratio Ratio
Ratio Ratio Ratio
Ratio Ratio
'
OD
6.2 2.042 4.169
1.000 1.000 0.4898 0.2399
1.0000 1.0000 6.3 •2.065 4.266
1.012 1.023 0.4842 0.2344
0.9886 0.9772 0.1
2.089 4.365
1.047 0.4786 0.2291 6.4
0.9772 0.9550 0.2 1.023 4.467
0.2239 6.5 2.113
1.035 1.072 0.4732
0.9661 0.9333 0.3 2.138 4.571
1.047 1.096 0.4677 0.2188 6.6.
0.9550 0.9120 0.4
r
2.188 4.786
0.4571 0.2089 6.8
0.6 1.072 1.148
0.9333 0.8710 2.213 4.898
0.4519 0.2042 6.9
0.8511 0.7 1.084 1.175
0.9226 7.0 2.239 5.012
1.096 1.202 0.4467 0.1995
0.9120 0.8318 0.8 2.265 5.129
0.4416 0.1950 7.1
0.9 1.109 1.230
0.9016 0.8128
7.2 2.291 5.248
1.122 1.259 0.4365 0.1905
0.8913 0.7943 1.0 2.317 5.370
1.288 0.4315 0.1862 7.3
0.8810 0.7762 1.1 1.135 5.495
0.1820 7.4 2.344
1.2 1.148 1.318 0.4266
0.8710 0.7586 7.5 2.371 5.623
1.161 1.349 0.4217 0.1778
0.8610 0.7413 1.3 5.754
.
calibration may havef been attempted. with a minus sign. Thus +6 dB means ratios.For example, a power ratio of 2.5
that the power has been multiplied by 4, is4 dB (from the chart). A power ratio of
Decibel Chart
while -6 dB means that the power has ' 10 times 2.5, or 25, is 14 dB (10 + 4), and
The two formulas are shown graphical- been divided by 4. a power ratio of 100 times 2.5, or 250 is 24
ly in Fig.52 for ratios from 1 to 10. Gains The chart may be used for other ratios dB A
*
(20 + 4). voltage or current ratio of
(increases) expressed in decibels may be by adding (or subtracting, if a loss) 10 dB 4 is 12 dB, a voltage or current ratio of 40
added arithmetically; losses (decreases) each time the ratio scale is multiplied by dB
is 32 (20 + 12), and one of 400 is 52
may be subtracted. A power decrease is 10, for power ratios; or by adding (or sub- dB (40 + 12). Table 10 provides an easy
indicated by prefixing the decibel figure tracting) 20 dB each time the scale is reference for voltage power and current
multiplied by 10 for voltage of current ratios versus dB.
10 6 10" Lr-50
~ = 12,036 kHz
6.28 x 13.23 83.08
-I
— R-100
The formula for resonant frequency is not
-10 , +10
affected by resistance in the circuit. PERCENT CHANGE FROM
RESONANT FREQUENCY
Resonance Curves
If a plot is drawn on the current flowing Fig. 54 —
Current in a series-resonant circuit
with various values of series resistance. The
in the circuitof Fig. 53 as the frequency is
values are arbitrary and would not apply at all
varied (the applied voltage being con- circuits, but represent a typical case. It is
stant) it would look like one of the curves assumed that the reactances (at the resonant
in Fig. 54. The shape of frequency) are 1000 ohms. Note that at fre-
Fig. 53 —
A series circuit containing L, C and the resonance
quencies mpre than plus or minus 10 percent
R "resonant" at the applied frequency when
is curve at frequencies
near resonance is
away from the resonant frequency, the current
the reactance of C is equal to the reactance of determined by the ratio of reactance to is substantially unaffected by the resistance in
L. resistance. the circuit.
2-33 Chapter 2
determined by the inherent
show only inductance and capacitance; no circuit is
to perhaps 30 MHz
this resistance is most-
Voltage Rise at Resonance
ly in the wire of the coil. Above this fre-
quency energy loss in the capacitor (prin- When a voltage of the resonant
cipally in the solid dielectric which,
must frequency is inserted in series in a
resonant circuit, the voltage that appears
be used to form an insulating support for
across either the inductor or capacitor is
the capacitor plates) also becomes a
fac-
equivalent to resis- considerably higher than the applied
Fig. 56 — Circuit illustrating parallel resonance.
tor. This energy loss is
voltage. The current in the circuit is
tance. When maximum sharpness or selec-
needed the object of design is to limited only by the "resistance and may
tivity is
reduce the inherent resistance to the low- have a relatively high value; however, the o i
the current through L is larger than that an equivalent parallel impedance (at
frequency change is shown in percentage
through C, because the reactance of L is resonance) of .
is large and large if is small. R phase and are equal; thus there is no
R
The resistance shown in Fig 56 is not reactive current in the line. In a practical
\ O- 20
Either condition could be called "reso- each type of tube or transistor and set of
nance," so with low-Q circuits it is neces- operating conditions. However, the resis-
sary to distinguish between maximum im- tance of the load to which the active
Q"10^ pedance and impedance parallel
resistive device is to deliver power usually is
-20 -10 +10 +20 resonance. The difference between these L considerably lower than the value required
PER CENT CHANGE FROM RESONANT FREQUENCY
and C values and the equal reactances of a for proper device operation. To transform
series-resonant circuit is appreciable when the actual load resistance to the desired
Fig. 58— Relative impedance of parallel- the Q
is in the vicinity of 5, and becomes 1
resonant circuits with different Qs. These curves value the load may be tapped across part
are similar to those in Fig. 55 for current in a
more marked with still lower Q values. of the coil, as shown in Fig. 59B. This
series-resonant circuit. The effect of Q bn isequivalent to connecting a higher value
impedance is most marked near the resonant Q of Loaded Circuits of load resistance across the whole circuit,
frequency.
In many
applications of resonant and is similar in principle to impedance
circuits the only power lost is that transformation with an iron-core trans-
dissipated in the resistance of the circuit former. In high-frequency resonant cir-
itself. At frequencies below 30 MHz most cuits the impedance ratio does not vary
of this resistance is in the coil. Within exactly as the square of the turns ratio,
limits, increasing the number of turns in because all the magnetic flux lines do not
the coil increases the reactance faster than cut every turn of the coil. A desired re-
it raises the resistance, so coils for circuits flected impedance usually must be ob-
in which the Q must be high are made tained by experimental adjustment.
with relatively large inductance for the When the load resistance has a very low
frequency. value (say below 100 ohms) it may be
However, when
Fig. 59 — The equivalent circuit of a resonant
the
energy to a load (as in the case of the
circuit delivers connected in series in the resonant circuit
circuit delivering power to a
The resistor R
load. (as in Fig. 57A, for example), in which
represents the load resistance. At B the load is resonant circuits used in transmitters) the case it is transformed to an equivalent
tapped across part of L, by which transformer energy consumed in the circuit itself is parallel impedance as previously de-
action is equivalent to using a higher
load usually compared with that
negligible
resistance across the whole circuit.
scribed.. If the Q is at least 10, the
consumed by the load. The equivalent of equivalent parallel impedance is
such a circuit is shown in Fig. 59A, where
the parallel resistor represents the load to
which power is delivered. If the power
7 _
Z R
_ X — 2
,
At frequencies off resonance the impe- dissipated in the load is at least ten times
dance is no longer purely resistive because
as great as the power lost in the inductor
where Z R = resistive parallel impedance
the inductive and capacitive currents are at resonance
and capacitor, the parallel impedance of
not. equal. The off-resonant impedance
the resonant circuit itself will be so high X= reactance (in ohms) of either
" therefore is complex, and is lower than the
compared with the the coil or capacitor
resistance of the load
resonant impedance for the reasons pre- that for all practical purposes the im- r = load resistance inserted in
viously outlined. series
pedance of the combined circuit is equal
The higher the circuit Q, the higher the to the load resistance. Under these
parallel impedance. Curves showing the
If the Q is lower than 10 the reactance
variation of impedance (with frequency) of
conditions the Q
of a parallel resonant will have to be adjusted somewhat, for the
circuit loaded by a resistive impedance is reasons given in the discussion of low-Q
a parallel circuit have just the same shape
circuits, to obtain a resistive impedance of
as the curves showing the variation of
the desired value.
current with frequency in a series circuit. Q = J_ While the
Fig. 58 is a set of such curves. A set of
X circuit shown in Fig. 59B will
usually provide an impedance step-up as
curves showing the relative response as a
with an iron-core transformer, the net-
function of the departure from the where R = parallel load resistance (ohms) work has some serious disadvantages for
resonant frequency would be similar to X = reactance (ohms) some applications. For instance, the
Fig. 55. The -3 dB bandwidth (band-
Example: A resistive load of 3000 ohms common connection provides no dc
width at 0.707 relative response) is given
is connected across a resonant circuit in isolation and the common ground is
by
which the inductive and capacitive reac- sometimes troublesome in regards to
tances are each 250 ohms. The circuit Q is ground^loop currents. Consequently, a
Bandwidth -3dB = f /Q
then network in which only mutual magnetic
coupling isemployed is usually preferable.
where the resonant frequency and
fb is
Q _R
y _ X ~
3000 However, no impedance step-up will
the circuit Q. It is also called the 250
= 12
result unless the two coils are coupled
"half-power" bandwidth, for ease of
tightlyenough. The equivalent resistance
recollection.
The "effective" Q of a circuit loaded by seen at the input of the network will
Parallel Resonance in Low-Q Circuits
a parallel resistance becomes higher when always be lower regardless of the turns
ferrites, this has become possible and it circuits used in some receiving stages may
of
is now relatively easy to construct actual have considerable loss. This is because the
impedance transformers that are both network may have some advantage and its
broadband and permit operation well up high loss can be compensated by ad-
ditional amplification in another stage.
into the vhf portion of the spectrum. This
is also accomplished in part
by tightly However, such devices form a relatively
small minority of coupled networks
coupling the two (or more) coils that
make uptransformer either by
the commonly encountered and only the
dissipationless case will be considered in
twisting the conductors together or wind-
ing them in a parallel fashion. The latter this section.
from the source, Eac, with the network and ladder network (B).
when a voltage or current in one network
present. Rather than specify the source
produces a voltage or current in the other
voltage each time, a comparison is made
one. The' network where the energy circuit to the power
with the maximum available power from network in the
originates is often called the primary
any source with a given primary resis- delivered to the load with the network
circuitand the network that receives the
tance, Rp. The value of RP might be con- absent. Unlike the effective attenuation
energy is called the secondary circuit. Such
sidered as the impedance level associated which is always positive when defined by
coupling is often of a desirable nature
with a complex combination of sources, the previous formula, the insertion loss
since in the process, unwanted frequency
transmission lines, coupled networks, can take on negative values if Rp is not
components or noise may be rejected or
and even antennas. Typical values of equal to Rs or if Xp and Xs are not zero.
isolated and power transferred from a
Rp are 52, 75, 300 and 600 ohms. The In effect, the insertion loss would rep-
source to a load with greatest efficiency.
maximum available power is given by resent a powen gain under these con-
On the other hand, two or more circuits
ditions. The interpretation of this effect is
may be coupled inadvertently and un- power does not
produced. While a great
that maximum available
desirable effects
occur with the coupling network out of
number of coupling-circuit configurations
the circuit because of the unequal source
are possible, one very important class
the network is also dissipationless, the and load resistances and the non-zero
covers so many practical applications that If
power delivered to the load resistance, Rs, reactances. With the network in the
analysis of it will be covered in detail.
is just the power "dissipated"
in Rin. This now "matched"
circuit, the resistances are
Ladder Networks power is related to the input current by and the reactances are said to be "tuned
out." The action of the coupling network
Any two circuits that are coupled can be P = VRin in this instanceis very similar to that of a
called network. In
a ladder and is sometimes called the effective From the last section, it is evident that
is often
elements ifthe values of Rin and Xin of Fig. 60A can
addition, if there are no resistive attenuation.
Xp and Xs are
In the special case where be determined, the effective attenuation
present, or if such elements can be
the network is said to be either zero or can be combined into a and possibly the insertion loss are also
neglected,
coupling network, and where Rp is equal easily found. Being able to solve this
dissipationless.
dissipationless, all the to Rs, the effective attenuation is also problem has wide applications in rf
If a network is
of the input equal to the insertion loss of the network. For instance, design formulas for
circuits.
power delivered to the
The insertion loss is the ratio of the power often include a simplifying as-
filters
network will be dissipated in the load
delivered to the load with the coupling sumption that the load resistance is
resistance Rs. This effect leads to im-
Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-36
•
R2 Rt-R( + R2
XT XL1 - (XCI + Xcfr)
GT- Gi + G2
Bt- Bci + BC2-BL1
Fig. 62 —
Application of conversion formulas
can be used to transform a shunt conductance
and susceptance to a series equivalent circuit
A. The converse is illustrated at B.
Fig. 61 —
Resistances and reactances add in series circuits while conductances
and suscep-
tances add in parallel circuits. (Formulas shown are for numerical values
of X and B.).
R =
constant with frequency. In the case of the formulas for the respective reciprocal
GT +
2
BT 2
many circuits, this assumption is not true. entities are
However, if the value of Rs and Xs at any -B T
particular frequency is known, the at- X =
-1 GT +
2
BT2
tenuation of the filter can be determined BL = 2rfL
even though it is improperly terminated.
Unfortunately, while the solution to These relations are illustrated in Fig. 62A
any ladder problem possible from a is
Bc = 2jrfC
and Fig. 62B respectively. While the
theoretical standpoint, practical difficul-
derivation of the mathematical expres-
ties are encountered as the network com- and are defined as susceptances. In a sions will not be given, the importance of
plexity increases.
computations Many parallel
combination of conductances and the sign change cannot be stressed too
to a high degree of 'accuracy may be susceptances, the total conductance is the highly. Solving network problems with a
required, making the process a tedious sum of the individual conductances, and calculator is merely a matter of book-
one. Consequently, the availability of a the total susceptances is the sum
of the keeping, and failure to take the sign
calculator or similar computing device is individual susceptances, taking the
res- change associated with the transformed
recommended. The approach used here is pective signs of the latter into account.
adapted readily to any calculating method
A reactance and susceptance is the most
comparison between the way resistance common source of error.
including the use of an inexpensive pocket and reactance add and the manner in
calculator. which conductance and susceptance add is A Sample Problem
shown in the example of Fig. 61. An entity The following example illustrates the
Susceptance and A dmittance called admittance can be defined
in terms manner in which the foregoing theory can
The respective
reactances of an in- of the total conductance and
ductor and a capacitor are given by
total be applied to a practical problem. filter A
susceptance by the formula with the schematic diagram shown in Fig.
63A is supposed to have an insertion loss
=
at 6 MHz
of 3 dB when connected
X, 2i-fL Y = V Gt + 2
Bt 2 between a 52-ohm load and a source with
a 52-ohm primary resistance (both p and X
-1 X s are zero). Since this is a case where the
Xc = effective attenuation is equal to the
2jrfC and often denoted by the symbol Y. If
is
insertion loss, the previous formula for .
resistance, the conductance is just the On the other hand, if the total con- can now be applied and the results of both
reciprocal That is, the conductance of a
1
t
MHz respectively. If a plot of insertion
loss versus frequency was constructed it
found, the corresponding network ele-
would give the frequency response of the ments can be determined from an asso- =
where fc the frequency for an insertion
ciated table. Filters derived by network
loss of 3.01 dB
'
filter.
synthesis and similar methods (such as
k = the number of circuit elements
Frequency Scaling optimized computer designs) are often
and Normalized Impedance referred to as "modern filters" even The shape of a Butterworth low-pass filter
though the theory has been in existence is shown in the left-hand portion of Fig.
Quite often, it is desirable to be able to
for years. The term is useful in dis- 64B. (Another type that is similar in
change a coupling network at one
tinguishing such designs from those of an nature, only one that allows some
frequency and impedance level to another
older approximate method called image- "ripple" in the passband, is also shown in
one. For example, suppose it was desired
parameter theory. Fig. 64B. Here, a high-pass characteristic
to move the 3-dB point of the filter in the
a Chebyshev response.)
illustrates
preceding illustration from 6 to 7 MHz.
Butterworth Filters As can beseen from the formula,
An examination of the reactance and increasing the number of elements will
susceptance formulas reveals that multi- Filters can be grouped into four general
categories as illustrated, in Fig. 64A. result in a filter that approaches the
plying the frequency by some constant k
Low-pass filters have zero insertion loss "ideal" low-pass shape. For instance, a
and dividing both the inductance and
up to some critical frequency (fc) or cutoff 20-element filter designed for a 3.01-dB
.capacitance by the same value of k leaves
frequency and then provide high rejection cutoff frequency of 4.3 MHz, would have
the equations unchanged. Thus, if the MHz
of 0.23 dB and
above this frequency. (The latter condition an insertion loss at 4
capacitances and inductance in Fig. 63A
is indicated by the shaded lines in Fig. 64.)
84.7 dB at 7 MHz. However, practical
are multiplied by 6/7, all the reactances
difficulties would make such a filter very
and susceptances in the new circuit will Band-pass filters have zero insertion loss
between two cutoff frequencies with high hard to construct. Therefore, some com-
now have the same value at 7 MHz that promises are always required between a
the old one had at 6 MHz. rejection outside of the prescribed "band-
theoretically perfect frequency response
It is common practice with many filter width." (Band-stop filters reject a band of
(B)
resistance (reactance zero) and a 3.01 -dB
cutoff frequency of 1 radian/second
(0. 1592 Hz). There are two possible circuit
Fig. 65 — Schematic diagram of a Butterwofth low-pass filter. (See Table 11 for element values.)
configurations and these are shown in Fig.
65. Here, a five-element filter is given as
an example with either a shunt element Then L and C give the actual circuit-
next to the load (Fig. 65A) or a series 1 C5 C3 C1
element values in henrys and farads in
element next to the load (Fig. 65B). Either
filter will have the same response.
terms of the prototype element values i—'WS/ — 1'
( t K T If-
from Table 1 1
After the values for the 1-ohm, 1-
However, the usefulness of the low-pass
radian/second "prototype" filter are found, prototype does not end here. If the
the corresponding values for the actual following set of equations is applied to the
frequency/impedance level can be deter- prototype values, circuit elements for a
mined (see the section on frequency and high-pass filter can be obtained. The filter
impedance scaling). The prototype in- shown in Fig. 66A and
is Fig. 66B which
ductance and capacitance values are correspond to Fig. 65A and Fig. 65B in
multiplied by the ratio (0.1592/%) where Table 9. The equations for the actual C4 C2
fc isthe actual 3.01-dB cutoff frequency.
Next, this number is multiplied by the
high-pass circuit values in terms of the r-V W
1
T | ( t If
low-pass prototype are given by
load resistance in the case of an inductor
and divided by the load resistance if the
element
is a capacitance. For instance, the
C = L =
R2i-fc C prot 2'fcLprot.
filter in the preceding example is for a
three-element design (k equal to 3) and the
and the frequency response curve can be
reader might verify the values for the
obtained from (B)
components for an fc of 6 MHz and load
resistance of 52 ohms.
A =
Fig. 66 — Network configuration of a Butter-
High-Pass Butterworth
The formulas for change of impedance
Filters
10 log 1 +
in worth high-pass filter. The low-pass prototype
can be transformed as described in the text.
R L2 of 0.6897 «H. The insertion loss at 3.5 ward as it is for low- and high-pass filters
= c =
i
L and 7 MHz would be 14.21 and 1.45 dB
2rf„ ^prototype 2j-f„R ^Prototype if a practical design is to be obtained. In
respectively. essence, a low-pass filter is resonated to
where R = the load resistance in ohms some "center frequency" with the 3.01-dB
fc = the desired 3.01-dB Butterworth Band-Pass Filters
cutoff frequency being replaced by the
frequency in Hz Band-pass filters can also be designed filter bandwidth. The ratio of the band-
Table 11
Prototype Butterworth Low-Pass Filters
Fig. 65A C1 L2 C3 L4 C5 L6 C7 L8 C9 L10
Fig. 65B L1 C2 L3 C4 L5 C6 L7 C8 L9 C10
k
1 2.0000
2 1.4142 , 1.4142
3 1.0000 2.0000 1.0000
4 0.7654 1.8478 1.8478 0.7654
5 0.6180 1.6180 2.0000 1.6180 0.6180
6 0.5176 1.4142 1.9319 1.9319 1.4142 . 0.5176
7 0.4450 1.2470 1.8019 2.0000 1.8019 1.2470 0.4450
8 0.3902 1.1111 1.6629 1.9616 1.9616 1.6629 1.1111 0.3902
9 0.3473 1.0000 1.5321 1.8794 2.0000 1.8794 1.5321 1.0000 0.3473
10 0.3129 0.9080 1.4142 1.7820 1.9754 1.9754 1.7820 1.4142 0.9080 0.3129
2-39 Chapter 2
width to center frequency must be rela- frequency."
tively large, otherwise component values If the response is plotted against a
from tables of curves. A is the required volved. A series RLC circuit and the
The external terminals ab are "coupled"
attenuation at the cutoff frequencies.
upper and lower cutoff frequencies (fcu through a common capacitance, Cm.
and fci) are then given by Applying the formulas for conductance
and susceptance in terms of series
reactance and resistance gives
_ - BWC + V (BWc) 2 + 4fo 2
f
G ah = R + X 2 2
plotted in Fig. 67B and it appears to be reactance) gives a value of 20.49 ohms.
The reactance of a 21-pF capacitor at giving a susceptance value of 0.04 mhos
unsymmetrical about f In spite of this
which corresponds to a capacitance of
.
tance. While such a condition might be characteristics to one with "pure" ele-
defined as resonance, the resistance value" ments. The method is called predistortion
Obtained is not necessarily the one and is very useful in designing filters'
required for maximum transfer of power. where practical considerations require the
A definition that is helpful in deter- use of circuit elements with parasitic or
mining how to vary the circuit elements undesired resistance.
in order to obtain the desired input As the frequency of operation is
resistance is called the increased, components become
discrete
coefficient of
coupling. The coefficient of coupling is
Fig. 69 — Variation of k with input resistance smaller until a point is reached where
for circuit for Fig. 68.
defined as the ratio of the common or other forms of networks have to be used.
mutual reactance and the square root of Here, entities such as k and Q are
the product of two specially defined sometimes the only means of describing
such networks. Another definition of
reactances. If the mutual reactance is the significance and even the merit of such Q
capacitive, one of the special reactances is definitions as coefficient of coupling and that is quite useful in this instance is that it
the sum of the series capacitive reactances Q. If the circuit element values are isequal to the ratio of In (energy stored
of the primary mesh (with the resonator known, and if the configuration can be per rf cycle)/(energy lost per rf cycle.)
disconnected) and the other one is the sum resolved into a ladder network, important
of the series capacitive reactances of the properties such as input impedance and Mutually Coupled Inductors
resonator (with the primary discon- attenuation can be computed directly for A
number of very useful rf networks
Applying this definition to the
nected). any frequency. On the other hand, circuit involve coupled inductors. In a previous
circuit of Fig. 68A, the coefficient of information might be obscured or even section, there was some discussion on
coupling, k, is given by lost by attempting to attach too much im- iron-core transformers which represent a
portance to an arbitrary definition. For special case of the coupled-inductance
example, the plot in Fig. 69 merely in- problem. The formulas presented apply to
dicates Cm and C r are changing with instances where the coefficient of coupling
respect to one another. But it doesn't il- is very close to 1.0. While it is possible to
lustrate how
they are changing. Such in- approach this condition at frequencies in
formation is important in practical ap- the rf range, many practical circuits work
How meaningful the coefficient of plications and even a simple table of C
m
at values of k that are considerably less
coupling will be depends upon the and C r
vs. R in
for a particular R would
r
be than 1.0. A general solution is rather
particular circuit configuration under much more valuable than a plot of k. complex but many practical applications
consideration and which elements are Similar precautions have to be taken can often be simplified and solved
with the interpretation of circuit through use of the ladder-network method.
being varied. For example, suppose the Q.
value of Lr in the mobile-whip antenna Selectivity and Q are simply related for In particular, the sign of the mutual in-
single resonators and
WH components,
problem was fixed circuit ductance must be taken into account if
at 100 and Cm and
Cr were allowed but the situation rapidly deteriorates with there are a number of coupled circuits or if
to vary. (It will be
complex configurations. For instance, the phase of the voltage between two
recalled that Cr is 21 pF and represents
the antenna capacitance. However, the adding loss or resistance to circuit coupled circuits is important.
total resonator capacitance could be
changed by adding a series capacitor
between Cm and the antenna. Thus, Cr
could be varied from 21 pF to some lower U-M L2-M
value but not a higher one.)
A ,o rrm , mnrw
calculated plot of k versus input
tance, R in , is shown in Fig. 69.
resis-
Note the
.O—1<) oc
unusually high change in k when going
from resistance values near 10 ohms to
slightly higher ones. bO-
Similar networks can be designed to
work with any ratio of input resistance (A)
and load resistance but it is evident small
ratios are going to pose difficulties.
For -M L2+M
component tolerances are
larger ratios,
more relaxed. For instance, Cm might
-Oc o—/rrr\_jTrn_^ c
'
resistance,
the reactance and thus the input resistance
while Cr and Lr provide the required
reactance for the conductance formula.
However, Lr (B)
if is varied, k varies also.
Generally speaking, higher values of Lr
(and consequently circuit Q) require lower Fig. 70 — Two types of magnetically coupled circuits. At A, only mutual magnetic coupling exists
values of k. while the circuit at B contains a common inductance also. Equivalents of
both circuits are shown
at the right which permit the application of the ladder-network
At this point, the question arises as to analysis discussed in this section
(If the sign of voltage is
unimportant, T1 can be eliminated.)
2-41 Chapter 2
The latter consideration can be il- can also be analyzed with the aid of Fig. L2
/7\
lustrated with the aid of Fig. 70A. An ex- 68B. At some frequency (fi in Fig. 72), the
two mutually coupled series reactance is zero and Gab in the
act circuit for the
coils on the left is shown on the right. Tl preceding formula will just be 1/Rr. Typi- ~- '
1
is an "ideal" transformer that provides cal values for Rr range from 10 k-ohm and
the "isolation" between terminals ab and higher. However, the equivalent induc-
cd. If the polarity of the voltages between tance of the mechanical circuit is normally
these terminals can be neglected, the extremely high (over 10,000 henrys in the
transformer can be eliminated and just the case of some low-frequency units) which
cd substituted. A results in a very high circuit Q (30,000). ==-j ' \ '
'
doesn't change between LI and L2. If so, resonator is just equal to the susceptance
then the circuit on the right of Fig. 70B of the crystal holder, B cm Here, the total .
can be substituted for the tapped coil susceptance is zero. Since B cm is usually
very small, the equivalent series suscep- Fig. 71 —
Diagram illustrating how M can be
shown at the left.
one of the self inductances. This
larger than
Coefficients of coupling for the circuits tance is also small. This means the value
represents the transition from lightly coupled
in Figs. 70A and 70B are given by for X in the susceptance formula will be circuits to conventional transformers since an
very large and consequently G ah will be impedance step up is possible without the
M- small, which corresponds to a high. input addition of capacitive elements.
k -
- s^rL 2
resistance. A
plot of the magnitude of the
impedance is shown in Fig. 72. The dip at
mode and
U + M f, is called the series-resonant
the peak at f 2 is referred to as the parallel-
k ~ V L,(Li + L2 + 2M)
resonant or "anti-resonant" mode. When
specifying crystals for oscillator applica-
If LI and L2 do not have the same value,
tions, the type of mode must be given M
an interesting phenonemon takes place as along with external capacitance across the
the coupling is increased. A point is
holder or type oscillator circuit to be used.
reached where the mutual inductance ex- Otherwise, considerable difference in ac-
ceeds the inductance of the smaller coil.
tual oscillator frequency will be observed.
The interpretation pf this effect can be il- The effect can be used to advantage and
Rr
1
-H
lustrated with the aid of Fig. 71. While all f1 12 f
the frequency of a crystal oscillator can be
the flux lines (as indicated by the dashed
"pulled" with an external reactive ele-
lines) associated with LI also encircle —
Frequency response of a quartz-
ment or even frequency modulated with a Fig. 72
turns of L2, there are additional ones that The minimum value is only
crystal resonator.
device that converts voltage or current
encircle extra turns of L2, also. Thus, approximate since holder capacitance is
fluctuations into changes in reactance.
there are more flux lines for than there M neglected.
but the addition of ferrite material greatly are frequently used to match one im- parallel combination of C2 and Ra can
increases the coupling. As k increases so pedance value to another one. While there then be transformed to a series equivalent
that M is LI (Fig. 71), the net-
larger than are many such circuits, a few of them offer (see Fig 74). Then, L could be found by
conducting plates. If a voltage is applied component values. Either values of N that foregoing method and as illustrated in
are too low or too high result in networks Fig. 74. However, similar data along with
to the plates, the resultant electric field
that are hard to construct. other information can be obtained by
causes a mechanical stress in the crystal.
.
Depending upon the size and "cut" of the The reason for this complication is as approaching the problem somewhat dif-
follows. Only two reactive elements are ferently. Instead of setting one of trie
crystal, a frequency will exist at which the
The effect of this required to match any two resistances. element values arbitrarily and finding the
crystal begins to vibrate.
to simulate a Consequently, adding a third element other two, a' third variable is contrived
mechanical vibration is
series RLC
circuit as in Fig. 68A. There is introduces a redundancy. This means one and in the case of Fig 73C and Fig 73D is
element can be assigned a value arbitrarily labeled N. All three reactances are then
a capacitance associated with the crystal
and the other two components can then be expressed in terms of the variable N.
plates which appears across the terminals
68A).Consequently, this circuit found. For instance, suppose C2 in Fig. The manner in which the reactances
(Cm in Fig.
Xc = R R2'
(A)
(A)
o 1(- — = C2
XiL " ~ A
Xr„
Ceq -
! + (Xc2 /R 2 )
XL — R 2 *J R^ — R,
R<- •
L ^R2
V R R2
Xc=_ I
xT
(B)
Y ci
x _ JLl
--jj- _nrm_
X C2 = :cz
V R 2
/R,( 1 4- a2) - 1
XL = R,
N + R 2/X C2 I + UVXo) 2
N> +1 (O
R < R2 N >
i , V R 2 /Ri - 1
R1-
XL = ^1
N
XC2 - D R2
+
J* N
/ ( 2 1)
- 1
:c2
R2 N -
1
NX C2 (D)
1 + (R 2 /X C2 )>
Fig.73 —
Four matching networks that can be used to couple a source and load with different
Fig. 74 —
Illustration of the manner in which
the network of Fig. 73C can be reduced to the
resistance values. (Although networks are drawn with R1 appearing as the source
resistance, all one of Fig. 73A assuming C2 is assigned some
can be applied with R2 at the source end. Also, all formulas with capacitive reactance are for the
arbitrary value. (The formulas shown are for
numerical or absolute value.)
numerical reactance values.)
change with variation in N for two with either one or the other or both of the a much lower resistance would deliver
representative circuits of the typeshown remaining two elements variable. In many relatively little power. However, as the
in Fig. 73C is shown in Fig. 75. The solid amateur transmitters, it is the inductor resistance is lowered, increasing amounts
curve is for an Ri of 3000 ohms and R2 that remains fixed (at least for a given of current will flow resulting in mora
equal to 52 ohms. The dashed curve is for band) while Ci and C2 (Fig 73C) are made power output. Then, the source is said to
the same R2 (52 ohms) but with Ri equal variable. While this system limits the be "loaded" more heavily.
to 75 ohms. For values of N very close to bandwidth and matching capability some- Similar considerations such as those
the minimum by the inequality
specified what, it is still a very useful approach. For discussed for the network of Fig. 73C also
(Fig 73C), Xc2 becomes
infinite which instance, the plot shown in Fig. 76 exist for the circuit of Fig. 73D. Only the
means C2 approaches zero. As might be indicates the range of input resistance limiting L network for the latter is the one
expected, the values of Xl and Xci at this values that can be matched for an R2 of 52 shown in Fig. 73B. The circuit of Fig. 73C
point are approximately those of an L net- ohms. The graph is for an inductive reac- is usually called a pi network and as
work (Fig 73A) and could be determined tance of 219 ohms. Xci varies from 196 to pointed out, it is used extensively in the
by means of the formulas in Fig 73A for 206 ohms over the entire range of Ri (or output stage of transmitters. The circuit of
the corresponding values of Ri and R2. approximately 20 percent). However, Xc2 Fig. 73D has never been given any special
The plots shown in Fig. 75 should give a varies from 15 to almost 100 ohms as can name, but it is quite popular in both
general idea of the optimum range of be seen from the graph. antenna and transistor-matching applica-
component values. The region close to the Since C2 more or the trans-
less sets tions.
left-hand portion should be avoided since formed resistance, often referred to as
it is The plot shown in Fig. 75 is for fixed
there is little advantage to be gained over the "loading" control on transmitters input and output resistances with the
an L network, while arf extra component using the network of Fig. 73C, with Ci reactances variable. Similar figures can be
is required. For very high values of N, the usually labeled "Tune." While the mean- plotted for other combinations of fixed
capacitance values become large without ing of the latter term should be clear, the and variable elements. An interesting case
producing any particular advantage either. idea of loading in a matching application isfor Xl and Ri fixed with R2, Xci, and
A good design choice is an N a few per- perhaps peedssome explanation. For Xc2 variable. A
lower limit for also N
cent above the minimum specified by the small values of Xc2 (very large C2), the exists for this plot only instead of an L
inequality. transformed resistance is very high. Con- network, the limiting circuit is a network
Quite often, one of the elements is fixed sequently, a source that was designed for of three equal reactances. A feature of this
2-43 Chapter 2
circuit is that the output resistance is the
1 XC2 ratio of the square of the reactance and
11
\l
the input resistance. An analogous situa-
XL tion exists with a quarter-wavelength
xci transmission-line transformer. The output
xci\ resistance is the ratio of the square of the
characteristic impedance of the line and
XC2
the input resistance. Consequently, the
—/—
f special case where all the reactances are
Xl
equal in the circuit of Fig. 73C is the
lumped-constant analog of the quarter-
xm'
wavelength transformer. It has identical
9
2.0
phase shift (90 degrees) along with the
same impedance-transforming properties.
parameter N of Fig.
73 are approximately
related in this manner. For values of N
much greater than the minimum specified
by the inequality N
and Q can be
considered to mean the same thing for all
practical purposes. However, the fre-
quency response of networks that are
more complex than simple RLC types is
usually more complicated also. Con-
sequently, some care is required in the
interpretation of N or Q in regard to
frequency rejection. For instance, a simple
10
circuit has a frequency response that
results in increasing attenuation for
increasing excursions from resonance.
Fig. 77 _ Frequency response of the network of Fig. 73C for two values of N.
This is not true for the pi network as can
be seen from Fig. 77. For slight frequency
changes below resonance, the attenuation
increases as in the case of a simple RLC
network. At lower frequencies, the at-
tenuation decreases and approaches 2.55
dB. This plot is for a resistance ratio of
,5:1, and the low-frequency loss is just
caused by the mismatch in source and
load resistance. Thus, while increasing N
improves the selectivity near resonance, it
has little effect on response for frequencies
much farther away.
A somewhat different situation exists
for the circuit of Fig. 73D. At frequencies
far from resonance, either a series
capacitance provides decoupling at the
lower frequencies or a shunt capacitance
causes additional mismatch at the higher
ones, This circuit then, has a response
resembling those of simple circuits unlike
the pi network. Curves a and b are for a
resistance ratio of 5: 1 with equal to 2.01 N
for curve a. Curve b is for an N of 10.
Curves c and d are for a resistance ratio of
50:1 with N equal to 7.04 and. 10
^f^Lny amateurs desire to construct mated by a "pure" element such as a frequency of a capacitor is lower for high-
their own radio equipment and
some know- resistor,capacitor, inductor or a short capacitance units than it is for smaller-
ledge of design procedures becomes im- circuit in the case of an interconnecting value ones. Thus, CI in Fig. 2 provides a
portant. Even when some commercially conductor. In other cases, the unwanted low reactance for low frequencies such as
manufactured equipment is used, these component must be taken into account. those in the audio range while C2acts as a
techniques may still be required in setting However, it may be possible to break the bypass for frequencies above the self-
up peripheral equipment. Also, an appli- element down into a simple circuit resonant frequency of CI.
cant for an Amateur Radio license might consisting of single elements alone. Then,
be tested on material in this area. the actual circuit may be analyzed by RF Leakage
means of the basic laws discussed in the Although the capacitor combination
"Pure" vs. "Unpure" Components previous chapter. It may be also possible shown in Fig. 2 provides a low-impedance
In the chapter on electrical laws and to make a selection such that the effects of path to may not be very
ground,
it
circuits, it is assumed that the components the residual element are negligible. effective preventing rf energy from
in
in an of
electrical circuit consist solely However, there are other parasitic reaching point 2 that travels along the
elements can be reduced to a
that elements that may not only be difficult to conductor from point 1. At dc and
resistance, capacitance or inductance. remove but will affect circuit operation low-frequency applications, a circuit must
However, such elements do not exist in adversely as well. In fact, such con- always form a closed path in order for a
nature. An inductor always has some siderations often set a limit on how current to flow. Consequently, two con-
resistance associated with its windings and stringent a design criterion can be tolerated. ductors are required if power is to be
a carbon-composition resistor becomes a For instance, it is a common practice to delivered from a source to a load. In many
complicated circuit as the frequency of connect small-value capacitors in various instances, one of the conductors may be
operation is increased. Even conductor parts of a complex circuit, such as a common to several other circuits and
resistance must be taken into account if transmitter or receiver, for bypassing constitutes a local ground.
long runs of cable are required. purposes. A bypass capacitor permits However, as the frequency of operation
In many instances, the effects of these energy below some specified frequency to is increased, a second type of coupling
"parasitic" components can be neglected pass a given point while providing mechanism is possible. Power may be
and the actual device can be approxi- rejection to energy at higher frequencies. transmitted along a single conductor.
In essence, the capacitor is used in a crude (Although the same effect is possible at
form of filter. In more complicated filter low frequencies, unless circuit dimensions
designs, capacitors may be required for are extremely large, such transmission
.
3-1 Chapter 3
Fig. 2 — A bypassing arrangement thai affords some measure of isolation (with the equivalent circuit
the
shown the inset). Dashed lines indicate a mode of wave travel that permits rf energy to leak past
in
bypass circuitry and should be taken into account when more stringent suppression requirements are
necessary. (L s and R s in the inset represent ttie equivalent circuit of the ferrite bead.)
voltages that appear on dc power supply This is because good insulators of insulator, there a local motion of the
is
lines and a transmitter output with a note electricity are usually good insulators of electrons in the individual atoms that
source of emission is in close proximity to that further impedes heat conduction. Consequently, some care is required in
very sensitive receiving circuits. A similar The problem is less severe with capacitors the application of capacitors in moderate
using air as a dielectric for two reasons. to high-power circuits. The applied vol-
case exists with transmitters operating on
a frequency that is a submultiple of a The first advantage of air over other tage should be such that rf-current ratings
fringe-area TV station. In the latter two dielectrics is that the loss in the presence are not exceeded for the particular
instances, the problem is not so severe if of an alternating electric field is extremely frequency of operation. This is illustrated
the desired signal is strong enough to small. Secondly, any heat generated by in Fig. 4. A parallel-resonant circuit
"override" the unwanted energy. Un- currents on the surface of the conduc- consisting of LP , CP and Rl is connected to
ting plates is either conducted away by a voltage source, Vs through a coupling
fortunately, this is not the case normally ,
air currents or through the mass of the capacitor, Cc. It is also assumed the Rl is
and stringent measures are required to
isolate the sensitive circuits from the metal. much greater than either the inductive or
The dielectric loss in a capacitor can be capacitive reactance taken alone. This
strong source.
with the wire material and this component sively is that analysis is relatively simple moderate-power applications.
is represented by Rs (Fig. IB). In addition, compared to other forms
of coupling
there is always a capacitance associated although exact synthesis
is somewhat
with conductors in proximity as il- complicated. That is, finding a network
lustrated in Fig. 5. While such capacitance with some desired frequency response
is distributed throughout the coil, it is a would be quite difficult in the general
convenient approximation to consider an case.
this loss is more or less independent of the receiving, such filters are often the main
current through the coil but dependent upon source of selectivity. Standard a-m and fm
the applied voltage, it is represented by a broadcast receivers would be examples
parallel resistance. where intermediate-frequency (i-f) trans-
formers derive their band-pass charac-
RF
—— Q
Transformers teristics from mutually coupled inductors.
Although the xterm transformer might A third advantage of mutually coupled o 1
be applied to any network that "trans- networks is that practical circuits with
'DeMaw and Dorbuck, "Transmitting Variables," great flexibility particularly in regard to
QST February 1975. matching capabilities are possible. For Fig. 6 — Basic magnetically coupled circuit.
3-3 Chapter 3
.
desired and the transformed resistance response although greater bandwidth can
made equal to this difference. As an be obtained by increasing k to ap-
A set of equations for the input resistance proximately 1.5 kc- At higher values, a
and reactance is given by example, suppose an amplifier required a
load resistance of 3000 ohms, and the pronounced dip occurs at the center or
primary-coil resistance was 100 ohms. resonant frequency.
Then, the transformed resistance must be In the undercoupled case, a peak occurs
equal to 2900 ohms. (In either case, the at the resonant frequency of the primary
secondary coil resistance is merely added and secondary circuit but the transformed
to the secondary load resistance and the resistance is too >low and results in a
sum substituted for Rs.) mismatch. As the coupling is decreased
= Xp - still further, very little power is transferred
Coefficient of Coupling to the secondary circuit and most of it is
Although the equations for the input dissipated in the primary-loss and generator-
This permits reducing the two-mesh
of Fig. 6 to the single-mesh circuit impedance can be solved in terms of the source resistances. On the other hand, an
circuit
mutual reactance, the transforming mecha- interesting phenomenon occurs with the
of Fig. 7.
nism involved becomes somewhat clearer overcoupled case. It will be recalled that
Double-Tuned Circuits- if the of coupling is used
coefficient the transformed resistance is too high at
instead. The coefficient of coupling, k, in resonance because the coefficient of
A special case occurs if the value of Xs
terms of the corresponding reactances of coupling is greater than the critical value.
is zero. This could be accomplished easily
inductances is However, a special case occurs if the
by tuning out the inductive reactance of
primary and secondary circuits are iden-
the secondary with an appropriate capaci-
tical which also means the transformed
tor or by varying the frequency until a k
fixed capacitor and the secondary in-
yl X p Xs V L P LS resistance, Ri n must equal Rs.
ductance resonated. these con- Under The behavior of the circuit under these
Then, the input resistance becomes conditions can be analyzed with the aid of
ditions, the input resistance and reactance
Fig. 7. Assuming the Q of both circuits is
would be k2X X
— p s
high enough, the reactance, Xs, increases
Rin
very rapidly on either side of resonance. If
— Vm this variation is much greater than the
2
V
K Y
A,„ — A.
Y
in
,
p The primary and secondary Qs are variation of Xm with frequency, a
R„
defined as frequency exists on each side of resonance
ratio of Xm and Rs + Xs is
2 2 2
where the
Then, in order to make the input 1.0.Consequently, Rin is equal to Rs and
impedance purely resistive, a second series Wp 5
the transformed reactance is -Xs. Since
R„ Rs
capacitor could be used to cancel the the primary and secondary resonators are
reactance of Xp The completed network
. identical, the reactances cancel because of
is shown in Fig. 8 with CI and C2 being the
where a "loaded" Q is assumed. This the minus sign. The frequency plot for a k
primary and secondary series capacitors. would mean Rs included any secondary- of 0.2 (k c is 0.1)is shown in Fig. 9. If the
coil loss. For maximum-power transfer,
If Xm could be varied, it is evident that primary and secondary circuits are not
the secondary resistance could be trans- Rg would be the total primary resistance identical, a double-hump response still
formed to almost any value of input resis- which consists of the generator and coil
tance. Usually, the desired resistance, resistance.
would be made equal to the generator re- The coefficient of coupling under these
sistance, Rg, for maximum power transfer. conditions reduces to a rather simple
It rtiight also be selected to satisfy some
formula
design goal, not necessarily related to maxi-
mum power transfer. This brings up a
k„ =
minor point but one that can cause con-
siderable confusion. Normally, in transmit-
ting circuits, the "unloaded Q" of the re- However, if it is desired to make the input
active components would be very high resistance some particular value (as in the
and the series parasitic resistances (dis- previous example), the
case of the
cussed in a previous section) could be ne- coefficient of coupling is then
glected. However, if it is not desired to do
so, how should these resistances be taken - R.
into account? If maximum power transfer k, = Fig. 7 Equivalent single-mesh network of the
XpQs two-mesh circuit of Fig. 6.
is the goal, the series resistance of the
primary coil would be added to the
generator resistance, Rg, and the trans- If the primary "loss" resistance is zero,
formed secondary resistance would be both formulas are identical.
made equal to this sum. At values of k less than kc, the input
On the other hand, a more common resistance is lower than either the pre-
case requires the total input resistance to scribed value or for conditions of maxi-
be equal to some desired value. For mum power transfer. Higher values of k
instance, an amplifier might provide result in a higher input resistance. For this
pression when terminated in a particular of coupling. If k is less than kc, the circuit
resistance of the primary coil would be quency for the three cases is shown in Fig. magnetic coupling.
Xeq(Cp) xeo(Cs)
o-\i— M
occurs but the points where the trans- where one high-impedance load is
stances, type shown in Fig. 10 are widely used in
formed resistance is equal to the desired matched to another one, Rs in Fig. 10 is radio circuits. Perhaps the most common
value, the reactances are not the same much greater than the reactance of and G example is the i-f transformer found in
numerically. Consequently, there is 'at- CP This simplifies the transformations
. a-m and fm be sets. Many communica-
tenuation at peaks unlike the curve of Fig. and approximate relations are given by tions receivers have similar transformers
9. although the trend has been toward
Rea(S) = somewhat different circuits. Instead of
Other Circuit Forms 'R.
achieving selectivity by means of i-f
While the coupled network shown in transformers (which may require a num-
Fig. 8 is the easiest to analyze, it is not ber of stages), a single filter with
commonly encountered in actual circuits. quartz-crystal resonators is used instead.
As the resistance levels are increased, the As an example, suppose it was desired (The subject of receivers is treated in a
corresponding reactances become very to match a 3000-ohm load to a 5000-ohm later chapter.)
large also. In transmitting circuits, ex- source using a coupled inductor with a
tremely high voltages are then developed 250-ohm (reactance) primary and secon- Single-Tuned Circuits
across the coils and
For capacitors. dary coil. Assume the coupling can be In the case of double-tuned circuits,
high-impedance circuits, the circuit shown varied. Determine the circuit configura- separate capacitors are used to tune out
in Fig. 10 is often used. Although the tion and the critical coefficient of coupling. the inductive components of the primary
frequency response is somewhat different Since the load and source resistance and secondary windings. However, exami-
than the circuit of Fig. 8 (in fact, the have a much higher numerical value than nation of the equivalent circuit of the
out-of-band rejection is greater), a match- the reactance of the inductors, a parallel- coupled coil shown in Fig. 7 suggests an
ing network can be designed based upon tuned configuration must be used. In alternative. Instead of a separate capaci-
the previous analysis for the series circuit. order to tune out the inductive reactance, tor, why not "detune" a resonant circuit
This is accomplished by changing the the equivalent series capacitive reactance slightly and "reflect" a reactance of the
parallel primary and secondary circuits to must be -250 ohms. Since both Rs and RP proper sign into the primary in order to
series equivalents. (It should be em- are known, the exact formulas could be tune out the primary inductance. Since
phasized that this transformation is good solved for y and Req. However, because the transformation function (shown in the
at one frequency only.) The equivalent the respective resistances are much greater box in Fig. 7) reverses the sign of the
circuit of the one shown in Fig. 10 is than the reactance, the simplified ap- secondary reactance, it is evident Xs must
illustratedin Fig. 11 where the new proximate formulas can be used. This be inductive in order to tune out the pri-
resistanceand reactance of the secondary means the primary and secondary equiva- mary inductance.
are given by lent capacitive reactances are —250 ohms. This might seem to be a strange result
The equivalent secondary resistance is but it can be explained with the following
(250)V3000 or 20.83 ohms, resulting in a reasoning. From a mathematical point of
Rea(S)
1 + y2 secondary Q of 250/20.83 or 12. (A view, the choice of the algebraic sign of
formula could be derived directly for the the transformed reactance is perfectly
X (C V — -R s
y
'
Q from the approximate equations.) The arbitrary. That is, a set of solutions to the
equivalent primary resistance and Q are equations governing the coupled circuit is
12.5 ohms and 20, respectively. Sub- possible assuming either a positive or .
y = R /x s c stituting the values for Q into the formula negative sign for the transformed reac-
for the critical c oefficient of coupling tance. However, if the positive sign is
A similar set of transformations exists for gives 1/V(20)(12) or 0.065. chosen, the transformed resistance would
the primary circuit also. In most in- Double-tuned coupled circuits of the be negative. But from a physical point of
3-5 Chapter 3
Fig. 12 —
A boil coupled magnetically to a
"shorted" turn provides insight to coils near solid
shield walls.
Fig.17 —"Reflected" reactance into the primary of a single-tuned circuit places restraints on
resistances that can be matched. This gives rise to a general rule that high-O secondary circuits
require a lower coefficient of coupling than low-Q ones.
Fig. 1 3 — "Link" coupling can be used to analyze view, this is a violation of the con- resonators can be coupled in this manner
a number of important circuits.
servation of energy since, it would imply although there may be considerable
the secondary resistance acts as a source separation (and no mutual coupling
of energy rather than an energy "sink." between" the larger coils) hence the term
Consequently, the solution with the nega- "link" coupling. While this particular
tive resistance does not result in a physi- method is seldom used nowadays, the
cally realizable network. term is still applied to the basic con-
The foregoing phenomenon has im- figuration shown in Fig. 13. Applications
plications for circuits one might not would be antenna-matching networks,
normally expect to be related to coupled output stages for amplifiers and, es-
networks. For instance, consider coil 1 pecially important, many circuits used at
(Fig. 12) in proximity to the one-turn
;
square of the flux, the induced field must frequency of the resonator may be varied
oppose the primary field, otherwise the by adjusting the tuning screw which'
principle of the conservation of energy changes the value of the capacitor. Energy
would be violated as it was with the is coupled into and out of the resonator by
Fig. 14 —
A vhf/uhf circuit which can be "negative" resistance. Consequently, the means of two small, one-turn loops.
approximated by a link-coupled network using
induced current must always be in a Current in the input loop causes a
"conventional" components.
direction such that the induced field magnetic field (shown by dashed lines). If
opposes changes in the generating field. the frequency of the generating field is
This result is often referred to as Lenz's near one of the resonant "modes" of the
Law. configuration, an electric field will also be
If, instead of a one-turn loop, a solid generated (shown by solid lines). Finally,
shield wall was substituted, a similar energy may then be coupled out of the
phenomenon would occur. Since the total resonator by means of a second loop.
flux (for a given current) would be less A low-frequency equivalent circuit of
with the shield present than it would be in the resonator is shown in Fig. 15.
the absence of the shield, the equivalent However, the circuit can only be used to
coil inductance is decreased. That is why it give an approximate idea of the actual
is important to use a shield around a coil frequency response of the cavity. At
Fig. 1 5 — Equivalent low-frequency analog of the frequencies not close to the resonant
circuit shown in Fig. 14. that is big enough to reduce the effect of
such coupling. Also, a shield made from a frequency, the mathematical laws gover-
metal with a high conductivity such as ning resonant circuits are different from
copper or aluminum is advisable, other- those of "discrete" components used at
wise a loss resistance will be coupled into hf. Over a limited frequency range, the
the coil as well. resonator can be approximated by the
series LC circuit shown in Fig. 15.
Link Coupling Applying the formulas for coupled
An example of a very important class of networks shown in Fig. 7 to the two-link
single-tuned circuits is shown in Fig. 13. output link and load
circuit of Fig. 15, the
The primary inductor consists of a small can be transformed to ah equivalent series
Fig. 1 6 — The network of Fig. 1 5 can be reduced coil either in close proximity or wound resistance and reactance as shown in Fig.
with the transformation shown in Fig. 7. oyer one end of a larger coil. Two 16. In most instances, the reactance, Xs in ,
3-7 Chapter 3
a 1-ohm resistance (shown as a dashed circuit of Fig. 24A is
resistance and reactance is shown in Fig.
the same as that of the original source on has been disconnected in either case. In
the primary side, neglecting the effects of order to fulfill this requirement, the
original source voltage must be multiplied and the network shown in Fig. 24B in
reactance. That is, the power delivered to
by the square root of the ratio of the new terms of the coefficient of coupling is
and old source resistance. illustrated in Fig. 24C. For k equal to 1.0,
The single-mesh transformed network the input reactance is zero and the input
is shown in Fig. 23C and it is interesting to resistance is given by
compare the response of an RLC series
^'""'XlN
RlN y— /
XE / / //"
//
//
//
' /
>R2 ' I
k-0.99 / '
/ k-1.0
(B)
X1(1-k')
/XlN
(C)
reactance and Xl is referred to as the 28. Since only three lines link coil 2, the especially true at af and power frequencies
leakage reactance. mutual inductance is 3 X 4/28 or 43 per- with transformers using iron cores where
Unfortunately, the two reactances are cent of maximum. the permeability is extremely high. This
not independent of each other. That is, Assuming both coils are "perfect," if a means the magnetizing reactance can be
attempts to change one reactance so that current Ii produced 7 flux lines in a made very high without increasing the
its effect is suppressed causes difficulties five-turn coil, then the same current in a leakage reactance accordingly as is the
in eliminating the effects of the other four-turn coil would produce (4/5X7) flux case with the circuit in Fig. 24C.
reactance. For instance, increasing Xi, lines, since the flux
proportional to the
is Therefore, ideal transformer conditions
Xm, and X2 will increase Xmag which is magnetizing current times the number of are considered to exist in the core and the
desirable. However, examination of Fig. turns. Consequently, the maximum flux final circuit can be approximated by the
24C reveals that the coefficient of coup- linkages in coil 1 from a current of the one shown in Fig. 29C.
ling, k, will have to be made closer to 1.0. same value as Ii but in coil 2 instead
Otherwise, the leakage reactance increases would be (4/5)(7)(5) or 28. Therefore, it
Bifllar and Twisted-Pub- Windings
since it is proportional to Xi can be seen that the mutual inductance is Although the core helps alleviate some
independent of the choice of coil used for of the problems with leakage arid mag-
High-Permeability Cores
the primary Or secondary. That is, a
As a consequence of the interaction voltage produced in one coil by a current
between the leakage reactance and the in the other one would be the same if the
magnetizing reactance, transformers that coils were merely interchanged. (This
"IDEAL"
approach ideal conditions are extremely
difficult (if not impossible) to build using
result has been used implicitly on a num-
ber of previous occasions without proof.)
<^_nnm 10
TRANSFORMER
:t
component as shown in Fig. 25. permeability much higher than that of air.
One approach is to use a core with a An example is illustrated in Fig. 28 and
higher permeability Familiar than air. the configuration shown is called a
examples would be power transformers toroidal transformer. Since the flux is
and similar types common to the af range. proportional to the product of the
However, when an inductor configuration permeability and the magnetizing current,
contains materials of more than one the flux in the core shown in Fig. 28 will
permeability, the analysis relating to Fig; be much greater than the coil con-
24C has to be modified somewhat. The figuration of Fig. 27. However, not all of
manner in which the core affects the the flux is confined to the core. As can be
circuit is a bitcomplicated although even seen in Fig. 28, some of the flux lines
a qualitative idea of how such trans- never penetrate the core (see lines marked
formers work is very useful. a in Fig. 28) while others enclose all the
First, consider the coupled coils shown windings of coil 1 but not
2 (see line coil
in Fig. 27. For a given current, Ii, a num- marked b). The significance of these
ber of "flux lines" are generated that link effects is as follows. The total flux linkage
both coil 1 and coil 2. Note that in coil 1, produced by the current, Ii is ,
L. = TOTAL .
VSWR outside of these values. (The winding (flux line A) in Fig. 3 1 which also
VSWR curve is for a characteristic- tends to reduce the leakage inductance of
impedance equal to 10 times the secon- either coil.
On the other hand, the capacitance
dary resistance. For instance, the transfor-
between windings increased considerably
mer would be useful in matching a 5-ohm is
frequencies since the permeabilities nor- speaking, analysis of the problem is quite
mally encountered in iron-core trans- complicated. However, a phenomenon
XUAIR) X1C(1-K 2 c) X2»RS formers are so high, the actual inductance usually associated with such coupling is
it tends to be directional. That is,
of the winding itself is small in com- that
parison to the component represented by energy transferred from one winding to
the core. That is, a small number of turns another one propagates in a preferred
of wire wound <on a core may actually be direction rather than splitting equally. .
3-11 Chapter 3
phase, currents Ii and k must be identical
'
before, it is assumed that the coefficient of usually too short to provide much be frequencies to uhf in the more esoteric
coupling or isolation. Therefore, the designs. Models that cover all the amateur
coupling in the core is 1.0. 3
The equivalent circuit showing the effect the mutual-reactance components add to often results in inferior performance. For
the self inductance of each coil. Con- instance, as indicated in an earlier
of the core on the air-wound coupler is
illustrated in Fig. 36.(The symbol in the sequently, a large reactance appears in example (Fig. 30), actual impedance levels
middle of the parallel lines is the standard series between the two sources which were important along with the desired
one for a directional coupler.) At the effectively isolates them. On the other transforming ratio. Using a transformer
higher frequencies, most core materials hand, currents from both sources that for an impedance level that it was not
decrease in permeability so the operation flow through the load resistor R/2 intended for resulted in undesirable
approaches that of the original air-wound produce fluxes that cancel and the reactive components and improper trans-
coupler and the inductance produced by voltages produced by the self- and forming ratio. However, when applied
the core can be neglected. At the low end mutual-reactance terms subtract. If both properly, the transformers discussed in
of the frequency range, the line lengths are sources have the same amplitude and the previous sections can provide band-
width characteristics that are obtainable
in no other way.
Another transformer type is shown in
I((Xl-XM)-0 v . v ,
M2(XL+XM>
I
+r
•HHHO
+ " —1+ such that the voltages across the inductors
caused by the desired current are zero.
>R This is because the induced voltages
1v2 produced by the current in the mutual-
Vll
Jr. reactance terms just cancel the voltage
drop caused by the current flowing in the
self reactances of either coil. (Assuming
Vf
that the coefficient of coupling is 1.0.)
However, an impedance connected to
ground point c would be in series with
at
Fig. 37 — Low-frequency equivalent circuit of
the reactance (Xl) of the coil
self
hybrid combiner showing isolation of sources.
connected between points a and c. But
X (B)
there would be no induced voltage to
counter the voltage drop across this coil.
Therefore, if Xl is large, very little current
would flow in the impedance Z and it
would effectively be isolated from the
HXL-I2XM I2XL-MXM source.
In terminal c could be grounded as
fact,
shown Fig. 39B. The voltage drop
in
>R/2
^2 across the coil from a. to c would then be
V1 I | 1 V2 equal to Vi However, the induced voltage
.
Fig. 38 — Desired coupling mode of hybrid Fig. 39 — Other applications of transmission-line ceedings of the I.R.E., Vol. 97, pp. 1337-1342;
ponents can be represented solely by part of a more general class of circuits and vacuum-tube devices such as triodes,
combinations of resistors, capacitors and called active networks. An
active network diodes, transistors and integrated circuits
inductors. As a consequence, the power generally possesses characteristics that are (ICs) are examples where the concept
all
output at one set of terminals in a passive different than those of simple RLC of a bilateral element breaks down. (For
network cannot exceed the total power circuits although the goal in many readers with limited backgrounds in the
input from sources connected to other instances is to attempt to represent them basic operation of vacuum tubes, recom-
terminals in the circuit. This assumes all in terms of passive elements and genera- mended study would be The Radio
the sources are at one frequency. Similar tors. Amateur's License Manual and Under-
considerations hold true for any network, standing Amateur Radio. Both publica-
however, it is possible for energy to be Nonlinearity
tions containfundamental treatments of
converted from one frequency (including Two other important attributes of vacuum-tube principles and are available
dc) to other ones. While the total power passive RLC elements are that they are from The American Radio Relay League.)
input must still equal the total power linear and bilateral. A two-terminal The manner in which the device is
3-13 Chapter 3
connected in a circuit andthe polarity of O
the voltages involved are very important.
E2 SIN 3u)t
An implication of the failure to satisfy
the bilateral requirements is that such
devices are nonlinear in the strictest sense.
El S INult
Linearity means that the amplitude of a
voltage or current is related to other
voltages and currents in a circuit by a
single proportionality constant. For in- (f)
those generated by the sources them- waveform of Fig. 40 has more than one
selves. However, this is not true with frequency component present since it is
nonlinear elements. One of the properties no longer a sine-wave.
of nonlinear networks mentioned earlier is One possible "model" for the new
that energy at one frequency (including waveform is shown in Fig. 41A. Instead of
dc) may become converted to other one sine-wave at a single frequency, there
frequencies. In effect, this is how devices are two generators in series with one
such as transistors and vacuum tubes are generator at three times the "fundamen-
able to amplify radio signals. Energy from tal" frequency <uwhere wis 2r f(Hz). If the
the dc power supply is converted to energy
two waves are plotted point by point,
sine
Rl-10 k<EO
at the desired signal frequency. Therefore, the dashed curve of Fig. 41B results. While
a greater amount of signal power is this curve doesn't resemble the one of Fig.
available at the output of the network of 40 very closely, the general symmetry is
(C)
jui active device than at the input. the same. It would take an infinite number
On the other hand, such frequency of generators to represent the desired
generation may be undesirable. For curve exactly, but it is evident all the Fig. 42 — Basic triode amplifier and equivalent
instance, the output of a transmitter may frequencies must be odd multiples of the circuit.
fundamental. Even multiples would pro- note that the amplification factor is
duce a lopsided curve which might be negative. This means that for an increase
useful for representing other types of in the signal voltage (ein), the controlled
waveforms. generator decreases in voltage. Con-
In either case, the multiples have a sequently, thereis a 180 degree phase shift
specific name and are called harmonics. between the input voltage and the
There is no "first" harmonic (by defini- controlled source. (Note the polarity of
tion) with the second, third and fourth the generator shown in Fig. 42B.)
multiples designated as the second, third In order to complete the equivalent
and fourth harmonics. Thus the dashed generator circuit, the source "impedance"
curve of Fig. 41 is the sum of the must be computed. This is accomplished
fundamental and third harmonic. by determining how the plate voltage var-
230 280. 325
Analyzing waveforms such as those of Eb{ VOLTS) ies with plate current at constant grid vol-
Fig. 40 is a very important subject. A plot tage as shown in Fig. 43B. The plate resist-
(A)
of harmonic amplitude such as that shown ance is then
in Fig. 41C is called the spectrum of the 30-
waveform and can be displayed on an 325-240
25-
= „.„
instrument called a spectrum analyzer. If f = .
8500ohmS
|20-
p (15-5)xlO- 3
the mathematical equation or other data
for the curve is known, the harmonics can = 15-
also be determined by means of a process which must be considered to be in series
10-
called Fourier Analysis. with the controlled source of Fig. 42B.
5-
It should be pointed out at this juncture
100 200 J 300T 400 procedure is valid has not been presented.
of Nonlinear Devices 240 325
That is, why was the amplification factor
Nonlinear circuits may have to be EB(VOLTS) .
eQ = i
P 10 45— Feedback example of an amplifier with
rearranging terms gives Fig.
cathode bias.
and combining the two foregoing equa- - Mo) = A e in
e„ (1
tions gives
A = =
10 + 8.5 A R,-
A, = __f°_
~~ fi= 5l = jp ^. - 1
1 - Mo e in e° Rl Rl
It is somewhat inconvenient to have the
'
p
e = '
p Rl Oscillators
4H>
TUNING
SCREW
/
PLATE
VOLTAGE
C L
7-
RE-ENTRANT
-CAVITY
RESONER
Fig. 46 — Tuned-plate tuned-grid oscillator.
HARTLEY CIRCUIT
(A)
3-17 Chapter 3
(A)
-i-;
Fig. 51— Microstripline 2-GHz oscillator circuit
equiv.
Fig.50 — 1 .68-GHz oscillator using the RCA C3, C4 — 00 pF, Allen-Bradley type 5A5C or
1
2N5108. equiv. . '
C9
In practice, a Gunn-diode package (see
L Fig. 52) is mounted in a resonant cavity.
\JUUU~*X Dc bias is applied through a quarter-wave- CERAMIC
length choke. At millimeter wavelengths
.
|
STAND-OFF
this choke is very short and may be part of
(C)
OUTPUT the cavity wall. A
small-value bypass
capacitor may also form part of the cavity
wall. A
drawing of a typical Gunn-diode
Fig. 49 — Colpitis oscillator for use at microwave
oscillator is given in Fig. 53. While
frequencies: (A) basic ac circuit configuration;
application of Gunn diodes is mechani-
(B) basic ac circuit with the collector returned to
ground through a parasitic inductance, L, and the callyand electrically simple, the devices
output taken from base through capacitive do have several shortcomings the user
voltage divider; (C) basic ac circuit with should be aware of. Gunn-diode efficiency
transformer-coupled output.
is on the order of two -to five percent,
Gunn oscillator will drift on the order of injection locking. Here, a sample refer-
supply.
350 kHz for a temperature change of 1°C. ence signal is injected into the oscillator
An S-band solid-state oscillator is
Gunn
may be cavity. If it is within the range of the
shown in Fig. 5 1 It operates at 2.0 GHz in
.
The entire cavity enclosed in a
thermal oven similar to those used with oscillator, the circuit will lock to this
the common-base oscillator mode. The
piezoelectric crystals, or the ambient reference. Locking may be maintained
RCA 2N5470 delivers approximately over a large range of bias and temperature
300 mW
of output when a collector supply temperature of the cavity may be raised
with a heating element. These cures only changes.
of +24 volts is used. Line section L4 and available to
degrade system efficiency by wasting Gunn-diode oscillators
CI form a phase-resonant loop to provide
additional power. Automatic-frequency- amateurs can provide power outputs up to
the required feedback.
control techniques may be used to 100 mW. At present, they are used mostly
Gunn-Dlode Microwave Oscillators stabilize the oscillator, with some increase on the 10- and 24-GHz bands. Devices are
in circuit complexity. Alternatively, the available to operate on the 5.6-GHz band
In the area of low-power microwave
generation, klystrons have been replaced Gunn oscillator may be locked to a stable as well.
In addition to
bias — To influence current to flow in a
microwave oscillation, a additional current capacity is needed an specified direction by means of dc vol-
Gunn diode produces significant output external pass transistor may be added. tage;forward bias on a transistor stage,
at lower frequencies. This oscillation will
or grid bias on a tube type of amplifier. •
digits operated upon as a unit — usual- ratio. Also, thenumber of decibels de-
-
pulse or signal).
encoder — A
device for enabling a
ly shorter than a word.
noting the ratio of two amounts of
express a character or mes-
cascade —
One device or circuit which voltage being 20 times the logarithm to circuit; to
sage by means of a code while using an
directly follows another; two or more the base 10 of this ratio.
similar devices or circuits in which the decoder —Adevice used for decoding an encoder. Using a tone or tones to acti-
encoded message. One such circuit vate a repeater, as one example, in
.output of one is fed to the input of the
would be a decoder used for decoding which case a Touch-Tone pad could be
succeeding one (tandem).
cascode —
Cascaded stages which are the output signal of a Touch-Tone pad. the encoder.
—
differential amplifier — An amplifier that excitation Signal energy used to drive
cathode-coupled.
chip —Slang term for an integrated has an output signal which is propor- a transmitter stage (see drive). Voltage
applied to a component to actuate it,
circuit, meaning a chip of semiconduc- tional to the algebraic difference be-
tween two input signals (sometimes such as the field coil of a relay.
upon which an IC is
tor
formed.
material
called a "difference amplifier"). Faraday rotation —
Rotation of the plane
clamp —
A circuit which maintains a digital —
Relating to data which is of polarization of an electromagnetic
magne-
wave when traveling through a
predetermined characteristic of a wave rendered in the form of digits; digital
tic field. In ^pace communications this
at each occurence so that the voltage or readout or display (see analog).
current is "clamped" or held at a speci- diplexer —
The simultaneous transmis- effect occurs when signals transverse
path, and a summing point which pro- transistor as opposed to an IC) (see feedthrough —
Energy passing through a
circuit or component, but not usually
vides a closed circuit. In broad terms, composite),
an amplifying circuit which is providing dish —An antenna reflector for use at desired. A type of capacitor which
voltage or power gain while being ter- vhf and higher which has a concave can be mounted on a chassis or panel
minated correctly at the input and out- shape. For example, a part of a sphere wall to permit feeding through a
or paraboloid. dc voltage while bypassing it to ground
put ports, inclusive of feedback.
cold end —
The circuit end of a com- Doppler — The phenomenon evidenced at ac or rf. Sometimes called a "coaxial
ponent which is connected to ground or by the change in the observed frequen- capacitor."
terial, serving as part of a path for dBm between the overload level and oscillator (test instrument). Correct for
magnetic flux. minimum discernible signal level (MDS) only a tube-type of dip meter.
damping — A
progressive reduction in in a system, such as a receiver. Parame- ground loop — A circuit-element con-
the amplitude of a wave with respect to ters include desensitization point and dition (pc-board conductor, metal chas-
time (usually referenced to microseconds distortion products as referenced to the sisor metal cabinet wall) which permits
or milliseconds); a device or network receiver noise floor. the unwanted flow of ac current from
added to a circuit to "damp" unwanted EMfc — Earth-moon-earth. Communi- one circuit point to another.
oscillations. cations carried on by bouncing signals half-power point —
The two points on a
decay time — The period of time during off the lunar surface. Commonly refer- response curve which are 3 dB lower in
which the stored energy or information red to as moonbounce. level than the peak power. Sometimes
number of decibels denotes the ratio of experience or intuition. current density vector, which instead of
low level — Low-power stage or stages of permeability A term used express W 1 +.P
relationships between magnetic induc- 1 - P
a circuit as referenced to the higher- tion and magnetic force.
power stages (see high level).
— pill —
Slang expression for a transistor where P is the reflection coefficient.
low pass A circuit
property which or an IC. strip —General term for two or more
permits the passage of frequencies be-
low a specified frequency, but atte-
PL —
Private line, such as a repeater stages of a. circuit which in combina-
which is accessed by means of a speci- tion perform a particular function.
nuates or blocks those frequencies
fied tone. Examples: A local-oscillator strip, an
above that frequency (see high pass).
low-Z — Low impedance (see high-Z). PLL — Phase-Jocked loop type of oscil- audio strip or an i-f strip. •
Solid-State Fundamentals
"The electrical characteristics of solid- quite important when an electron is either between the two circuits and the current
state devices such as diodes and transis- raised or falls between two different then consists of components at two slight-
tors are dependent upon phenomena that energy "states." For instance, when an ly different frequencies. The effect is simi-
take place at the atomic level. While semi- electron drops from one level to a lower lar to the splitting of electron energy levels
conductors can be employed without a» one, energy is emitted in the form of when two atoms are close enough to in-
complete knowledge of these effects, some electromagnetic radiation. This is the teract.
understanding is helpful in various appli- effect that gives the characteristic glow to
.
cations. Electrons, which are the principal neon tubes, mercury-vapor rectifiers, arid Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
charge carriers in both vacuum tubes and even light-emitting diodes. The frequency Solids are examples of large numbers of
semiconductors, behave much differently of the emitted radiation is given by the atoms in close proximity. As might be
in either of the two circumstances. In foregoing formula where E is the dif- expected, the splitting of energy levels
free space, an electron can be considered ference in energy. However, if an elec- continues until a band structure is
as a small charged solid particle. On the tron receives enough energy such that reached. Depending upon the type of
other hand, the presence of matter affects it is torn from an atom, a process called
atom, and the physical arrangement of the
this picture greatly. For instance, an elec- ionization is said to occur (although the component atoms in the solid, three basic
tron attached to an atom has many prop- term is also loosely applied to transitions conditions can exist. In Fig. 3A, the two
similar to those of rf energy in
erties between any two levels). If the energy is discrete energy levels have split into two
tuned circuits. It has a frequency and divided by the charge of the electron (-1.6 bands. All the states in the lower band are
wavelength that depend upon atomic X 10" coulombs), the equivalent in "occupied" by electrons while the ones in
parameters just as the frequency associat- voltage is obtained. the higher energy band are only partially
ed with electrical energy in a tuned circuit A common way of illustrating these filled.
depends upon the values of inductance energy transitions by means of the
is In order to impart motion to an
and capacitance. energy-level diagram shown in Fig. 1A. It electron, the expenditure of energy is
A relation between the energy of an should be noted that unlike ordinary required. This means an electron must
electron an atomic "orbit" and
in its graphical data, there is no significance to then be raised from one energy state to a
associated frequency is given by the horizontal axis. In the case of a single higher one. Since there are many permit-
atom, the permitted energy can only exist ted states in upper level of Fig. 3 A that are
at discrete levels (this would be charac- both unoccupied and
f(Hz) " 6.625 x10-" teristic of a gas at low pressure where the
close
together,
electrons in this level are relatively free to
atoms are far apart). However, if a single move about. Consequently, the material is
atom is brought within close proximity of a conductor. In Fig. 3B, all the states in
where the constant in the denominator is another one of similar type, the single the lower level are occupied, there is a big
called Planck's constant. This equation is energy levels split into pairs of two that gap between this level and the next higher
are very close together (Fig. IB). The ana- ,one, and the upper level is empty. This
logy between tuned circuits and electron* means if motion is to be imparted to an
energy levels can be carried even further electron, it must be raised from the lower
in this case. level to the upper one. Since this requires
Consider the two identical circuits that considerable energy, the material is an
are coupled magnetically as shown in Fig. insulator. (The energy-level represen-
2A. Normally, energy initially stored in tation gives an insight into the phenomena
CI would oscillate back and forth between of breakdown. If the force on an electron
LI and CI at a single frequency after the in an insulator becomes high enough
(A) „ (B) switch was closed. However, the presence because of an applied field, it can acquire
of the second circuit consisting of L2 and enough energy to be raised to the upper
Fig. 1 — Energy-level diagram of a single atom Is
C2 (assume LI equals L2 and CI equals C2) level. When this happens, the material
shown at A. At B, the levels split when two atoms are results in the waveform shown in Fig. 2B. goes into a conducting state.)
in close proximity. Energy also oscillates back and forth A third condition is shown in Fig. 4. In
4-1 Chapter 4
— y.
ENERGY
*
UJ
,<A) <B)
(A)
-DONOR LEVEL
excess of mobile electrons is called an
the material associated with this diagram,
the upper level is unoccupied but is very n-type semiconductor.
close to the occupied one. Hence, under By introducing an element with an
conditions where the random electron empty or unoccupied energy level near the
motion is low (low temperature), the lower partially filled level (such as boron),
material acts- as an insulator (Fig. 4A). a somewhat different transformation in
However, as the random or thermal conductivity occurs. This is shown in Fig.
motion increases, some electrons acquire 5B. Electrons from the lower level can
enough energy to move up to states in the move into the new unoccupied level if the
upper Consequently, both levels are
level. thermal energy is sufficient. This means
partially occupied as shown in Fig. 4B. there is an excess of unoccupied states in
(A)
The line marked Wf represents a statisti- the germanium lower energy level. Ger-
cal entity related to the "average" energy manium treated this way is called a p-type
of electrons in the material and is called semiconductor.
the Fermi Level. At absolute zero (no A physical picture of both effects is
thermal motion), Wf is just at the top of shown in Fig. 6. The trace elements or
the lower energy level. As electrons attain impurities are spread throughout the
crystal. Since the distance of
enough energy to move to the upper level, intrinsic
ACCEPTOR
Wf is approximately halfway between the separation is much greater for atoms of LEVEL
and examples are the elements germanium In Fig. 6A, atoms of the trace element are
and silicon. As such, the materials do not represented by the + signs since they have
have any rectifying properties by them- lostan electron to the higher energy level.
selves. However, if certain elements are
Consequently, such elements are called (B)
mixed into the intrinsic semiconductor in donors. In Fig. 6B, the impurity atoms
trace amounts, a mechanism for rec- that have "trapped" an electron in the
new state are indicated by the - signs.
Fig. 5—
The effects on the energy level if impurity
This is shown in Fig. 5A.
tification exists. atoms are introduced.
Atoms of this type are called acceptor
If an element with an occupied energy
level such as arsenic is introduced into impurities.
extra charge carriers available when ther- electrons that is actually taking place and (B)
(A)
the factdr that responsible for any
mal energy is sufficient to raise some of is
(B)
where does the energy that is transferred
W=eV=(-i.6xlO-"),V (irreversibly) to this resistance come from?
In effect, it represents a perpetual-motion
Fig. 7—
Elementary illustration of current flow in a Because the electron has been assigned a
semiconductor diode. dilemma or else the semiconductor will
minus charge, a somewhat upside-down cool down since the diffusion process is
world results. However, if it is kept in the result of a form of thermal motion.
mind that it requires the expenditure oi Both conclusions are against the laws of
3V_ energy to move an electron from a point physics, so a third alternative is necessary.
i
of higher potential to one at a lower value, then assumed that the Fermi Levels
v
It is
this confusion can be avoided. As an align so that the potential across the
~ illustration, suppose an electron is moved terminals becomes zero, and no current
/ 5 from an atomic orbit indicated by I in Fig. will flow in the external circuit.
8 to orbit II. This would mean the electron However, if the Fermi Levels are the
A, \ \ „ i
would have had been moved against the
to same, the conduction and valence bands
\ \
%— V\ -
* y
i
n
force of attraction caused by the positive
nucleus resulting in an increase in
potential energy. (In other words, orbit II
in either section will no longer align. As a
consequence, a difference in potential
between the two levels exists and is
\/ \/ is at a higher energy level than orbit I.) indicated by Vb in Fig. 10. The formation
/ \ /\ However, note that the electrostatic of this junction or barrier voltage, is of
potential around the nucleus decreases prime importance in the operation of
with distance and that orbit II is at a lower pn-junction devices. Note that holes in the
potential than orbit I.
p region must overcome the barrier
Fig. 8— Potential diagram of an electron in atomic Consequently, the energy-level diagram voltage which impedes the flow of the
orbit. in terms of voltage becomes inverted as diffusion current. It will also be recalled
shown in Fig. 9. It is now possible to that both holes and electrons were
approach the problem of the pn junction generated in the intrinsic semiconductor
diode in terms of the energy-level dia- because of therma} effects (Fig. 4B). The
grams presented previously. If a section addition of either donor or acceptor
of n-type and p-type material is con- atoms modifies this effect somewhat. If
sidered separately, the respective energy donor atoms are present (n-type material),
(or voltage) levels would be the same. fewer holes are generated. On the other
However, if the two sections were joined hand, if acceptor atoms represent the
together and connected by an external impurities, fewer electrons are generated
conductor as shown in Fig. 10, a current in comparison to conditions in an intrinsic
would flow initially. This is because the semiconductor. In the case of p-type
voltage corresponding to the statistical material, holes predominate and are
Fig. 9— Energy-level diagram in terms of potential. entity referred to previously (Fermi Level) termed the majority carriers. Since there
4-3 Chapter 4
are fewer electrons in p-type material,
they are termed the minority carriers.
Referring to Fig. 10A, there are some
holes in the n region (indicated by the +
signs) because of the foregoing thermal
effects. Those neaf the junction will
experience a , force caused by the electric
field associated with the barrier voltage.
This field will produce a flow of holes into
the p region and the current is denoted by
It. Such a current is called a drift current
as compared to the diffusion current Id.
Under equilibrium conditions, the two
currents are equal and just cancel each
other. This is consistent with the assump-
tion that no current flows in the external
circuitbecause of the fact that the Fermi
Levels are the same and no voltage is
produced.
So far, only conditions for the holes in
the upper (or conduction) band have been
considered, but identical effects take place
with the inotion of electrons in the lower
energy band (valence band). Since the
flow of charge carriers is in opposition,
but because holes and electrons have '
1 = 1,
where
q = 1.6 X 10"" coulombs (the
fundamental charge of an electron),
k = 1.38.X 10
-23
joules/Kelvin increased. Consequently, charge carriers as possible in a practical diode since it
must Overcome a large "potential hill" would only degrade rectifier action. Also,
(Boltzmann's constant),
t = junction temperature in Kelvins, and the diffusion current becomes very since it is the result of the generation of
small. However, the drift current caused thermal carriers, it is quite temperature
e = 2.718 (natural logarithmic base)
Vx = applied emf, and I s = reverse- by the thermally generated carriers returns sensitive which is important when the
bias saturation current. to the value it had under equilibrium con- diode is part of a transistor. If the reverse
ditions. For large values of V x the current
,
voltage is increased further, an effect
This equation is discussed in greater detail approaches I s defined as the reverse
, called avalanche breakdown occurs as in-
in the section dealing with common silicon saturation current, I s is the sum of \j and dicated by the sudden increase in current
diodes. its counterpart in the lower or "valence" at V b In such an instance, the diode
.
Fig. 10C, the barrier voltage is It is obvious that I s should be as small this purpose are called Zener diodes.
in
semiconductors than he or she might be in coverage of the chemistry and in-depth primer on basic semiconductor theory.
the theoretical considerations that are theory of solid-state devices can be The book also contains many pages of
covered in the previous section. This obtained by reading some of the texts proven construction projects which use
portion of the chapter provides a practical referenced throughout the chapter. Solid semiconductor devices.
,
Solid State Fundamentals 4-4
i
4-5 Chapter 4
when the forward current is held constant. but it's a simple matter (with the aid of a easilyby using diodes or transistors in
To obtain such an expression wc must pocket calculator) to extract the informa- place of mechanical switches or relays.
solve the diode equation for V. Expanding tion directly from Eq. 9. If the forward The technique is not a complicated one at
the right side of Eq. 1 yields: current is fixed at 1 milliampere, the diode dc and audio frequencies when large
drop at room temperature is 0.5955 volts. amounts- of power are being turned on
11,600V
and off, or transferred from one circuit
This potential decreases at an initial rate
I = I e
1
- I
s
(Eq. 2)
point to another.
f s
of 2 millivolts per Kelvin. The
Adding I to both sides gives: temperature coefficient gradually in- Examples of shunt and series diode
s
creases to 3 millivolts per Kelvin at 340 switching are given in Fig. 14. The
1 1,600V
Kelvins. While the temperature curve isn't illustration at A, shows a 1N914 rf-
JM00V = _if_ millivolts per Kelvin at 340 Kelvins. 14B. In this example the diode, Dl, is
in( + (Eq 5)
inserted in the audio signal path. When SI
.
1}
t Is The significance of the very minor
dependence of temperature coefficient on is in the ON
position the diode current
path is to ground through R2, and the
Multiplying each term by
^ bias current is that it isn't
(Eq
No-a^s) - 7)
(t - 300) Jn2
V <" "
11,600
in + .
1 (Eq. 9) +12VO-
(t - 300) In2
4.5
10" ,3 e
SERIES SWITCHING
(B)
partial derivative of V with respect to t, series switch with D1 in the signal path.
Diodes as Gates
SIG.s
^
Diodes can be placed in series with dc in
0.01
cutoff voltage of approximately 1.4. This
reduces the static current of the transistor
when forward bias is not provided at the
transistor base. If too much static current
flows the relay may not drop out when the
forward bias decays across the timing
Fig. 17 —High-speed switching diodes of the 1N914 variety can be connected back to back and
used as tuning diodes. As the reverse voltage is varied by means of R1, the internal capacitance
network. The more sensitive the relay the of the diodes will, change.
4-7 Chapter 4
VFO
2N44<6
Fig. 18 —D1 serves as a bias stabilization device at A (see text). At B, D1 and D2 are employed as clippers to flatten the positive and negative af
peaks. Clipping will occur at roughly 0.7 volt if silicon diodes are used. Audio filtering is required after the clipper to remove the harmonic currents
caused by the diode action.
greater the chance for such a problem. Dl lowered. In the circuit shown here the The 18B shows how a
circuit of Fig.
and D2 prevent relay dropout problems of capacitance will vary from roughly 5 pF pair diodes can be connected in
of
this variety. D3 is used as a transient to 15 pF as Rl is adjusted. The diodes back-to-back fashion for the purpose of
suppressor. A spike will occur when the used in circuits of kind should have a
this clipping the negative and positive sine-
relay coil field collapses. If the amplitude high Q and high-frequency
excellent wave peaks in an audio amplifier. If
of the spike is great enough, the transient, characteristics. Generally, tuning diodes germanium diodes are used at Dl and D2
while following the do bus in a piece of are less stable than mechanical variable (lN34As or similar) the audio will limit at
equipment, can destroy transistors and capacitors are. This is because the diode roughly 0.3 V. With silicon diodes (1N914
diodes elsewhere in the circuit. In this junction capacitance will change as the or rectifier types) the voltage will not
application the diode (D3) can be ambient temperature varies. This circuit is exceed 0.7 V. Rl serves as the clipping-
regarded as a clamp, since it clamps the not well suited to mobile applications level control. An audio gain control is
.
spike at approximately 0.7 volt. because of the foregoing trait. normally used after the clipper filter,
along with some additional gain stages.
Using Diodes as Capacitors Diode Clippers and Clamps The output of the clipper must be filtered
Later in this chapter there is a The previous mention of diode clamp- to restore the sine-wave if distortion is to
discussion about VVC (voltage-variable ing action (D3 in Fig. 16) suggests that be Diode clippers generate
avoided.
capacitor) diodes. They are known also advantage can be taken of the charac- considerable harmonic currents, thereby
and Varicap diodes. It is voltage of diodes tp clip
teristic barrier requiring an RC or LC type of audio
as tuning diodes
possible, however, to use ordinary silicon or limit the amplitude of a sine-wave. filter.
minimum capacitance, diodes can be used of the FET.,It limits the positive sine-wave which is availablefrom an active multi-
up the maximum avail-
in parallel to step swing at approximately 0.7 V. Not only plier. Fig. 19 contains examples of diode
able capacitance. An example of two does the diode tend to regulate the bias frequency multipliers. The circuit at A is
1N914 silicon diodes m a diode tuning cir- voltage, it limits the transconductance of useful for obtaining odd or even multiples
cuit is given in Fig. 17. As Rl is adjusted the FET during the positive half of the of the driving voltage. The efficiency of
to change the back bias on Dl and D2, cycle. This action restricts changes in this circuit is not high, requiring that an
there will be a variation in the junction transistorjunction capacitance. As a amplifier be used after the diode multi-
capacitance. That change will alter the frequency stability of the oscillator
result, plier in most applications. Resonator
VFO operating frequency. The junction is enhanced and the generation of LI /CI must be tuned to the desired
capacitance increases as the back bias is harmonic currents is greatly minimized. output frequency.
(OO0
seen at A. The circuit at B is that of a
two-diode product detector. Rl and the
BFO INJECTION
two bypass capacitors serve as an rf filter (455 kHz)
to keep signal and BFO energy out of the
following af amplifier stage. A four-diode
T< 03
product detector is illustrated at C. Tl is a LO-Z
l-FO 1 «f -*t-
trifilar-wound broadband transformer. INPUT
The characteristic input impedance of Tl
Rl
is 50 ohms. An rf filter follows this -wv-
detector also. BFO injection voltage for 3 1500
AF
>GAIN TO
the detectors at B and C should be ^o.ot ;£:o.oi>"" Oaf
^ IOK AMP
between 8 and 10 volts pk-pk for best
detector performance. »
r-rt f-f-i
4-9 Chapter 4
—
N+ SILICON WAFER
D1 GOLD-PLATED WHISKER
-*+- GOLD-PLATED
PIG TAIL GLASS
. DSB
'
OUTPUT
62 DEPOSITED
-w- METAL DOT
AF
(A)
Fig. 22 — Cross-sectional representation of a
INPUT
hot-carrier diode (HCD).
03
CARRIER DSB
INPUT O .
-O OUTPUT
(50 OHMS) •L • (SO OHMS)
I
I
REVERSE I
|
I
-HORIZONTAL:'10V/DIV .
i i 02 VERTICAL: SmA/DIV.
04 1 I I I
'
-H- FORWARD 1 1 - 1
J
r-fi m "
H0RIZONTAL:O.2V/0IV.
VE *TIC AL:! •mA/ DIV.
V p<j INT
CON TAC1
(B)
CI
HC 3
4
_/-v
l_F
"V OUTPUT
Fig 23 — Forward and reverse characteristics of a
hot-carrier diode as compared to a p-n junction
diode.
C1
\
—A
toV?"7 05
\\
DIODE
04
\v
y_
NOI E FI0W E
2^ /
6 l-P OUTPUT
DOUBLY BALANCED MIXER LOCAL OSCILLATOR DRIVE LEVEL , m*
(D)
Fig. 21 — The examples at A and B are for use in balanced modulators. The similarity between Fig. 24 — Noise figure and the conversion loss
these and balanced mixers is shown at C and D. of a typical HCD that has no bias applied.
matched silicon switching diodes of the diode, or "HCD." It is a metal-to- diode, mechanically and
the HCD is
Varactor Diodes
Mention was made earlier in this
chapter of diodes being used as voltage-
variable capacitors, wherein the diode
junction capacitance can be changed by
varying the reverse bias applied to the
diode. Manufacturers have designed cer^
tain diodes for this application. They are
called Varicaps (variable capacitor diodes)
or varactor diodes (variable reactance
diodes). These diodes depend upon the
change in capacitance which occurs across
their depletion layers. They are not used as
rectifiers.
Varactors are designed to provide
various capacitance ranges from a few
picofarads to more than 100 pF. Each one
has a specific minimum and maximum .
28
Ifwd NF
LO •
- 3dB
900 MHz
X
Fig. 25 — Curves for hot-carrier diode noise
figure versus local-oscillator drive power. The
bias currents are in mA as measured at point A
in the representative test circuit.
4-11 Chapter 4
7
200
100
Fig. 28 —Representative circuit of a varactor
diode showing case resistance, junction
resistance and junction capacitance.
VII, REVERSE VOLTAGE (VOLTS) are often used to tune two or more circuits
(Bf at the same time (receiver rf amplifier,
mixer and oscillator), using a single
potentiometer to control the capacitance
Fig.27 — Reverse voltage respective to diode capacitance of three Motorola varactor diodes (A). of the diodes. It is worth mentioning that
Reverse voltage versus diode Q for the varactors at A are shown at B. some Zener diodes and selected silicon
VFO
2N4416 32 — Active region thickness versus frequency
3.5MHz
270 ©0.01 Fig.
of a Gunn diode.
39
>R1 I
100k -LI I _L
-rol-
DIODE PACKAGE j \
\
R2
r—A/vV -O +9 V (REG.)
' ' 'TIIMIMR
Fig.33— Equivalent circuit of a Gunn diode. The
parasitic reactances of the diode package are
Sg. 30 — Example of a varactor-tuned VFO. D1 contains two varactors, back to back (see text). included..
power-supply rectifier diodes will work solid-state devices it is possible to generate The composite wafer of Fig. 31 is
effectively as varactors at frequencies as useful power up to 35 GHz. metalized on both sides to permit bonding
high as 144 MHz. If a Zener diode is used Amateurs have been using Gunn diodes into the diode package. This process of
in this manner it must be operated below at 10 GHz, but it is important to realize metalization also ensures a low electrical
its reverse breakdown voltage point. The that these diodes are available for other and thermal resistance. The completed
stud-mount variety of power supply microwave frequencies. An in-depth treat- chip is bonded to a gold-plated copper
diodes (with glass headers) are reported to ment of the technology and chemistry of pedestal, with layer no. 2 next to the heat
be the best candidates as varactors, but Gunn diodes is provided in the Gunn sink.A metal ribbon is connected to the
not all diodes of this type will work •
Diode Handbook by Microwave As- back side of the diode to provide for
effectively: Experimentation is necessary. sociates, Incorporated. electrical contact.
Additional data concerning varactor diodes Fig. shows a cross-sectional re-
31 The curve in Fig. 32 shows the rela-
can be found in the Motorola booklet, presentation of a slice of the material from tionship of the diode active-region thick-
Designer's Manual for VVC Tuning Diodes, which Gunn diodes are made. Layer no. 1 ness to the frequency of operation. The
LIB 2 Rl. is The
the .active region of the device. curve illustrates an approximation be-
thickness of this layer depends on the cause the actual thickness of the active
Gunn Diodes chosen frequency of operation! For the region depends on the applied bias voltage
Gunn diodes are named after the 10-GHz band it is approximately 10 wm and the particular circuit usedrThe input
developer, i. B. Gunn, who was studying (10' 6 meters) thick.
The threshold voltage power to the diode must be 20 to 50 times
carrier behavior at IBM Corp. in 1963. isroughly 3.3 volts. At 16 GHz the layer the desired output power. Thus the
During that period he discovered what is would be formed to a thickness of 8 u m, efficiency from dc to rf is on the order of
known today as the "Gunn effect." and the threshold voltage would be about two to five percent.
Recently, semiconductor devices of the 2.6 volts. The resonant frequency of the diode
"bulk effect" variety have become so Layer no. 2 is grown epitaxially and is assembly must be higher than the opera-
practical that in areaswhere advanced doped to provide low This resistivity. ting frequency to allow for parasitic C
technology is practiced they are com- layer is grown on the active region of the and L components which exist. Fig. 33
monplace. Among these newer devices are semiconductor, but it is not essential to shows the equivalent circuit of a packaged
the TDO (tunnel-diode oscillator), the the primary operation of the diode. It is Gunn diode. Assuming a diode natural
ADO (avalanche-diode oscillator) and the, used to ensure good ohmic contact and to resonant frequency of 17 GHz, the
TEO With
(transferred-electron oscillator). prevent metalization from damaging the following approximate values result: Lp =
some of the present-day techniques and n-layer of the diode. 0.25 nH, Ca = 0.15 pF and Cb = 0.15 pF.
4-13 Chapter 4
I
• Go Al CHIP
VARACTOR- IMPATT-DIODE
TUNED AMPLIFIER
6UNN-0IOOE OSC.
AF INPUT
(A)
KMPATT-DIODE
AMPLIFIER
CONVERTER FILTER
BANDPASS
Fig. 34 —
Illustration of a packaged Gunn
diode as seen in literature from Microwave
Associates. GUNN-DIODE
OSCILLATOR
IOjjA IOOjiA ItiA 10mA 100mA low resistance of the receiver diode from
the antenna connection. During receive
periods both diodes are effectively open
(B)
circuited, allowing signal energy to be ap-
plied to the receiver. At B is the same (B)
Fig. 37 — A1 A is a graph comparing diode basic circuit, although the quarter-wave
resistance to forward-bias current for a PIN line has been replaced with a lumped ele-
diode intended for low-level receiver applica- Fig. 38 — At A a PIN diode is used as an spst
tions. At 8 is a similar graph for a diode
ment section.
switch. At B, two diodes form an spdt
capable of handling over 100 watts of rf. Two of the more common types of at- switching arrangement.
4
tenuators using PIN diodes are shown in
Fig. 40.The type at A is referred to as a
Manufacturers of PIN diodes supply Bridged Tee, while the circuit at B is the low current drain, long life (sometimes 50
data sheets with all necessary design data common pi type. Both are useful as very years, as predicted), and small size. They
and performance specifications. Key broadband devices. It is interesting to are useful as visual indicators in place of
parameters are diode resistance (when for- note that the useful upper frequency of incandescent panel lamps. One of their
ward biased), diode capacitance, carrier these attenuators is often dependent on greatest applications is in digital display
lifetime, harmonic distortion, reverse the bias circuit isolation rather than the units, where arrays of tiny LEDs are
voltage breakdown and reverse leakage. PIN diode characteristics. arranged to provide illuminated segments
PIN diodes are used in many applica- in numeric-display assemblies.
tions, such as rf switches, attenuators and Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) The forward bias current for a typical
various types of phase-shifting devices. The primary component in optoelec- LED ranges between 10 and 20 for mA
Our discussion will be confined to switch tronics is the LED. This diode
contains maximum brilliance. An applied voltage
and attenuator applications since these are a p-n junction of crystal material which of 1-1/2 to 2 is also typical. 1000-ohm A
the most likely to be encountered by the produces luminescense around the junc- resistor in series with a 12 volt source will
amateur. The simplest type of switch that tion when forward
bias current is applied. permit the LED to operate with a forward
can be created with a PIN diode is the LED junctions are made from gallium current of approximately 10 (IR drop mA
series spst type. The circuit is shown in arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP), A
= 10 V). maximum current of 10 is mA
Fig-. 38A. Cl functions as a dc blocking or a combination of both materials suggested in the interest of longevity for
capacitor and C2 is a bypass capacitor. In (GaAsP). The latter is dependent upon the the device.
order to have the signal from the color and light intensity desired. Today, LEDs are also useful as reference
generator flow to the load, a forward bias the available LED colors are red, green diodes, however unique the applications
must be applied to the bias terminal. The and yellow. may seem. They will regulate dc at
amount of insertion loss caused by the Some LEDs are housed in plastic which approximately 1.5 V.
diode is determined primarily by the diode is affixed to the base header of a transistor The following are definitions and terms
bias current. Fig. 38B 'illustrates an spdt package. Other LEDs
contained are used in optics to characterize the proper-
type of switch arrangement which uses entirely in plastic packages which have a ties of an LED.
essentially two spst switches with a com- dome-shaped head at the light-emitting Incident flux density is defined as the
mon connection. For a generator current end. Two protrude from the
wires amount of radiation per unit area (ex-
to flow into the load resistor at the left, a opposite end (positive and negative leads) pressed as lumens/cm 2 in photometry;
bias voltage is applied to bias terminal 1. for applying forward bias to the device. watts/cm J in radiometry). This is a
For signal to flow into the load at the right There are countless advantages to the measure of the amount of flux received by
a bias must be applied to terminal 2. In use of LEDs. Notable among them are the a detector measuring the LED output.
4-15 Chapter 4
ANT.
w
4
TRANSMITTER
(A)
BIAS
Q
ANT.
/-T7
(B)
Fig. 39 — PIN diodes are used to transfer a common antenna to either a transmitter or receiver. A
voltage applied to the bias terminal will swttch the system to the transmit mode connecting the
output of the transmitter to the antenna. At the same time the diode across the receiver input is
forward biased to a low-resistance state to protecUhe input stage of the receiver, The quarter-
wave line isolates the low resistance of the receiver diode from the common antenna connection.
At B the quarter-wave line is replaced with a lumped-element equivalent.
Emitted flux density is also defined as spread the flux over a wider viewing area Fig. 41 — A solar-energy diode cell. Electrons
radiation per unit area and is used to and hence have much less point intensity flow when upper surface. The
light strikes the
from a surface. (luminance) than the point-source diodes. bottom of the coated with foil to collect
cell is
describe light reflected
current for the load, or for the succeeding cell
This measure of reflectance determines in series-connected arrays of cells.
the total radiant or luminous emittance. Solar-Electric Diodes
Source intensity defines the flux density Sunlight can be converted directly into
which will appear at a distant surface and electricityby a process known as photovol-
is expressed as lumens/steradian (photom- taic conversion. For this purpose a solar generate excess holes and electrons (one
etry) or watts/steradian (radiometry). cell is used. It relies on the photoelectric hole/electron pair for each photon absorb-
Luminance is a measure of photometric properties of a semiconductor. Practical- ed). When this occurs near the p-n
and is obtained by dividing the
brightness ly, the solar cell is a large-area p-n junction, the electric fields in that region
luminous intensity at a given point by the junction diode. The greater the area of the will separate the holes from the electrons.
projected area of the source at the same cell, the higher the output current will be. This causes the holes to increase in the
point. Luminance is a very important A dc voltage output of approximately 0.5 p-type material. At the same time the
rating in the evaluation of visible LEDs. is obtained from a single cell. Numerous electrons will build up in the n,-type
While luminance is equated with cells can be connected in series to provide material. By making direct connection to
photometric brightness, it is inaccurate to 6, 9, 12, 24 or whatever low voltage is the p and n regions by means of wires,
equate luminance as a figure of merit for required. In a like manner, cells can be these excess charges generated ,by light
brightness. The only case where this rating connected in parallel to provide higher (and separated by the junction) will flow
is acceptable is^when comparing physically output current, overall. into an external load to provide power.
LEDs. Different LEDs are sub-
identical The solar diode cell is built so that light Approximately. 0.16 A can be secured
ject more stringent examination.
to can penetrate into the region of the p-n from each square inch of solar-cell
Manufacturers do not use a set of consis- junction, Fig. 41. Most modern solar cells material exposed to bright sunlight. A
tent ratings for LEDs (such as optical use silicon material. Impurities (doping) 3-1/2 inch diameter cell can provide 1.5 A
flux, brightness and intensity). This is are introduced into the silicon material to of output current. The efficiency of a solar
because of the dramatic differences in op- establish excess positive or negative cell (maximum power delivered to a load
tical measurements between point- and charges which carry electric currents. versus total solar energy incident on the
area-source diodes. Point-source diodes Phosphorous is used to produce n-type cell) is typically 11 to 12 percent.
-are a clear epoxy or set within
packaged in silicon. Borbri is used as the dopant to Arrays of solar cells are manufactured
a transparent glass lens. Area-source produce p-type material- for all manner of practical applications. A
diodes must employ a diffusing lens to Light is absorbed into the silicon to storage battery is used as a buffer between
Tunnel Diodes
Onetype of semiconductor diode hav-
ing no rectifying properties is called a tun-
nel diode. The bidirectional conduction of
the device is a result of heavily doped p 0.4-
Zener Diodes
Zener diodes have, for the most part,
replaced the gaseous regulator tube. They
have been proved more reliable than tube
types of voltage regulators, are less
expensive and far smaller in size. POINT
These diodes fall into two primary
classifications: Voltage regulators and
voltage-reference diodes. When they are
used in power supplies as regulators, they
provide a nearly constant dc output
voltage even though there may be large
changes in load resistance or input
voltage. As a reference element the Zener
diode utilizes the voltage drop across its
junction when a specified current passes
through it in the reverse-breakdown
direction (sometimes called the Zener
direction). This "Zener voltage" is the
value established as a reference. There- Fig. 43 — Schematic symbol and current-vs.-voltage characteristic for a tunnel diode.
4-17 Chapter 4
1 o O
430
+ R*
O-AAAr -o -+
11 7V
v
OSC (Ein)
pC
If (mA) o o— i 3ov;
REVERSE VOLTAGE /
30 2/0,. 10
FORWARD VOLTAGE
15
IZ(mA) -o -+
30
6.8V* +6.8V
-J —
Fig. 44 — Typical characteristics of a Zener
FILAMENT REGULATOR ZENER -DIODE VOLTAGE-
diode (30 V).
(A)
DIVIDER/ REGULATOR
(B)
RF AMR
VFO «— IL- 0.01A HOmA)
-t + 9.1V REG. Rs
7-
VW-O+12 DC
T014V
I 9,1V
X 400 mW
= 264 ohms
and I
—VVv—1(—
Epn
Hn Imav E
/ (max.) \
SL -I, IE
R«
'
D (max.)
-21 - 0.01 ) 9.1
264
6.W-J-7
g. - 0.01] 9.1
2QV
10
-AAA/ —
+ 24V
= 0.0085 x 9.1 = 0.078 W r~'~> + 4V REG. °- 4W
mm mm
I
) r7~7 <w
0.1
. .
*
™
Fig.45 —
Example of how a shunt type of RF
ANT.
Radio Amateur.
Some practical applications for Zener
D— FM XMTR I ill
diodes are illustrated in Fig. 46. In addi^
tion to the shunt applications given in the INTERDIGITAL
FILTER
diagram, Zener diodes can be used as rr?
series elements when it is desired to pro- SRD MULTIPLIER
vide a gate that conducts at a given . X 46
voltage. These diodes can be used in ac as
well as dc circuits. When they are used in Fig. 47 —
Step-recovery diode frequency multiplier for 10 GHz. The matching network elements
an ac type of application they will conduct are represented as lumped components but would take the form of Microstrip in an actual design.
negative coefficient. The way to tempera- A JFET with its gate shorted to its There remains in isolated instances a
ture-compensate a Zener diode is to con- source or connected below a source re- belief that transistors are hard to tame,
nect one or more common silicon diodes sistor will draw a certain current whose noisier than tubes and that they are
in series with it. When this is done as part value is almost entirely independent of the subject to damage at the flick of a switch.
of manufacturing
the process, the applied potential. The current (I D ss in None of this is true. A transistorized
resulting component is termed a reference FET terminology) is also quite stable with circuit which is designed and operated
diode, A 1N3499 6.2-volf reference diode temperature. Semiconductor manufac- correctly is almost always capable of
will maintain a temperature coefficient of turers take advantage of these properties exceeding an equivalent vacuum-tube
0.0005 percent per degree over the range and package the JFET circuit of circuit in all respects. An understanding of
Fig. 48A
of to 75° C. Reference diodes work best in a two-terminal package and it a call
when operated at a few milliamperes of constant-current diode. A special symbol,
current from a high-impedance or con- given in Fig. 48B, is assigned to this type
stant-current bias source. As the name im- of diode. The 1N5305 diode approaches
plies, these diodes aren't suited for cir- an ideal current generator, in that it draws
cuits where power
is taken directly from two milliamperes over the range of 1.8 to
the Reference diodes can't be
device. 100 volts. Constant-current diodes find
tested with an ohmmeter because two application in ohmmeters, ramp genera-
junctions are back-to-back —
the instru- tors and precision voltage references.
ment can't supply enough voltage to over-
come the Zener barrier potential. Bipolar Transistors
4-19 Chapter 4
A base-emitter resistance, rb', also exists.
COLLECTOR
The junction capacitance, in combination
N-TYPE 9
with rb', determines the useful upper
DEPLETION l_ _l
REGION
^ DEPLETION
-REGION frequency limit (fx or fa) of a transistor by
BASEO- P-TYPE
establishing an RC time constant. MATERIAL
the common pitfalls can be avoided. tions of junction transistors. By way of analogy
Types the base, collector and emitter can be com-
Fig.49 shows a "sandwich" made from pared to the grid, plate and cathode of a triode
two of p-type semiconductor
layers The transistor may be one of the types tube, respectively.
material with a thin layer of n-type be- shown in Fig. 43. The assembly of p- and
tween. There are in effect two pn junction n-type materials may be reversed, so that
diodes back-to-back. If a positive bias is pnp and npn transistors are both possible. case terminal the resistances are ef-
applied to the p-type material at the left, The first two letters of the npn and pnp fectively in parallel, thus reducing the
current will flow though the left-hand designations indicate the respective polar- combined emitter resistances to a fraction
junction, the holes moving to the right ities of voltages applied to the
the of an ohm. (If a significant amount of
and the electrons from the n-type material emitter and collector in normal operation. resistance were allowed to exist it would
moving to the left. Some of the holes In a pnp transistor, for example, the cause degeneration in the stage and would
moving into the n-type material will com- emitter is made positive with respect to lower the gain of the circuit.)
bine with the electrons there and be both the collector and the base, and the Most modern are of the
transistors
neutralized, but some of them also will collector is made negative with respect to junction variety. Various names have been
travel to the region of the right-hand junc- both the emitter and the base. given to the several types, some of which
tion. Manufacturers are constantly working are junction alloy, mesa, and planar.
If the pn combination at the right is to improve the performance of their Though their characteristics may differ
biased negatively, as shown, there would transistors — greater reliability, higher slightly, they are basically of the same
normally be no current flow in this circuit. power and frequency ratings, and improved family and simply represent different
However, there are now additional holes uniformity of characteristics for any given physical properties and manufacturing
available at the junction to travel to point type number. One such development techniques.
B and electrons can travel toward point A, provided the overlay transistor, whose
so a current can flow even though this emitter structure is made up of several Transistor Characteristics
section of the sandwich is biased to emitters which are joined together at a An important characteristic of a tran-
prevent conduction. Most of the current is common case terminal. This process sistor is its beta (p.), or current-amplifica-
between A
and B and does not flow out lowers the base-emitter resistance, rb', tion factor, which is sometimes expressed as
through the common connection to the and improves the transistor input time Iife (static forward-current transfer ratio)
n-type material in the sandwich. constant. The latter is determined by rb' or h fe (smail-signal forward-current trans-
A semiconductor combination of this and the junction capacitance of the device. fer ratio). Both symbols relate to the
type is called a transistor, and the three The overlay transistor is extremely useful grounded-emitter configuration. Beta is
sections are known as the emitter, base in vhf and uhf applications. It is capable the ratio of the collector current to the
and collector, respectively. The amplitude of high-power operation well above 1000 base current
of the collector current depends principal- MHz. These transistors are useful as
ly upon the amplitude of the emitter frequency doublers and triplers, and are
current; that is, the collector current is able to provide an actual power gain in
controlled by the emitter current. the process.
Between each p-n junction exists an Another multi-emitter transistor has Thus, if a base current of 1 mA causes the
area known as the depletion, or transition been developed for use from hf through collector current to, rise to 100 mA the
region. It is similar in characteristics to a uhf. It should be of interest to the radio beta is 100. Typical betas for junction
dielectric layer, width varies in
and its amateur. It is called a balanced-emitter transistors range from as low as 10 to as
accordance with the operating voltage.The transistor (BET), or "ballasted" transis- high as several hundred.
semiconductor materials either side of the tor. The transistor chip contains several A transistor's alpha (<*) is the ratio of
depletion region constitute the plates of a triode semiconductors whose bases and the collector to the emitter current. Sym-
capacitor. The capacitance from base to collectors are connected in parallel. The bols hpg (static forward-current transfer
emitter is shown as Cb e (Fig. 49), and the various emitters, however, have built-in ratio) and hfb (small-signal forward-
collector-base capacitance is represented emitter resistors (typically about 1 ohm) current transfer ratio), common-base
as Cbc- Changes in signal and operating which provide a current-limiting safety hookup, are frequently used in connection
voltages cause a nonlinear change in these factor during overload periods, or under with gain. The smaller the base current,
junction capacitances, which must be taken conditions of significant mismatch. Since the closer the collector current comes to
into account when designing some circuits. the emitters are brought out to a single being equal to that of the emitter, and the
used as the common point in the circuit. shown in Fig. 53. It was obtained by Common-Emitter Circuit
The collector current is not independent means of a curve tracer. The common-emitter circuit shown in
of collector voltage with this type of con- Fig. 54 corresponds to the ordinary
nection, indicating that the output Transistor Amplifiers grounded-cathode vacuum-tube ampli-
resistance of the device is fairly low. The Amplifier circuits used with transistors fier. As indicated by the curves of Fig. 52,
base current also is quite low, which into one of three types, known as the
fall the base current is small and the input im-
means that the resistance of the base- common-base, common-emitter, and pedance is therefore fairly high several —
emitter circuit is moderately high with this common-collector circuits. These are thousand ohms in the average case. The
4-21 Chapter 4
O
1
t/
Ax
*» 1 OUTPUT INPUT
At 5
5* F
— OUTPUT
f *;!i.
_tj(__o o-Hf
f 100k 1
25/uF;
+ 9V
Fig. 54 —
Basic transistor amplifiers. Observe the input and output phase relationships tor the Bipolar Transistor Dissipation
various configurations. Apart from the characteristics men-
tioned earlier, it is necessary to consider
the matters of collector dissipation,
collector voltage and current and emitter
collector resistance is some tens of and the cutoff frequency is the same as in
current. Variations in these specifications
thousands of ohms, depending on the the grounded-emitter circuit. The output are denoted by specific parameter symbols
signal source impedance. The common- and input currents are in phase. which appear later in the chapter. The
emitter circuit has a lower cutoff frequen- maximum dissipation ratings of transis-
Differential Amplifier Circuit
cy than does the common-base circuit, but tors, as provided on the manufacturer's
it gives the highest power gain of the three An important variation of the fun- data sheets, tend to confuse some ama-
configurations. damental amplifier types is the differential teurs. An acceptable rule of thumb is to
In this circuit the phase of the output amplifier, drawn in Fig. 54A. The output select a transistor which has a maximum
(collector) current opposite to that qf
is voltage is proportional to the difference dissipation rating of approximately twice
the input (base) current so such feedback (with respect to ground) between the the dc input power of the circuit stage.
as occurs through the small emitter voltages applied to the input terminals. That is, if a 5-watt dc input is con-
resistance is negative and the amplifier is With the proper choice of operating con- templated, choose a transistor with a
stable. ditions, several differential amplifier 10-watt or greater rating. When power
stages of the type shown can be cascaded levels in excess of a few hundred are mW
Common-Collector Circuit (Emitter- directly. Fig. 54A shows the circuit in its necessary there is a need for heat sinking.
Follower) classic balanced form, but many circuits A sink is a metal device which helps to
Like vacuum-tube
the cathode use differential amplifiers in a single- keep the transistor cool by virtue of heat
follower, the common-collector transistor ended configuration. When only a single transfer from the transistor case to the
amplifier has high input impedance and input and output terminal is required, Rl sink. At power levels below. 5 watts it is
low output impedance. The latter is ap- could be a short circuit and the Q2 base common employ clip-on heat
practice to
proximately equal to the impedance of the could be grounded. Under these cir- sinks of the crown variety. For powers
signal input source multiplied by (1 - «). cumstances the differential amplifier can greater than 5 watts it is necessary to use
The input resistance depends on the load be understood as an emitter-follower driv- large-area heat sinks which are fashioned
resistance, being approximately equal to ing a common-base stage. The output is from extruded aluminum. These sinks
the load resistance divided by (1 - «). taken between the Q2 collector and have cooling fins on one or more of their
The fact that input resistance is directly ground. R3 establishes the current in Ql surfaces to hasten the cooling process.
related to the load resistance is a disadvan- and Q2, which should be equal under Some high-power, solid-state amplifiers
tage of this type of amplifier if the load is static conditions. employ cooling fans from which the air
one whose resistance or impedance varies Differential amplifiers work best when stream is directed on the metallic heat
with frequency. R3 is replaced by some type of constant- sink. Regardless of the power level or type
The current transfer ratio with this cir- current source. One type of current of heat sink used, silicone heat-transfer
cuit is regulator has been discussed in the diode compound should always be used between
section, and current sources made from the mating surfaces of the transistor and
1 bipolar transistors are covered later. the heat sink. Another rule of thumb is
With a current source biasing Ql and offered: If the heat-sink-equipped transis-
sink of proper size will prevent this type of ward voltage drop across the emitter-base saturation, permitting current to -flow through
the field coil of K1A. D1 and D2 are included to
problem. Excessive junction temperature junction V BE(sat) is larger than it is across reduce the static collector current of Q1, which
will eventually cause the transistor to the collector-base junction. This results in in some instances could cause K1A to remain
become open. Checks with an ohmmeter a collector-emitter voltage termed closed after forward bias was removed from
will indicate this condition after a failure. Q1. D3 serves as a spike suppressor when the
VcE(sat)- Series resistances present in the
field of K1A collapses.
Excess collector voltage will also cause emitter and collector legs of the circuit
immediate device failure. The indication contribute to the" determination of
of this type of failure, as noted by means vCE(sat)- Since the collector in this state is base breakdown voltage, V(BR)CBO, should
of an ohmmeter, is a shorted junction. forward biased, additional carriers are in- be no greater than Vcc + VBE(off). Finally,
jected into the base. Some also reach the the minimum collector-to-emitter break-
Bipolar Transistor Applications Curve no. of Fig. 56 shows
collector. 3 down voltage, Y(br) cerl, must be greater
Silicon transistors are the most com- this minority-carrier concentration. Fig. than Vcc As is tfue in any transistor appli-
mon types in use today, although a few 57 contains the circuit for a basic cation, the junction temperature must be
germanium varieties are built for specific saturated-transistor switch. maintained at a safe value by whatever
applications. Collector voltages as great It is extremely important to make cer- means necessary.
as 1500 can be accommodated by some of tain that none of the transistor voltage A transistor switch can be turned on by
the high-power silicon transistors avail- ratings is exceeded during the "off" means of a pulse (Fig. 57) or by applica-
able now. Most small-signal transistors period: The minimum emitter-base break- tion of a dc forward bias. Typical circuits
will safely handle collector voltages of 25 down voltage, V(br)ebo. must not exceed for the latter are given in Fig. 58. The
or greater. Generally speaking, transistors VBE(off)- Also, the minimum collector- circuit at A illustrates how a pnp tran-
4-23 Chapter 4
^
2*F """""
2N2222A
MIC AMP , .
MIC £ J>
^— 2N2222A 15V
flf-OHI-Z
H|-z 50k:t000
M1C° I T1
(A)
(B)
Fig.60 —
RC and transformer-coupled audio amplifiers suitable for high- and low-impedance
microphones.
passing the combined currents of the connections.The same principle applies ends, they are not found there in most of
The method when using npn or pnp transistors with a the high-performance receivers: Field-
various stages under control.
seen at A is often used in keying a power which
supply has a positive effect transistors are more often the
the circuit of Fig. 58A by attaching Rl of technique is applicable to any type of input stage can exhibit good dynamic
circuit B to the collector of Ql in circuit transistor circuit — rf, audio or dc. range, however. It is necessary to operate
A. Because an npn device is used at B, a Some basic low-level audio amplifiers a fairly husky low-noise transistor in Class
positive forward bias must be applied to are shown in Fig. 60. These stages operate A, using a relatively high standing
the base via Rl to make the transistor in the Class A mode. The input impedance collector current — 50 to 100 mA,
•saturate. When in that state, current flows of these circuits is low typically be- — typically.
through the relay (K1A) field coil to ac- tween 500 and 1500 ohms. For the most Some rf and i-f amplifier circuits which
tuate the contacts at K1B. D3 is connected part the output impedance is established employ bipolar transistors are shown in
across the relay coil to damp inductive by the value to the collector load resistor. the examples of Fig. 62. When used with
spikes which occur when the relay-coil A matching transformer can be used at the appropriate L and C networks they are
field collapses. Dl and D2 may not be the input of these stages (Fig. 60B) when it suitable for either application. At in A
necessary. This will depend on the sen- is necessary to use, for example, a high- Fig. 62 the transistor base is tapped near
of Ql in the off state. If there is con- Tl serves as a step-down transformer. provide an impedance match. The collec-
siderable leakage, Kl may not release Some direct-coupled audio amplifiers tor is tapped down on the output tuned
when forward bias is removed from Ql. are shown in Fig. 61. The circuit at A circuit to provide a proper match. If it is
Dl and D2 will elevate the emitter to ap- combines pnp and npn devices to provide desired, the base and collector taps can be
proximately 1.4 volts, thereby providing a compatible interface between them. moved even farther down on the tuned
sufficient reverse bias to cut off Ql in the Three npn stages are in cascade at B to circuits. This will result in a deliberate
off state. It can be seen from the illustra- provide high gain. This circuit is excellent mismatch. The technique is sometimes
tions in Fig. 58 that either npn or pnp for use in direct-conversion receivers, used to aid stability and/or lower the stage
transistors can be _used as electronic owing to the need for very high gain after gain. The circuit at B is operated in the
switches. the detector. At C is a Darlington pair — common-base mode. Taps are shown on
so named after the person who developed the input and output coils for impedance-
Transistor Audio Amplifiers the configuration. The .principle advan- matching purposes.
Bipolar transistors are suitable for tages of this circuit are high gain, high in- Broadband amplifiers with heavy
isL.
cuit is required to step down the collector
isv impedance to 50 ohms. Design informa-
0.1
m— 02*1000 tion on this type of circuit is provided in
the ARRL book, Solid State Design for
z*»ioooO—|f 1000 the Radio Amateur. A bandpass type of
filter is needed at the amplifier input.
Z^220kO
0.01
4-25 Chapter 4
points for best efficiency and stability.
That is the point which occurs when no
~J C Z«2O0
recommend that, for example, a 28-volt
transistor be used for 12-volt operation:
L0 -z
rh
Saturation will take place at a level where
the transistors are relatively safe from
damage if a significant output mismatch is
present. Stability is usually better under
these same conditions, although the gain
of the transistors will be considerably
lower than would be the case if equivalent
/-T76 TO 14V
types of 12-volt devices were used.
Fig. 63 shows two single-ended NPN COMMON BASE
76 TO 14V
amplifiers of typical design. At there is A NPN COMMON EMITTER GAIN > 10dB
(B)
a broadband input transformer which GAIN >10<JB
steps down the 50-ohm source to the low (A)
BROADBAND
base impedance of Ql: Most power stages AMPLIFIER
have a base impedance of 5 ohms or less. O.ot
To continue the discussion relating to The circuit at C is that of a fed-back broadband amplifier which has a bandpass filter at the input.
Fig. 63A, a 10-ohm resistor (Rl) is
bridged across the secondary of Tl to aid
stability. This measure is not always
necessary. It will depend on the gain of ppnn
the transistor, the layout and the loaded Q
rrm_ _l I I I I
^50-qhm
OOUTPUT
AMPLIFIER T3
FL1
T1 T2 10 OHMS li^ 40 OHMS
4:1 4:1
3 OHMS
-,50-OHM
OUTPUT
RFC
01
-OTO T3
TO T2 0-
(B)
Fig. 64 -
Broadband transformers are employed at A for impedance matching. FL1 suppresses harmonic currents at the amplifier output In the
examples at B are feedback components C1 and R1 (see text).
4-27 Chapter 4
AMPLIFIER
H2V
Fig. 65 — Example of a fed-back, push-pull, rf power amplifier set up for broadband service from 1.8 to 30 MHz. The circuit is biased for linear
amplification.
may be necessary with some crystals to means of the link shown. Alternatively, a use the smallest amount of feedback that
capacitive divider can be placed across the will provide reliable oscillator perfor-
provide ample feedback to cause oscilla-
«
tion.The value of Cn, will depend on the inductor to provide a low-Z tap^off point. mance with the load connected.
The trimmer should be retained in parallel Fig. 67B illustrates a series-tuned Col-
operating frequency and the gain of the
1.8 to 20^MHz with the inductor to permit resonating the pitts oscillator, although this general cir-
transistor. Typically for
(fundamental mode) the circuit. cuit often referred to as a "series-tuned
is
crystals
capacitance value ranges from 25 to 100 Some typical rf and audio oscillators Clapp" oscillator. It is very stable when
pF. The higher values are typical at the are seen in Fig. 67. The circuit at A ob- polystyrene capacitors are used in the
lower end of the frequency range. In Fig. tains feedback by means of the emitter tap feedback and tuned circuits. Silver-mica
66C is an overtone oscillator. The collec- on the tuned circuit. Approximately 25 capacitors can be used as substitutes at a
percent of the oscillator rf power is used slight sacrifice in drift stability (long
tor tuned circuit must be able to resonate
above the crystal overtone fre-
slightly as feedback. The tap point on this type of term).
quency in order to ensure oscillation. oscillator is between 10 and 25 percent of A twin-T audio oscillator is shown at C
Low-impedance output can be had by the total coil turns. The designer should in Fig. 67. It is a very stable type of circuit
27k
27k -AAAr-
220 -AAAr-
100
S.M.
AAAr-i—Q+9V
mi
100 220 REG.
—0+9V
X
"\AAr-i reg. P
0.1
25
J, 1000
P
r 50 •
p
S.M. ii — —O TO BUFFER
)(
ii
—1(—OT0 BUFFER 1000
560 '
P
AAA/-" RFC
100(iH p . POLYSTYRENE
0.1
f»900H2
3300
-^VW 1
C1 C2 H-7
3300 2N1925,
+i2vO-
22ajF
-vw- 0.01 0.01
HEP254
33k 33k
25V A/W-*-A/W—
180k ^ 2N2926 i 10k
PITCH
2N2926 o.<
SINE-WAVE
OUTPUT
•C3
'0.02 ( DISTORTION ss 5%)
Fig. 67 — The circuits at A and B are VFOs for use in transmitters or receivers. Audio oscillators are shown at C and D.
which delivers a clean sine-wave output. semiconductor manufacturers specify cer- with LO voltage applied to the emitter.
Mylar or polystyrene capacitors should be tain transistors for mixer service. Al- This technique requires slightly higher
used for best stability. though this does not mean that other of LO energy, but affords greater
levels
A simple feedback circuit is effected by types of bipolar transistors can't be used LO isolation from the mixer input port.
means of Tl in Fig. 67D. Tl is a small for mixing, it is wise to select a device that A singly balanced bipolar-transistor
transistor output transformer with a isdesigned for that class of service. mixer is illustrated in Fig. 68 at C. Rl is
center-tapped primary and an 8-ohm Fig. 68 contains examples of three basic adjusted to effect balance. This circuit
secondary. This circuit is excellent for use types of transistor mixers. At A is seen the could be modified for emitter injection by
as a code-practice or side-tone oscillator. most common
one. It is found in simple changing Rl to 1000 ohms, replacing the
All of the rf oscillators described in circuitssuch as transistor a-m broadcast- 220-ohm resistors with 1-mH rf chokes,
these examples should be followed by one band, receivers. As an aid to dynamic and injecting the LO output at the junc-
or more buffer stages to prevent frequency range, the mixers of Fig. 68 can be used tion of the two 0.01-/xF capacitors. The
changes resulting, from load variations without rf amplifier stages ahead of them center tap of the input transformer (base
occuring after the oscillator chain. for frequencies up to and including 7 winding) would then be bypassed by
MHz: The noise in that range (ambient means of a 0.01 -pF capacitor.
Transistor Mixers from the antenna) will exceed that of the
Much of the modern equipment used by mixer. Other Uses for Bipolar Transistors
amateurs contains mixers which utilize The primary limitation in the perfor- It is possible to take advantage of the
FETs or diode rings. Good dynamic range mance of the mixer of Fig. 68A is that the junction characteristics of small-signal
is offered by those two circuits. However, local-oscillator voltage is injected at the transistors for applications which usually
there is no reason why a bipolar mixer base. This does not afford good employ diodes. One useful technique is
can't be used to obtain satisfactory LO/input-signal isolation. The un- that of employing transistors as voltage-
results if care is taken with the operating favorable result can be oscillator "pull- variable capacitors (varactors). This
parameters and the gain distribution in ing" with input load changes, and/or method is seen in Fig. 69. The collector-
the receiver or transmitter where they are radiation of the LO energy via the anten- base junction of Ql and Q2 serve as
used. The bipolar transistors used iri na if the front-end selectivity is marginal diodes for tuning the VFO. In- this exam-
receiver mixers should be selected ac- or poor. The advantage of the circuit is ple the emitters are left floating. A single
cording to noise figure (low) and dynamic that it requires less injection voltage than transistor could be used, but by connect-
range (high). The signal applied to it the one at B, where emitter injection is ing the pair in a back-to-back arrange-
should be kept as low as possible, Used. ment they never conduct during any part
consistent with low-noise operation. Most At Fig. 68B is the same basic mixer, but of the rf cycle. This minimizes loading of
4-29 Chapter 4
ward bias applied to the base-emitter
junction, a superdiode results. If the col-
lector were left open, the base-emitter
junction would behave like an ordinary
9 MHz
TO RF AMR! diode. With the collector tied to the base,
the diode current rises much more rapidly
OUTPUT with applied voltage because of the
2700 amplification provided by the transistor
560< -p.0.01 action. Two cross-connected super-diodes
form the basis for a highly effective peak
clipper or hard limiter. Fig. 71 illustrates
the application. Npn transistors are,
shown, but pnp units will yield identical
5-MHz LO 100 performance.
(1V pk-pk>
Constant-Current Generators
(IV pk-pk) ' ' ' -H2V finite dynamic impedance of the current
(C) source causes the amplifier to exhibit very
high voltage gain. When the amplifier is
an npn transistor, the current source must
Fig. 68 — Some typical bipolar-transistor mixers. Their characteristics are discussed in the text.
be a pnp device, and vice-versa.
Thyristors
Two complementary bipolar transistors
connected as in Fig. 73 form the solid-
state analog of the latching relay a trig- —
the reverse-breakdown characteristic of ger pulse applied to the base of Q2 will ini-
the oscillator. The junction capacitance is
Ql to establish a fixed reference level. tiate current flow in both devices. This
varied by adjusting the tuning control,
Most transistors provide Zener-diode ac- current is limited only by the external cir-
Rl. In this circuit the tuning range is ap-
tion between 6 and 9 volts. The exact cuit resistance and continues independent
proximately 70 kHz.
can be value can be determined experimentally. of the trigger signal until the main source
A bipolar-transistor junction
is interrupted. Four-layer semiconductors
used as a Zener diode in the manner When the base and collector of a
taken of bipolar transistor are connected and a for- (pnpn or npnp) having this property are
shown in Fig. 70. Advantage is
Unijunction Transistors
An unusual three-terminal semiconduc-
tor device is the unijunction transistor
Fig. 72 —
Constant-current generators made with bipolar transistors. In A, the reference voltage
established by the diodes is converted to a current by the emitter resistor. A two-transistor feed-
back arrangement is employed at B. The functions of both circuits are explained in the text.
Fig. 73 — An SCR and its discrete functional
near-equivalent.
4-31 Chapter 4
TOP
SOURCE GATE DRAIN
T. ? ?
CHANNEL (N TYPE)
I
BOTTOM GATE
*(A)
N —CHANNEL
^-+1. DRAIN
Fig. 76 —
Profile and symbol for an n-channel
junction field-effect transistor. In a p-channel
device, all polarities are reversed and the gate
arrow points away from the substrate.
'
\
FREE ELECTRON
FLOW
G BOTTOM
(A)
Fig.75 —
A relaxation oscillator based on a unijunction transistor. The frequency of oscillation is
the capacitor and the cycle repeats. If the good dynamic range. These characteristics
resistor were replaced by a constant- apply to small-signal FETs. Power FETs,
current source, the output waveform which will later, have different
be treated
would be a linear ramp instead of a characteristics. Although some MOS-
sawtooth. The UJT schematic symbol FETs have but one gate, others have two
resembles that of an n-channel JFET — gates. Single-gate FETs can be equated FREE ELECTRON
FLOW
the angled emitter distinguishes the uni- practically to a triode vacuum tube. The (NOW REDUCED)
GBOTTOM
junction transistor. gate represents the grid, the anode is
similar to the drain, and the cathode is (B)
Field-Effect Transistors like the source. The input impedance of
Field-effect transistors are assigned that FETs is a megohm or greater. The noise
figure of an FET making them
quite low, Fig. 77 — Operation of a JFET under applied
name because the current flow in them is is
bias. A
depletion region (light shading) is
controlled by varying electric field which ideal as preamplifiers for audio and rf well formed, compressing the channel and increas-
is brought about thrdugh the application into the uhf region. Nearly all of the ing the resistance to current flow.
bipolar transistor is that in the latter the Without this provision the gate insulation
current flow is controlled by the current can be perforated easily by small static
charges on the user's hands or by the between source and drain. This current
applied to the base electrode.
of application of excessive voltages. The flow is made up of free electrons since the
There are two essential types
(FETs) in use protective diodes are connected between semiconductor is n-type in the channel, so
field-effect transistors
the gate (or gates) and the source of the a positive voltage is applied at the drain.
today. They are the junction FET and the
FET. This positive voltage attracts the negative-
MOSFET. The former is most commonly
ly charged free electrons and the current
called a JFET. It has no insulation
The Junction FET flows (Fig. 77). The next step is to apply a
between its elements, just as is the case
The MOSFET As was stated earlier, field-effect tran- gate voltage of the polarity shown in Fig.
with bipolar transistors.
sistors are divided into two main groups: 77. Note that this reverse-biases the gates
has a thin layer of oxide between the gate
Junction FETs and MOSFETs. The basic with respect to the source, channel, and
or gates and the drain-source junction.
JFET shown in Fig. 76. This reverse-bias gate voltage
The term MOSFET is derived from is drain.
metal-oxide silicon field-effect transistor. The reason for the terminal names will causes a depletion layer to be formed
The basic characteristic of the two types become clear later. A dc operating condi- which takes up part of the channel, and
are similar — high input impedance and tion is set up by starting a current flow since the electrons ndw have less volume
in which to move the resistance is greater from the rest of the device by a layer of
and the current between source and drain very thin dielectric material, so this is not
is reduced. If a large gate voltage is ap- a p-n junction between the gate and the
plied the depletion regions meet, causing device —
thus the name insulated gate.
pinch off, and consequently the source- When a negative gate polarity is applied,
drain current is reduced nearly to zero. positive-charged holes from the p-type
Since the large source-drain current substrate are attracted toward the gate VGS VOLT
changes with a relatively small gate and the conducting channel is made more
voltage, the device acts as an amplifier. In narrow; thus the source-drain current is
VGS "-2 VOLTS
the operation of that JFET, the gate ter- reduced. When a positive gate voltage is
minal is never forward biased, because if connected, the holes in the substrate are
VGS " -3 VOLTS
itwere the source-drain current would all repelled, the conducting channel is made
be diverted through the forward-biased larger, and the source-drain current is in-
gate junction diode. creased. The MOSFET is more flexible (A)
The
resistance between the gate ter- since either a positive or negative voltage
minal and the rest of the device is very can be applied to the gate. The resistance
high, since the gate terminal is always between the gate and the rest of the device
reverse biased, so the JFET has a very is extremely high because they are
high input resistance. The source terminal separated by a layer of thin dielectric.
isthe source of current carriers, and they Thus the MOSFET has an extremely high
are drained out of the circuit at the drain. input impedance. In fact, since the
The gate opens and closes the amount of leakage through the insulating material is
channel which flows in the
current generally much
smaller than through the
pjnch-off region. Thus the operation of an reverse-biased p : n gate junction in the
FET closely resembles the operation of JFET, the MOSFET has a much higher
the vacuum tube with its high grid-input input impedance. Typical values of R for
in
impedance. the MOSFET are over a million
megohms. There are both single-gate and
MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide Semiconductors) dual-gate MOSFETs available. The latter
The other large family which makes up has a signal gate, gate 1, and a control
field-effect transistors is the insulated-gate gate, gate 2. The gates are effectively in
FET, or MOSFET, which is pictured making it an easy matter to control
series
schematically in Fig. 78. In order to set up dynamic range of the device by vary-
the Fig. 79 —
At A are typical JFET characteristic
a dc operating condition, a positive ing the bias on gate 2. Dual-gate curves. The picture at B shows an actual
polarity is applied to the drain terminal. MOSFETs are widely used as age- oscillograph of the family of curves produced
The substrate is connected to the source, controlled rf and i-f amplifiers, as mixers
by a curve tracer.
and both are at ground potential, so the and product detectors, and as variable at-
channel electrons are attracted to the tenuators. The between the gates
isolation
positive drain. In order to regulate this is relatively high mixer service. This
in VGS - + 2 VOLTS
source-drain current, voltage is applied to reduces oscillator "pulling" and reduces
the gate contact. The gate is insulated The forward transad-
oscillator radiation.
mittance (transconductance, or g m ) of VGS + 1 VOLT
dual-gate MOSFETs is as high as 40,000
micromhos.
SOURCE GATE DRAIN
INSULATING
GLASS Characteristic Curves
(A)
Classifications
Fig. 80 — Typical characteristic curves for a
MOSFET.
®— DRAIN
Field-effect transistors are classed into
two main groupings for application in
circuits, enhancement mode and depletion
mode. The enhancement-mode devices are
those specifically constructed so that they
the
MOSFET
current to decrease.
we can apply a
With
gate voltage of
the
SOURCE have no channel. They become useful only either polarity so the device can be
(B) when a gate voltage is applied that causes depleted (current decreased) or enhanced
a channel to be formed. IGFETs (in- (current increased).
sulated gate FET) can be used as To sum up, a depletion-mode FET is
enhancement-mode devices since both one which has a channel constructed; thus
polarities can be applied to the gate it has a current flow for zero gate voltage.
without the gate becoming forward biased Enhancement-mode FETs are those which
and conducting. have no channel, so no current flows with
SOURCE /SUBS. A depletion-mode unit corresponds to zero gate voltage.
(C)
Figs. 76 and 77, shown earlier, where a
channel exists with no gate voltage ap- Power FETs
plied. For the JFET we can apply a gate FETs capable of handling substantial
Fig. 78 — Profile and symbol for a MOSFET. voltage and deplete the channel, causing amounts of power are available for use
4-33 Chapter 4
frequency performance improved in GaAs
from dc through the vhf spectrum. They
are known under more than one name
— FETs. GaAs FETs are classified as
depletion-mode junction devices. The gate
vertical FETs, MOS POWER FETs and
is made of gold or aluminum, the
latter
VMOS FETs. The power FET (MOS- Si02
type being susceptible to damage from
POWERtm FET) was introduced in 1976
static charges.
•by Siliconix, Inc. The device enabled
both
GaAs FETs are available for
designers to switch a current of 1 ampere N-«pi
small-signal and power applications. The
in less than four nanoseconds. The
power devices have noise figures almost as
transfer characteristic of the power FET is
N SUBSTRATE low as those specified for the small-signal
a linear one. It can be employed as a linear
types, and naturally exhibit greater
power amplifier or a low-noise, small-
signal amplifier with high
With this kind of FET there
dynamic range.
is no thermal
T
DRAIN
dynamic range and ruggedness. Several
semiconductor manufacturers throughout
the case with power types the free world offer gallium-arsenide
runaway, as is CROSS SECTION OF A VMOS CHANNEL
field-effect transistors in various noise
of bipolar transistors. Furthermore, there
figure, frequency and power ratings. In
is no secondary breakdown or minority-
storage time. The latter makes (A) the U.S., Hewlett-Packard and Micro-
carrier
them for use in switching
excellent
wave Semiconductor Corp. feature units
D
service). Of particular usable up through Ku-band. Represen-
amplifiers (Class
is the immunity of
amateurs tative type numbers are HFET-2201 and
interest to
power FETs to damage from a high SWR MSC H001, respectively. In Great Britain,
the Plessey and GAT6 devices
GAT5
(open or short condition). These devices
can be operated in Class A, AB, B or C. feature low-noise performance up to 14
Zero bias results in Class C operation. GHz. The Nippon Electric Company of
manner in which a Japan is also competing strongly for
Fig. 81 illustrates the
(B) leadership in the GaAs FET market. A
MOSPOWER FET is formed. These de-
GaAs FET preamplifier is il-
practical
vices operate in the enhancement mode.
lustrated in Fig. 86. For more background
The current travels vertically. The source Fig. 81 — Profile and symbol for a power FET
(VMOS enhancement-mode information on GaAs FETs, see Wade,
is on top of the chip but the drain is on the
type).
"Introduction to GaAs Field-Effect Tran-
backside of the chip. In this vertical struc-
sistors," Ham Radio, January 1978, and
ture there are four layers of material
Wade and Katz, "Low-Noise GaAs FET
(N + P, N - and N + ). This device of-
,
H(—OOUTPUT
1
(Z-2700) vhf parasitic oscillations occur.
At B in Fig. 85 is seen a common-gate
FET amplifier.The source is tapped well
down on the input tuned circuit to effect
an impedance match. This circuit is
characterized by its excellent stability,
provided the gate lead is returned to
GAIN^IOdB GAIN>10dB ground by the shortest path possible. This
(A) (B) type of circuit will have slightly less gain
capability than the common-source exam-
AF AMR 100 ple at A.
-AAA/—O+12V
In Fig. 85 at C is an illustration of a
[100 _1I22aiF
'
dual-gate MOSFET amplifier. Provided
10|uF
02 1 i
isv the input and output tuned circuits are
2N4126?
+u{—
P2 well isolated from one another there is less
V0UT--^-VIH
0.01 chance for self-oscillation than with a
INPUT O \
L ~ JFET. A positive bias is applied to gate 2,
(Z-1M)
lyuF but age voltage can be used- in place of a
P.2 I 15V
fixed-value voltage if desired. This circuit
AAA/ i f-±j11( O OUTPUT
10k
J can provide up to 25 dB of gain.
>IO00 Fig. 85D shows
the configuration of a
cascode rf amplifier in which a dual JFET
(siliconix U257) is specified. The advan-
GAIN«<40dB tage in using the dual FET
that both is
INPUT
50.TV
GAIN
2:15 dB
NF <3dB
Fig. — A 1296-MHz preamplifier using a GaAs FET. Most of the currently available GaAs devices will work well at Q1.
86
C1, C2, C4 — 0.8- to 10-pF piston trimmer usable). wide by 0.9 (23 mm) long on 1/16-in. in.
(Johanson or JFD). Note: C1 may be re- Q1 — GaAs FET (see text). (1.6-mm) thick double-sided G-10 printed-
placed by a fixed low-inductance capacitor RFC1 — 3 turns, 1/16-in. (1.6-mm) ID, in lead of circuit board.
of 10 pF or more. resistor, spaced wire diameter. W2 — 50-tl microstripline, 0.105 (2.7 mm) in.
C3 — 0.3- to 3.5-pF piston trimmer (Johanson RFC2 — 5 turns no, 32 wire, 1/16-in. (1.6-mm) wide by 1.1-in. (28-mm) long on 1/16-in.
or JFD). ID, spaced two wire diameters. (1.6-mm) thick double-sided G-10 printed-
D1, D2 — Zener diode, 5.6 V (4.7 to 6.2 V W1 — 50-li microstripline, 0.105 (2.7 mm) circuit board.
in.
if the one nearest to V D d has an loss 87A. Optimum tradeoff between conver- the gate no. 2, isolation from the re-
FETs require special forward-biasing voltage will be on the order of 1 (pk-pk) to low drain-load impedance in the interest
techniques and ac-coupling measures that provide good mixer performance. Con- of good IMD. If the drain tuned circuit is
aren't seen in this circuit. version gain with this mixer will be ap- made high in terms of impedance (in an
proximately 10 dB. effort to improve conversion gain) the
Cascode amplifiers are noted for their
stability, and low noise Fig. 87B illustrates a singly balanced drain-source peak signal swing will be
high gain, good
figure. With the circuit shown the noise JFET mixer. A
broadband transformer high. This will lead to a change in junction
figure at 28 MHz
is approximately 1.5 dB. (Tl) provides a low-impedance source for capacitance (varactor effect) and the
Short leads are necessary, and shielding the LO and supplies injection voltage in generation of harmonic currents. The
between the tuned circuits is recom- push-pull to the gates of Ql and Q2. The. result is distortion. Of primary
mended in the interest of stability. Careful latter should be, matched FETs or a dual significance is the condition called "drain-
layout will permit the use of toroidal FET such as the U430 by Siliconix. This load distortion." This malady occurs
inductors at L2 and L3. These com- mixer provides between 10 and 20 dB of when excessive signal levels overload the
ponents should be spaced apart and isolation between the mixer ports. The drain circuit. The result is degraded IMD
mounted at right angles to one another in signal is applied in parallel across the and cross-modulation effects. Rl in Fig.
order to reduce unwanted infringing sources of Ql and Q2 by means of broad- 88 used to decrease the drain-load im-
is
cases there is an advantage to using active Ql and T4 (1700 ohms to 100 ohms). LO
supplied the gates and
FET Crystal Oscillators
devices in place of passive ones (diodes). injection is to
This assures a conversion gain which signal input is to the sources. Port-to-port A group of crystal-controlled FET
helps minimize the number of gain stages isolation with this mixer is on the order of oscillators is presented in Fig. 89. At A is
required in a given circuit. 30 dBor greater. Bandwidth is one oc- an overtone type. The tuned circuit in the
A single-ended J FET mixer requires tave. In-depth information on this type of drain is resonated slightly higher than the
dbm of LO injection power. It can pro- circuit is given in the Siliconix application crystal frequency to assure reliable oscilla-
vide several decades of bandwidth and has note AN-73-4. tion. The circuit at B is a variation of the
a good IMD characteristic. The latter is Fig. 88 contains the circuit of a typical one A, but performs the same function.
at
far superior to most bipolar single-ended dual-gate MOSFET single-ended mixer. A Pierce type of triode oscillator is seen in
mixers. The major shortcoming is very Itsperformance characteristics are similar Fig. 89 at C. It is suitable for use with fun-
poor isolation between the three mixer to those of the mixer at Fig. 87A. The damental types of crystals. A Colpitts
ports (rf, LO and i-f). A typical single- primary exception is that the port-to-port oscillator appears at D in Fig. 89. Cn, in
ended mixer using a J FET is seen in Fig. isolation is somewhat better by virtue of the circuits at C and D are feedback
capacitors. C^, in the circuit afC is chosen VFOs is similar to that which was dis- sistor equivalent circuits: There is no
experimentally. Typically, it will be from cussed in the section on bipolar transistor resistive divider for applying forward
100 to 500 pF, depending on the transistor oscillators. The notable difference is the bias.
characteristics and the crystal activity. impedance level at the device input. The The circuits of Fig. 90A and B are iden-
circuitsof Fig. 90 all have high-impedance tical except for the biasing of gate 2 at B.
FET VFOs gate terminals. Furthermore, fewer parts Both circuits illustrate oscillators. The
The principle of operation for FET are needed than is true of bipolar tran- source on LI should be
ta"p selected to
O l-F OUTPUT
SIGNAL INPUTO
GAINsMOdB
MIXER
(A)
t2 T1
< + 3dBm)
O l-F OUTPUT
SELECT R FOR
BEST IMD f1
O 100
SIGNAL
INPUT
GAINa*5dB
U350
9 "OUTPUT
-t
7"
•mm GAIN*3dB
jLmnn__^LoiN
(+6dBm)
02/
-O OUTPUT
GAIN<*15dB
+I2V
OVERTONE OSCILLATOR
(A)
Ql
MPF102
VFO
01
MPF102
100 -0+9V(REG.)
-I
0> . O OUTPUT
^10 D1
3£lN914< 100l< >R1 .
^ C100 •
25
X (A)
-O OUTPUT
OVERTONE OSCILLATOR
(B)
VFO
3.5 MHz q
rO — if-
MPF102 -0+9V(REG.)
:o.oi
CfbL
25
-| ( OOUTPUT
PIERCE OSCILLATOR
(C)
VFO + 9V
MPF102
Ql
270 @90'
MPF102
S
(REG.)
25
0.0.
^
-T^™ X. 1/
|( O
r\ mi
OUTPUT
\JZ?S
— 5o
|H>
7.1 MH7 I I
-L ~ ^ TUNING
T 7
0.01
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
(D)
(C)
sliown at C.
A narrow-band
linear vhf power ampli-
2000
fier isshown at D in Fig. 91. Power output GAIN 612 dB
IMD" -30dB
is 5 watts PEP. IMD is - 30 dB. It is in-
Fig. 92 contains illustrations of addi- Fig. 91 — Examples of power FETs in three amplifier circuits.
4-39 Chapter 4
j .
SIG. IN O- 4
€> 500^ R
0.01
'
2f
polar transistors applies to ICs, so it will
not be repeated here. Rather, the text will
Q2 provide data on practical applications of
>BAU.
MPF102 ICs. Linear ICs are so-called because in
0.01
most applications where they are used the
performance mode is a linear one. This
does not mean, however, that they can't
be used in a nonlinear mode, such as Class
C. The biasing will determine the opera-
ting mode, Class A through and includ-
ing Class C.
hysteresis loop. Additional applicationsof taken with the connected drains in paral- the oxide serves as the dielectric material.
this type are found in Linear Applications lel. Rl is adjusted for best waveform puri- Fig. 93 shows a representative three-
by National Semiconductor Corp. ty at 2f. The efficiency of this Class C component IC in both pictorial and sche-
A simple FET dc voltmeter with high doubler is on par with that of a straight- matic form. Most integrated circuits are
input impedance is seen in Fig. 92B. through Class C amplifier. Careful adjust- housed in TO-5 type cases, or in flat-pack
Multiplier resistances are given for a full- ment will nearly eliminate frequency com- epoxy blocks. ICs may have as many as 12
14 11
Q o
25/uF
S60
J
-o+
13 12W
8
)12 INPUT O- _r—
^^0 01
MM
1
J CA3600E
>22M
-|(—OAF
O 6 O O
7 3 4 9
RCA 3600E COS/MOS ARRAY CASCADE 100-dBAF AMPLIFIER
(GOOD TO 5 MHz) (B)
(A)
Fig. 94 - The diagram at A shows the internal workings of a CMOS IC. A 100-dB audio amplifier which employs the CA3600E is shown at B.
4-41 Chapter 4
,
(1 12 12 11 10 7 6 s
o o Q O 9 o o
~-
© -® ©- 1 L
® © -04
zO—
-Oi
BO- OS
20-
6 -CM 6 6 O SUBS.
3 8 9
7 10
CA3018A CA3026 OR CA3049
(A) (B)
13 14
20- -03
5 4
sO- Q Q
iO- -04
-012
n 2 i
iO-
-OS
120- -05
ZO-
© 6
r-@
6
-07
-05
<> 6
2 1
10O- -07
3 e sO- -OS
CA3724G CA3019 CA3039
(C) (D) (E)
Fig. 95 — Various transistor and diode-array ICs. The configurations suggest a variety of amateur applications.
detector, and contains amplifiers, design work is started. It is beyond prac- cuit of Fig. 98A functions as a differential
limiters, squelch circuit, metering circuit include the schematic diagrams
ticality to amplifier, as does the one at B. The basic
and an af amplifier. Those interested in of the ICs used in this book, but we will difference is that dc and ac balance are
compact portable amateur receivers show the circuit of the RCA CA3028A, featured at A, whereas only dc balance is
should find these devices especially in- because used frequently in the follow-
it is effected at B. The gain of either stage is
teresting. ing section. Fig. 97 contains the block and approximately 40 dB. Pin 2 of Ul is left
schematic representation of this IC. floating, but is used for LO injection
Practical Examples when the CA3028A is employed as a mixer
The main disadvantage in the use of IC RF and I-F Amplifiers or product detector. A Motorola
symbols in circuit diagrams is that the in- Nearly every manufacturer of ICs pro- MC1550G is similar to the RC shown in
ternal workings are not shown. This duces chips that are suitable for use as Fig. 98. A MC1590G is a more suitable IC
makes the designer work with a collection rf/i-f amplifiers, mixers, detectors, for i-f amplification when greater
of "magic boxes." Fortunately, IC oscillators and audio amplifiers. The cir- amounts of stage gain or age control are
manufacturers publish data books which cuits of Fig. 98 are examples of CA3028A desired.
show the block symbols and pin ar- rf or i-f amplifiers to which age is applied. An example of an MC1590G amplifier
rangements versus the schematic diagrams Maximum gain occurs when the age volt- is given in Fig. 99A. It is shown with age
of the active devices on the chips. This age (IC forward bias) is, at its highest applied to pin 2. The lower the age voltage
permits the amateur to understand what potential. The IC is nearly cut off when the higher the stage gain. This is the op-
the circuit configuration is before the the age level drops below 2 volts. The cir- posite condition from that of the
200
60
1 O- -05
10.7
1«H
MHz
rrrr\ 70-A/W-1
5000
20- -04
10.7MHz
l-F O-
INPUT -|—H(—OAF! -03
RCA CA3028
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
(A)
o.oi
l-F
iO.OI AMPLIFIER
inputO-
-t —O OUTPUT
1" 8 7"
l-F
OUTPUT
INPUTO-
-O OUTPUT
.1
7-
10.01
560 9600
.
+12V(
MANUAL
GAIN
MIN.-a »- MAX.
H2V
(B)
RF OR l-F AMPLIFIER
(B)
Fig. 98 —
Rf and i-f amplifiers using the CA3028A IC. The example at A is balanced for ac and dc Fig. 99 — Circuit examples for Motorola IC i-f
whereas the circuit at B is balanced only for dc conditions. amplifiers.
4-43 Chapter 4
:
IC Mixers
Examples of IC active mixers are given
At A is seen a singly balanced
in Fig. 100.
mixer formed by the differential transistor
pair in a CA3028A. A doubly balanced
mixer is illustrated at B in Fig. 100. The
MC1496G contains two differential tran-
sistor pairs to permit the doubly balanced
configuration. This circuit does not exact-
ly follow the suggested one by Motorola.
+)2V
Ithas been optimized for use as a trans-
mitting mixer by W7ZOI and KL7IAK
(A)
(Solid State Design for the Radio
Amateur, 1st edition, page 204). There are
numerous other ICs which can be used as
mixers. Examples of many practical cir-
book just ARRL DOUBLY
cuits are given in the
BALANCED
referenced. MIXER
The arrangements for product
circuit
SIG. INPUT O- — )(-
IC Audio Amplifiers
Practically every IC manufacturer of-
fers a line of audio ICs. Some are for use
as low-noise preamplifiers and others are
capable of delivering up to a few watts of 0.001 3300 56
output to a loudspeaker. Most of the AAV -AAA/ O+12V
audio-power ICs are designed for looking
directly into an 8- or 16-ohm load without LO
INPUT
the need for a matching transformer. (1 V pk-pk)
Because these circuits are relatively mun- (B)
dane in nature they shall not be offered
here as illustrative examples. Practical ap-
plications for audio ICs can be' found in Fig. 100 — Two types of ICs are shown as mixers. The one at A is a singly balanced mixer.
the construction projects elsewhere in this
volume. Manufacturer's data sheets also
O+v
provide definitive information on the use
+v
of these devices. /
RETURN
Operational Amplifiers
operational amplifier (op amp) is a
An
high-gain, direct-coupled differential
amplifier whose characteristics are chiefly
determined by components external to the
amplifier unit. Op amps
can be assembled
INPUT ©I
from discrete transistors, but better ther-
mal from fabricating the
stability results
circuit on a single silicon chip. Integrated
circuit op amps are manufacturered with
bipolar, JFET and MOSFET devices,
either exclusively or in combination.
A design based on discrete components
is shown in Fig. 101. Circuits of this vari- - V RE'
3.9
SSB
1W
HF AUDIO OUTPUT
D— TRANSCEIVER
is less than the reference voltage, the IC The potential on the noninverting input Op Amps as Audio Filters
output stays near one of the power rails. terminal depends on the output state as One of the more common uses to which
If the input voltage exceeds the reference, well as the reference voltage. op amps are put can be seen in the RC
the output swings to the opposite rail. A active audio-filter field. Op amps have the
The Norton Amplifier
distinct advantage of providing gain and
unusual type of op amp is the Nor-
An variable parameters when used as audio
ton, named for the network theorem on filters. Passive filters which contain L and
O +12V
which its operation is based. Fig. 106 C elements are generally committed to
shows a simplified diagram of the input some fixed-value frequency, and they
stage of a Norton amplifier. The non- exhibit an insertion loss. Finally, op amps
inverting input makes use of Dl and Ql in contribute to the attainment of minia-
a current mirror configuration. When in- turization which is seldom possible while
put current is applied to Ql, it steals base employing bulky inductors in a passive
drive from Q2, the inverting input. This type of audio filter.
amplifier must have input current to Although RC active filters can be built
operate, hence it is not a high-impedance with bipolar transistors, the modern
device. In the inverting-amplifier con- approach is to utilize operational ampli-
figuration the numerical voltage gain is fiers (op amps). The use of an op-amp IC,
Rf/Ri, but the noninverting input terminal such as a type 741, results in a compact
must be returned to the positive supply filter pole which will provide stable
through a resistance of 2Rf to equalize the operation. Only five connections are made
input currents. Any attempt to use this to the IC, and the gain of the filter section,
type of IC as a voltage follower is doomed plus the frequency characteristic, is de-
to failure —
the input stage will be termined by the choice of components
destroyed by excessive current. The chief external to the IC.
usefulness of Norton amplifiers is in Although there are numerous ap-
single-supply applications where the dc plications for RC active filters, the
levelof the signal is very near ground. The principal use in amateur work is that of
ssb chapter of this Handbook features a establishing selectivity at audio frequen-
some
improves the signal-to-noise
receiving systems.
Considerable design data is found in the
National Semiconductor Corp. applica-
X r-T7
= 2Q
are chosen. CI and C2 are equal in value 2R R3
« r-h? • „C1
and should be high-Q, temperature-stable
components. Polystyrene capacitors are (B) R4 = R5 for V REF =
excellent for use in this part of the circuit.
Disc-ceramic capacitors are not recom- +v R4, R5
'
X .02 X R3
mended. R4 and R5 are equal in value and
are used to establish the op-amp reference
voltage. This is V cc /2.
Fig. 106 — (A) Input circuit of a Norton opera- Fig. 107 —
Basic circuit for an RC active band-
tional amplifier. (B)Norton op amp connected pass filter. One pole is shown along with the
CI and C2 should be standard values of as an inverting amplifier. Note the special sym- fundamental equations for finding the
capacitance.The filter design is less com- bol used to denote a Norton IC. resistance values needed.
plicated when CI and C2 serve as the
starting point for the equations. Other-
wisesome awkward values for CI and C2
mightresult. The resistance values can be
"fudged" to the nearest standard value
after the equations have been worked. values. For certain design parameters and monly available to the electronics hob-
The important consideration is that C1-C2 values, unwieldy resistance values byist. Questions of drift, offset, bandwidth,
matched values must be used when more may from the equations. If this hap-
result slew rate and noise were academic; the only
than one filter pole is employed. For most pens, select a new value for CI and C2. practical alternative to the 709 or 741 was cir-
amateur work it will be satisfactory to use The resistance values assigned to Rl cuitry made from discrete transistors. A
five percent, 1/2- watt composition through R5, inclusive, are the nearest much wider selection of op amps is available
resistors. If the resistor and capacitor standard values to those obtained from today, and the amateur designer can choose
values are not held reasonably tight in the equations. The principal effect from the components best suited to the applica-
tolerance for a multipole filter, the f for this is a slight alteration of fc and Av . tion. Also, theperformance of some existing
each pole may be different, however In a practical application the RC active circuits can be upgraded by replacing 709s
slight. The result is a wide nose for the filter should be inserted in the low-level and 741s with improved devices. To this end,
response, or even some objectionable audio stages. This will prevent over- a brief survey of op amp specifications is in
passband ripple. loading the filter during the reception of order.
Fig. 108 illustrates the design of a strong signals. The receiver af gain control Offset voltage is the potential between the
single-pole band-pass filter. An arbitrary should be used between the audio amplifier input terminals in the closed-loop
f of 900 Hz has been specified, but for cw preamplifier and the input of the RC ac- condition. Ideally, this voltage would be zero.
reception the operator may prefer tive filter for best results. If audio-derived Offset results from imbalance between the
something much lower —
200 to 700 Hz. age is used in the receiver, the RC active differential input transistors. Values range
An A v (gain) of 1 (unity) and a Q of 5 are filter will give best performance when it is from millivolts in ordinary consumer-grade
stated. Both the gain and Q can be in- contained within the age loop. Informa- devices to only nanovolts in premium Mil-
creased for a single-section filter if tionon other types of active filters is given spec units. The temperature coefficient of
desired, but for a multisection RC active by Bloom in July 1980 QST. offset voltage with respect to time is drift.
prevent unwanted filter "ringing" and Construction projects in the amateur There are two types of noise associated
audio instability. 709 and 741 more
literature call for the with operational amplifiers. Burst, or pop-
CI and C2 are 680-pF polystyrene than any other type of operational ampli- corn noise is a low-frequency pulsing, usually
capacitors. Other standard values can be fier, not because these devices are ideal below 10 Hz. The amplitude of this noise is
used from, say, 500 to 2000 pF. The for every application, but because until approximately an inverse function of
limiting factor will be the resultant resistor recently, they were the only ones com- temperature. The other noise is sometimes
4-47 Chapter 4
and is a wideband signal whose
called./7/cVfcer,
f = 900Hz Av = 1 « = 2rf0(Hz , amplitude varies inversely with frequency.
For some analytical purposes, drift is con-
Q = 5 C1,C2 = 0.00068uF sidered as a very low frequency noise compo-
nent. Op amps that have been optimized for
R1 = X 10-6) and noise are called instrumenta-
(1) (6.28 X 900) (0.00068 offset, drift
tion amplifiers. The latest instrumentation
= 1,300,948 ohms
amplifier is the Semiconductor
National
R2 =
[2(25) -1] [6.28 x 900
5
(0.00068 x 10-6)]
= 26,550 ohms i-AA/V-*
5(k
—O+izv LM10, designed by
Robert Widlar, the
acknowledged "father of the IC op amp."
The architecture of the LM10 is different
10
R3 = .
= 2,601,896 ohms P= POLYSTYRENE from any other device, but the practical ap-
(6.28 X 900) (0.00068 X 10- 6
)
plications are the same.
The small-signal bandwidth of an op amp
R4, R5 = 2,601,896 X 0.02 = 52,018 ohms
is the frequency range over which the open-
loop voltage gain is at least unity. This
Fig. 108 — A design example based on the circuit of Fig. 107. specification depends mostly on the frequen-
cy compensation scneme (for example, the
capacitor in Fig. 101). Fig. 109 shows how the
120
10 R
maximum closed-loop gain varies with fre-
-AA/V quency. The power bandwidth of an opera-
too
tional amplifier is a function of slew rate, and
Fig. 109 —
Open-loop gain and closed-loop gain as a function of frequency. The vertical distance from hobby electronics stores or the mail-
between the curves is the feedback or gain margin. order firms listed in chapter 17.
AO
3D-
bO-
(A)
+vO-
COM |NO
AO :n>-<
bO-
(B)
-Oc
•4VO-
4-49 Chapter 4
binational circuit.
DEMORGAN S THEORUM POSITIVE LOGIC NEGATIVE LOGIC
^>
A+B - A? Sequential Logic
A circuit in which the output state is a
function not only of the input levels but
NAND NOR also of past output states is a sequential
logic circuit. Conventional truth tables are
not generally applicable to sequential cir-
Al
OR — NOT cuits because a iertain input condition
may not have a unique output state. The
NOR NAND simpler sequential circuits are sometimes
NOT 1
B defined by a modified truth table showing
input transitions and output state progres-
sions. State tables, flow diagrams and tinv
ing charts are the tools used to design
NOT NOT complex sequential machines.
The dependence on previous output
A B A+B A+B A B A ¥ A B states implies a requirement for memory.
H H
L L L H L L H
The simplest memory element is a special
L H H L H H L L
1.
type of bistable multivibrator (flip-flop)
called a latch. A D (for data) flip-flop is
H L H L H L L H L OR
AND
H H H L H H L L L
often used as a latch. A flip-flop can store
one bit (binary digit) of- information. A
typicalD. flip-flop with its truth table is
Fig. 113 — One of the fundamental theorums shown in Fig. 1 15 A. The logic level at D is
of combinational logic. The block diagrams OR AND
and theft corresponding expanded truth tables
transferred to Q on the positive transition
between the schematic symbols in Fig. 112. Fig. 114 — and negative-logic sym-
Positive- tain this logic level regardless of any
DeMorgan's Theorum can also be stated as bols for the common functions. The horizontal- changes at D until the next positive clock
Ai = a + opposite gates are electrically identical.
B. ly
transition. D throughput is said to be
The
synchronous because it is actuated by the
clock signal. The flip-flop shown also has
set and and R) inputs. These in-
reset (S
network can have only two possible states, and one output, and suppose a high level puts are asynchronous because they are
it is possible toof the input com-
list all output is desired only when both inputs independent of, and in fact overide, the
binations and their corresponding out- are low. A search through the truth tables clock and data inputs.
of Fig. 1 1 1 shows the nor gate to have the Fig. 1 15B shows a common application
puts, thus completely characterizing the
operation. Such a list is called a truth proper characteristics for our application. for a D flip-flop, a modulus-two frequen-
table. However, the phrasing of the problem cy divider. The sequence of events is il-
Each type of gate is assigned a distinc- (the words only and both) strongly sug- lustrated by the timing diagram. Several
tive schematic symbol. The and gate sym- gests the and (or nand) function. ' A of these flip-flops may be cascaded in a
bol has a straight edge on the input side negative-logic nand is functionally single IC package and called a counter.
and a blunt convex edge on the output equivalent to a positive-logic nor gate, The states of the Q outputs can be read as
side. The or gate is characterized by a and the nand symbol better expresses the a binary code, indicating the number of
concave edge on the input side and a sharp circuit function in the application just clock pulses received in an interval.
cusp on the output side. A small circle at described. Small circles (called state in-
the output of a gate signifies that an inver- dicators) on the input side of a gate signify
sion has taken place. negative logic. Fig. 112 traces the evolu-
Digital systems may be designed with tion of the electromechanical switching Of D R s 5
Boolean algebra. Circuit functions may be circuit into a nor or nand gate, depend- t 1
somewhat different from those of or- important results from Boolean algebra, *. LEVEL
CHANGE a 1 1
dinary algebra. The " + " symbol is used justifies the conversion from one logic (A) a=DONT a 1 1 1 1
CARE
to indicate the"or" function. "And" is convention to the other. An application of
represented by "•" or juxtaposition of this theorum appears in Fig. 113. When
the variables. A bar with a variable in- viewed as a continuation of Fig. 112, the
dicates that it has been inverted. Fig. Ill block representation of the Boolean equa-
shows the symbols for the common logic, tions clarifies the negative logic sym-
B)
functions with their associated Boolean bology. {
equations and truth tables. Positive logic Finally, Fig. 113 gives detailed electrical <Jiru\riJirLnjiji_rL
is assumed. With the exception of the "ex- truth showing identical output
tables
clusive or," all of the gates may be ex- states for any combination of inputs. A
panded to any number of inputs. There is complete chart of equivalent symbolic
no universally-accepted definition for an representations is given in Fig. 114.
exclusive OR gate with more than two in- A circuit made of the fundamental Fig. 115 —A D flip-flop. In A, set and reset
puts. gates and configured such a way that
in ("jam") inputs are provided. Note that the func-
tional truth table shows Q and S both in the
The Boolean algebra associated with the output is a function of the present
high state for one combination of Ft and S.
logic networks can sometimes be static input levels only is called a combina-
While this appears contradictory, it is the stan-
simplified through the use of negative tional logic circuit. Pulses and transitions dard way of defining the operation of this type
logic. Consider % circuit having two inputs are not considered in the design of a com- of flip-flop.
Fig. 116 — A regenerative switching circuit A memory IC of a given capacity may on the output pins and imposes minimum
called an RS The circuit could be im-
flip-flop. be organized in a number of ways. A 4-k times between successive readings. Many
plemented with NOR
gates, in which case the memory may be organized 4k X 1, lk X RAMs may have their supply voltages
first defined input state would be 11.
4, 512 X 8 and so on, with the second reduced without loss of data while they
number designating the number of bits are not being accessed, thus reducing
that can be accessed simultaneously. power consumption.
An RS flip-flop is shown in Fig. 116. Several sets of operating characteristics Large memory arrays are often used for
Two inverting gates connected in this are used to classify memories. If the loca- the generation and conversion of informa-
fashion form a regenerative switching cir- tions in an IC can be accessed in any order tion codes. One IC can be programmed to
cuit. The accuracy of the accompanying it is said to be a random access device. convert the five-level RTTY codd to the
truth table depends on the input states oc- Almost all semiconductor memories are eight-level ASCII code popular in com-
curing in the order given. The output cor- random access devices. puter devices. National Semiconductor
responding to an input of 1 1 could easily The other generic access mode is serial manufactures a single IC which generates
be the complement of that shown if it access. Examples of serial access the entire 56-character eight-level code.
followed a 00 input state. An important memories are shift registers, CCD Several ICs are now available for
rule in the design of sequential logic cir- (charge-coupled device) memories, and character generation where letters and
cuits is that the simultaneity of events can- most mechanical storage devices such as numerals are produced for display on an
not be depended upon. magnetic tape. Serial devices introduce a oscillograph screen.
The RS flip-flop is the simplest type. Its variable access delay, called latency,
outputs change directly as a result of which depends on the internal state of the Microprocessors
changes at its inputs. The type T flip-flop device when an address is presented to it. An important'new (from the 1970s)
"toggles," "flips," or changes its state Unless specified otherwise, it is assumed class of integrated circuit is the
during the occurrence of a T pulse,' called that a memory device can be written into microprocessor. A microprocessor com-
a clock pulse. The T flip-flop can be as well as read. Semiconductor memories bined with a few other ICs and input/out-
considered as a special case of the J-K flip- which can
be written in are usually put devices forms a microcomputer. To-
flop. Although there is some/disagreement "volatile," meaning they lose their con- day, practically every IC manufacturer
in the nomenclature, a J-K flip-flop is tents if the power is removed. A special produces microprocessors, either of its
generally considered to be a toggled or class of memory, the Read Only Memory own design or as a second source. Some
clocked R-S flip-flop. It may also be used (ROM), is not volatile. Some are mask- recent pieces of Amateur Radio equip-
as a storage element. The J input is fre- programmed during manufacture this — ment incorporate microprocessors for
quently called the "set" input; the K is type of device is what is usually called a channel sequencing and other functions.
called the "clear" input (not to be con- ROM. Another device of read-only The microprocessor portion of such
fused with the clock input). The clock in- memory programmed in the field and is
is equipment is part of a special purpose
put is called c. A clear-direct or C D input called Programmable Read-Only
a computer, meaning the input and/or out-
which overrides all other inputs to clear Memory (PROM). A PROM is manufac- put isn't available for general use or pro-
the flip-flop to is provided in most J-K tured with all bits in one state, and the gramming.
flip-flop packages. user creates bits of the opposite state by More and more amateurs are using
There are essentially two types of flip- an irreversible process, such as blowing general-purpose computers for radio-
flop inputs, the dc or .level-sensitive type, fuses or destroying transistors in the IC. related activities. A variety of architec-
and the "ac" or transition-sensitive type. The manufacturer's specified program- tures is possible, but the most basic con-
It should not be concluded that an ac in- ming technique must be followed exactly figuration is illustrated in Fig. 117. In a
put is capacitively coupled. This was true if a reliable result is to be obtained. typical amateur set-up, the program and
for the discrete-component flip-flops but Erasable PROMs (EPROMs) can be data are input through a keyboard or
capacitors of relatively large value just do returned to their unprogrammed state by cassette recorder, and a CRT display or
not fit into microcircuit dimensions. The exposing the IC to ultraviolet light printer serves as an output device. The
construction of an ac input, uses the through a window in the package. capabilities of most computer systems can
"master-slave" principle, where the ac- Another type of PROM
is the Electrically be enhanced by supplementing the inter-
tions of a master flip-flop driving a slave Alterable PROM
(EAPROM). These nal storage unit with additional memory.
flip-flop are combined to produce a shift devices are programmeda nondestruc-
in A computer is a machine and is in-
in the output level during a transition of tive, reversible manner, usually in the nor- capable of independent thought or action.
the input. mal operating circuit. They can retain The machine can only do what it is in-
stored data for up to 10 years even when structed or programmed to do. The ex-
Semiconductor Memories power is removed (storage time is reduced pression most commonly used to describe
While simple systems of flip-flops can at high temperatures). Individual words, the way a computer works is "GIGO/'
be used to store a small number of bits, ef- and sometimes blocks of words, can be meaning "garbage in, ^garbage out."
4-51 Chapter 4
available for an s.a.s.e. from ARRL. A
three-part t
series Meet the
entitled
Microprocessor, by Thomas and Belter,
MICROPROCESSOR appeared in August, September and Oc-
tober 1976 QST.
UN IT
ultimate application of the system also in-
I 1
There are programs called text editors, picture elements that differ from the can't be predicted from switching theory.
which translate invalid instructions into previous frame. This technique, known as Stray coupling between sections, small
the nearest valid ones, but even here the digital refreshment, is a sophisticated job transients on the power supply, and junc-
machine isn't thinking, because the text for a microcomputer system. The high- tion noise can pollute the final output
editor program was written by a human. speed data communication made possible spectrum without affecting the logical
Amateur computing is a hobby quite by computers may allow a complete function.
distinct from Amateur Radio, but there vhf/uhf contact in a single meteor burst. Particular attention should be paid to
are some worthwhile computer applica- Existing practice with this propagation power supply decoupling. In general, a
tions in radio. Some of these are Morse mode sometimes requires hours to ex- few 0.01 disc ceramic bypass capacitors
code and RTTY encoding and decoding, change call signs and signal reports. will prevent the switching transients of
SSTV chracter generation, aural readout The current state of the art in amateur one IC from changing the state of
(any format) of digital displays and EME work requires many kilowatts of erp another. If the logic system is to be used
satellite commanding. Of course, a and ultra-low-noise receivers to obtain -with radio equipment, more extensive
microcomputer system can be used for barely perceptible lunar echos. By statis- measures may be necessary. For a logic .
routine filing and record keeping. Some tical analysis of the receiver output, a system to have electromagnetic com-
hams keep their station logs by computer, microcomputer could possibly pull a lunar patibility (EMC), it must not radiate
and can instantly retrieve information echo out of the noise, thereby easing the energy into a radio receiver or be adverse-
about previous contacts. A computer can station gain requirements. ly affected by energy radiated from a
relieve the tedium of sorting tasks (for ex- Amateurs are becoming more interested nearby transmitter. The EMC problem is
ample, the index of this Handbook was in computer-aided design. This technique receiving increased attention as more
organized with the aid of a microcom, is especially useful for designs requiring radio amateurs acquire personal com-
puter system), but the most exciting ap- many - iterative calculations, such as in- puters for their stations.
plications are to things that weren't possi- terstage matching networks in solid-state
Logic Device Fabrication Technology
blebefore the personal computer era. transmitters. The tables of filters appear-
Some innovations that need to be ing elsewhere in this Handbook were Nearly all modern logic systems use in-
developed by radio/computer enthusiasts generated by a computer. tegrated circuits. The ICs are classified ac-
are video bandwidth compression QST publishes articles on nontrivial ap- cording to the complexity of the circuit on
(MSTV), high-speed data communication plications of microcomputers to Amateur the chip. ICs having 15 or more active
and weak-signal enhancement. One Radio. A bibliography of QST articles devices fall into the MSI or medium-scale
method for transmitting moving images in from 1975 ^ to the present on micro- integration category. The simple gate and
a narrow bandwidth is to send only those processors and microcomputers is flip-flop circuits use MSI technology.
Digital-Logic IC Families
There are several families or types of
ICs that are seeing widespread use. Each
SN7400
family has its own inherent advantages 13Q
and disadvantages. Each is geared to its
own particular market, meeting a specific
set of needs. RTL (resistor-transistor
logic) and DTL (diode-transistor logic)
NAND GATE
are obsoleteand are no longer used in new INPUT 10- (POSITIVE LOGIC)
designs. They are manufactured for exact -O OUTPUT
replacement purposes only. INPUT 1
INPUT 2 0-
Transistor-Transistor Logic — TTL
TTL is one of the bipolar logic families.
Also known as TL 2
(T. squared L), this —O GROUND NOR GATE
family has a variety of circuit configura- (NEGATIVE LOGIC)
interfacing devices outside a particular 74L00-series of devices are designed for below V cc If the signal at the input is
.
TTL subfamily. TTL devices have a lower power consumption that the stan- high the conduction state of each tran-
fanout (number of inputs that can be dard types. These ICs typically dissipate sistor reverses and the output drops nearly
driven by a single output) of 10 within a one milliwatt per gate, or about one-tenth to ground potential (low). The input
subfamily. If TTL inputs are left open, of that dissipated by standard TTL. diode protects the circuitry by clamping
they assume a "high" logic state, but Operating speed is the tradeoff for the any negative potential to approximately
greater noise immunity will be realized if lower power, and the maximum speed for -0.7 volt, limiting the current in Ql to a
pull-up resistors are used. When operated this subfamily is 3 MHz. safe value. Note that this protection is ef-
with a + 5-volt supply, any input voltage The subfamilies discussed so far operate fective only against transients. The output
level between 2.0 and 5.5 is defined to be as saturated switches. The 54S00- and diode is required to ensure that Q3 is cut
high. A voltage less than 0.8 is an input 74S00-series have Schottky diode clamps off when the output is low.
low. TTL ICs output a minimum high that keep the transistors out of saturation. The circuit in Fig. 1 18B, one section of
level of 2.4 volts, and. a maximum low Some ICs of this series are useful up to a type 7400 gate very similar to that of
is
level of 0.4 volts. The switching transients 125 MHz. The power dissipation is about A. The difference is that Q5 is a multiple-
generated by TTL devices appear on the twice that of standard TTL. A commonly emitter transistor with one input to each
supply line and can cause false triggering used subfamily combining low power emitter. A low level at either input will
of other devices. For this reason, the dissipation with fairly high speed is the turn on Q5, causing the output to go
power bus should have several bypass 54LS00- and 74LS00-series. The dissipa- HIGH.
capacitors per pc board. tionand speed for this series are 2 mW — ECL
"Plain" TTL ICs are identified by and 45 MHz, respectively. Emitter-Coupled Logic
5400- or 7400-series numbers and operate One section of a type 7404 hex inverter ECL has the highest speed of any of the
4-53 Chapter 4
levels swing to within a few millivolts of
-Ov„ the power supply voltages. The input
switching threshold is approximately one
half the power supply voltage (V DD -
V ss ). This characteristic contributes to
O OR
high immunity to noise on the input signal
or power supply. CMOS
input current
drive requirements are miniscule, so the
fanout capability is tremendous, at least in
low-speed systems. For high speed
systems, the input capacitance increases
01
3E the dynamic power dissipation and limits
L
1Z 02 the fanout.
Four subfamilies of CMOS logic ICs
are being produced at present. The 4000A
series is the original commercial line and
operates with power supplies from 3 to 12
volts. A subfamily having some improved
characteristics is the 4000B (for buffered)
series. The B series can be powered from-
supplies up to 18 volts. This feature makes
the devices especially attractive for
automotive applications. The output im-
Fig. 119 — Circuit topology of the ECL family. The functions of the various components are ex- pedance of buffered ICs is independent of
plained in the text. Complementary outputs call for the modified logic symbol. the input state. An unbuffered series,
designated 4000UB meets all the B series
specifications except that the logic outputs
and the input logic levels
are not buffered
logic forms. Some ECL devices can these levels appear at the emitters of the must be within 20 percent of the power
operate at frequencies higher than 1.2 output buffers, Q5 and Q6. The circuitry supply terminal voltages. Several trade-
GHz. This family is different from the associated with Q4, Dl and D2 is a bias offs must be considered when choosing
other forms of bipolar logic in that the generator. The reference voltage between buffered and unbuffered ICs.
transistors operate in a non-saturating established at the base of Q3 determines The buffered devices have greater noise
mode that analogous to that of some
is the input switching threshold. immunity and drive capability, but the
linear devices. The typical logic swing is speed is low compared to the unbuffered
only 800 mV. ECL devices are characterized
Metal-Oxide Semiconductors — MOS types. Some special-purpose 400O series
for use with a -5.2-volt power supply, The
logic families using all n-channel or ICs have tri-state output circuits. The
but operation from other supplies is possi- allp-channel field-effect transistors are third state is neither high or low, but is a
ble. If the Vcc terminal is connected to used extensively in microprocessors, high-impedance condition which allows
+ 2.0 volts and the Vee terminal con- digital watches and calculators. Where en- several outputs to be paralleled for wire
nected to - 3.2 volts, the device can drive tire functions can be synthesized on a ORing or multiplexing. The 74C00 series is
a 50-ohm load directly with respect to single chip, this technology is quite useful. designed to be a plug-in replacement for
ground. The power output obtained this Ordinary NMOS and PMOS gate pack- low-power TTL devices in some applica-
way is about dBm. ECL ICs dissipate a ages are not very popular. Most general- tions. Some CMOS devices can function
great deal of power, and heat sinking is purpose logic networks are now made at speeds greater than 15 MHz.
sometimes necessary. The ECL family with complementary metal-oxide A simplified diagram for a CMOS logic
finds use in'uhf frequency synthesizers semiconductor (CMOS) ICs. This family inverter is given in Fig. 120. Some of the
and counters, as well as in computers. has p-channel and n-channel transistors diodes in the input and output protection
Some highly specialized ICs have on the same chip. Only one of each com- circuits are inherently part of the
capacitively coupled inputs, and therefore plementary pair is turned on at any time, manufacturing process. Even with the
have minimum as well as maximum toggle so the power dissipation is negligible ex- protection circuits, CMOS ICs are suscep-
rates. cept during logic transitions. A notable tible to damage from static charges.
—
1
0.1 15k
ICA3140
T a CMOS
v
ss
way of achieving higher speeds and den- /-T7 '
— +9 V
sities at lower power dissipation on
smaller chips which cost less.
Table 1
Standard TTL Schottky TTL High-speed TTL Low-power TTL Schottky low-power ECL III ECL 10 k
(active pull-up) (74S) (74H) (74L) TTL (74LS) (1600 series)
Vcc = +5.0 V Vcc = +5.0 V Vcc = +5.0 V . Vcc = +5.0 V Vcc = + 5.0 V, Vcc = 0V,
VEE = -5.2 V
minimum high.
input voltage 2.0 V 2.0 V 2.0 V 2.0 V 2.0 V -1.095 V -1.105 V
maximum HIGH
input current 40 50 M A 50 mA 20jiA 20 hA
maximum LOW
input voltage 0.8 V 0.8 V 0.8 V 0.8 V 0.8 V -1.485 V -ll475 V
maximum LOW
input current 1.6 mA 2.0 mA 2.0 mA 400 mA 400 >/A
minimum high 2.4 V* 2.5 V 2.4 V 2.4 V 2.5 V -0.9 V - 0.825 V
output voltage mA) mA)
(30 (30
maximum high
output current 800 1.0 mA 1.0 mA 400 /iA 400 M A 40 mA 50 mA
maximum LOW
output voltage 0.4 V 0.5 V 0.4 V 0.3 V 0.5 V -1.75 V -1.725 V
maximum LOW Open emitter —
output current 16 mA 20 mA 20 mA 4.0 mA 8.0 mA pull-down re-
sistor required
4-55 Chapter 4
—
4000B OR
drive TTL gates from input sig- CMOS
-W- TTL
SERIES nals. TTL to-ECL and ECL-to-TTL con-
74C 1N270
version can be implemented with the
SS N1017 and N 1 068 integrated circuits
m
.
300 (iA 250 (iA 1.6 mA 1.3 mA 3.4 mA 1.75 mA 8.0 mA the full noise immunity of both gates. An
(2.5 V) (9.5 V) (2.5 V) (9.5 V) (13.5 V) (0 V) (0 V) operational amplifier configured a as
0.05 V 0.05 V 0.05 V 0.05 V 0.05 V 0.4 V 1.0 V comparator, as in Fig. 121C, makes an ex-
<
— no load ••) (360 (iA) (360 (iA)
cellent converter from TTL to CMOS
300 (iA 600 (iA 500 (iA 1.3 mA 3.4 mA 1.75 mA 8.0 mA using dual power supplies. An FET op
(0.4 V) (0.5 V) (0.4 V) (0.5 V) (15 V) (5 V) (10 V)
amp is shown because the output voltage
4-57 Chapter 4
be coupled by the circuits drawn in Fig.
-0+5V
123B and C. In B, the TTL gatje is di-
vorced from the voltage divider network
when the output is high. In this state the
junction of the 1.2-kQ and 12-kfi resistors
assumes a potential of nearly + 5 volts.
When the TTL output goes low, the
anode end of the diode string is pulled
down to about + 2.5V. This 2.5-volt logic
swing is attenuated and shifted to the pro-
per non-saturating ECL levels by the
resistor network.
An emitter follower stage is used in C.
The - 1.8-volt potential at the ECL input
established by the resistor network
prevents the transistor from turning on
when the TTL output is low. A ger-
manium diode provides a stiff voltage
reference in the low state and prevents ex-
cessive conduction in the upper transistor
of the IC output structure. The voltage
translation process is similar to that in
part B of the figure. Returning the collec-
tor to + 5V rather than ground keeps the
transistor well out of saturation.
+ I5VO-
(A)
one that is very fast —
the system cannot
be faster than the slowest logic element
used. The speed of ECL ICs comes from
DD 2N4403 keeping the transistors out of saturation,
2N3906 and it is for this reason that the defined in-
CMOS 2N2907 put logic swing is only about 400 mV.
Fig. 126 — Interface circuits for ECL-driving CMOS. A method useful when different power sup-
families are powered from the same
plies are usedis illustrated in A. The diode prevents the -5.2-volt low level from damaging
the
source. This npn-pnp saturated amplifier
CMOS device. When a common supply is available, the two-transistor amplifier/translator of B will also work when a common negative
may be used. supply is used.
4-59 Chapter 4
OPTICAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES
A variety
large of photoelectric
semiconductors exists today, including
bipolar phototransistors, photoFETs,
TRANSMITTER
photodiodes (pn junction, PIN and varac-
tor), light-activated silicon-controlled rec-
tifiers (LASCRs) and optocouplers. An _
*
Fig. 127 — A visible light (or infrared) voice communications system. A phototransistor in the
optocoupler, or optoisolator, is an LED receiver recovers the amplitude-modulated signal from the transmitter.
devices are used extensively in punched- circuit shown here can protect high-voltage rectifiers and filter capacitors from ac surges.
l iii
1
A B C 7 16 EACH 150JV
\
13
—vw H4-
50
ids o MSB O-
O-
7447A
—AAA/
-AAV-
R 33 C / /£'i7 LSBO
-AAAf-
-AAV-
-AAAr-
LAMP
TEST u"~
-AAAr-
Fig. 129 — Various formats for symbolic
displays. RIPPLE O- -O RIPPLE
BLANKING INPUT BLANKING
OUTPUT COMMON -ANODE
DISPLAY
rT7
(A)
+ 5V
O
2N2907
13 2N4403
2N3906
10k
bed f
ws
e 1
Fig. 130 —
Segment identification and layout 8
of a seven-segment readout device.
rT7
COMMON - CATHODE
contain a decimal point on one side of the DISPLAY /~T7
character array. Another type of display is (B) •
LED Readouts by Texas Instruments and' others. This is among several digits. The multiplexer
Displays made from light-emitting an open-collector TTL device designed to logic, which is usually contained on a
diodes are the ones most commonly used pull down common-anode displays single IC, scans the input data lines and
because of their good readability and through external current-limiting re- sequentially routes the data for each digit
relative ease of circuit integration. sistors. A 7447A will also drive common- into the decoder. The displays are wired in
Character heights of 0.3 and 0.6 inches are cathode displays if external transistors are parallel; that is, all of the "a" segments
standard, although larger units are used. Fig. 131 shows the connections for are connected together, and so on. The
available. LED readouts are manufac- both types of display. common element of each digit is enabled
tured with one element of each segment The dc illumination method shown is at the proper time by the multiplexing cir-
common. The character to be displayed is the easiest to implement, but higher light cuit that selects the input data. With this
usually encoded in BCD form, so it is output with lower energy consumption system, only one digit is energized at any
necessary to employ some combinational can be had by pulsing the display. A flash a factor that greatly eases the
instant,
logic to illuminate the proper segments. rate of 100 Hz be imperceptible
will power-supply requirements. In order to
The circuitry to accomplish this is called a because of the persistence of human vi- maintain the brightness of each digit, the
decoder. Various seven-segment decoders sion. As more digits are added to a dis- current to each LED segment must be in-
are manufactured to drive common- play, using a decoder/driver for each digit creased. A typical display .should be
cathode and common-anode devices. becomes unfeasible from an economic operated at a peak current of 100 mA for
Some of these devices contain advanced and pc-board real estate point of view. A each segment, with a pulse duration of 50
features. The decoder IC most available technique called multiplexing allows a to 250 microseconds at a 20-percent duty
to hobbyists is the 7447A, manufactured single decoder /driver IC to be time-shared cycle.
4-61 Chapter 4
•
Chapter 5
used in some applications (notably ac-dc being connected between one wire and the
I ower-line voltages have been "stan-
and some television receivers), neutral, while the other half of the load is
dardized" throughout the U.S. at 117 and radios
Supplies of this sort operate directly from connected between the other wire and
234 volts in residential areas where a
the power line, making it necessary to neutral. Heavy appliances, such as electric
single phase voltage is supplied. These
connect the chassis or common-return stoves and heaters are designed for
figures represent nominal voltages. "Nor-
point of the circuit directly to one side of 234-volt operation and therefore are
mal" line voltage in a particular area may across the two ungrounded
the ac line. This type of power supply connected
be between approximately 110 and 125
represents a shock hazard when the wires. While both ungrounded wires
volts, but generally will be above 115 volts.
equipment is connected to other units in should be fused, a fuse should never be
In many states the service is governed by a
the amateur station or when the chassis is used in the neutral wire, nor should a
PUC (public utilities commission). The switch be used in this side of the line. The
voltage average across the country is ap- exposed. For safety reasons, an isolation
transformer should be used with such reason for this is that opening the neutral
proximately 117.
equipment. wire does not disconnect the equipment. It
ac-current capability of the service
The
simply leaves the equipment on one side
isa factor of line length from the dwelling
the Power-Line Considerations: Connections of the 234-volt circuit in series' with
to the nearest pole transformer, plus
In most residential systems, three wires whatever load may be across the other
conductor size of the line. Many older
are brought in from the outside to the side of the circuit, as shown in Fig. IB.
homes are a 60-ampere
supplied with
distribution board, while in a few older Furthermore, with the neutral open, the
service while most new homes have 100
systems there are only two wires. In the voltage will then be divided between the
amperes. Houses equipped with electric
three-wire system, the third wire is the two sides in inverse proportion to the load
heat will have services ranging from 150 to
neutral, which is grounded. The voltage resistance, the voltage on one side
200 amperes. soars on
between the two wires .normally is dropping below normal, while it
The electrical power required to operate happen to
234, while half of this voltage appears the other side, unless the loads
Amateur Radio equipment is usually
between each of these wires and neutral, be equal.
taken from the ac lines when the equip-
The usual line running to baseboard
ment is operated where power is available. as indicated in Fig. 1 A. In systems of this
type the 117-voIt household load is outlets rated at 15 amperes. Considering
is
For mobile operation the source of power
divided as evenly as possible between the the power consumed by filaments, lamps,
isalmost always the car storage battery.
two sides of the circuit, half of the load transmitter, receiver and other auxiliary
Dc voltages used in transmitters, recei-
vers and other related equipment are derived
from the commercial ac lines by using a
transformer-rectifier-filter system. The trans-
former changes the ac voltage to a suitable
value and the rectifier converts the ac to NO FUSE
OR SWITCH
pulsating dc. A
filter is used to smooth out
O
these pulsations to an acceptably low level.
Essentially pure direct current is required
to prevent 60- or 120-Hz hum in most
pieces of amateur equipment. Transmit-
ters must be operated from a pure dc sup-
ply as dictated by federal regulations. If a Xjuult "UUULF
constant voltage is required under condi-
tions of changing load or ac-line voltage, a »I17V- »417V
rrrrx rm\
regulator is used following the filter. o
234V—
When the prime power source is dc (a 6 6 6 6 {Eh
battery), the dc is used directly or is first (A) (B) (C)
changed to ac and is then followed by the
transformer-rectifier-filter combination.
The latter system has lost considerable Fig 1 —
Three-wife power-line circuits. At A —
Normal three-wire-line termination. No fuse should be used in
frame. *
5-2 Chapter 5
i
TO
AC
LINE FILTER
TO
DIODE
CONDUCTION
DIODE
NON- CONDUCTION
Mm sr
\
\ i
i \
\
;
EPEAK
EAV
• 1.4ERIIS
0.45ERMS
POWER s I EQUIP. (B) RIPPLE»<2l%/60Hi
LINE I .
(A)
II
I / 1
REVERSE \ I
VOLTAGE
w
\ I \ 4
\_' 1
X -w-
-I.4ERMS -I-1.4ERMS
(Bi
(D)
(C)
Fig 4 —Half-wave rectifier circuit. A illustrates the basic circuit and B displays
the diode conduction
diode is shown at C and
and nonconduction periods. The peak-reverse voltage impressed across the
for the resistor load is 1.4 E rms and
D with a simple resistor load at C and a capacitor load at D.
TO 2.8 E rms for the capacitor load.
POWER
LINE EQUIP.
(C)
the main power switch, or a similar The peak reverse voltage (PRV), the
arrangement at the bench, if the bench is voltage that the rectifier must withstand
Fig. 3— Reliable arrangements for cutting off all located remotely from the transmitter. when it isn't conducting, varies with the
power to the transmitter. S is an enclosed A bleeder resistor with a power rating load. With a resistive load it is the peak ac
double-pole power switch, J a standard ac outlet, which gives a considerable margin of voltage (1.4 Erms) but with a capacitor
P a shorted plug to fit the outlet and a red lamp.
I
rectifier will conduct and current will flow main at that same level. The peak reverse
become necessary for someone else to cut
through the rectifier to the load (indicated voltage impressed across the diode is now
the power off in an emergency.
by. the solid line in Fig. 4B). During the the sum of the voltage stored in the capa-
The outlet J should be placed in some
other half cycle the rectifier is reverse citor plus the peak negative swing of volt-
corner out of sight where it will not be a
biased and no current will flow (indicated age from the transformer secondary. In
temptation for children or others to play
by the dotted line in Fig. 4B) to the load. this case the PRV is 2.8 Er ms-
with. The shorting plug can be removed to
open the power circuit if there are others As shown, the output is in the form of
Full-Wave Center-Tap Rectifier
around who might inadvertently throw pulsed dc and current always flows in the
the switch while the operator is working same direction. A filter can be used to A commonly used rectifier circuit is
smooth out these variations and provide a shown in Fig. 5. Essentially an arrange-
on the rig. If the operator takes the plug
higher average dc voltage from the circuit. ment in which the outputs of two half-
with him, it will prevent someone from
This idea will be covered in the next wave rectifiers are combined, it makes use
turning on the power in his absence and
section on of both halves of the ac cycle. transfor- A
either hurting himself or the equip- filters.
ment or perhaps starting a fire. Of utmost The average output voltage — the mer with a center-tapped secondary is re-
importance is the fact that the outlet J voltage read by a dc voltmeter with this — quired with the circuit.
circuit (no filter connected) is 0.45 times The average output voltage is 0.9 times
must be placed in the ungrounded side of
the rms value of the ac voltage delivered the rms voltage of half the transformer
the line.
by the transformer secondary. Because the secondary; this is the maximum that can
Those who are operating low power
frequency of the pulses is rather low (one be obtained with a suitable choke-input
and feel that the expense or complication
pulsation per cycle), considerable filtering filter. The peak output voltage is 1.4 times
of the switch isn't warranted can use the
required to provide adequately smooth the rms voltage of half the transformer
shorted-plug idea as the main power is
dc output. For this reason the circuit is secondary; this is the maximum voltage
switch. In this case, the outlet should be
usually limited to applications where the that can be obtained from a capacitor-
located prominently and identified by a
current required is small, as in a input filter.
signal light, as shown in Fig. 3C.
transmitter bias supply. As can be seen in Fig. 5C the PRV
The test bench should be fed through
.
TO FILTER B
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier AC EPEAK'<.4ERMS
LINE — EAV "0.9ERMS
I /» (1 « A RIPPLE-48%/<20Hl
Another commonly used rectifier cir- B '» A '* B " A r B
1/
cuit is illustrated in Fig. 6. In this
/V7
DIODE
\ I \
>
w
I
' \ / w
\ I \
>
I
'
\ /
\
DIODE REVERSE 1.4ERMS
current to be drawn from the supply. VOLTAGE SWING
(C)
Filtering L
The pulsating
dc waves from the
L- * 6 d9e r Ct '" er C " oult The basiccircuit is illustrated
e
?
-
at A. Diode conduction and
not sufficiently constant in
rectifiers are
amplitude to prevent hum corresponding
2SrB «h
and n
diodes D h "? Sh n at B Di0deS A and C conduct on one hal < ° f the input'cycle whHe
T -
5-4 Chapter 5
I
component. Series chokes will readily pass the load resistance is high. Silicon recti-
must have a voltage rating safe for the
dc but will impede the flow of the ac fiers have a higher allowable peak-to-dc
highest value to which the voltage will \
removed. component. ratio than do thermionic rectifiers. This
soar when the external load is
The alternating component called permits the use of capacitor-input filters
A power supply will show more (higher) is
at ratios of input capacitor to load resis-
regulation with long-term changes in load ripple.The effectiveness of the filter can be
expressed in terms of percent ripple, tance that would seriously shorten the life
resistance than with short temporary
which' is the ratio of the mis value of the of a thermionic rectifier system. When the
changes. regulation with long-term
The
ripple to the dc value in terms of series resistance through a rectifier and
changes often called the static regula-
is t
FROM DC
OUTPUT
+0
FROM
RECTIFIER
L1
. T OUTPUT
DC
arrive at circuit values for a power supply
using a single capacitor filter.
RECTIFIER
(A) (B)
I Fig. 9 is the circuit diagram of the
power supply
Requirements:
to be used.
Fig. 7 —
Capacitive-input filter circuits. At A is a simple capacitor filter. B and C are single- and EsF
SEC
-1M+M = 9.93
double-section filters, respectively. 1.41
t = J- = 4- = y x
f,
(Hz) 120
io-
lit
10 30 50 100 300 1000
E rip (pk-pk)"]
I
800
Tooo
(R IN OHMS, C INjuF)
(A)
^lA X8.3 X IP' 3
3 j j 10 6
= 11,857
12.6
= 0.05 = 0.O63 ohm 300 500 1000
10 (R IN OHMS, C IN pf)
•J55q
(B)
Fig. 8 —
Dc output voltages from a half- and full-wave rectifier circuit as a function of the filter
capacitance and load resistance (half-wave shown at A and full-wave
Therefore, the transformer secondary dc shown atB). R s includes
transformer winding resistance and rectifier forward resistance. For the ratio
FUR, both resistances
resistance should be no greater than 0.063 are ohms; for the RC R
in product, is in ohms and C is in «F.
5-6 Chapter 5
ohm. The secondary current rating should D2
^
O
0311
the case of this power supply the capacitor
should be rated for at least 18 volts.
04
-H- 4 •
Ru
Choke-Input Filters
WithV thermionic rectifiers better volt-
E (no load)
XT
=E sec xl-41 CI (E min ) =E X1.41
age regulation results when a choke-input
filter, as shown in Fig. 10, is used. Choke P =E o X I
L2
Fl (A) = 2I/N (N = turns ratio)
input permits better utilization of the Ri =E„ + I, E sec 2E + 1.41
thermionic rectifier, since a higher load
current can be drawn without exceeding
the peak current rating of the rectifier.
Fig. 9 — This figure illustrates how to design a simple unregulated power supply. See text for a
thorough discussion.
rem.
Fig. 1
1 — In most applications, the filter chokes may be placed in the negative instead of the positive
side of the circuit. This reduces the danger of a voltage breakdown between the choke winding and '
A ERMS ^DB
Wv— )\
± -o + universal practice to place filter chokes in
the positive leads of plate power supplies.
AC
LINE DAi; C2^b EDC DA i i CZ^Z This means that the insulation between
the choke winding and its core (which
should be grounded to chassis as a safety
(A) 7£ CONDUCTING measure) must be adequate to withstand
the output voltage of the supply. This
voltage requirement is removed if the
CI chokes are placed in the negative lead as
*.4 ERMS DB shown in Fig. 11. With this connection,
EPEAK*2.8ERMS the capacitance of the transformer secon-
EPRV2.8 ERMS
+ C2 m
dary to ground appears in parallel with
ZfZ 2.8 ERMS J ll- the filter chokes tending to bypass the
chokes. However, this effect will be
negligible in practical application except
transformer secondary voltage plus that voltage stored in C 1 from the previous half cycle. D illustrates amplifiers
the levels to which each capacitor is charged throughout the cycle. no problem and the chokes may be placed
in the positive side in the conventional
manner. In higher-voltage applications,
there is no reason why the filter chokes
5-8 Chapter 5
assume the transformer voltage polarity at voltage, D A is cutoff and diode D B c6n- the capacitors will remain charged €1 —
ducts charging capacitor C2. The amount to 1.4 E rms and C2 to 2.8 E rms When a .
positive half cycle of the secondary the load. If no load is connected across C2 The output waveform across C2 re-
sembles that of a half-wave rectifier cir-
cuit in that C2 is pulsed once every cycle.
The drawing at Fig. 13D illustrates the
levels to which the two capacitors are
charged throughout the cycle. In actual
operation the capacitors will not dis-
charge all the way to zero as shown.
Fig. 16B works in substantially similar This does not apply, of course, to
fashion. In either of the circuits of Fig. 16, amateur transmitter plate transformers,
the output voltage will approach an exact which usually are rated for intermittent
'
^ n
(Full-wave ^
ct)
c
Sec VA =
v*. 0-707 EI— transformer to be rewound, if known, can
be used to determine its power-handling
capability. The secondary volt-ampere
E rating will be 10 to 20 percent, less than the LAMINATION
(Full-wave bridge) Sec VA = WINDING STACK
primary rating. The power rating may
also be determined approximately from
where the cross-sectional area of the core which
E = total rms voltage of the secondary is inside the windings. Fig. 17 shows the
(between the outside ends in the case method of determining the area, and Fig.
of a center-tapped winding) 18 may be used to convert this in-
I = dc output current in milliamperes formation into a power rating.
(load current plus bleeder current) Before disconnecting the winding leads
from their terminals, each should be
The primary volt-amperes be some-will marked removing the
for identification. In
what higher because of transformer losses. core laminations, care should be taken to
note the manner in which the core is
assembled, so that the reassembling will
Broadcast and Television Replacement be done in the same manner. Most
Transformers transformers have secondaries wound
Small power transformers of the type over the primary, while in some the order
sold for replacement in broadcast and is reversed. In case the secondaries are on WIDTH X HEIGHT (WXH) OF CORE
television receivers are usually designed the inside, the turns can be pulled out
for service in terms of use for several from the center after slitting and removing — Cross-sectional drawing of a typical
Fig. 17
hours continuously with capacitor-input the fiber core. power transformer. Multiplying the height (or
filters. In the usual type of amateur The turns removed from one of the thickness of the laminations) by the width of
transmitter service, where most of the original filament windings of known the central core area in inches gives the value
to be applied to Fig. 18.
power is drawn intermittently for periods voltage should be carefully counted as the
of several minutes with equivalent inter- winding is removed. This will give the
vals in between, the published ratings can number of turns per volt and the same
be exceeded without excessive transformer figure should be used in determining the amateur-service transformers is '700 cmil/
heating. number of turns for the new secondary. A. The larger the cmil/A figure, the cooler
With a capacitor-input filter, it should For instance, if the old filament winding the transformer will run. The current
be safe to draw 20 to 30 percent more was rated at 5 volts and had 15 turns, this rating in amperes of various wire sizes is
current than the rated value. With a is 15/5 = 3 turns per yolt. If the new shown in the copper-wire table in another
choke-input filter, an increase in current secondary is to deliver 18 * volts, the chapter. If the transformer being rewound
of about 50 percent is -permissible. If a required number of turns on the new is a filament transformer, it may be
bridge rectifier is used, the output voltage winding will be 18 X 3 = 54 turns. necessary to choose the wire size carefully
will be approximately doubled. In this' In winding a transformer, the size of to fit the small available space. On the
case, it should be possible in amateur wire is an important factor in the heat other hand, if the transformer is a power
transmitter service to draw the rated developed in operation. A cross-sectional unit with the high-voltage winding re-
current, thus obtaining about twice the area of 1000 circular mils per ampere is moved, there should be plenty of room for
rated output power from the transformer. conservative. A
value commonly used in a size of wire that will conservatively
5-10 Chapter 5
handle the required current.
4
After the first layer of turns put on is
u>
during rewinding, secure the ends with ui 3-3/4
X
cellulose tape. Each layer should be o
5 3-1/2
insulated from the next; ordinary house-
UJ
hold waxed paper can be used for the 5 3-1/4
<
purpose, a single layer being adequate. O ,
Sheets cut to size beforehand may be
secured over each layer with tape. Be sure z
~ 2-3/4
to bring all leads out the same side of the <
UJ
-
core so the covers will go in place when J 2-1/2
the unit is completed. When the last layer UJ
a: 2-1/4
of the winding is put on, use two sheets of o
o
waxed paper, and then cover those with 2
*
vinyl electrical tape, -keeping the tape as o
add mechanical 1-3/4
taut as possible. This will t
UJ
strength to the assembly.
The laminations and housing are </)
in most catalogs. The last two often do Fig. 19. At A is a simple half-wave recti- rectified voltage equals the stored voltage
not, but they are very important. fierwith a resistive load. The waveform to in the capacitor. As the voltage rises be-
Since the rectifier never allows current the right of the drawing shows the output yond that point the diode begins to supply
to flow more than half the time, when it voltage along with the diode current. At B current. The diode will continue to con-
does conduct it has to pass at least twice and C there are two periods of operation duct until the waveform reaches the crest,
the average direct current. With a to consider. After the capacitor is charged as shown. Since the diode must pass a cur-
capacitor-input filter, the rectifier con- to the peak-rectified voltage a period of rent equal to that of the load over a short
ducts much less than half the time, so that diode nonconduction elapses while the period of a cycle the current will be high.
when it does conduct, it may pass as much output voltage discharges through the load. The larger the capacitor for a given load,
Thermal Protection
The junction of a diode is quite small,
hence it must operate at a high current
density. The heat-handling capability is,
Surge Protection
Each time the power supply is acti-
vated, assuming the input filter capacitor
has been discharged, the rectifiers must
look into what represents a dead short.
Some form of surge protection is usually
necessary to protect the diodes until the
input capacitor becomes nearly charged.
Although the dc resistance of the trans-
former secondary can be relied upon in
some instances to provide ample surge-
current limiting, it is seldom enough on
high-voltage power supplies to be suit-
able. Series resistors can be installed
between the secondary and the rectifier
strings, but are a deterrent to good voltage
regulation. By installing a surge-limiting
device in the primary circuit of the plate
transformer, the need for series resistors
in the secondary circuit can be avoided. A
practical method for primary-circuit surge
control is shown in Fig. 20. The resistor,
Fig. 21 — Methods of suppressing line transients. See text.
Rs introduces a voltage drop^ in the
primary feed to Tl until C is nearly
charged. Then, after C becomes partially
the shorter the diode conduction time and diode's capability can be made by using charged, the voltage drop across R s les-
the higher the peak repetitive current (Irep). these rules ofthumb for silicon diodes of sens and allows Kl to pull in, thus apply-
When the supply is first turned on, the the type commonly used in amateur ing full primary power to Tl as K1A
discharged input capacitor looks like a power supplies: shorts out Rj. Rs is usually a 25-watt resis-
dead short, and the rectjfier passes a very Rule 1) The maximum Irep rating can tor whose resistance is somewhere be-
heavy current. This is Isurge. The maxi- be assumed to be approximately four tween 15 and 50 ohms, depending upon
mum Isurge rating is usually for a dura- times the maximum Iq rating. the power supply characteristics.
tion of one cycle (at 60 Hz), or about 16.7 Rule 2) The maximum Isurge rating
milliseconds. can be assumed to be approximately 12 Transient Problems
If a manufacturer's data sheet is. not times the maximum Iq rating. (This A common cause of trouble is transient
available, an educated guess about a should provide a reasonable safety factor. voltages on the ac power line. These are
5-12 Chapter 5
short spikes, mostly, that can temporarily should be placed across each diode. Fig.
increase the voltage seen by the rectifier to 22A shows the complete series-diode
values much higher than the normal circuit. The capacitors should be non-
transformer voltage. They come from inductive, ceramic disk, for example, and
distant lightning strokes, electric motors should be well matched. Use 10-percent-
turning on and off, and so on. Transients tolerance capacitors if possible.
cause unexpected, and often unexplained,
Diodes in Parallel (A)
loss of silicon rectifiers.
It's always wise to suppress line Diodes can be placed in parallel to
transients, and it can be easily done. Fig. increase current-handling capability.
21 A shows one way. CI looks like Equalizing resistors should be added as R
280,000 ohms 60 Hz, but to a sharp
at shown in Fig. 22B. Without the resistors, r-A/W- -M-
transient (which has only high-frequency one diode may take most of the current.
components), it is an effective bypass. C2 The resistors should be selected to have
provides additional protection on the about a 1-volt drop at the expected peak —wv
1
unless the peak voltage becomes abnor- of an available power supply. In most
mally high. Then they clip the transient cases, it is not economically feasible to
peaks. General Electric sells protective provide a separate power supply for each
diodes under the trade name, "Thy- of the required voltages. If the current
rector." Sarkes-Tarzian uses the descrip- drawn by an electrode (or combination of +o- -vw-
tive name, "Klipvolt," electrodes operating at the same voltage) FROM TO
POWER LOAO
Transient voltages can go as high as is reasonably constant under normal SUPPLY
twice the normal line voltage before the operating conditions, the required voltage
suppressor diodes clip the peaks. Capaci- may be obtained from a supply of higher
tors cannot give perfect suppression voltage by means of a voltage-dropping
(A)
either. Thus, it is a good idea to use resistor in series, as shown in Fig. 23 A.
power-supply rectifiers rated at about The value of the series, resistor, Rl, may
+o- -O + E
twice the expected PRV. be obtained from Ohm's Law,
FROM
Diodes in Series POWER -o+
R =- SUPPLY
Where the PRV rating of a single diode I
resistances when they are cut off. The and screen currents, is 75 mA. The
reverse voltage divides according to required resistance is
-O-
Ohm's Law, and the diode with the higher
400 - 250 150
back resistance will have the higher R = = 2000 ohms (C)
.075 .075
voltage developed across it. The diode
may break down.
we put a swamping resistor across The power rating of the resistor is Fig. 23 — A — Series voltage-dropping resistor.
If,
resultant resistance across each diode will X (2000) = ,1 1.2 watts. A, 20-watt resistor is
—
be almost the same, and the back voltage the nearest safe rating to be used. R2 = E1
2
R1 =11+12
E E1
shunted by 500 X 500, or 250,000 ohms. any change in current through the resistor
-E2
The shift from forward conduction to will cause a directly proportional change R3 = E2 R2 = E1
I 3 11 + 13
high back resistance does not take place in the voltage drop across the resistor. The
instantly in a silicon dipde. Some diodes regulation can be improved somewhat by
E -E1
take longer than others to develop high connecting a second resistor from* the R1
11+12+13
back resistance. To protect the "fast" low-voltage end of the first to the negative
diodes in a series string until all the diodes power-supply terminal, as shown in Fig.
are properly cut off, a 0.01- »F capacitor 23B. Such an arrangement constitutes a 13 must be assumed.
The fundamental circuit for a gaseous the diode can dissipate) run from less than mum would conduct 5
dissipation rating,
regulator is shown in Fig. 24. The tube is 0.25 watt to 50 watts. The ability of the amperes of current. A 10-V 1-W diode, on
connected in series with a limiting resistor, Zener diode to stabilize a voltage is depen- the other hand, could safely conduct no
Rl, across a source of voltage that must dent upon the conducting impedance of more than 0. 1 A, or 100 mA. The conduct-
be higher than the starting voltage. The the diode, which can be as low as one ohm ing impedance of a diode is its voltage
starting voltage is about 30 to 40 percent or less in a low-voltage, high-power diode rating divided by the current flowing
higher than the operating voltage. The to as high as a thousand ohms in a low- through it, and in the above examples
load is connected in parallel with the tube. power, high-voltage diode. would be 2 ohms for the 50-W diode, and
For stable operation, a minimum tube 100 ohms for the 1-W diode. Disregarding
current of 5 to 10 mA is required. The
Diode Power Dissipation small voltage changes which may occur,
maximum permissible current with most Unlike gaseous regulator tubes, Zener the conducting impedance of a given
types is 40 mA; consequently, the load diodes of a particular voltage rating have diode is a function of the current flowing
current cannot exceed 30 to 35 if the mA varied maximum current capabilities, de- through it, varying in inverse proportion.
voltage is to be stabilized over a range pending upon the power ratings of each of The power-handling capability of most
from zero to maximum load. A single VR the diodes. The power dissipated in a Zener diodesis rated at 25°C, or approxi-
tube may also be used to regulate the diode is the product of the voltage across mately room temperature. If the diode is
5-1 4 Chapter 5
—
5!
1L 0.5A
Q( 0-25
i
— F1
trzD-
D2
-w-
25.3V
)3V
(REG)
RS ,
H7 C3 TiZ OA
VAC _ +400Quf
7£ D3 V 50V
RP<?1000
VO < OHMS
26
D4 ' : 2000juF (4V
-w- C2 '
25V IW
Fig. 26 Illustration of a power supply with regulation. A pass transistor, Q1, is used to extend the range of the Zener-diode regulator.
operated in a higher ambient temperature, single Zener diode, and also to give two (electronically). The average dc voltage
its power capability must be derated. A values of regulated voltage. The diodes available from the regulator is propor-
typical 1-watt diode can safely dissipate need not have equal breakdown voltages, tional to the duty cycle of the switching
only 1/2 watt at 100°C. because the arrangement is self equalizing. wave form, or the ratio of the on time to
However, the current-handling capability the total period of the switching cycle.
Limiting Resistance of each diode should be taken into Re- Switching frequencies of several kilohertz
The value of Rg in Fig. 25 is determined count. The limiting resistor may be calcu- are normally used to avoid the need for
by the load requirements. If Rg is too large lated as above, taking the sum of the extensive filtering to smooth the switching
the diode will be unable to regulate at diode voltages as Ez, and the sum of the frequency from the dc output.
large values of II, the current through load currents as II- pertains essen-
The above information
If R s is too small, the diode dissipation circuit can A
tially tovoltage regulators.
rating may be exceeded at low values of Electronic Voltage Regulation also be constructed to provide current
II. The optimum value for R§ can be cal- regulation. Such regulation is usually
Several circuits have been developed for
culated by: power obtained in the form of current limitation
regulating the voltage output of a
-E, supply electronically. While more compli- — to a maximum value which is either
-DC (min)
RS = cated than the VR-tube and Zener-diode preset or adjustable, depending on the
1.1
L (max) circuit. Relatively simple circuits, such as
I,
circuits, they will handle higher voltage
and current variations, and the output described later, can be used to provide
When Rs is known, the maximum dis-
Current limiting
voltage may be varied continuously over current limiting only.
sipation of the diode, Prj, may be deter-
a wide range. circuitry may also be used in conjunction
mined by Voltage regulators fall into two basic with voltage regulators.
types. In the type most commonly used by
E pC(max) ~ E_Z_ Discrete Component Regulators
Pn = _ j L (min) amateurs, the dc supply delivers a voltage
higher than that which is available at the The previous section outlines some of
output of the regulator, and the regulated the- limitations when using Zener diodes as
In the first equation, conditions are set voltage is obtained by dropping the volt- regulators. Greater current amounts can
up for the Zener diode to draw 1/10 the age down to a lower value through a be accommodated if the Zener diode is
maximum load current. This assures dropping "resistor." Regulation is accom- used as a reference at low current,
diode regulation under maximum load. plished by varying either the current permitting the bulk of the load current to
Example: A 12-volt source is to supply through a fixed dropping resistance as flow through a series pass transistor (Ql
a circuit requiring 9 volts. The load cur- changes in input voltage or load currents of Fig. 26). An added benefit in using a
rent varies between 200 and 350 mA. occur (as in the VR-tube and Zener-diode pass transistor is that of reduced ripple on/
regulator circuits), or by varying the equi- the output waveform. This technique is
E z =9.1 V (nearest available value)
valent resistive value of the dropping ele- commonly referred to as "electronic
ment with such changes. This latter tech- filtering."
nique, is used in electronic regulators Ql of Fig. 26 can be thought of as a
where the voltage-dropping element is a simple emitter-follower dc amplifier. It
Pb- [ia#i-«.2] 9., vacuum-tube or a transistor, rather than increases the load resistance seen by the
an actual resistor. By varying the dc volt- Zener diode by a factor of beta ( ^ ). In this
circuit arrangement D5 is required to
=0.185 X9.1 = 1.7 W age at the grid or current at the base of
these elements, the conductivity of the supply only the base current for Ql. The
The nearest available dissipation rating device may be varied as necessary to hold net result is that the load regulation and
above 1.7 W
is 5; therefore, a 9.1-V 5-W the output voltage constant. In solid-state ripple characteristics are improved by a
Zener diode should be used. Such a rating, regulators the series-dropping element is factor of beta. Addition of C2 reduces the
it may be noted, will cause the diode to be called a pass transistor. Power transistors ripple even more, although many simple
in the safe dissipation range even though are available which will handle several supplies such as this do not make use of a
the load is completely disconnected amperes of current at several hundred capacitor in that part of the circuit.
[I L (min) = 0]. volts, but solid-state regulators of this The primary limitation of this circuit is
type are usually operated at potentials that Ql can be destroyed almost im-
Obtaining Other Voltages below 100 volts. mediately if a severe overload occurs at
Fig.25B shows how two Zener diodes The second type of regulator is a Rl. The fuse cannot blow fast enough to
may be used in series to obtain regulated switching type, where the voltage from the protect Ql. In order to protect Ql in case
voltages not normally obtainable from a dc source is rapidly switched on and off of an accidental short at the output, a
cz:
Design Example OS R1^2600
Example: Design a regulated, well-
filtered, 13-volt dc supply capable of deli-
vering 0.5 A, using the circuit of Fig. 26.
Calculate the ratings for all components. Fig. 27 — Overload protection for a regulated supply can be effected by addition of a current-overload
A standard 18- volt secondary transformer protective circuit.
is to be used.
0.5
R2. A
voltage difference will exist across
r
b = 0.02A :20 mA R2, the amount being dependent upon the
exact load current at a given time. When
As pointed out order for D5
earlier, in the load current exceeds a predetermined
to regulate properly it is necessary that a safe value, the voltage drop across R2 will o
B
fair portion of the current flowing forward bias Q2 and cause it to conduct.
through R§ should be drawn by D5. The Since D6
is a silicon diode, and because (B)
resistor will have 0.02 A flowing through Q2 a silicon transistor, the combined
is
it as calculated above (base current of voltage drops through them (roughly 0.7
Ql). A conservative amount of 10 mA will V each) will be 1.4 V. Therefore the
be used for the Zener diode current voltage drop across R2 must exceed 1.4 V A/W-f Oe
0.45
bringing the total current through Rs to before Q2 can turn on. This being the
0.03 A or 30 mA. From this, the value of case, R2 chosen for a value that
is
• 06
Rs can be calculated as follows: provides drop of 1.4 V when the
a
AA/V-f
~ V z) maximum safe load current is drawn. In 0.45
- (V (25.3 - 14) „,
= 3760hmS
— this instance 1.4 volts will be seen when II
.
R<
O03 reaches 0.5A. ? 07
When Q2 turns on, some of the current
The nearest standard ohmic value for Rs through Rs flows through Q2, thereby de-
is 390. The wattage ratings forRs and priving Ql of some of its base current.
D5 can be obtained with the aid of the This action, depending upon the amount r
formulas given earlier for Zener-diode of Ql base current at a precise moment, o
B
regulators. cuts off Ql conduction to some degree,
The power rating for Ql will be calcu- thus limiting the flow of current through (C)
VCE = the desired V - (V z - V BE ), connecting two or more pass transistors in currents fromflto 15A.
Q1 — Motorola M JE 340 or equivalent.
and V BE is approximately 0.7 V for a The circuits at B and C of Fig. 28
parallel.
Q2-Q7, incl. — Power transistor such as 2N3055
silicon transistor. show the method of connection. The or2N3772.
5-16 Chapter 5
'
resistances in the emitter leads of each where they protrude through the heat
transistor are necessary to equalize the sink. Tantalum capacitors are usually POSITIVE
INPUT REGULATOR -o+
currents. recommended because of their excellent SUPPLY
bypass capabilities up into the vhf range.
Fixed-Voltage IC Regulators
The modern trend in regulators is
Adjustable-Voltage IC Regulators
(A)
toward the use of three-terminal devices Relatively new on
the electronic scene
commonly referred to as three-terminal are high-current, adjustable voltage regu-
regulators. Inside each regulator is a lators. These ICs require little more than
reference, a high-gain error amplifier, an external potentiometer for an ad-
sensing resistors and transistors, and a justable voltage range from 5 to 24 volts at
pass element. Some of the more sophis- up to 5 amperes. The on these
unit price
INPUT
-o+
ticated have thermal shutdown,
units items is making them
currently around $6 SUPPLY
over-voltage protection and current fold- ideal for a test bench power supply. An n NEGATIVE OUT
REGULATOR j
back. Many of the regulators currently adjustable-voltage power supply using the
on the market are virtually destruction- Fairchild 78HG series of regulator is
(B)
proof. Several supplies using these ICs are described in the construction section of
featured in the construction section of this this chapter. The same precautions should
chapter. be taken with these types of regulators as
Three-terminal regulators (a connection with the fixed-voltage units. Proper heat
for unregulated dc input, regulated dc sinking and lead bypassing is essential for
INPUT
output and ground) are available in a wide proper circuit operation. SUPPLY
range of voltage and current ratings. NEGATIVE
Fairchild, National and Motorola are
A 12-Volt 3-Ampere Power Supply REGULATOR
perhaps the three largest suppliers of these Shown in Fig. 31 is a no-frills 12-volt
regulators at present. It is easy to see why supply capable of continuous operation at (C)
regulators of this sort are so popular when the 3-ampere level. Many low-power hf
one considers the low price and the transceivers and most vhf-fm transceivers
number of individual components they require voltages and currents on this
can replace. The regulators are available order. Power of this type
supplies
in several different package styles — purchased from the manufacturers can be
INPUT
POSITIVE
REGULATOR -o+
TO-3, TO-39, TO-66, TO-220 and dual quite costly. Described here is a very SUPPLY
in-line (DIP), to name just a few. simple to build and relatively inexpensive
Three-terminal regulators are available (around $20 using all new components)
(D)
as positive or negative types. In most alternative.
cases, a positive regulator is used to The schematic diagram for the power
regulate a positive voltage and a negative supply is shown in Fig. 32. As can be seen, Fig. 29 —
A and B illustrate the conventional
regulator a negative voltage. However, the circuit is simplicity itself. A trans- manner in which three-terminal regulators are
used. C and D show how one polarity regulator
depending on the systems ground require- former, two diodes, three capacitors and a
can be used to regulate the opposite polarity
ments, each regulator type may be used regulator form the heart of the supply.
voltage.
to regulate the "opposite" voltage. Binding posts, a pilot light, fuse and
Figs. 29A and B illustrate how the regu- on-off switch complete the design.
lators are used in the conventional mode. Ac from the mains is supplied to the
Several regulators can be used with a transformer-primary winding through the
common-input supply to deliver several fuse in one leg, and the on-off switch in
common ground. Negative
voltages with a the other. The secondary circuit feeds a
regulators may be used in the same full-wave rectifier circuit which is filtered
manner. If no other common supplies by CI. This unregulated voltage is routed
operate off input supply to the
the to the input terminal of the regulator IC
regulator, the circuits of Figs. 29C and D which bypassed directly at the case, with
is
may be used to regulate positive voltages a 2-uiF tantalum capacitor. The case of the Fig. 30 — Three-terminal regulators require
careful bypassing directly at the case. Here, both
with a negative regulator and vice versa. IC is connected to ground. A 2-uF the input and output leads are bypassed.
In these configurations the input supply is tantalum capacitor is also used at the
floated; neither side of the input is tied to output terminal of the regulator to
the system ground. prevent unwanted oscillation of the error
When choosing a three-terminal regu- amplifier inside the IC. A pilot light
lator for a given application the important attached to the regulated output indicates
maximum
specifications to look for are when the supply is in use.
maximum output voltage,
output current, The regulator has built-in thermal shut
minimum and maximum input voltage, down and over-current protection. Short
line regulation, load regulation and power circuiting the output of the supply will
dissipation. cause no damage. A wide margin of
In use, these regulators require an conservative component rating was used
adequate heat sink since they may be in the design of this supply. It should be
called on to dissipate a fair amount of possible to run the supply for hours on
power. Also, since the chip contains a end at its maximum rating.
high-gain error amplifier, bypassing of the
input and output leads is essential to Construction
stable operation (See Fig. 30). Most Rather than using an expensive cabinet,
manufacturers recommend bypassing the the power supply is housed on an alu- Fig. 31 — Exterior view of the 12-volt, 3-ampere ,
input and output directly at the leads minum chassis measuring 5X9-1/2X3 no-frills power supply.
The cost will depend on the availability of were to open, for example, the regulator
A 300- to 400-Watt 12-Volt Supply components, but should be significantly would attempt to drive the pass transistors
Most modern hf transceivers in the less than those sold to match a product alone, through the Q4 base-emitter junc-
100- watt output class have solid-state out- line. Complete output metering, over- tion.The IC maximum rated current (500
put stages that require a nominal 13.6-volt voltage shutdown and current limiting are mA) could be exceeded under these condi-
power source. This voltage is available features of the design. tions without activating Q2. Ql senses
directly from vehicular electrical systems, base drive to the Darlington array and
so manufacturers don't generally built ac Design Information
power supplies into these transceivers. The generous power rating is made
This approach leads to lightweight com- possible by the heavy-duty transformers.
pact units for- mobile service, but the In the unit pictured, the transformers
were each specified for 40 V at 15 A, and
had a cross-sectional area of nearly 4 in 2
(250Q mm
2
). The secondaries were wound
5-18 Chapter 5
limits the maximum regulator output cur- ing that the finswould be more efficient if transformers of different manufacture are
rent to about 300 mA. This additional mounted A more conservative
vertically. used it might be wise to select units having
protection is not shown in the IC approach might be to mount an additional a higher current rating —
just to be sure.
manufacturer's applications literature. heat sink in the rear panel area and use 9 S2 is included in the design so that
R3, R4 and R9 set the output voltage over or 12 pass transistors. The emitter either half or all of the secondary voltage
an adjustment range of 12 to 14 V. The spreading resistors are mounted on the may be applied to Ul This feature was in-
.
power supply includes a "crowbar" over- transistor heat sinks. Q4 should be cluded so that the dissipation of the pass
volitage protection citcuit consisting of separately heat sinked, although the sink transistor may be reduced when using the
Q5, Dl and the associated resistor net- shown is larger than necessary. "top A supply with low-voltage, high-current
work. RIO forms a divider with the hat" and chassis bracket similar to that of loads: The graph displayed in Fig. 41 can
cathode-to-gate resistor internal to most Q5 would be sufficient. be used as a guide in selecting the HI or
SCR?. If your device does hot include The rectifier diode anodes are common LO mode of operation.
such a resistor, one can be installed exter- to the mounting studs. For this reason, The regulator consists of a pass tran-
nally. Should the output voltage exceed two of the studs must be sleeved and the sistor "wrapped around" an adjustable
the threshold of Dl, plus some level deter- cases and nuts must be insulated from the voltage regulator. Circuit operation can
mined by RIO, Q5 will fire, short- base plate with mica washers. If a suitably be understood by noting the values of R3
circuiting the output terminals.Q5 has a rated bridge assembly can be obtained at a and R2. The majority of the three-
continuous current rating of 25 A. While reasonable price, it will simplify the terminal regulator currentflowwill
this may seem underspecified, the compo- mounting while providing superior ther- through R3 and Dl. The offset voltage in
nent can withstand a surge of many times mal conduction. In any case, be sure to Dl is approximately equal to the emitter-
the continuous figure, and won't be called use mica washers with all semiconductors base potential of Ql. Because of this, the
upon to pass the full current for more whose cases are above ground and apply voltage drop across R3 will be the same as
than a few milliseconds. As soon as Q5 heat sink compound to all mounting sur- that across R2. Since the ohmic value of
fires, it pulls the output voltage below the faces. R2 is 0.33 of R3, three times as much cur-
conduction threshold of Q3, which allows Liberal use of terminal strips simplifies rent will flow in Ql as in U2. The net
the input voltage to shut down the the wiring and troubleshooting, should it result is that the current capability of the
regulator. Without this feature, both the be necessary. Use no. 10 or no. 12 wire for overall circuit is increased by a factor of
series pass transistors and the SCR would the high-current circuits. The electronic four. Also, the current-limiting
be destroyed in a short time from ex- components don't generate ap-
that characteristics of the three-terminal
cessive dissipation. preciable heat are contained on a printed regulator are transferred directly to the
This supply has one other feature — circuit card. The etching pattern and parts composite circuit.
remote sensing. When heavy loads are placement guide are presented in Fig. 37. Ml and associated shunt resistor are
its
connected through long cables, the cable Most of the components for this power placed at the input to the regulator circuit
voltage drop degrades the load regulation. supply were purchased from mail-order so that the voltage drop across the resistor
This problem can be circumvented by in- firms that advertise in the Amateur Radio will not adversely alter the supply-voltage
cluding the cable within the regulator press. regulation. The relatively small current
feedback loop. To accomplish this, drawn by the regulator circuitry does not
remove the jumper, between the output A 1.2- to 15-Volt, 5-Ampere Supply seriously affect the meter accuracy. M2.
and sense terminals, and connect the sense The power supply shown
in Figs. 38 to measures supply output voltage.
terminal directly to the load (the sense 42 intended for general purpose, test-
is
lead wire size isn't critical). This connec- bench applications. The output is ad- Construction
tion can't compensate for resistance in the justable from 1 .2 to 17 volts at currents up The power supply is housed in a
return (ground) lead, but an extra chassis- to 6 amperes. Metering is provided for homemade enclosure that was fabricated
to-chassis connection can usually be made voltage levels up to 15 volts and current from sheet aluminum. Dimensions of the
to reduce the return resistance to an in- levels up to 5 amperes. Most of the com- enclosure are 5-1/2 X 6 X 8 inches (140
significant value. The pk-pk output ripple ponents used in this supply are of the X 152 X 203 mm), although any cabinet
at full load is 5 mV. A complete schematic junk-box variety with the possible excep- that will house the components may be
diagram is given in Fig. 35. tion of U2, the three-terminal voltage used. Circuit board pattern and layout in-
regulator. The circuit will tolerate fairly formation is given in Fig. 42. The com-
Mechanical Details wide component substitutions and still of- pleted circuit board is mounted vertically
One assembly method can be seen in fer good performance. The majority of to the chassis using spade lugs and no. 6
Figs. 34 and by no
36, although this is the circuit components are mounted on a hardware. A small heat sink for the
means the only workable solution. The 2-3/4 X 4-1/2 (70 X 114 mm) circuit LM317K regulator was;made from a scrap
unit shown uses a 16-1/2 X 12 X 1/8-in. board. All controls, including the mains piece of aluminum. A Radio Shack
(419 X 305 X 3 mm) aluminum plate for fuse are located on the front panel for 276-1364 sink designed for the TO-3
a foundation. This is expensive material if easy access. package will work fine. The pass tran-
purchased new —
a framework fashioned sistor is mounted to a larger heat sink
from angle stock may be an expedient The Circuit which is bolted to the rear panel of the
alternative. Transformers suitable for this Two power transformers are used in power supply. Here, a Motorola MS-10
application are quite heavy and require a parallel to feed Ul, the full-wave bridge was used. A suitable substitute would be
firm supporting structure. The pass tran- rectifier assembly. The transformers the Radio Shack 276-1361. Bear in mind
sistor heat sinks form the sides of the specified are rated at 2 amperes each. The that the transistor must be insulated from
enclosure. These sinks, like most of the prospective builder might question the the sink. Use a small amount of heat-sink
components, are surplus items measuring wisdom of using only 4 amperes worth of compound between the transistor and the
4x12 inchesX102 X 305 mm) with fins transformer in a 5-ampere supply. This is sink for a good thermal bond.
protruding 1/2 in. from each flat surface. a valid question. With a 5-ampere load Since the power supply can deliver up to
Asymmetrically spaced transistor connected to the output of the supply, the 6 amperes, fairly heavy wire should be
mounting holes explain the surplus status transformers deliver more than their rated used for those runs carrying the bulk of
of the sinks. The dimensions quoted secondary voltage and do not become the current. No. 18 plastic wire was used
represent a minimum, rather than maxi- unreasonably Warm to the touch even in this unit and it_agpeared to be ade-
mum radiation area, especially consider- after continuous-duty operation. If quate.
A/vV-
Q6-014 * R12-R19
0,1
2N3055
5W
I
-AA/V
04 2N3055 *
4b, L_$!
-nzn- C2
0.001
SA
* HEAT SINK
R5 ^6.8k
-VvV-
1+ 10JJF
5-20 Chapter 5
'
(A)
GND
w
+\Jr.
C5
(B)
Fig. 37 —
At A, the etching pattern for the control pc card. B is the parts-replacement guide. The
black lines are an x-ray view of the foil side.
>-^ytfv
— [>> <f] —
RlO
100
\
o '
Circuit Details remain unchanged. Notice that U2 is reason a board pattern is not supplied.
placed to the left or at the input side of The and rear panels are spray
front
The circuit diagram of the power supply the regulator. This is so the current painted white and the cover is blue. Dymo
is shown in Fig. 44. Tl is a 36-volt, center- drawn by the readout will not affect labels are used on the front panel to
tapped transformer rated at 6 amperes. current readings taken at the load. identify each of the controls. Cable lacing
Dl and D2 are used in a full-wave rectifier Sections A
and B of S2 are used to switch of the various leads adds to the clean
providing dc output to the filter capacitor, the meter between the voltage and current appearance of the supply.
C3, a 34,000-fiF, 50-volt electrolytic of the sensors. S3C is used to switch the decimal
computer-grade variety. The unregulated point in the digital panel meter to read A "Sanitary" High- Voltage Supply
voltage is fed to Ul, a Fairchild 78HGKC correctly for both voltage and current. Power
supplies aren't usually noted for
regulator, the heart of the supply. This As shown in the schematic, a single- adding decor to the shack. Most hams
chip is rated for 5-A continuous duty point ground is used for the supply. Used would rather hide them so that nonham
when used with an adequate heat sink. Rl in many commercial supplies, this tech- visitors won't ask, "What's that ugly
and R2 form a voltage divider which sets nique provides better voltage regulation looking thing?" However, an attempt was
the output voltage of the supply. Rl is a and stabilization than the "ground it made to improve the appearance of this
ten-turn potentiometer. Ul is bypassed anywhere" attitude. In this supply, the model along with the function of pro-
with 2.2-^F tantalum capacitors directly at single-ground point is at the front panel viding high voltage for general amplifier
the input and output pins. binding post labelled MINUS. All leads purposes. Not all the additions are
Zl, as outlined earlier, is a digital panel that are to be connected to ground should frivolous.For instance, the use of "rug
meter. Connections to the meter are made go only to that point. runners" instead of the usual sharp
through a spiral edge connector supplied corners on the bottom of the unit prevents
with the readcfut. U2 is used to supply a gouging an easily damaged surface such as
Construction
regulated 5 volts for powering the digital a bench or floor.
panel meter. The input and ground leads The deluxe power supply is housed in a The diode bridge rectifier is mounted
of this regulator are attached to the input homemade enclosure that measures 9X11 on a separate pc board that can be
(non-regulated) side of Ul. X 5 1/4 inches (229 X 279 X 133 mm). Ul removed easily. Accidental contact is
R4, R5 and R6 form a divider circuit to is mounted to a large heat sink (3X5 prevented by a Plexiglas sheet which also
supply the digital meter with an output X 2 inches; 76 X 127 X 51 mm) which is permits viewing of the circuit board while
voltage reading. R5 is made adjustable so attached to the rear apron of the supply. in the power supply. Although a
it is still
that the meter can be calibrated. R3 is a The front panel sports the digital-panel sheet-metal cutter and bender were used
current-sensing resistor which is placed in meter, power switch, binding posts, fuse to fabricate the sides, a "cut-and-file"
the negative lead of the supply. This holder, voltage-adjust potentiometer and method could result in a similar job if the
resistor is used on the input side of the meter-selector switch. Although a circuit builder was willing to spend the time.
regulator (Ul) so as not to affect the board is shown in the photograph as Either that or angle brackets (such as
voltage regulation of the power supply at supporting R4, R5, R6, R7, Dl, D2, CI those on the front of the unit) could be
high load currents. Any voltage dropped and C2 these items could just as well be used inside of the top and bottom covers
across the resistor will be made up by the mounted on terminal strips. For this in order to form an overlap surface for the
regulator, so the output voltage will covers.
117
O.OI
-nm—
VAC 1KV-
5W
o.oi T Rl
*T 2*
"X D1
hi
<>"" 2.5A
5W 100 V
* HEAT SINK
Fig. 39 — Schematic diagram of the 5-ampere power supply. Component designations on the schematic diagram but not shown in the' parts list are
for text or placement-auide reference only.
(Resistor used only as a form for the wire).
C1 — 3300 35 volt, axial leads.
jiF, Q1 —Silicon PNP power, Radio Shack R6 — 2500 ohms, 2 watts, panel mount.
— Binding posts.
J1, J2 276-2043 or equiv. 51 — Spst, toggle.
Ml — 0-50 Calectro DI-914 or equiv.
rriA, R1 —Meter shunt, 13 inches no. 22 enameled 52 — Dpdt, toggle. Both sections connected
M2 — 0-15 volt, Calectro DI-920 or equiv. wire wound on a high-value, 1-watt resistor. in parallel.
5-22 Chapter 5
'
Fig. 41 — For voltage and current requirements that fall to the left of the diagonal line, the power
supply may be operated in the LO mode. Pass-transistor dissipation will be reduced when the
supply is operated in this manner.
(A)
(B)
T1, T2 —
117-V primary, 18-V ct secondary.
— B is
Radio Shack 273-1515 or equiv. Fig. 42 At A, circuit board layout pattern as viewed from the component side of the board.
represent unetched
U1 — Bridge-rectifier assembly, 50 V,25 A. the full-scale etching pattern for the power supply circuit board. Black areas
U2 — Regulator, LM-317K copper as seen from the foil side of the board.
0-25V
5A
CALIBRATION
SINGLE POINT
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL GROUND
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS jiF
( )OTHERS
;
r
R7
L-A/W
270
Fig. 44 —Schematic diagram of the deluxe power supply. All resistors are halAwatt carbon types unless noted otherwise. Capacitors are disc
ceramic unless noted otherwise. Numbered components not appearing in the parts list are for text reference only.
J1-J3, incl.— Binding post. .
'
C3 —Electrolytic capacitor, 34,000 yF, 50 V. R1 — Potentiometer, 20-ku, linear, 10 turn. secondary 36 V ct, 6 A. Stancbr P-8674 or
Sprague 36O343G050DF2A or equiv. Clarostat type 731A or equiv. equiv.
C4, C5 — Tantalum capacitor, 2.2 ^F, 50 V. R2 — Resistor, circuit board mount.
0.1JJ, U1 — Regulator, Fairchild 78HGKC or equiv.
C6 — Tantalum capacitor, 4.7 50 V.
fiF, 51 — Toggle switch, dpst. U2 — Regulator, n A7805 or equiv.
D1, D2 — Silicon rectifier, 100 V, 12 A 52 — Toggle switch, 3pdt. Z1 — Digital panel meter. Datel DM3100N or
F1 — Fuse, 2 A. T1 — Power transformer; primary 117 V, equiv.
5-24 Chapter 5
Fig. 47 — Schematic diagram of the high-voltage power supply.
HF Transmitting
up
a mixture of tubes
active semiconductor stages. Typical-
the unit has transistors, diodes
to the driver stage of the transmitter.
and ICs
Qi if
O.I
1 3.5MHz
-O ANT.
At that point one will find a tube driver
which is used to supply rf power to a tube
2N2I02
type of amplifier. The latter might consist
of a pair of 6146Bs or two sweep tubes.
'
RFC
'
ImH
The principal advantage of tube ampli-
fiers is that they are somewhat less subject
to damage from excessive drive levels and
mismatched loads. However, a properly
1500
designed solid-state driver and PA section
should be immune to output mismatch -AA/V
damage, provided an SWR-protection 5600
circuit has been included in the transmit- KEY
ter. A solid-state amplifier is slightly more
difficult to design and have work cor-
rectly than is a tube amplifier of
(A)
equivalent power. This is because purity
of emissions is harder to achieve when
transistor power stages are employed.
Transistors generate considerably more
harmonic energy than tubes do, and the 0.01
former are prone to self-oscillation at If,
vlf and audio frequencies unless some
careful design work is done. This is not
-A
)RFC
generally true of tube amplifiers. )lmH
If one is to ignore the foregoing
3.5
problems and concentrate mainly on cost
and convenience, transistors may have the
edge over tubes. A 13.6-volt design can be -0+250 V
0.01
operated directly from an automotive or
solar-electric supply, whereas a tube
amplifier requires a high-voltage power
supply for mobile, portable and fixed-
station use. When an ac power source 4s
required, the cost of a high-voltage,
medium-current supply for tubes versus a
low-voltage, high-current power source
(B)
for transistors is similar, provided new
components are used in both. At power-
output levels in excess of approximately Fig. 1 — A transistor oscillator is shown at A. The example at B illustrates a tube type of crystal
150 watts the transistor-amplifier power oscillator.
6-1 Chapter 6
supply becomes rather expensive because \
HALF - WAVE
osc. HARMONIC
of complex regulator-circuit requirements. CLASS C £ 3.5 MHz
<— FILTER
For this reason it is the choice of most Or— If
—
amateurs to utilize vacuum tubes in high-
1 ' r\ r\
°'
3.5 MHz
power hf and vhf amplifiers. The number
01
of power transistors required (plus com-
biners) to generate a 1-kW signal may run
considerably higher in cost than a tube or
tubes for an amplifier of equivalent power. io.1 J±.22/jF
The price of large heat sinks versus a cool-
RFC
ing fan may place the solid-state amplifier '
1mH '100
in a prohibitive class also.
The decision to buy or build a
transmitter is founded on some basic
considerations: Cost compared to features; HA/H 1500
professional equipment appearance con-
trasted to that of homemade apparatus; MAr
5600
-o
the knowledge and satisfaction gained
from building equipment, as weighed
against buying store-bought gear and sim-
ply becoming an operator. The judgment Fig. 2 — Circuit example of a simple, solid-state cw transmitter.
must fit the amateur's objectives and af-
fluence. Home-built transmitters are usual-
ly easier to service than commercial ones
because the builder knows the circuit lay-
out and how each stage functions. Further-
more, the cost of maintenance is markedly
lower for homemade equipment than for
most factory-built gear. But the greatest
significance to home-built circuits is the
(A)
knowledge gained from constructing a ^7
project and the pride that goes with using
it on the air!
Frequency Generation
The most basic type of transmitter is
-t
V
_
—^^^^^^ (B)
one which contains a single stage, is
crystal controlled, and is designed for cw
operation. A circuit example is given in
Fig. 1. This kind of transmitter is not v
especially suitable for use on the air
because it is somewhat inefficient and is
MIXER FILTER
prone to generating a chirpy cw signal
unless loaded rather lightly. But, the same
circuit is entirely acceptable when fol-
lowed by an isolating stage (buffer/ampli- (C)
to modulate the operating voltage to the would be used for cw/RTTY is that the rf Class C amplifiers are generally used in fm
amplifiers must operate in the Class A, transmitters as well as in cw and RTTY
PA stage, or in some designs the operating
voltage to the PA and the stage im- AB or B mode (linear) rather than the transmitters. Fm operators who are heard
mediately before it. Class C mode which is suitable for cw to say, "I'm running my transceiver into a
HF Transmitting 6-2
f,2«,3'f, ETC.
MIC
SPEECI BAL SSB RF
AMP, MOD. FILTER AMR MIXER >-
*5
CD
CARRIER
OSC.
VFO, HET. GEN,
OR SYNTHESIZER
:£:cpb vj
Fig. 4 — Block diagram of a heterodyne type of ssb transmitter.
J L5—06.3
S.3 V
MODIFIED PIERCE
(A)
>15k 2N2 2 22
14-TY I
toV (,2f,3f,'ETC.
>—
—100 O OUTPUT
|
( : 47
-)( OOUTPUT
COLPITIS
(B)
2f, 3f, ETC.
I I f >100k
(3(, 5f OF FUND.)
COLPITTS
(B)
6-3 Chapter 6
O
illustrated in Fig. 6 at B. The feedback is the low side of the crystal and ground.
between the grid and cathode by means of The series hookup is used to help offset
OUTPUT
the high input capacitance of the oscil-
,
ing normally otherwise. The result will be front panel of the transmitter or receiver.
a vhf waveform superimposed on the de- That type of format complicates the re-
(B)
sired output waveform when the rf voltage mote operation of such a unit. Also, the
is viewed by means of an oscilloscope. switch leads can introduce unwanted reac-
Fig. 7 — Two methods for suppressing vhf and Parasitics can cause TVI and specific pro- tances in the crystal circuit. A better tech-
uhf parasitic oscillations. R1 at A damps the nique illustrated in Fig. 9, where Dl and
blems elsewhere in the circuit with which js
parasitics and Z1 at B (ferrite beads) serves that
purpose. the oscillator is used. Two simple methods D2 — high-speed silicon switching diodes
are used to select one of two or more
for preventing vhf parasitics are shown in
Fig. 7. The technique at A
calls for the in- crystals from some remote point. As
sertion of a low-value resistance (Rl)in operating voltage is applied to one of the
osc.
the collector lead as close to the transistor diodes by means of S 1 it is forward biased
,
body as possible. Typical resistance values into "hard" conduction, thereby complet-
are 10 to 27 ohms. The damping action of ing the circuit between the crystal trimmer
the resistor inhibits vhf oscillation. An al- and ground. Some schemes actually call
r
t=i
3, ternative to the use of resistance for
swamping vhf oscillation is illustrated at B
for reverse-biasing the unused diode or
diodes when they are not activated. This
-|( O OUTPUT in Fig. 7. One or two high-mu miniature ensures almost complete cutoff, which
ferrite beads («i= 950) are placed near the may not be easy to achieve in the circuit
transistor body in the lead to gate 1. The shown because of the existing rf voltage
beads can be used in the drain lead when a on the anodes of Dl and D2.
tuned circuit or rf choke are used in that
SERIES C Variable-Frequency Oscillators
part of the circuit. However, when the
(A)
drain is at ac ground, as shown at B, it The theory and general application of
does not constitute part of the feedback variable-frequency oscillators is treated in
circuit. Ferrite beads can be used in the chapter 8. The circuit principles are the
base or collector lead of the circuit of Fig. same regardless of the VFO
application.
7 A rather than employing Rl. Similarly, Some additional considerations pertain
Rl can be used at gate 1 of the oscillator. to the use of VFOs in transmitters as com-
It is necessary in some applications of pared to a VFO
contained in a receiver.
crystal oscillators to ensure spot accuracy Generally, heating of the interior of a
of the operating frequency. Various transmitter cabinet is greater than in a re-
reactances are present in most oscillator ceiver. This is because considerably more
circuits, causing the operating frequency power is being dissipated in the former.
to differ somewhat from that for which Therefore, greater care must be given to
the crystal was manufactured. Addition of oscillator long-term stability. Tempera-
a trimmer capacitor will permit "rub- ture-compensating capacitors are often
PARALLEL C bering" the crystal to a specified fre- needed in the frequency-determining portion
(B) quency within its range. This procedure is of the oscillator to level off the long-
sometimes referred to as "netting" a term stability factor. Some oscillators are
— crystal. designed for use with a temperature-
Fig. 8 The crystal-oscillator operating
frequency can be shifted slightly by means of Fig. 8 shows two circuits in which a control oven for the purpose of main-
trimmer capacitors as shown at A and B. A series trimmer capacitor might be used to taining a relatively constant ambient
hookup (A) is used with transistors to help temperatore in the oscillator compart-
compensate for differences in the opera-
compensate for the relatively high input
capacitance of the transistor. ting frequency of the oscillator. At A the ment —
even while the equipment
HF Transmitting 6-4
'
being adjusted from the front panel of the
osc. equipment. Variable capacitors with plated
brass plates are preferred over those
which have aluminum plates. The alumi-
num is more subject to physical changes in
the presence of temperature variations
than is the case with brass. The tun- VFO
ing-capacitor rotor must be grounded at
both ends as a preventive measure against
instability.Some designers have found
that a 1/8- to 1/4-inch (3.2- to 6.4-mm)
thick piece of aluminum or steel plate
serves as aji excellent base for the VFO
assembly. It greatly reduces instability
which can be caused by stress on the main
chassis of the equipment. The VFO mod-
ule can be installed on shock mounts
to enhance stability during mobile opera-
tion.
6-5 Chapter 6
S °
FROM_
02
0.1
AAA
100
— 0+12V broaden the network response. The 50-
ohm output level is recommended in the
u
VFO O 1(- interest of immunity to load changes: The
—
I
|
(—AAA
\ 5600
— oscillator or its buffer stages, especially
when high fr transistors are employed.
02
The best preventive measures are keeping
M the signal leads as short as possible and
p' T
1
Mxitput
adding parasitic suppressors as required.
The parasitic energy can be seen as a
superimposed sine wave riding on the
VFO output waveform when a high-
01,02,- MPFI02.2N4416,
frequency scope is used.
E300, SUITABLE A low- value resistor (10 to 22 ohms)
can be placed directly at the gate or base
of the oscillator transistor to stop
parasitic oscillations. Alternatively, one
(B) or two ferrite beads (950«i) can be slipped
over the gate or base lead to resolve the
problem. If vhf oscillations occur in the
Fig. 1
1
— VFO buffer and buffer/amplifier sections which provide isolation between the oscillator and buffer stages, the same preventive
the VFO-chain load. The circuit at B is recommended for most applications. mea-
sures can be taken.
VFO noise should be minimized as
practical number, of course), the less Q2 of Fig. 11A an operates as much as possible. A
high-Q oscillator
likelihood of load shifts being reflected emitter-follower. The
rf-voltage output tank will normally limit the noise band-
back to the oscillator. will be approximately 0.9 of that which is width adequately. Resistances placed in
Buffer stages can perform double duty supplied to the base. In a typical VFO the signal path will often cause circuit
by affording a measure of rf amplifica- chain, using an oscillator such as the one noise. Therefore, it is best to avoid the
tion, as needed. But, care must be taken to in Fig.10A, this buffer strip will deliver temptation to control the rf excitation to a
avoid introducing narrow-band networks approximately 1 volt pk-pk across the < given LO stage by inserting a series
in the buffer/amplifier chain if consider- 470-ohm emitter resistor of Q2. resistor. The better method is to use
able frequency range is planned, e.g., 5.0 A somewhat better circuit is offered in small-value coupling capacitors.
to 5.5 MHz. If suitable broadband charac- Fig. UB. Ql is a JFET which has a high
teristics are not inherent in the design, the input impedance (l-Mflor greater) by vir- A Practical VFO
oscillator-chain output will notbe constant tue of the FET-device characteristic. This The circuit of Fig. 12 is for a high
across the desired tuning range. This minimizes loading of the oscillator. RFC1 stability 1.9-MHz VFO. A
1.8- to
could seriously affect the conversion gain is chosen to resonate broadly with the stray
circuit-board pattern and layout is in-
and dynamic range of a receiver mixer, or circuit capacitance (roughly 10pF) at the cluded. Although the VFO frequency is
lower the output of a transmitter in some midrange frequency of the LO chain. Al- for 160-meter operation, other tuning
parts of a given band. though this does not introduce significant ranges up to 10 MHz
are possible with
Fig. 11A illustrates, a typical RC selectivity, does provide a rising charac-
it
this circuit. The
design guidelines offered
coupled VFO buffer with broadband teristic in the rf-voltage level at the source in the previous section will be useful in
response. CI is selected for minimum of Ql.
coupling to the oscillator, consistent with
altering the circuit to other frequencies. A
Q2 functions as a fed-back amplifier close approximation can be had by simply
adequate drive to Ql. Ql and Q2 should with shunt feedback and source degenera- taking the Xl and Xc values for the
have high fr and medium beta to ensure a tion. The feedback stabilizes the amplifier
components specified in Fig. 12A and
slight rf-voltage gain. Devices such as the and makes broadband. The drain tank
it
determining from those reactances the
2N2222A and 2N5179 are suggested. is designed as a pi network with a loaded new values for the frequency of interest.
6-7 Chapter 6
—
cm
0.001
,+12V
'(30mA)
X
RFC3
. 2.5 mH
ITtBI
l( OUTPUT
) (50 OHMS)
1.8-1.9 MHz
X
C17
I 0.0036
= RMS VOLTAGE
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF | \
-ce- -R4-
C10 I — Rll
-C7- I
5 \
R8 „ RIO -° 15 "
\
-R2- _ CB RF C 2~
CU ~ I
QJ
cs
I NFC 1 Rb R9 C14
I •
p|
s Ql RFC 3
-C4— -CI J —
Igj
tlftfllilP If
m ill Clb
lliflf '
:
*18li II
-DI-
LI
I
-C2 —
_C3 —
(Miller 23A155RPC).
from a crystal-controlled oscillator. The region. The PLL has the advantage that
the capacitance value of CI. Data on
frequencies of the two oscillators are no mixing stage is used in conjunction
precise component values for other fre-
chosen so that spurious outputs generated with the output oscillator, so the output
quency ranges are not available from the
energy is quite "clean." The Kenwood
ARRL. Further information on VFO during the mixing process do not fall with-
TS-820, the Collins 651S-1, and the
design and the general circuit of Fig. in the desired output range. A band-pass
the mixer output attenuates out- National HRO-600 currently use PLL
12- A was provided by DeMaw in June filter at
of-band spurious energy. The charts given high-frequency oscillator systems.
1976 Ham Radio.
The basic diagram of a PLL is shown in
in chapter 8 can be used to choose oscil-
Premixing lator combinations which will have a Fig. 13B. Output from a voltage-controlled
variable- minimum of spurious outputs. oscillator (VCO) and a frequency stan-
It is difficult to build a
dard are fed to a phase detector which
frequency oscillator for operation above
PLL produces an output voltage equal to the
10 MHz with drift of only a few Hz. A
Receivers and transmitters of advanced difference in frequency between the two
scheme called premixing shown in Fig. The error voltage is amplified, fil-
now using phase-locked loops signals.
13 A, may be used to obtain VFO output
design are
(PLLs) to generate highly stable local tered, and applied to the VCO. The error
in the 10- to 50-MHz range. The output
of
HF Transmitting 6-8
mable frequency dividers included so that
the VCO output is always locked to a
crystal reference. The frequency is changed
by modifying the instructions to the divi-
BANDPASS ders; steps of 100 Hz. are usually
employed
FILTER
for hf receivers while 10-kHz increments
are popular in vhf gear.
PHASE DETECTOR
BUFFER
TO PIN
7, U1
O
0+12 V
'
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS jiF( ) ;
K-1,000, M'1,000,000.
Fig. 14 — A practical PLL for a crystal-controlled HFO. Y1 is chosen so the harmonic content is ample at the desired output frequency A 200-kHz crystal i
fine to 40 MHz, a 500-kHz one is suitable to 60 MHz and a 1-MHz crystal is good for use to 80 MHz. L1 and L3 are resonant at the output frequency.
6-9 Chapter 6
2f,3f,4f
-O OUTPUT
t (INPUT) O 1(-
0.01
SINGLE-ENDED MULTIPLIER
100 KHz (A)
XTAL
STANDARD
RF AMP.
LIMITER f(INPUT)C
INPUT
GATE -t
7- -O OUTPUT
DIVIDER • PHASING
=
STORAGE
DISPLAY DRIVER
PUS.H-PUSH DOUBLER o 2,
+ VDD
I r n 1 (B)
l~
Tt
_i 1 o
Fig. 16 — Frequency counter block diagram.
Linear Readout
If linear-frequency readout is desired
on
the dial, the variable capacitor must be
only a small portion of the total
capacitance in the oscillator tank. Capaci-
tors tend to be very nonlinear near the PUSH-PULL TRIPLER
ends of rotation. A gear drive providing a (C) +vcc
1.5:1 reduction should be employed so
that only the center of the capacitor range and push-pull
adjustment, the Fig. 17 - Single-ended multiplier (A), push-push doubler (B) tripler (C).
accuracy (to 1 hertz, if desired) and the ceivers, may be employed if accuracy of
Hz For readout down to adapter which allows a commercially
fact that VFO tuning does not have to be 100 is sufficient.
1-tolO-MHz AT-cut crystal made frequency counter to be mated with
linear. The readout section of the dial may 1 Hz, a
HF Transmitting 6-10
ham gear so that the counter performs as Table 1
an electronic dial (May 1971 QST). Chebyshev High-Pass and Low-Pass Filters-Attenuation
(dB)
Wo. poles, ripple VSWR 2fc 3fc 5'c 6>c 7'c
Frequency Multiplication 3 pole, dB 1 2.66 22.46 34.05 41.88 47.85 52.68 56.74
It may
be necessary to use frequency 3 po|e, 0.1 dB 1.36 12.24 23.60 31.42 37.39 42.22 46.29
3 pole, 0.01 dB 1.10
multipliers at some point after the VFO or 4.08 13.73 21.41 27.35 32.18 36.24
3 pole, 0.001 dB 1.03 0.63 5.13 11.68 17.42
other frequency generator in a transmit- 22.20 26.25
5 pole, 1 dB 2.66 45.31 64.67 77.73
ter. When this need is present, the circuits
87.67 95.72 102.50
5 pole, 0.1 dB 1.36 34.85 54.21 67.27 77.21 85.26 92.04
of Fig. 17 can be applied. Of course, 5 pole, 0.01 dB 1.10 24.82 44.16 57.22 67.17 75.22 82.00
vacuum-tube multipliers are entirely suit- 5 pole, 0.001 dB 1.03 14.94' 34.16 47.22 57.16 65.22 71.99
able if the design is not one which uses 7 pole, 1 dB 2.66 68.18 95.29 113.57 127.49 138.77 148.26
7 pole, 0.1 dB 1.36 57,72
semiconductors. The fundamental prin- 84.83 103.11 117.03 128.31 137.80
7 pole, 0.01 dB 1.10 47.68 74.78 93.07
ciples for frequency multiplication are 106.99 118.27 127.75
7 pole, 0.001 dB 1.03 37.68 64.78 83.06 96.98 108.26 117.75
applicable to tubes and transistors alike. 9 pole, 1 dB 2.66 91.06 125.91 149.42 167.32 181.82 194.01
The requisite is that of operating 'the 9 pole, 0.1 dB 1.36 80.60 115.45 138.96 156.86 171.36 183.55
devices in Class G, Although a transistor 9 pole, 0.01 dB 1.10 70.56 105.41 128.91 146.81 161.31 173.51
9pole, 0.001 dB
circuit may be
seen with forward bias 1.03 60.55 95.40 118.91 136.91 151.31 163.50
applied to a frequency multiplier, the Note: For high-pass filter configuration 2f c becomes f
c /2, etc.
stage must be driven hard enough to
.
6-11
,
Table 4
Chebyshev High-Pass Filter T Configuration
C3 C4 C5 L1 L2 L3 L4
No. poles, ripple C1 C2 ,
8.005
3 pole, 1 dB 1573.0 1573.0
6.935
3 pole, 0.1 dB 3085.7 3085.7
dB 5059.1 8.201
3 pole, 0.01 5059.1
dB 7786.9 7786.9 10.95
3 pole, 0.001
7.293 7 OOI
5 pole, 1 dB 1491.0 1060.7 1491.0
2775.6 5.803 5.803
5 pole, 0.1 dB 2775.6 1611.7
4208.6 60.98 6.098
5 pole, 0.01 dB 4208.6 2018.1
7.093 7.093
5 pole, 0.001 dB 5865.7 2429.5 5865.7
1028.9 1469.2 7.160 6.781 7.160
7 pole, 1 dB 1469.2 1028.9
7 pole, 0.1 dB 2694.9 1518.2 1518.2 2694.9 5.593 5.058 5.593 Fig. 19 — Here is a photograph of a 7-pole low-
7 pole, 0.01 dB 3994.1 1820.9 1820.9 3994.1 5.715 4.873 5.715 pass filter designed with the information con-
7 pole, 0.001 dB 5401.7 2078.0 2078.0 5401.7 6.410 5.144 6.410 tained in Table 3. The filter is housed in a
1002.7 1019.8 1460.3 7.110 6.689 6.689 7.110 small aluminum Minibox.
9 pole, 1 dB 1460.3 1019.8
1491.2 2662.2 5.516 4.922 4.922 5.516
9 pole, 0.1 dB 2662.2 1491.2 1443.3
1670.2 1764.1 3908.2 5.576 4.647 4.647 5.576
9 pole, 0.01 dB 3908.2 1764.1
1977.1 5218.3 6.657 4.780 4.780 6.657
9 pole, 0.001 dB 5218.3 1977.1 1824.6
Component values normalized to 1 MHz and 50 ohms. L in ^H; and C in pF. output frequency, while high T pass filters
reduce energy below the band of interest.
It is common practice to includes harmo-
nic filter at the output of a VFO chain to
ensure purity of the driving voltage to a
mixer or amplifier stage. The filter
Table 5
Chebyshev High-Pass Filter — Pi Configuration bandwidth must be adequate for the
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 C1 C2 C3 C4 tuning range of the VFO in order to
No. poles, ripple
3201.7 prevent attenuation of the output energy
3 pole, 1 dB 3.932 3.932
7.714 2774.2 within the desired band. For this reason, a
3 pole, 0.1 dB 7.714
3 pole, 0.01 dB 12.65 12.65 3280.5 low-pass type of filter is used in preference
4381.4 one by some designers.
3 pole, 0.001 dB 19.47 19.47 to a bandpass
2.652 3.727 2917.3 2917.3 The information contained in Figs.
5 pole, dB 1 3.727
2321.4 2321.4
5 pole, 0.1 dB 6.939 4.029 6.939 18-20 and in Tables 1-5 will allow the
5.045 10.52 2439.3 2439.3
5 pole, 0.01 dB 10.52
builder to select an appropriate
1.466 2837.3 2837.3
5 pole, 0.001 dB 1.466 6.074
1469.2 Chebyshev filter design to fulfill a par-
5.014 5.014 7.159 1469.2 1391.6
7 pole, 1 dB 7.159
3.795 6.737 2237.2 2023.1 2237.2 ticular need.Information is included for
7 pole, 0.1 dB 6.737 3.795
4.552 9.985 2286.0 1949.1 2286.0 both high-pass and low-pass filters with 1
7 pole, 0.01 dB 9.985 4.552
2564.1 2057.7 2564.1
7 pole, 0.001 dB 13.50 5.195 5.195 13.50 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001 db passband ripple.
2675.6 2844.1
These figures correspond to VSWRs of
2.549 2.507 2.549 3.651 2844.1 2675.6
9 pole, 1 dB 3.651
3.608 3.728 6.656 2206.5 1968.9 1968.9 2206.5
9 pole, 0.1 dB 6.656 3.728
2.66, 1.36, 1.10 and 1.03 respectively. Ad-
4.410 9.772 2230.5 1858.7 1858.7 2230.5
9 pole, 0.01 dB 9.772 4.410 4.176
4.561 4.943 13.05 2466.3 1911.8 1911.8 2466.3 ditionally, information provided for
is
9 pole, 0.001 dB 13.05 4.943
and C pF. both "T" and "pi" types of filter con-
Component values normalized to 1 MHz and 50 ohms. L in M H; in
figurations.
The filters are "normalized" to a fre-
quency of 1 MHz and an input and output
impedance of 50 ohms. In order to trans-
late the designs to other frequencies, all
that necessary is to divide the compo-
is
-tf— f — DRIVER
JTTT\
Z1
*
TO
PA
GRID
0.001 (Hl-Z)
-t
<-N>
7-
High-Pass Filter —
Pi configuration
INPUT O
U
If
—
(Hl-Z)
0.001
(See Table 5 for normalized values)
Ah -r — If o
i i
r-f->
High-Pass Filter —
T configuration
N DRIVER
(See Table 4 for normalized values)
TO
H( o Gp * D
INPUTO- 0.001 (Hl-Z)
(LO-Z)
0.1
LO -t -I
7"
Low-Pass
I Filter
H-7
— T configuration
(See Table 2 for normalized values)
"O
beads!
XX
001 0.01
RFC2
5
:cn
Low-Pass Filter —
Pi configuration
(See Table 3 for normalized values)
22juF
X (B)
Fig. 20 —
Shown here are the four filter types BROADBAND DRIVER
discussed in the text and Tables 1-5. 0.1
XX
0.1
theoretical response will be de- likely
graded somewhat by the factors just men-
tioned. Once the filter design has been
selected the builder can refer to Tables 2-5 22.UF
to obtain the normalized component
values.
In many cases the calculated capacitor
(C)
values will be sufficiently close to a stan-
dard value so that the standard-value item Fig. 21 — Circuit examples of transistor and tube driver stages for use in transmitters.
may be used. Alternatively, a combina-
tion of fixed-value silver-mica capacitors
and mica compression trimmers can be paper capacitors are not suitable for use in BNC connectors for the input and output
used in parallel to obtain the chart values. rf filters. Standard mica or silver-mica
connections. Some practical low-pass
Toroidal inductors, because of their self- types are recommended. filter values are given later in this chapter.
shielding properties, are ideal for use in Fig. 19 shows a filter that was designed
these filters. Miniductor stock can also be with the information contained in Table Driver Stages
used. However, it is much bulkier and will 3. It is a 7-element, low-pass type of pi con- The choice between tubes and transis-
not offer the same degree of shielding be- The unit is housed in a small
figuration. tors in low-level amplifier and driver
tween filter sections. Disk-ceramic or aluminum Minibox and makes use of stages will depend upon the nature of the
6-13
AMP- AMP.
VFO • ,.
INPUT O-Hf-
(10mW)
I500<J 2N222
(8 MA)
rugged, operate more stably, and produce from vhf to mf. A 22-«F capacitor is used
near RFC2 to bypass the +VCC line at low grid resistor of the PA) of the final
less spurious output. It is true that
frequency and audio. This method is amplifier. The secondary winding of Tl is
transistors are less tolerantthan tubes to
recommended for each high-gain solid- tuned to resonance at the operating
SWR levels in excess of 2:1, but a watt of
correctly designed transistor amplifier can state stage « a transmitter. frequency. Approximately 1
or PA necessary to a neutralization
include tional transformer wound on a toroid core.
designing a solid-state driver
with type of amplifier,
this The turns ratio is adjusted to match the
section is to prevent low-frequency self- circuit
especially if careful layout is not used. The approximate 200-ohm collector impedance
oscillations. Such* parasitics tend to
high transconductance of the 6GK6 series impedance of the transistor PA
to the base
modulate the carrier and appear as
encourages self-oscillation near the opera- stage. The latter is typically less than 5
spurious responses within the amplifier
ting frequency. a parasitic choke
Zl is ohms. Heat sinks are required for the tran-
passbund. The low-frequency parasitics
which should be included as a matter of sistors of Fig. 21B and C. The primary of
occur as a result of the extremely high
course to prevent vhf parasitics. Tl should have a reactance of roughly
gain exhibited by hf and vhf transistors at
A transistor amplifier which is suitable four times the collector impedance. This is
the low-frequency end of the spectrum.
for driving a Class C tube PA is presented related to the lowest proposed operating
The theoretical gain increase for a given MHz the
in Fig. 2 IB. Ql operates Class C, so it is frequency. Therefore, for 1.8
transistor is 6 dB per octave as the =
lowered. The same not satisfactory for amplifying ssb energy. primary winding would be 70<tH (Xl
operating frequency is
Therefore, it However, forward bias (approximately 800 ohms). This can be achieved easily by
is not true of vacuum tubes.
decoupling 0.7 volt) can be added to move the using an FT-50-43 Amidon core. The pri-
is necessary to employ quality
similarly operating curve into the Class AB (linear) mary advantage to a broadband driver is
and bypassing in the circuit. It is
HF Transmitting 6-14
CAPACITIVE COUPLING BANDPASS COUPLING output range from 15 to 30 watts. CI at the
emitter of Ql can be selected to provide
DRIVER <OOpF
the overall gain needed in this strip. The
value given at CI proved suitable for the
ARRL version of this amplifier. The final
value will depend on the gain of the
individual transistors acquired for this
circuit.
V 2
Z =
2P„
T1.T2-4.1 2 RATIO
input impedance of a transistor power
amplifier, it becomes desirable to use what
is sometimes referred to as a "sloppy"
matching network. This is an LC network
in which both the inductance and capaci-
22juF
7h tance elements are., variable to allow lati-
tude of adjustment while securing a
(E)
matched condition. On the other hand,
some designers purposely introduce a
Fig. 23 — Typical coupling methods for use between amplifier stages. See text.
mismatch between stages to control the
power distribution and, aid stability.
When this technique is used it is necessary
it need not be band-switched or peaked
that Rms and dc voltages are noted on the to have more driving power than would be
by means of a front-panel control. The .diagram of Fig. 22 to aid in troubleshoot- needed under a matched condition. An
transistor selected for broadband service ing. Overall gain for the strip at 7 intentional mismatch results in a tradeoff
should have a very high fx rating. It needs MHz is 31 dB, with slight gain varia- between gain and the desired end effect of
to have high beta as well.' Transistors de- tions elsewhere in the passband. Tl con-
introducing a mismatch.
signed for uhf service are excellent as hf- sists of 30 turns of no. 28 enameled wire
band amplifiers when broadbanding is
In the interest of stability it is common
(primary) on an FT-50-43 toroid. The sec- practice to use low-Q networks between
contemplated. Neutralization is not neces- ondary has four turns of no. 28 wire. T2 stages in a solid-state transmitter. The
sary when using bipolar-transistor ampli- uses 16 turns of no. 28 enameled wire
penalty for using a low-Q resonant
fiers. (primary) looped through an Amidon
network is poor selectivity: There is little
A practical three-stage' broadband am- BLN-43-302 balun core. The 'second-
ferrite
attenuation of harmonic or other spurious
plifier strip is shown schematically in Fig. ary contains four turns of no. 28 wire.
energy. Conversely, tube stages operate at
22. With an input of 10 level
it is pos- mW RFC1, RFC2 and RFC3 are 250- M H units. relatively high impedance levels (plate and
sible to obtain 1.4 watts of output from They are made by winding 20 turns of no. grid) and can be neutralized easily (not
3.5 to 29 MHz. A keying transistor (Q4) is 28 enameled wire on FT-37-43 toroid true of transistors). This permits the
included for turning the amplifier off by cores. Dl and D2 are 1-A, 50-PRV rectifier
employment of high-Q networks between
means of a VOX, or for keying it during diodes. This driver was designed to excite a stages, which in turn provide good
cw operation. Motorola MRF- 449A PA stage to a power- selectivity. Most solid-state amplifiers use
6-15 Chapter 6
X
WHEN < RL
1 — Select Q L RIN (
2 — X L1 = Q L R|N + XciOUT)
4- Xc2 = Rl
3 _ X C2 = A RL 1 — Select Q L /rT=V
2 — X L1 = X C(0UT)
4 - XC1 = rTTT 3 - X C1 = Q L Rin 5- X L2 = X G1
^g-j
+ Ql 2
R|N fl )
Where A f
Fig. 25 — Circuit and equations tor network no. 2.
And B = R| N (1 + Ql 2 )
— for
rin m
Fig.24 Circuit and mathematical solution Cout
matching network no. 1.
Qi \
(__nnnrY_£_nnnn_
X
^
RFC
matching networks with loaded Qs of 5 or
less. Tube stages more commonly contain
networks with loaded Qs of 10 to 15. The WHEN Rin < Rl
5 i A~r OR Rin > Rl
higher the Q, up to a practical limit,
the greater the attenuation of frequencies
other than the desired ones. In all cases,
the input and output capacitances of tubes NETWORK 3
and transistors must be included in the
network constants, or to use the en- 1 — Select Q L Where A = R, N (1 + Q L2
gineering vernacular, "absorbed" into the
2 - X L1 = (R| N Q L ) + X C(0UT)
)
3 — X[_2 = R[_ B
network. The best source of information And B 1
A /Rl
on the input and output capacitances of 4-Xd
power transistors is the manufacturer's QL + B
data sheet. The capacitance values are de-
pendent upon the operating frequency Fig. 26 — Network-solution equations and circuit for network no. 3.
winding of the correct impedance ratio re- chapter. An advantage to using this type
tubes are employed. The driver plate has a
spective to the primary winding. Depend- of circuit is that vhf and uhf parasitics are
tuned circuit which is resonant at the
number of transformer discouraged and harmonic currents are
operating frequency. A low-value cou- ing on the total
attenuated when C2 is fairly high in
pling capacitor (100 pF in this example) turns used, the secondary might call for
capacitance. This is not true of the circuit
less than one turn, which is impractical.
routes the drive from the plate of VI to
However, for most of the spectrum up to in Fig. 23C.
the grid of V2 across a high-impedance
When the impedance levels to be
element, RFC2. The other choke, RFC1, 30 MHz this technique is entirely satisfac-
network tory. The primary tap on Tl is chosen to
matched are of the proper value to permit
isused as part of the decoupling
transform the collector impedance of Ql employing specific-ratio broadband trans-
for the supply voltage to VI.
formers, the circuit of Fig. 23E is useful.
Band-pass coupling between tube stages to the base impedance of Q2 by means of
the turns ratio between the tapped section In this example two 4:1 transformers are
is demonstrated at Fig. 23B. CI has a very
and the secondary winding of the trans- used in cascade to provide a 16:1
small capacitance value and is chosen to
Rl may be added in shunt with transformation ratio. This satisfies the
provide a single-hump response when the former.
the secondary to stabilize Q2 if there is a match between the 80-ohm collector of Ql
two resonators (LI and L2) are peaked to
tendency toward self-oscillation. The and the 5-ohm base of Q2. The shortcom-
the operating frequency. The principal
value used will be in the 5- to 27-ohm ing of this technique is the lack of selecti- ,
stages. The collector and base of the two CI and C2 in series must be added to the Network Equations
stages would be tapped down on LI a^d capacitance of C3 when determining the
When the source impedance is greater
L2 minimize loading. This helps
to inductance required for resonance with
than the load impedance (Fig. 24),
preserve the loaded Q of the tuned LI. The basic equation for calculating the
network desirable. The output
capacitance ratio of CI and C2 is included
1 is
circuits, thereby aiding selectivity.
HF Transmitting 6-16
.
-L. COUT
TlOOpF"
'
HH RL
_J QL-4
work.
Network 2 (Fig. 25) can be applied
when the source impedance is less than the
load impedance. The rules for computing
the L and C values are the same as for
HH °r RFC1; RFC2 - 4Z01 (1.5/JH)
6-17 Chapter 6
both circuit locations. Generally, the low-
est power port is best suited for the sup-
pression devices discussed here. This
means that the resistor or ferrite beads
should be located at the base terminal of
the transistor.
Because of the rising gain characteristic
of bipolar transistors as the frequency is
lowered, shunt and degenerative feedback
are often used to prevent instability. The
net effect is that in the regions where
low-frequency self-oscillations are most
likely to occur, the feedback increases by
nature of the feedback network. The
Fig. 28— Example of neutralization of a single-ended rf amplifier
heavier the feedback, the lower the
amplifier gain. In the circuit of Fig. 30 CI
and R3 provide negative feedback which
increases progressively as the frequency is
lowered. The network has some effect at
Fig. 29 — Suppression methods for vhf and uhf parasitics in solid-state amplifiers. frequency is lowered, thereby increasing
the degenerative feedback caused by R2.
This lowers the amplifier gain. R2 in a
power stage is seldom greater than 10
should be kept as short as possible in an suppression can be had by inserting a and may be as low as 1
Ohms in value,
amplifier circuit, and likewise with the low-ohmage resistor (10 to 51 ohms) in ohm. It is important to consider that
pigtails of bypass capacitors. This applies series with the tube input, near the tube
under some operating and layout condi-
to tube or transistor amplifiers. socket. This is illustrated by Rl of Fig. 28.
tions R2 can cause instability. This form
Zl of Fig. 28 is a vhf parasitic choke. Vhf or uhf parasitics can be detected by of feedback should be used only in those
Such a network will damp self-oscillations means of a high-frequency scope, or by circuits' where unconditional stability can
at vhf and uhf by acting' as a series probing the plate tank with a sensitive
be achieved.
impedance which breaks up the usual wavemeter which tunes from 30 and MHz on
Solid-state amplifiers that are built
unwanted vhf/uhf circuit path. Zl con- higher.
pc boards can be made stable (in addition
sists of a non-inductive resistor between Parasitic oscillations can be prevented
to the foregoing measures) by utilizing
51 and 100 ohms. A coil is wound around in solid-state amplifiers by using a small
double-clad pc board material. The
the resistor body to provide a broadband amount of in the base or
resistance
copper on the component side of the
rf choke which presents a high impedance collector of low-power amplifiers
lead
board is used as a ground-plane surface by
at vhf and higher, but looks like a low (Fig. 29A). The value of Rl or R2 is
removing the copper around each hole
reactance in the hf region and lower. A typically between 10 and 22 ohms.
where a component is to be mounted. This
typical parasitic suppressor for a power Resistors are seldom necessary at both
ground plane is made electrically common
level up to 150 watts contains 6 to 8 turns points in a circuit, but can be used
to the ground elements on the etched side
of no. 20 wire wrapped around a 56-ohm, effectively at either point. Rl or R2
of the board. Such a technique helps
composition resistor. The coil ends should be located as close to the transistor
,.1-watt
prevent unwanted ac ground loops which
are soldered to the resistor pigtails near as practical.
can cause feedback and instability. Fur-
the body of the resistor. Zl is then placed At power levels in excess of approxi-
thermore, the nonground etched elements
as close to the tube plate pin or cap as mately 0.5 Watt, the method of parasitic
form low-capacitance bypass capacitors
possible. For higherpowers it is
rf suppression shown in Fig. 29B is suggested.
against the ground-plane surface of the
practical to use a high-wattage Globar The voltage drop across a resistor would
board. This aids in reducing the chance
resistor, or a 25-watt noninductive (NIT) be prohibitive at the higher power levels, parasitic oscillations.
for vhf and uhf
power resistor around which a suitable so one or more ferrite beads can be substi-
Rl of useful in swamping the
Fig. 30
tuted (Zl and Z2). A permeability of 125
is
number of wire turns (no. 14 or 12 wire)
input of an amplifier. This reduces the
have been wound. Additional parasitic' will suffice. The beads need not be used at
HF Transmitting 6-18
'
<M9 Chapter 6
/
aO-
800 OHMS
~\
• L3
M
• L1
bO-
{- > R2
>5.55
^nnnri6__:
• cO-
r-0-
9'1UNBALANCED TO
UNBALANCED TRAN. 9-1 BALANCED TO
REVERSIBLE VARIABLE -Z
(A) (C) UNBALANCED TRAN.
BROADBAND TRAN.
. R2
, LO-Z
Fig. 32 — Circuit examples of 9:T broadband transformers (A and C) and a variable-impedance transformer (E).
C the chapter on electrical laws and circuits. the tube must dissipate more heat. Other
variable-ratio transformer of Fig. 32 is
HF Transmitting 6-20
R3
f^7 -AA/V-
100
> R2
> 50 R1 • L1
l'UNBAL. 50
BAL..
•
1HPHASE -REVERSAL
UNBALANCED TRAN.
(A)
• -INDICATES PHASING 1:1BALANCED TO
UNBALANCED TRAN.
(C)
SINGLE-ENDED
(E) HYBRID COMBINER
R1
UNBAL.
R2 R2
50
UNBAL.
UNBAL.
mum operating voltage for several condi- frequency and is by no means all-inclusive facturerspush the power margin a bit har-
tions. Of special interest to amateurs is the from, for example, medium frequency up which delivers a
der, utilizing a transistor
Vceo specification (collector-to-emitter vol- to the vhf spectrum. The frequency at power output which is as great as 3/4 the
tage, with the base open). When a transis- which a particular gain figure applies is Pd rating. So close a safety margin is
tor is called upon to handle an ac signal, stated on the transistor data sheet. Gene- somewhat risky for inexperienced builders.
the collector-to-emitter voltage can rise to rally, the gain will be higher below that
twice the dc supply. Thus, if a 12- volt sup-
Sources of Tube Electrode Voltages:
frequency and it will decrease above that
ply
Filament or Heater Voltage
used, the transistor should have a
is frequency. Gain information is useful in
Vceo of 24 or greater to prevent damage. If predicting how much output power can be The heater voltage for the indirectly
that same transistor is amplitude-modulated obtained for a given input power; i.e., a heated cathode-type tubes found in low-
(as in the PA of an a-m transmitter), a 13-dB gain transistor delivering an output power classifications may vary 10 percent
collector-emitter voltage swing (theoreti- of 10 watts would require a driving power above or below rating without seriously
cal) as great as four times the supply vol- of 0.5 W
(GamfdB) = 10 log [P2/P1]) reducing the life of the tube. But the vol-
tage can occur. A transistor chosen for Power dissipation for a transistor is ex- tage of the higher-power, filament-type
this application should have a Vce0 of 48 pressed symbolically as Pd. This maximum tubes should be held closely between the
or greater. rating is based on a case temperature of rated voltage as a minimum and five per-
The fp of a common-emitter
rating 25°C. For example, a total device dissipa- cent above rating as a maximum. Make
transistor amplifier is based on the point tion of 30 watts might be specified at a sure that the plate power drawn from the
at which the transistor gain is unity (1) case temperature of 25°C. If greater tem- power line does not cause a drop in fila-
with respect to operating frequency. In the peratureswere expected, the transistor ment voltage below the proper value when
interest of predictable performance and would have to be derated in per de- mW plate power is applied.
amplifier stability it is best to select a gree C. A Motorola MRF215 would be Thoriated-type filaments lose emission
transistor that was designed for a par- derated- 177 mW per additional degree C. when the tube is overloaded appreciably.
ticularfrequency range. When this is not The effectiveness of the transistor heat If the overload has not been too pro-
practical, the,fr shouldbe roughly 5 to 10 sink plays an important role in maximum longed, emission sometimes may be re-
times the operating frequency. Therefore, power utilization of a given device. It is stored by operating the filament at rated
a suitable transistor for use at 3.5 MHz not unusual to see a cooling fan used in voltage with all other voltages removed
would have an between 17.5 and 35
fr combination with a large heat sink to aid for a period of 10 minutes, or at 20 per-
MHz. If a much
higher fp were selected, in lowering the transistor ease tempera- cent above rated voltage for a few minutes.
say, 250. MHz, the published rf perfor- ture:Heat is one of the worst enemies of
Plate Voltage
mance curves for the (device would be power transistors.
quite inaccurate at 3.5 MHz, and the tran- A rule of thumb for selecting a Pd rat- Dc plate voltage for the operation of rf
sistor gain would be extremely high com- ing which is suitable for a given rf power amplifiers is most often obtained from a
pared to the rated gain at the intended output amount is to choose a transistor transformer-rectifier-filter system (see
operating frequency of the device. which has a maximum dissipation of twice power-supply chapter) designed to deliver
Power transistor gain is normally the desired output power. Hence, a 20- the required plate voltage at the required
specified as "typical" dB. This informa- watt transistor would be picked for use in current. However, batteries or other de-
tion applies to some specified operating a 10-watt-output amplifier. Some manu- generating devices are sometimes used in
6-21 Chapter 6
" -
certain types of operation (see portable- operation (Fig. 35 A), a resistance of the
mobile chapter). appropriate value can be placed in the
emitter return as shown; Most transistors
INPUT
Bias and Tube Protection will operate in Class C without adding
o-
of obtaining bias are bias externally, but in some instances the
Several methods
shown in Fig. 34. At A, bias is obtained by amplifier efficiency can be improved by
the voltage drop across a resistor (Rl) in means of emitter bias. Reverse bias
the grid dc return circuit when rectified supplied to the base of the Class C
BIAS
transistor should be avoided because it f
grid current flows. The proper value of , OPERATING
*
SET
from the voltage drop across a Zener the screen through a series dropping
diode in the cathode (or filament center- resistor from a higher- voltage source,
tap) lead. Operating bias is obtained by such as the plate supply, affords a
the voltage drop across VR1 as a result of
R1
measure of protection, since the resistor
.
plate (and screen) current flow. The causes the screen voltage to drop as the ^ 22>F
Zener-diode wattage rating is twice the current increases, thereby limiting the
product of the maximum cathode current power drawn by the screen. However, (B)
times the developed bias. Therefore, a with a resistor, the screen voltage may
tube requiring 15 volts of bias during a vary considerably with excitation, making
maximum cathode-current flow of 100 it necessary to check the voltage at the
mA would dissipate L5 W
in the Zener
screen terminal under actual operating
diode. The diode rating, to allow a conditions to make sure that the screen
suitable safety factor, would be 3 or W voltage is normal. Reducing excitation
greater. The of Fig. 34D illustrates
circuit will cause the screen current to drop,
how Dl would be used with a cathode- increasing the voltage; increasing excita-
driven (grounded-grid) amplifier as op- tion will have the opposite effect. These
posed to the grid-driven example at C. changes are in addition to those caused by
changes in bias and plate loading, so if a
6
A-? sTt —r—
screen-grid tube is operated from a series +vcc (C)
Transistor Biasing resistor or a voltage divider, its voltage
Solid-state power amplifiers generally should be checked as one of the final ad-
operate in Class C or Class AB. When justments after excitation and loading Fig. 35 — Biasing methods for use with transistor
amplifiers.
some bias is desired during Class C have been set.
HF Transmitting 6-22
'
Anapproximate value for the screen- for each tube under various operating impedance step-up is necessary if the grid
vpltage dropping resistor may be obtained conditions. These figures, however,do not is to be fed from a, low-impedance
by dividing the voltage drop required frora include .circuit losses. In general, the transmission line.
the supply voltage (difference between the driver stage for any Class C amplifier
supply voltage and rated screen voltage) should be capable of supplying at least Cooling: Tubes
by the rated screen current in decimal . three times the driving power shown for Vacuum tubes must be operated within
parts of an ampere. Some further ad- typical operating conditions at frequencies the temperature range specified by the
justment may be necessary, as mentioned up to 30 MHz and from three to 10 times at manufacturer long tube life is to be
if
above, so an adjustable resistor with a higher frequencies. achieved. Tubes
with glass envelopes
total resistance above that calculated Since the dc grid current relative to the rated at up to 25 watts of plate dissipation
should be provided. biasing voltage to the peak
is related may be run without forced-air cooling, if a
driving voltage, dc grid current is
the moderate amount of cooling by con-
Protecting Screen-Grid Tubes
commonly used as a convenient indicator vection can be arranged. If a perforated-
Considerably less grid bias is required of driving conditions. A driver adjustment metal enclosure is used, and a ring of
to cut off an amplifier that has a that results in rated dc grid current when 1/4-inch diameter holes are placed around
fixed-voltage screen supply than one that the dc bias is at its rated value, indicates the tube socket, normal air flow can be
derives the screen voltage through a high proper excitation to the amplifier when it reliedupon to remove excess heat at room
value of dropping resistor. When a "stiff is fully loaded. temperature|.
screen voltage supply is used, the neces- In coupling the grid input circuit of an For tubes with greater plate dissipation,
sary grid cutoff voltage may be determined amplifier to the output circuit of a driving or those operated with plate currents in
from an inspection of the tube curves or stage the objective is to load the driver excess of the manufacturer's ratings
by experiment. plate circuit so that the desired amplifier (often the case with TV
sweep tubes)
grid excitation is obtained without ex- forced air cooling with a fan or blower is
Feeding Excitation to the Grid ceeding the plate-input ratings of the needed. Fans, especially those designed
The required rf driving voltage is
driver tube. for cooling hi-fi cabinets, are preferred
supplied by an oscillator generating a because they operate quietly. However, all
Driving Impedance
voltage at the desired frequency, either fans lose their ability to move air when ex-
directly or through intermediate amplifiers, The grid-current flow that results when cessive back pressure exists. For applica-
mixers, or frequency multipliers. the grid is driven positive in respect to the tions where a stream of air must be
As
explained in the chapter on vacuum- cathode over a portion of the excitation directed through a tube socket, a blower is
tube fundamentals, the grid of an. amplifier cycle represents an average resistance usually required.
operating under Class C conditions must across which the exciting voltage must be One method for directing a flow of air
have an exciting voltage whose peak value developed by the driver. In other words, around a tube envelope or through tube
exceeds the negative biasing voltage over a this is the load resistance into which the cooling fins involves the use of a
portion of the excitation cycle. During driver plate circuit must be coupled. The pressurized chassis. This system is shown
this portion of the cycle, current will flow approximate grid input resistance is given in Fig. 36. A blower is attached to the
in the grid-cathode circuit as it does in a by chassisand forces air up through the tube
diode circuit when the plate of the diode is socket and around the tube. A chimney
positive in respect to the cathode. Tl Input impedance (ohms) (not shown in this drawing) is used to
quires that the rf driver supply power. The driving power (watts) guide the air around the tube as it leaves
~ dc grid X 620,000 the socket. A chimney will prevent the air
power required to develop the required current (mA) 2
peak driving voltage across the grid-cathode from being dispersed as it hits the
impedance of the amplifier is the rf driving For normal operation, the driving power envelope or cooling fins, concentrating
power. and grid current may be taken from the the flow for maximum cooling.
The tube tables give approximate tube tables. Since the grid input resistance Most manufacturers rate tube cooling
figures for the grid driving power required is a matter of a few thousand ohms, an requirements for continuous-duty opera-
tion. The manufacturer's literature will in-
dicate the required cubic feet per minute
(CFM) of air flow at some particular back
pressure. Back pressure is the pressure
that is builtup inside the airtight chassis
when the blower is operational. Forced air
entering the chassis from the blower can
escape only through the tube socket/tube/
MANOMETER chimney assembly. Since this assembly
AIRSYSTEM represents a certain amount of resistance
SOCKET to the flow of air, an amount of pressure
is built up inside the chassis. The exact
amount of pressure will depend on the
blower and the tube socket/tube/chimney
characteristics. Blowers vary in their abili-
ty to work against back pressure so the
matter of blower selection should not be
taken lightly.
Values of CFM and back pressure for
'AIR TIGHT CHASSIS some of the more popular tubes, sockets
and chimneys are given in Table 6. Back
pressure is specified in inches of water and
Fig. 36 — Airforced into the chassis by the blower and exits through the tube socket. The
is
can be easily measured as indicated in
manometer is used to measure system back pressure, which is an important factor in determining Figs. 36 and 37, by means of a
the proper size blower. manometer. A manometer is nothing
6-23 Chapter 6
the unit. As an example, assume that an
ATMOSPHERIC ATMOSPHERIC amplifier is to be built using a 3-1000Z
tube. Ablower capable of supplying 25
CFM back pressure of 0.38 inches of
at a
water is required. Referring to Table 7 it
appears that the second blower listed
would be suitable, although it may be
marginal since it can only supply 25 CFM
into a back pressure of 0.4 inches of
water. The next larger size would provide
a margin of safety.
When a pair of tubes is used, the CFM
rating is doubled, but the back pressure
remains the same as that for one tube. A
pair of 3-1000Z tubes, for example, would
require 50 CFM at a back pressure of 0.38
inches of water. In this case the fifth
blower listed Table would be
in the
suitable since it can supply 85 CFM at a
back pressure of 0.4 inches of water.
— Always choose a blower that can supply at
Fig. 37 At A the blower is "off" and the water will seek its own level in the manometer. At B
the blower is "on" and the amount of back pressure in terms of inches of water can be measured least the required amount of air. Smaller
as indicated. blowers will almost certainly lead to
shortened tube life.
Table 6 also contains the part numbers
Table 6
for air-system sockets and chimneys to be
Specifications of Some Popular Tubes, Sockets and Chimneys
used with the tubes that are listed. The
Tube CFM Back Pressure Socket Chimney builder should investigate which of the
(inches)
SK-416 sockets listed for the 4CX250R,
3-400Z/8163 13 0.13 SK-400, SK-410
3-500Z 13 0.082 SK-400, SK-410 SK-406 4CX30OA, 4CX1000A and 4CX1500A
3- 1000Z/8164 25 0.38 SK-500, SK-510 SK-516 best fits the circuit needs. Some of the
3CX 1500/8877 35 0.41 SK-2200, SK-2210 SK-2216 sockets have certain tube elements
4- 250A/5D22 2 0.1 SK-400, SK-410 SK-406
grounded internally through the socket.
4-400A/8438 14 0.25 SK-400, SK-410 . SK-406
4-1000A/8166 20 0.6 SK-500, SK-510 SK-506 Others have elements bypassed to ground
4CX250R/7850W 6.4 0.59 SK-600, SK-600A, SK-602A, SK-606 through capacitors that are integral parts
SK-610, SK-610A, SK-611, SK-626 of the sockets.
SK-612, SK-620, SK-620A
SK-621, SK-630
An efficient blower is required when
4CX300A/8167 7.2 0.58 SK-700, SK-710, SK-711A, SK-606 using the external-anode tubes, such as
SK-712A, SK-740, SK-760 the 4CX250R. Such tubes represent a
SK-761, SK-770 trade-off which allows high-power opera-
4CX350 A/8321 7.8 1.2 Same as 4CX250R
tion with a physically small device at the
4CX1000A/8168 25 0.2 SK-800B, SK-810B, SK-890B SK-806
4CX1 500/8660 expense of increased complexity in the
8874 8.6 0.37 cooling system. Other types of external-
These values are for sea-level elevation. For locations well above sea-level (Denver, Colorado, for anode tubes are now being produced for
example), add an additional 20% to the figure listed. conductive cooling. Electrical insulators
which are also excellent thermal conduc-
tors, such as AlSiMg (aluminum-silicon-
magnesium compound) and Be
Table 7
(beryllium), couple the tube to a heat sink.
Blower Performance Specifications
Requirements for the heat dissipator are
Wheel Wheel RPM Free Back Pressure (inches) Cutoff Stock calculated in the same way as for power
Dia. Width Air 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 (Vo.
transistors, as outlined below. Similar
2" 1" 3160 15 13 4 0.22 2C782
3" 1-15/32" 3340 54 48 43 36 25 17 0.67 4C012 tubes are made with special anode struc-
3" 1-7/8" 3030 60 57 54 49 39 23 0.60 4C440 tures for water or vapor cooling, allowing
3" 1-7/8" 2880 76 70 63 56 45 8 0.55 4C004 high-power operation without producing
3-13/16" 1-7/8" 2870 100 98 95 90 85 80 0.80 4C443
114
an objectionable noise level from the cool-
3-13/16" 2-1/2" 3160 148 141 135 129 121 1.04 4C005
ing system.
Transistor Cooling
more than a piece of clear tubing, open at plications a standard ruler can be used for Some bipolar power transistors have
both ends and fashioned in the shape of a the measurement and the results will be the collector connected directly to the case
"U." The manometer is temporarily con- sufficiently accurate. of the device, as the collector must
nected to the chassis and is removed after Table 7 illustrates the performance dissipate most of the heat generated when
the measurements are completed. As specifications for one particular brand of the transistor is in operation. Others have
shown in the diagrams, a small amount of blowers. These are Dayton blowers which the emitter connected to the case. How-
water is placed in the tube. At Fig. 37A, are available through, W. W. Grainger ever, even the larger case designs cannot
the blower is "off" and the water will outlets throughout the U.S. Blowers with conduct heat away fast enough to keep the
seek its own level. At B, the blower is similarwheel dimensions of different operating temperature of the device
"on" (socket, tube and chimney in place) manufacture likely have similar functioning within the safe area, the
and the pressure difference, in terms of characteristics. If in doubt about maximum temperature that a device can
inches of water, is measured. For most ap- specifications contact the manufacturer of stand without damage. Safe area is usually
HF Transmitting 6-24
I
20
(B)
Fig. 38 —
Heat-sink thermal resistance versus size. The sink volume can be determined by multiplying the height and cross-sectional area.
At B are
numbers which show the approximate thermal resistance needed for operating at various power levels with adequate cooling. TO-5 and TO-44 case
styles are listed.
Heat-Sink Design
Simple heat sinks, made as described in
I
—WN/—
the Construction Practices chapter, can be
made more effective (by 25 percent or
more) by applying a coat of flat-black
+215V (K _|(_*jHnnn.
paint. Finned radiators are most effective
when placed where maximum air flow can
be achieved —
outside a case with the fins LOAD
Fig. 39 —
Circuit examples of typical single-
ended, parallel and push-pull tube amplifiers.
6-25 Chapter 6
These figures are based on several excitation is keyed in a cw transmitter, Grid- (control or screen) modulated .
In a cw or fm transmitter, any' class of plate-modulated phone at about 2/3 that output amplifier operation to Classes A,
amplifier can be used as an output or of cw or fm.) A plate-modulated stage ABi, AB2 and B. The efficiency of
intermediate amplifier. (For reasonable running 100 watts input will deliver a operation of these amplifiers runs from
efficiency, a frequency multiplier must be carrier output from 65 to 75 watts, about 20 to 65 percent. In all but Class A
operated Class C.) Class C operation of depending upon the tube, frequency and operation the indicated (by plate-current
the amplifier gives the highest efficiency circuit factor. The PEP output of any a-m meter) input will vary with the signal, and
signal is four times the carrier output is not possible to talk about relative
(65 to 75 percent), but it is likely to be
it
accompanied by appreciable harmonics power, or 260 to 300 watts for the inputs and outputs as readily as it is with
and consequent TVI possibilities. If the 100-watt input example. other modes. Therefore linear amplifiers
are rated by PEP (input or output) at a
given distortion level, which indicates not
only how much ssb signal they will deliver
27W
MAX,
but also how effective they will be in
INPUT
amplifying an a-m signal.
Ct
O.OQ1
2000V
power will be doubled and a 3-dB
improvement will be obtained. In most
6146B cases a 3-dB change is just discernible by
N |UT
the receiving operator.
By comparison, a linear amplifier with
3 0.01
L
—AAA/ ' a PEP output rating of four times an
existing ssb, cw or fm transmitter will
*3, quadruple the output, a 6-dB improve-
ment, it should be noted that the linear
-O + 200V
~7h amplifier must be rated for the mode (ssb,
cw or fm) with which it is to be used.
V2 5
I 6i46By'
6146B Grounded-Grid Amplifiers
r^~> 1,4,6
UUULT The preceding discussion applies to
4^
^ ( ]
C2
0.001
2000V
vacuum-tube amplifiers connected in a
grounded-cathode or grounded-grid cir-
SET FOR 50 mA
-W- )h- cuit. However, there are a few points that
5
NO-SIG. IP NEUT.
apply only to grounded-grid amplifiers.
VI V2
2/17 2(] 7
A tube operated in a given class(ABi , B,
0.01 „
C) will require more driving power as a
grounded-grid amplifier than as a grounded-
cathode amplifier. This is not because the
CLASS AB1 AMP grid losses run higher in the grounded-
(D)
grid configuration but because some of
HF Transmitting 6-26
the driving power is coupled directly ended amplifier which operates Class AB2 connected as shown to obtain a 1-kW-dc
through the tube and appears in the plate in grounded-grid fashion. Tl is a broad- input linear amplifier. Attention must be
load circuit. Provided enough driving band, trifilar transformer which keeps the paid to selecting a set of tubes with nearly
power is available, this increased require- cathode and filaments above ac ground to matched dynamic characteristics. If this is ,
ment is of no concern in cw or linear opera- provide a method for driving the cathode not done, one or more of the tubes may
tion. In a-m operation, however, the fed- of VI. Operating bias is developed by in- draw the major part of the current during
through power prevents the grounded-grid serting Dl in the cathode return. Zl is a the driven period. This would cause them
amplifier from being fully modulated (100 vhf parasitic suppressor. RFC2 functions to operate in excess of their safe plate-
percent). as a safety device in the event the plate dissipation ratings and be destroyed.
blopking capacitors short and dc flows in- An exampleof a push-pull amplifier is
Amplifier Circuits: Parallel and
to the load (antenna or Transmatch). The offered in Fig. 39D. Two 6146Bs are used
Push-Pull Amplifiers
rf choke permits high dc current to flow to in a Class AB1 format. CI and C2 are the
The circuits for parallel-tube amplifiers ground, blowing the power supply fuses neutralizing capacitors. Join points A-A
are the same as for a single tube, similar and destroying the choke. It should have and B-B to complete the circuit. CI and
terminals of tubes being connected to- an XL which is at least 10 times the load C2 are shown in series with 0.001 -^F
gether. The grid impedance of two tubes resistance. blocking capacitors. The latter need not
in parallel is half that of a single tube. This TV sweep tubes used in parallel are seen be used if access to the neutralizing
means that twice the grid tank capacitance at Fig. 39C. Each plate lead contains a capacitors can be had without shock
should be used for the same Q. ,
parasitic choke (Zl and Z2). Dl is" chosen hazard. The circuit concepts shown in Fig.
The plate load resistance is halved so to provide the necessary idling current for 39 are applicable to all types of transmit-
that the plate-tank capacitance for a single the class of operation desired. The unique and power levels. Specific types
ting tubes
tube also should be doubled. The total feature of this circuit is that the control of tubes are shown merely to provide
grid current will be doubled, so to grids of VI and V2 are tied together and practical examples during this treatment.
maintain the same grid bias, the grid-leak driven across a 50-ohm resistor. This
resistance should be half that used for a method eliminates the need for a tuned
Grounded-Grid Amplifiers
The required driving power is
single tube. circuit or matching transformer at the Fig. 38A shows the input circuit of a
doubled. The capacitance of a neutraliz- amplifier input. Additionally, by strap- grounded-grid tribde amplifier. In con-
ing capacitor should be doubled and the ping the grids to a low impedance (50 figuration it is similar to the conventional
value of the screen dropping resistor should ohms), amplifier stability can be realized grounded-cathode circuit except that the
be cut in half.
without the need for neutralization. The grid, instead of the cathode, is at ground
In treating parasitic oscillation, it is 100-ohm resistors in the screen-grid leads potential. An amplifier of this type is
often necessary to use a choke in each are used to discourage vhf oscillations and characterized by a comparatively low in-
plate lead, rather than one in the common to help equalize the screen currents of the put impedance and a relatively high driver
lead. This avoids building in a push-pull tubes. Several sweep tubes can be parallel- power requirement. The additional driver
type of vhf resonance, which may cause
inefficient operation at higher frequen-
cies.See Fig. 39C and D.
Two or m#re transistors are often
operated in parallel to achieve high output
power, because several medium-power
devices often cost less than a single
high-power type. When parallel operation
is used, precautions must be taken to
A push-pull cir-
use transistors in parallel.
cuit, such as that of Fig. 43 is preferable
and it tends to cancel even harmonics a —
benefit. Alternatively, single-ended
amplifiers can be joined to deliverpower
to a single load bymeans of hybrid com-
biners. This technique was illustrated by
Granberg in April and May 1976 QST. He
used combiners to parallel the outputs of
four 300-watt, push-pull, solid-state
amplifiers. Fig.33E shows the circuit of a
hybrid-combiner transformer.
A typical single-ended tube amplifier
which employs a 6146B in Class C is
shown in Fig. 39A. Neutralization is pro-
vided by means of CI. LI has a tap near
the ac-ground end to provide a small
amount of feedback voltage of the correct
iphase for neutralization. Meters are
placed in the appropriate circuit points for
monitoring the important voltages and
currents.
Fig. 39B shows the circuit of a single- Fig. 40 — Methods for driving grounded-grid amplifiers.
6-27 Chapter 6
1
- 7/iH -
Z RATIO
16:1 1
Dl
S—
2N5320 I
1.8-2.0 ^
MHz ( \^\Z'2Zn HARMONIC FILTER
1.8-2.0 MHz
7W
OUT
Fig. 41 —
A 30-A filament choke for use with
grounded-grid amplifiers. It contains 28 turns
of no. 10 enameled wire, closewound in bifilar
fashion on a 7-inch (178-mm) by 1/2-inch
(13-mm) ferrite rod. The core permeability can
be 950 or 125.
modulated phone operation the driver applied through rf chokes. ventional toroidal broadband transformer
power fed through to the output is not In a directly-heated cathode tube, the which matches the 50-ohm driver load to
modulated. filament must be maintained above rf the 5-ohm base of QI. The primary of Tl
The chief application for grounded-grid ground. This can be done by using a requires sufficient reactance to look like
amplifiers amateur work below 30
in bifilar-wound filament choke (Fig. 40B four times the 50-ohm source impedance.
MHz is where the available
in the case and C). With this method, a double A 7-fiH winding satisfies the need at
driving power far exceeds the power that solenoid (often wound on a ferrite core) is 7 MHz. The collector circuit employs a T
can be used in driving a conventional generally used, although separate chokes network to transform the 5.6-ohm collec-
grounded-cathode amplifier. can be used, or a toroid core of large tor to a 50-ohm load. The collector rf
Screen-grid tubes are also used some- cross-sectional area can be used. A typical choke followed by a second one, which
is
times in grounded-grid amplifiers. In filament choke is shown in Fig. 41. with the associated bypass capacitors
some cases, the screen is simply connected The input impedance of a grounded- decouples the amplifier from the 13.5-volt
in parallel with the grid and the tube grid power stage is usually between 30 and power supply.
operates as a high- u triode. In other 150 ohms. A high-C, low-Q pi-section net- A push-pull, broadband, solid-state
cases, the screen is bypassed to ground work can be used to obtain an SWR of 1 : amplifier circuit seen in Fig. 43. As
is
and operated at the usual dc potential. between the exciter and the amplifier. shown, it is biased for Class C operation.
Since the screen is still in parallel with the This is shown in Fig. 40C. The input net- However, if linear amplification was
HF Transmitting 6-28
.
6-29 Chapter 6
cs
jnrm. -O0UTPUT
"*
TUNE
J
o
+
(A)
o o
+s.s. + H.V.
(A)
U
V.1 PI NETWORK
,
\ K"1
. COAXIAL
LINE
C_ I
o -O OUTPUT
+ TO TUBEO 1(-
(B)
£ Pl-L NETWORK
(C)
Fig. 47 — Examples of pi (A) and pi-L (B) networks.
Capacitance pF
Coupling to Flat
in for meet. Few manufactured link coils have and will result in increased ease of cou-
Coaxial Lines with Tuned Coupling Circuit adequate inductance even for coupling to pling, but as the Q is increased the fre-
a 50-ohm line at low frequencies. quency range over which the circuit will
Frequency Characteristic Impedance of Line
If the line is operating with a low SWR, operate without readjustment becomes
Band 52 75
(MHz) (ohms) (ohms) the system shown in Fig. 46A will require smaller. It is usually good practice,
3.5 450 300 tightcoupling between the two coils. Since therefore, to use a coupling-circuit Q just
7 230 150 the secondary (pickup coil) circuit is not low enough to permit operation, over as
14 115 75 resonant, the leakage reactance of the much of a band as is normally used for a
21 80 50 pickup coil will cause some detuning of particular type of communication,
28 60 40
the amplifier tank circuit. This detuning without requiring retuning.
'Capacitance values are maximum usable. effect -increases with increased coupling, Capacitance values for a Q of 2 and line
Note: Inductance in circuit must be adjusted to but is usually not serious. However, the impedances of 52 and 75 ohms are given in
resonate at operating frequency. amplifier must- be adjusted to
tuning the accompanying table. These are the
resonance, as by the plate-
indicated maximum values that should be used. The
current dip, each time the coupling is inductance in the circuit should be ad-
changed. justed to give resonance at the operating
frequency. If the link coil used for a par-
adjustments at the transmitter indepen- Tuned Coupling ticular band does not have enough induc-
dent of the cable length. The design difficulties of using "un- tance to resonate, the additional induc-
Assuming that the cable is properly ter- tuned" pickup coils, mentioned above, tance may be connected in series as shown
minated, proper loading of the amplifier can be avoided by using a coupling circuit in Fig. 46C.
will be assured, using the circuit of Fig. tuned to the operating frequency. This
46A, if contributes additional selectivity as well, Characteristics
1) The plate tank circuit has reasonably and hence aids in the suppression of spu- In practice, the amount of inductance in
higher value of Q. A value of 10 is usually rious radiations. the circuit should be chosen so that, with
sufficient. Ifthe lin^ is flat the input impedance somewhat loose coupling between LI and
The inductance of the pickup or link
2) willbe essentially resistive and equal to the the amplifier tank coil, the amplifier plate
coil is close to the optimum value for the Z of the line. With coaxial cable, a circuit current will increase when the variable
frequency and type of line used. The opti- of reasonable Q can be obtained with capacitor,.Cl, is tuned through the value
HF Transmitting 6-30
1
no changes in the coupling between LI 5.73 7.46 9.17 10.86 12.53 14.19 17.48 19.18 21.98
3.5
and the tank coil being necessary. 7 3.14 4.09 5.03 5.95 6.86 7.77 9.55 10.48 12.02
The degree of coupling between LI and 14 1.60 2.08 2.56 3.03 3.49 3.95 4.85 5.33 6.11
the amplifier tank coil will depend on the 21 1.07 1.39 1.71 2.02 2.34 2.64 3.25 3.56 4.09
28 0.77 1.01 1.24 1.46 1.69 1.91 2.34 2.57 2.95
coupling circuit Q. With a Q of 2, the
coupling should be tight —
comparable
These component values are for use with the circuit of Rg. 44A and were provided by W6FFC.
with the coupling that is typical of
"fixed-link" manufactured coils. With a
swinging link it may be
necessary to
increase the Qof the coupling circuit in
order to get sufficient power transfer. This
Table 10
can be done by increasing the L/C ratio.
Pi-network values for various plate impedances and frequencies.
Pi and Pi-L Output Tanks These values are based on a loaded Q of 12.
A pi-section and pi-L tank circuit may Zin Freq. C1 L1 C2 L2
also be used in coupling to an antenna or (Ohms) (MHz) (pF) (ixH) (pF) (hH)
transmission shown in Fig 45. The
line, as 1500 3.50- 403. 7.117 1348. 4.518
optimum of capacitance and
values 1500 4,00 318. 7.117 991. 4.518
inductance are dependent upon values of 1500 7.00 188. 3.900 596. 2.476
1500 7.30 174. 3.900 543. 2.476
amplifier power input and output, load
1500 14.00 93. 1.984 292. 1.259
resistance. 1500 14.35 89. 1.984 276. 1.259
Values for L and C may be taken direct- 1500 21.00 62. 1.327 191. 0.843
ly from Tables 9 and 10 if the output load 1500 21.45 59. 1.327 185. 0.843
resistance is the usual 52 ohms. It should 1500 28.00 48. 0.959 152. 0.609
1500 29.70 43. 0.959 134. 0.609
be borne in mind that these values apply
only where the output load is resistive, 2000 3.50 304. 9.086 1211. 4.518
i.e., where the antenna and line have been 2000 4.00 239. 9.086 894. 4.518
matched. 2000 7.00 142. 4.978 534. 2.476
2000 7.30 131. 4.978 490. 2.476
Postage-stamp silver-mica capacitors should 3000 4.00 159. 12.903 777. 4.518
3000 7.00 94. 7.070 468. 2.476
be adequate for amplifier inputs over the 3000 7.30 87. 7.070 426. 2.476
range from about 70 watts at 28 MHz
to 3000 14.00 47. 3.597 222. 1.259
400 watts at 14 MHz
and lower. The 3000 14.35 44. 3.597 217. 1.259
3000 21.00 32. 2.406 146. 0.843
larger mica capacitors (CM-45 case) hav-
3000 21.45 30. *
2.406 145. 0.843
ing voltage ratings of 1200 and 2500 volts
3000 28.00 24. 1.738 115. 0.609
are usually satisfactory for inputs varying 3000 29.70 21. 1.738 105. 0.609
from about 350 watts at 28 MHz
to 1 kW
at 14 MHz and lower. Because of these 3500 3.50 174. 14.772 997. 4.518
3500 4.00 136. 14.772 738. 4.518
current limitations, particularly at the
3500 7.00 81. 8.094 444. 2.476
higher frequencies, it is advisable to use as 3500 7.30 75. 8.094 404. 2.476
large an air capacitor as practicable, using 3500 14.00 40. 4.118 215. 1.259
the micas only at the lower frequencies.
6-31 Chapter 6
Broadcast-receiver replacement-type to emitter or cathode. In general, the best amplifier, it is usually necessary to load
capacitors can be obtained reasonably. arrangement using a tube is one in which the grid circuit, or to use a neutralizing
Their- voltage insulation should be ade- the cathode connection to ground, and the circuit.
quate for inputs of 1000 watts or more. plate tank circuit are on the same side of The capacitive neutralizing system for
the chassis or other shielding. The "hot" screen-grid tubes is shown in Fig. 48A. CI
More About Stabilizing Amplifiers lead from the input tank (or driver plate is the neutralizing capacitor. The capaci-
A straight amplifier operates with its tank) should be brought to the socket tance should be chosen so that at some ad-
input and output circuits tuned to the through a hole in the shielding. Then justment of CI,
same frequency. Therefore, unless the when the grid tank capacitor or bypass is
coupling between these two circuits is grounded, a return path through the hole
Cl Tube grid-plate capacitance (orC Bp )
brought to the necessary minimum, the to cathode will be encouraged, since —
C3 Tube input capacitance (or C !N )
amplifier will oscillate as a tuned-plate, transmission-line characteristics are simu-
tuned-grid circuit. Care should be used in lated.
arranging components and wiring of the The giid-cathode capacitance must in-
Screen-Grid Tube Neutralizing Circuits
two circuits so that there will be negligible clude all strays directly across the tube
opportunity for coupling external to the The plate-grid capacitance of screen- capacitance, including the capacitance of
tube or transistor itself. Complete shiel- grid tubes is reduced to a fraction of a the tuning-capacitor stator to ground.
ding between input and output circuits picofarad by the interposed grounded This may amount to 5 to 20 pF. In the
usually is required. All rf leads should be screen. Nevertheless, the power sensitivity case of capacitance coupling, the output
kept as short as possible, and particular of these tubes is so great that only a very capacitance of the driver tube must be
attention should be paid to the rf return small amount of feedback is necessary to added to the grid-cathode capacitance of
paths from input and output tank circuits start oscillation. To assure a* stable the amplifier in arriving at the value of
Cl.
Neutralizing a Screen-Grid
Amplifier Stage
There are two general procedures
C2 12 available for indicating neutralization in a
Zin Freq. C1 L1
(Ohms) (MHz) (pF) (tiH) (pF) (ixH) screen-grid amplifier stage. If the screen-
3500 14.35 38. 4.118 206. 1.259 grid tube is operated with or without grid
3500 21.00 27. 2.755 136. 0.843 current, a sensitive output indicator can
0.843
3500 21.45 25. 2.755 138.
be used. If the screen-grid tube is operated
3500 28.00 21. 1.989 106. 0.609
0.609
with grid current, the grid-current reading
3500 29.70 18. 1.989 99.
can be used as an indication of neutraliza-
4000 3.50 153. 16.621 947. 4.518 tion. When the output indicator is used,
4000 4.00 119. 16 621 706. 4.518
both screen and plate voltages must be re-
4000 7.00 71. 9.107 418. 2.476
9.107 387. 2.476
moved from the tubes, but the dc circuits
4000 7.30 65.
4000 14.00 35. 4.633 204. 1.259 from the plate and screen to cathode must
4000 14.35 33. 4.633 197. 1.259 be completed. If the grid-current reading
4000 21.00 23. 3.099 137. ,
0.843 is used, the plate voltage may remain on
4000 21.45 22. 3.099 132. 0.843
2.238 107. 0.609
but the screen voltage must be zero, with
4000 28.00 18.
4000 29.70 16. 2.238 95. 0.609 the dc circuit completed between screen
and cathode.
20.272 872. 4.518
5000 3.50 123. The immediate objective of the neutrali-
5000 4.00 95. 20.272 658. 4.518
2.476
zing process is reducing to a minimum the
5000 7.00 57. 11.108 387.
11.108 360. 2.476 rf-driver voltage fed from the input of the
5000 7.30 52.
5000 14.00 29. 5.651 186. 1.259 amplifier to its output circuit through the
5000 14.35 27. 5.651 183. 1.259 grid-plate capacitance of the tube. This is
5000 21.00 19. 3.780 125. 0.843
done by adjusting carefully, bit by bit, the
5000 21.45 18. 3.780 123. 0.843
28.00 2.730 95. 0.609 neutralizing capacitor or link coils until
5000 15.
5000 29.70 13. 2.730 89. 0.609 an rf indicator in the output circuit reads
minimum, or the reaction of the unloaded
6000 3.50 103. 23.873 829. 4.518
plate-circuit tuning on the grid-current
6000 4.00 80. 23.873 621. 4.518
368. 2.476 value is minimized.
6000 7.00 48. 13.081
6000 7.30 44. 13.081 340. 2.476 The wavemeter shown in the Measure-
6000 14.00 24. 6.655 172. 1.259 ments chapter makes a sensitive neutrali-
6.655 173. 1.259
6000 14.35 zirig indicator. The wavemeter coil should
22.
6000 21.00 16. 4.452 1 1 7. 0.843
be coupled to the output tank coil at the
6000 21.45 15. 4.452 116. 0.843
6000 28.00 13. 3.215 87. 0.609 low-potential or "ground" point. Care
6000 29.70 11. 3.215 84. 0.609 should be taken to make sure that the
coupling is loose enough at all times to
8000 3.50 78. 30.967 747. 4.518
569. 4.518
prevent burning out the meter or the rec-
8000 4.00 60. 30.967 '
HF Transmitting 6-32
.
Grid Loading
The use of a neutralizing circuit may
often be avoided by loading the grid
circuit if the driving staje has some power
capability to spare. Loading by tapping
the grid down on the grid tank coil (or the
plate tank coil of the driver in the case of
capacitive coupling), or by a resistor from
grid to cathode is effective in stabilizing
an amplifier.
-6-33 Chapter 6
'
*
—————————— often employed, as the small inductance Circuit Description
values required for a lumped inductance
Table 12 The schematic diagram of the transmit-
become difficult to fabricate.
Wire Sizes for Transmitting Coils for Tube ter is displayed at Fig. 50. Ql and
Transmitters * RF Chokes associated components comprise a
Power Colpitts variable-frequency crystal
'
Band (MHz) Wire Size
The characteristics of any rf choke will
Input (Watts) oscillator. CI
used to adjust the fre-
is
vary with frequency, from characteristics
1000 28-2 6
Q resembling those of a parallel-resonant
quency of the oscillator and C2 is used to
1A 7 o
4C 4 Q limit the span of the oscillator. If no limit
circuit of high impedance, to those of a
'
J. a- l.o I v
is provided the oscillator can operate "on
500 28-21 8 series-resonant circuit, where the impe-
14-7 12 its own" and no longer be under the con-
dance is lowest. In between these extremes,
. 3.5-1.8 14
the choke will show varying amounts of
trol of the crystal —
an undesirable cir-
150 28-21 12
inductive or capacitive reactance.
cumstance. Supply voltage is fed to the
14-7 14 oscillator only during transmit and spot
3.5-1.8 18 In series-feed circuits, these characteris-
periods. This prevents the oscillator from
.
a few crystals are all that is necessary for to a clean output signal. This
assure
relatively low impedances because the
coverage of a part of the band. The transmitter exceeds current FCC specifica-
current is quite high. Coils should be
with transmitter, as shown, rated for 6 watts tions regarding spectral purity. D2 is used
made of heavy wire or strap, is
connections made for the lowest possible of output while running at the 10-watt dc to clamp the collector voltage waveform
resistance. At vhf, stripline techniques are input level. should the transmitter be operated into an
Fig. 49 — Photographs of the completed 6-watt, VXO-controlled transmitter. Miniature coaxial cable (RG-174/U) is used for connections between the
circuit board, connectors and switches for all runs carrying rf energy.
HF Transmitting 6-34
open circuit or high SWR
antenna system. a dead short to a wide-open load will
The transmitter designed to operate into
is cause no damage to a VMOS power FET.
a load that is close to 50 ohms resistive. Damage can occur as a result of excessive
SI is used as the transmit/receive operating voltages on the gate or drain,
switch. One section transfers the antenna just as when using too much voltage on
to an accompanying receiver or the output the grids or plate of a vacuum tube. The
of the transmitter strip. Another section is same rules apply to drain current (ex-
used to activate the VXO during transmit cessive dissipation) versus plate current.
and the third section is provided for Finally, excessive heat will ruin a tran-
receiver muting purposes. sistor as it will when tubes are permitted to
run too hot.
Construction
It is convenient to regard a VMOS
The majority of the circuit components device in the same fashion as we might
are mounted on a double-sided, printed- perceive a triode vacuum tube. The major Fig. 51 —
Spectral display of the VXO-
circuit boards. One side of the
board is difference is that VMOS transistors use controlled transmitter. Here the transmitter is
etched with the circuit pattern and the lower operating voltages than tubes do, operated in the 20-meter band. The second har-
other side is left as a ground plane. A and the input and output impedances are monic is down 56 dB relative to the fundamen-
taloutput. Similar presentations were obtained
small amount of copper is removed from low, comparatively speaking. One can
on each of the other bands. This transmitter
around each hole on the ground-plane even dip the drain current during tuneup, complies with the current FCC specifications '
side of the board to prevent the leads from and monitor the current by means of a regarding spectral purity.
shorting to ground. A scale etching pat- drain meter.
tern and parts layout guide is shown in
Fig. 52.
Affixed to the front panel are the
transmit/receive switch, spot switch, and
the tuning capacitor. The rear apron sup-
ports the antenna and mute jacks, key
jack and binding posts.
a homemade cabinet measuring 3x6
X 8-1/4 inches (76 X 150 X 210 mm)
was used in the construction of this
transmitter. The builder may elect to build
his or her own cabinet from sheet
aluminum or circuit-board material. The
layout is not critical except that the lead
from the circuit board to CI should be
kept as short as possible — an inch or two
-
incorrect loads. Therefore, anything from L1, L3, L4, L5 — See Table 11. 1/2 W:
6-35 Chapter 6
KEY
POLY = POLYSTYRENE '
K = CATHODE SM = SILVER MICA
1
'
Fig. 52 — Scale etching pattern and parts layout guide tor the 6-watt transmitter. Gray areas represent unetched copper. One side of the board is a
complete ground plane.
Transmitter Circuit
A
block diagram of the transmitter is
provided in Fig. 54. It shows the switching
method used to change from the transmit
to receive modes, plus the keying circuit.
Q5 and the related components are built
as a separate module. In this model a
small piece of circuit board is used. It has
a group of 1/4-inch (6.3 mm) squares cut
into the copper-clad side by means of a
hacksaw. The pads serve as solder ter-
minals. The two resistors and three
capacitors in the base lead of Q5 are as
key-shaping components.
Fig. 55 shows the interior of the
transmitter. The keying transistor is at the
upper right, the PA below
module is just
it and the board is at
oscillator /doubler pc
the left of the first two. Although Fig. 54
indicates that S4B is used as a receiver-
muting switch, it has not been Wired into
the unit shown, and no muting jack has
been included on the back panel. The
U-shaped main chassis measures 5 X 7 x
2 inches (127 X 178 X 51 mm), the width
being the larger dimension. The chassis
and perforated cover are homemade from
aluminum stock which is 1/16 inch (1.6
mm) thick. The crystal switch (SI) is
R18 —
Meter shunt, 13-1/2 inches no. 26 T1, T2 — Broadband transformer, 10 turns no.
enamel wire wound on a high value 1-watt 24 enameled wire, bifilar wound on an
FT-37-43 core.
resistor.
— Toggle switch, 3pdt. T3 —
Broadband transformer, 10 turns no. 24 Fig. 53 — Exterior of the W1FB VMOS
51 were
transmitter. The basics of this unit
52 — Push-button switch, spst, normally open. enameled wire on an FT-50-43 core.
53 — Toggle switch, dpdt. ,
!
Y1 —
See Table 11. treated in May 1979 QST.
HF Transmitting 6-36
mounted on the rear lip of the chassis.
Four enhancement-mode FETs are used
osc.
in the transmitter. Ql, Q2 and Q3 (Fig.
56) are Siliconix VN66AK devices in
Fig. — Block diagram of the VMOS transmitter. The arrows indicate the direction of dc and the
Circuit details for the PA stage are
54
signal. Q5 is the-keying switch. It may be eliminated by keying the B+ line to Q1 directly. J1-J4,
given in Fig. 58. A Siliconix VN67AJ or
incl. are single-hole mount phono jacks. J5 is a two-circuit phone jack. M1 is a 500-mA instru- Supertex VN1206N-1 (TO-3 case) is
ment. A 0-1 mA meter can be used by adding a suitable shunt at R1. A Simpson no. 2121 (1-1/2 employed Q4. It is insulated from its
at
inch — 38 mm) diameter meter is seen in Fig. 53. S2-S5, incl. are miniature toggle switches. homemade U-shaped heat sink (1 x 2 x
1-1/4 inch —
25 X 51 x 32 mm) by
means of a standard TO-3 size mica
wafer. The Q4 mounting screws must pass
through holes large enough to prevent
contact between the transistor case (com-
mon to the drain), the heat sink and cir-
cuitground. Final checks should be made
with anohmmeter before applying power.
Silicone grease is spread on both sides of
the mica washer before assembly, plus on
the bottom surface of the heat sink.
A half-wave low-pass filter is used at
the PA
input to suppress harmonic cur-
rents in the drive to
Q4. It is designed for
a bilateral impedance of 150 ohms and a
Ql of 1. The 35 pF input capacitance
(C iss ) of Q4 is absorbed into the network
at C7.
RFC1-RFC4 of Fig. 56 and RFC6 of
Fig. 58 are 950-mu miniature ferrite
beads. They are necessary to damp vhf
parasitic oscillations. Drive is applied to
the PA gate across a 150-ohm resistor if
Class C operation is desired. For Class AB
use, Rl is added and the gate-to-ground
resistor is changed to 160 0.
6-37 Chapter 6
PUSH -PUSH DBLR
osc.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
3.5-29 MHz
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS JJF ) ; (
VN66AK,
OTHERS ARE IR- PICOFARADS 1 pF OR JiJiF); VN0106N-2
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
Fig. - Schematic diagram of the VMOS exciter strip. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless otherwise noted. Resistors are 1/2-W com
56
position unless indicated otherwise.
—
C1-C3, incl. Silver-mica feedback capacitor.RFC1-RFC4, — Miniature 950-mu ferrite
incl.
trimmer can be used. If trimmer is used, S1 — Single-pole, 4-position, single-wafer F-605 pc mount. These and the crystals are
mount it on the pc board. phenolic switch. type GP, 30 pF load capacitance in HG-6/U
L1, L2 —
See Table 14. T1 — See Table 14. type cases.
C4 STATOR
k
TO FL1
or K ia e
100
31 <*
ARM -
ilk 560k ft
SI
-VW- 02 R
£§ 5
S1
V2— — |j- J_
RFC1
-o-
D
18pF
150 01
T
*-j,0.0 •ft
AAAr
o Q3 RFC4
— -
±
rfcv
01
T "^4 op . RFOS
TOQ5 TO S3
ETfcHED SIDE TO SCALE or FIG 2 * -MOUNT OH BOTTOM OF BOARD 1
OF H6. 2
ETCHED blOE TO SCALE
Fig. 57 — Scale pattern and layout of the exciter board. Parts marked with an asterisk (*) are mounted on the etched side of the board.
HF Transmitting 6-38
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jiF); OTHERS
Fig. 58 —
Schematic diagram of the VMOS power amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless otherwise noted. Resistors are
1-watt
composition.
C8 —50-pF miniature air variable (Hammar- board. See Table 10. L7 —
10 turns no. 20 enam. wire on Amidon
lund MAPC-50-B or equiv.). Arco 424 mica C5, C6, C7, C9, C10, C11 —
See Table 10.
- FT-50-43 ferrite toroid (0.5-in. dia, 950 mu).
trimmer suitable. If used, mount on pc L3, L4, L5, L6, L8, L9 —
See Table 10. RFC6 —
Miniature 950-mu ferrite bead.
6-39 Chapter 6
The front and rear panels of the trans-
mitter sprayed with Aerosol-can
are
Table 13
enamel paint of the builder's choice. The
Component Values for the VXO Controlled, 6-Watt Transmitter aluminum surfaces are first abraded with
sandpaper to aid the paint in adhering to
oo, PI 7 L3 vxo
A RanQG the metal surfaces. Soap and hot water
Band C1 C2 C4 Co LI /
Table 14
Coil and Capacitor Data for the 5-Band VMOS Power FET Transmitter
no. 24 enam. wire no. 24 ins. turns of no. turns of no. of no. 22 turns of
on T68-2 toroid wire over 26 enam. 24 enam. ins. wire no. 22
40 910
wire on over L7 enam. wire 150 300 120 140 470
core. Tap at RFC5 end wire on
20 turns above of L1. T37-2 T68-2 toroid end of on T37-2
RFC5 end. toroid core. core. Tap L5. toroid core.
6 'turns
above L7.
All cores other than for T1 are powdered iron. Cores and ferrite beads for this circuit were furnished via courtesy of Amidon Assoc., N. Hollywood,
CA 12033.
HF Transmitting 6-40
quired for this circuit. It should be
negative feedback voltage through a
capable of delivering at least 600 of mA separate one-turn winding. The charac-
current continuously. It needs to be well
teristic impedance of ac and bd (windings
Filtered so that a T9 cw note will result.
"
mm on T2) should be approximately equal to
Positive keying is used if a solid-state
the collector-to-collector impedance of Ql
keyer is employed. A bug or straight key is and Q2, but it is not critical. For physical
suitable if a keyer is not desired.
Tuneup entails adjusting the doubler
HH i» mm
mm]
convenience a bifilar winding is used. The
center-tap of T2 is really be, but for stabi-
tank for a dip in drain current. Alter- lization purposes, b and c are separated by
natively, C4 can adjust for maximum
. . * ' rf chokes which are bypassed individually.
drain current (optimum drive) at Q4.
Next,
rent at Q4.
C8 is adjusted for a dip in drain cur-
n -~ ,'
IP Construction
6-41 Chapter 6
BROADBAND AMPLIFIER
R3
Rf 50-OHM
OUTPUT
TO FILTERS
50-0H-
INPUT
f
02
REGULATOR R4
20
500 juF
fA/VV
4
n.c. I
~
BIAS
SET
Fig.
,
a ^ - Circuit diagram of the 140-watt amplifier.
62 All capacitors except part of C1, C2 and the electrolytic types are ceramic chips. Capacitors
Others are type 1813 or size 18, respectively.
w ith values higher than 82 pF are Union Carbide type 1225 or Varadyne size 14.
to a level just sufficient to drive the ampli- from a transmitter that has more than The power supply uses an old TV-set
enough power to drive the amplifier than transformer that has three secondaries:
fier to its full-power input. This can usual-
it is to boost the output from a transmitter 600, 6.3 and 5.0 volts. The 600-volt
ly be accomplished by lowering the drive
that provides insufficient drive. Class B winding supplies the full-wave bridge rec-
to the transmitter output stage and re-
operation was chosen for {hat reason. tifier with ac energy. Dc output from the
loading.
The Circuit
The main ingredient in this amplifier is
does a Class C stage for the same power the the one-turn loop
left, is made from brass tubing; at the right, a piece of coaxial cable braid is
HF Transmitting 6-42
LOOPS CAN BE PROVIDED FOR
CURRENT-PROBE MEASUREMENTS
<g)<g) ® (g>
T3
0.68^f| q |68mf|
8 ci **C1
W B L5
E
il
T2
k E
fe) X 680PF
<8>
X
B
(8)
R3- R4
110(4F/20V R3— R4
R1
Ri
LI
— ®M 62)
— R2
R2
50O(iF/3V
9
5 60 Op
®®
c
B opf
Tl 390PK
(33
51PF
elOOOSi
BOTTOM
rectifier assembly is filtered by means of plate current. One should be careful if Construction
three 330-^F capacitors. The 47-kfi resis- working near the meter with the power
tors across each of the capacitors equalize on, as full plate potential will be present Perhaps the best way to classify this
the voltages across the capacitors and between each of the meter leads and amplifier would be to call it a "junker
drain the charge when the power supply ground. Caution: Turn off and unplug the type" amplifier. Every attempt was made
isturned off. Equalizing resistors are used amplifier before making any changes or to keep the amplifier as simple and easy to
across each of the diodes to ensure that adjustments. build as possible. The only critical values
the reverse voltage will divide equally be-
tween the two diodes in each leg. The
capacitors across each diode offer spike
protection. Each 6KD6 draws 2.85 am-
peres of filament current. Both filaments Fig. 65 — This table
are connected in parallel across the 6.3- shows the values for
seven-pole Chebyshev
volt transformer winding. The 5-volt
low-pass filters suitable
winding is connected in series with the 6.3- foruse with the
volt winding; the total (11,3 volts) is rec- amplifier. These filters
tified, filtered, and used to power the have been designed
relay.
around standard
Band Fc (MHz) VSWR capacitance values for
A 0-50 jiA meterused to measure the
is
160 2.02 1.09
C1, C7 C3, C5 L2, L6 L4
each of the capacitors.
1200 2700 5.42 6.41
plate voltage and current. The meter reads 80 4.11 Capacitance values are
1.07 560 1300 2.62 3.13
0-1000 in the plate- volts position and 40 7.98 in pF and inductance
1.08 300 680 1.37 1.62
0-500 mA
in the plate-current position. A 20 15.16 1.09 160 360 .72 .85
values are in ^H. This in-
formation was prepared
15 21.69 1.06 100 240
0.26-ohm shunt placed in the high-
is .49 .59
by Ed Wetherhold,
10 36.85 1.10 68 150 .30
voltage lead to facilitate metering of the .36
W3NQN.
6-43 Chapter 6
Fig. 67 —The completed quarter-kilowatt
Fig.66 -
Spectral photographs of the output from the 140-watt
amplifier. The display at the left
was taken with the amplifier operating on the 80-meter band. At the right is a close
look at the
^ D „ tier
ampimer.
to 34 dB below
IMD products generated by the amplifier. Third-order products are down some 32
PEP.
— L1 — 1 8 turns B & W3022 coil. The entire coil is Amidon FT-82-72 core.
B1 1 17-Vac blower.
—
Variable capacitor, 340 pF maximum, used for 80-meter.operation and is tapped for RFC2, RFC5 —
Rf choke, 2.5 mH, 500 mA.
C1
(Millen 19335 or equiv.) the other bands as follows: 7-1/2 turns for 40 RFC3, RFC4 —
15 turns no. 14-enam. wire on an
C2 —
Variable capacitor, 1 095 pF maximum meters; 13-1/2 turns for 20meters; 14-1/2 turns
51
Amidon FT-82-72 core.
—
Spst toggle switch* 4 A.
for 15 meters; 15-1/2 turns for 10 meters. Turns
(surplus 3-section 365-pF variable).
—
Silicon diodes, 1000 Volt, 2 A. are measured from C2 end of coil. 52 —
Dpdt toggle switch, low current type.
D1 - D8, incl.
— Silicon diode, 50 M1 — Panel meter 0-50»A, Calectro D1-910 or 53 —
Spst toggle switch, low current type.
54 — Single-pole, 5-position ceramic rotary
D9 V< 1 A.
K1 — Dpdt 12-V
relay, 2-A contacts.
field, RFC1 — 20 turns no. 24 enam. wire on an 1-watt resistor.
HF Transmitting 6-44
noninductive dummy load. Connect the
relay control line to the transmitter or
external antenna-relay contacts. Then
plug in the line cord and turn the power
switch to the on position. With the meter
switch in the plate volts position,
the reading on the meter should be
approximately 425, which corresponds to
850 volts. If the power transformer used
has a high- voltage secondary other than
,
C1, C2— 1000-pF transmitting capacitor, 5000 J5, J6—High-voltage connection, Millen 37001.
— 6turns no. 18 enam. on FT-37-43
volts (Centralab 858series). K1 —
Dpdt, 5-A contacts. Coil voltage is 24 dc.
RFC4, RFC5
C3 — Transmitting air variable, 200 pF, E. F. K2 —
Dpdt, 2-A contacts. Coil voltage is 24 dc.
51
Toroid core.
—Spst toggle switch.
Surplus E. F. Johnson inductor in this
Johnson 154-0016-001 orequiv. L1 .
Hammond 167510.
volts, Centralab 858 series. 3550M or similar.
— R2— Meter multiplier resistor made from five 1.8 V1 — 833A, see text.
100 PRV, 1 A.
Z1 — Parasitic suppressor. 4 turns, no. 16 enam.
D1-D4, incl.
D5 —
Zener diode, 37V, 50 W. Mfl,-watt1 series.
in
D6 —
Zener diode, 23V, 50 W. RFC1 — See text and Fig. 76. wound around three 150rohm, 1-watt resistors
J1 J2,
—
SO-239 chassis-mounted coaxial RFC2 — 40 turns no. 24 enam. on T-80-2 Toroid connected in parallel.
Operating bias for the tube sets the a sealed box. All metal-to-metal bond
Table 15
operation to Class AB2. D5 and D6 raise areas should be cleaned carefully to
Pi-Network Values
the cathode potential above ground to guarantee good electrical contact. An
establish the appropriate idling current of abundance of fastening screws hold these 160 meters
the tube. When in the standby mode, relay seams together, further "RFI-proofing"
Plate Voltage C3 C4 L1
contacts switch to a different bias level, the box. Air is blown across the tube by
reducing plate current to zero. means of a muffin fan. Plenty of cooling 490 pF 2987 pF 17.83 nH
2000
air not only stabilizes the tuning of the 2500 305 pF 2098 pF 27.59 <iH
Construction amplifier but also lengthens tube life. 3000 222 pF 1676 pF 37.29 «H
3500 193 pF 1676 pF 42.74 <iH
Construction is straightforward. While Many variations in switching, metering
the layout shown here proved ideal for the and power supplies are possible with a
80 meters
components on hand, many builders will unit such as this. The methods shown here
use parts other than the ones shown. are intended to be examples of the various 2000 252 pF 1536 pF 9.17 «H
Parts availability and in- 2500 157 pF 1079 pF 14.19 mH
Physical constraints may require different possibilities.
pF 862 pF 19.18 uH
3000 114
layout arrangements. The main con- dividual desires of the builder dictate the pF 21.98 »H
3500 99 pF 862
siderations are to keep lead lengths to a final design.
fiers, a shielded box is necessary. Safety tune-up less than full plate voltage is
These values normalized for a dc power input
considerations, both due to high dc and recommended. This permits a greater
of 1 kW.
high rf voltages, RFI reduction and ade- safety margin (both for the amplifier and
quate air cooling of the tube all necessitate the operator) if unexpected events occur.
HF Transmitting 6-46
Kl a plug-in type of relay with con-
is
Construction
The amplifier was build on a 10 4 14 x
3-inch (254 x 356 X 76-mm) aluminum
chassis. A heavy duty front panel was
constructed from a discarded rack panel
and measures 10 X 14 inches (254 X 356
mm) making the overall dimensions of the
amplifier 14 x 10 X 10 inches (356 X
254 x 254 mm).
Layout of the components is not
especially critical,however the builder
Fig. 73 —
RFC1 is wound on 1-1/4 inch (32-mm)
Fig. 74 — Interior view of the three-band should strive to keep the tank-circuitry
amplifier. The band switch is mounted to the leads as short as possible to avoid stray
diameter polystyrene rod as depicted.
front panel inside one end of the tank coil. capacitances and inductances. The general
layout of this amplifier can be seen in the
accompanying photographs.
Increase drive slowly while making ad- fed through a heavy duty bifilar-wound A flange made from Plexiglass tubing
justments, this again providing a safety choke which uses a 950 mu ferrite rod 1/2 and flat 1/4-inch Plexiglass stock is used
margin. Remember, hazardous voltages are inch (13 mm) in diameter and 7 inches to connect to the defroster hose. Part of
present in this amplifier, and these should (178 mm)long of material. Power is fed this flangeis visible in the photograph of
be respected at all times. directly into the filament without the aid the underneath of the chassis. An alter-
A
wattmeter is helpful during tune-up. of an input matching' network. The input native to building your own flange would
A goal of maximum output power VSWR is such that most transmitters be to purchase one from a supplier of cen-
consistent with high efficiency should be should have no difficulty in driving the vacuum cleaning systems. Of course,
tral
sought. Efficiency on the order of 55 to 65 amplifier. thereis no reason the builder couldn't
percent can be expected. In order to The 8.2-volt Zener diode develops bias mount the blower directly on the rear
increase tube longevity, the manufac- and allows the tubes to run in Class AB. panel of the amplifier.
turer's maximum ratings should never be The 50-kfi/10 watt resistor in conjunction A aluminum cover (not
perforated
exceeded. with K2 cut. the amplifier off during shown photographs) is used to
in these
receive or standby periods. A
single 0-150 enclose the top of the amplifier. Good
An Economy 2-kW Amplifier mA panel meter is used to monitor either contact between this cover and the mating
The amplifier described here was built plate or grid current —
selectable with a surfaces is important for effective
with mostly junk-box components. A pair front-panel switch, S2. For plate-current shielding. Make sure to remove any paint
of 4-400A tubes are run in grounded-grid measurements the meter reads 0-1.5 to ensure a good metal-to-metal contact.
fashion and can develop 2-kW PEP input amperes (utilizing meter shunt R2) and
when driven from a 100- watt exciter. Ap- reads 0-450 mA for grid-current measure- Operation
proximately 40 watts of drive is required ments (using meter shunt Rl). This amplifier is designed to operate at
for 1-kW operation and 100 watts for A power supply capable of
small the1-kW level for cw operation and at the
2-kW operation. The amplifier makes use operating Kl and K2 is included in the 2-kW PEP level for ssb. This amplifier
of Eimac SK-410 air-system sockets and amplifier. An amplifier control jack was optimized for the 1500-watt level,
SK-406 chimneys. A blower, which is located on the rear apron of the amplifier thereby providing reasonable efficiency at
mounted is grounded for amplifier operation.
external to the amplifier chassis, both the 1 and 2 kW
levels without the
forces air through a length of automobile The pi network consists of two coils — need for switching the power-supply
defroster hose, approximately 2 inches one wound from 3/16-inch (4.7 mm) cop-
(51 mm) in diameter and is flexible, through per tubing and one wound from large
the pressurized chassis and out the air Mihiductor stock. The coil made from
system sockets and chimneys. By mount- copper tubing is wound in two different
ing the blower away from the amplifier, diameters. It starts out from the 4-400A
and therefore the operating position, this plates at the smaller diameter (for 10 and
"15 meters) and progresses
source of noise can be greatly reduced, if to the larger
not eliminated. diameter (for 20 meters) all with one con-
tinuous piece of tubing. A
portion of the
copper tubing is used on 40 meters along
The Circuit
with a length of Miniductor stock. The
The schematic diagram^of the amplifier builder may wishto end the copper tubing
is shown in Fig. 76. Relay Kl is used to coil at the 20-meter tap position and con-
switch "around" the amplifier during tinue on from that point with the Mini-
receive periods or when it is desired to ductor stock for 40 and 80 meters. The in-
bypass the amplifier. S4 allows the ductance values required for each band Fig. 75 —
This is a photograph of the front
operator to switch around the amplifier are given in Fig. 76 so that the builder may panel of the 4-440A amplifier. The amplifier is
8-47 Chapter 6
tubes. The circuit configuration is ground-
ed grid and uses no tuned-input tank
components. When properly adjusted, the
amplifier is capable of IMD charac-
teristics which are better than can
be achieved by a typical exciter, therefore
the added complexity of band switching a
tuned-input circuit was deemed unneces-
sary.
Construction
One of the major concerns when pair of 8873 conduction-cooled triode loading capacitor is mounted directly
HF Transmitting 6-48
Fig. 77 —A top view of the amplifier. The transmit/receive relay can be Fig. 78 — Photograph of the underside of the chassis. Component
seen between the filament transformer and one of the 4-400A tubes. placement is not critical. The builder should plan a layout that suits his
or her components.
Operation
Tuning a pi-L-output circuit is some-
what different from tuning a conventional
pi-network because the grid current
should be monitored closely. Grid current
depends on two items —
drive power and
amplifier loading. The procedure found to
be most effective is to tune for maximum
power output with the loading sufficiently
heavy to keep the grid current below the
maximum level while adjusting the drive
power for the proper amount of plate
current. The plate current for cw opera-
tion should be 450 mA
and approximately
900 mA under single-tone tuning conditions
for ssb. This presents a problem since it is
not legal to operate under single-tone tun- Fig. 81 —
top view of the 80-10 meter conduction-cooled amplifier. The chassis is 17 x 12 x 3
inches (432 x 305 x 76-mm) and is totally enclosed in a shield. A separate partition was
ing conditions for ssb. Sixty watts of drive
fabricated to prevent rf leakage through the meter holes in the front panel. An old National Radio
power will provide full input levels. For company vernier dial is used in conjunction with the plate tuning capcitor to provide ease of ad-
use with high-power exciter, see October justment (especially on 10 meters). The position of the dial for each band is marked on the dial
1973 QST. skirt with a black pen and india ink.
6-49 Chapter 6
;
AMPLIFIER
HEP170. L4 — 10 turns, 2-inch (51-mm) diameter, 6 tpi, RFC1, RFC5, RFC6 — 2.5 mH Millen
D8 — 8.2-V, 50-W Zener diodes. with taps at 3 turns for 10 meters, 3-1/2 turns 34300-2500.
J1 — SO-239 chassis mounted coaxial for 15 meters, 4-3/4 turns for 20 meters, 6-3/4 RFC3 — Rf choke, Barker and Williamson
connector. turns for 40 meters, all taps made from Model 800 with 10 turns removed from the
J3, J4, J5 — Phono jack, panel mount. junction of L3, Barker and Williamson 3025. bottom end.
J6 — High-voltage connection, Millen 37001. M1 — 200 mA full scale, 0.5-ohm internal resis- RFC4 — 22 M H, Millen 34300.
K1 — Enclosed, three-pole relay, 110-volt dc tance Simpson Electric Designer Series S1 — High-voltage band-selector style, double
coil, Potter and Brumfield KUP14D15. model 523. pole, six position, James Millen 51001 style.
L1 — 4-3/4 turns of 1/4-inch (6.3-mm) copper M2 — mA scale, 43 ohms internal resis-
1 full Z1, Z2 — 2 turns 3/8-inch (9.5-mm) wide copper
tubing, 1-3/4-inch ID, 2-1/4 inches long. tance (Simpson Electric, same series as M1). strap wound over three 100-ohm, 2 watt
L2 — 12-1/2 turns, 1/4-inch (6.3-mm) copper R1 — Meter shunt 0.05555 ohms constructed resistors connected in parallel.
HF Transmitting 6-50
Chapter 7
he frequencies above 50 MHz were stage. While relatively simple to construct, power levels involved, there is no reason
once a world apart from the rest of such transmitters can be a cause of much to consider transmitting mixers differently
amateur radio, in equipment required, in grief unless the builder takes precautions than their receiving counterparts. One
modes of operation and in results to prevent undesired multiples of the thing to keep in mind is that many
obtained. Today these worlds blend oscillator and the multiplier stages from deficiencies in the transmit mixer will
increasingly. Thus, the reader does not
if being radiated. For frequencies below 450 show up on the air. Receiver-mixer
find what he needs in these pages to solve MHz the transmitting mixer is not troubles are your problem. Transmit-
a transmitter problem, it will be covered difficult to construct and is recommended mixer troubles become everyone's prob-
in the hf transmitting chapter. This for most applications. Spurious-signal lem!
chapter deals mainly with aspects of radiation is much easier to prevent with A trio of popular types of transmitting
transmitter design and operation that call the latter, although it does not lend itself mixers is shown in Fig. 2. The doubly
for different techniques in equipment for to compact fm equipment design. For balanced diode mixer at A may be built
50 MHz and up. operation on the higher amateur uhf using either discrete components, or the
bands, the oscillator-multiplier approach phase relationship between ports may be
SSB/CW vs. FM offers definite advantages and is recom- established using etched-circuit strip lines.
Whenever vhf operators gather, the mended at present. Fig. 1 shows how the Miniature DBMs are available at low cost
subject of fm vs. ssb and cw is bound to harmonics of a 144-MHz signal may be from several manufacturers. They offer an
come up. Because of their mode differences, multiplied to permit operation on ama- almost-foolproof method of generating
the two types of operation are segre- teur microwave bands. Stability at 144 vhf ssb. Another popular mixer uses a pair
gated on the lower four amateur vhf bands. MHz is easy to achieve with the current of FETs in a singly balanced configuration.
Actually, both forms of communications technology, making stable microwave If care is taken in construction and adjust-
have their advantages and disadvantages. signals simple to generate. Varactor ment, local-oscillator rejection will be ade-
They are better discussed subjectively diodes are Used as frequency-multiplying quate with this circuit. To be safe, a series-
among operators. Here we are only in- devices. They are installed in resonant tuned trap, designed to attenuate the LO
terested in the different requirements each cavities constructed from double-sided leakage even further, should follow this
mode places upon the transmitting equip- pc-board material. Operation will proba- stage. A typical FET balanced mixer is
ment used. In general, equipment used for bly be crystal controlled, as even the best shown in Fig. 2B.
fm is of the oscillator-multiplier type. transceiver/transverter combination used Finally, we see a typical vacuum-tube
Because ssb cannot be passed satisfactori- to generate the 144-MHz signal may create mixer (Fig. 2C). Because it can handle
ly through a frequency-multiplication stage, problems when the output is multiplied in more power, the tube mixer has endured
generation of vhf ssb signals requires the frequency 40 times! A frequency synthe- at vhf. Its higher output, when compared
use of one or more mixer stages. Vhf cw sizerwith a stable reference oscillator may to most solid-state mixers, reduces the
may be generated by either method. Re- be used to generate the 144-MHz signal, number of subsequent amplifier stages
cently, manufacturers of synthesized as but its output should be well filtered to
well as crystal-controlled amateur fm eliminate noise.
transceivers have been using a combina- Although spurious outputs of the
tion of both approaches. The multimode various multiplier stages may not cause X9 • 1296 MHz
vhf transceiver, which offers the operator harmful interference, that is no excuse for X16 • 2304 MHz
a choice of cw, ssb, fm and often a-m, is a not removing them. In most cases, the Q
reality. Here again we find both approach- of successive cavities will suffice. A X24 = 3456 MHz
es to signal generation. band-pass filter may be used to filter the X40-3760 MHz
final multiplier stage. Construction details
The Oscillator-Multiplier Approach X72" 10,368 MHz
of a 432-to-1296 MHz frequency multi-
This type of transmitter, which may be plier using switching diodes are presented
used for fm or cw, generally starts with a later in this chapter. Fig. 1 —The harmonic relationships of most
crystal oscillator operating in the hf range, microwave bands to the 2-meter band are
followed by one or more frequency- Transmitting Mixers diagrammed here. The 1 5-mm (24 GHz) band
bears no easily utilized integral relationship to
multiplier stages and at least one amplifier With the possible exception of the 144 MHz.
7-1 Chapter 7
needed to reach a specific power level.
Apart from feeling more comfortable with
tubes, this is the only advantage available
from using them as mixers, at least
on the lower vhf bands.
Designing for SSB and CW and homebuilt. This started years ago
Transverter vs. Separate Units
The almost universal use of ssb for with the vhf converter, for receiving. does not necessarily follow that what
It
voice work in the hf range has had a major Rather similar conversion equipment for ispopular in hf work is ideal for vhf use.
impact on equipment design for the vhf transmitting has been widely used since Our bands are wide, and piling-up in a
Stabilization
Most vhf amplifiers, other than the
grounded-grid variety, require neutrali-
zation if they are to be satisfactorily sta-
ble. This is particularly true of AB1 ampli-
fiers, which are characterized by very
high power sensitivity. Conventional neu-
tralization is discussed in chapter 6. An
example is shown in Fig. 4A.
A tetrode tube has some frequency
where inherently neutralized. This is
it is
narrow segment of a band, which the efficiency of the AB1 linear amplifier is bipolar transistors are used.
transceiver encourages, than ideal
is less low in a-m service, this type of operation Parasitic oscillation can occur in vhf
use of a major asset of the vhf bands — makes switching modes a very simple amplifiers, and, as with hf circuits, the
spectrum space. Separate ssb exciters and matter. Moving toward the high efficiency oscillation is usually at a frequency
receivers, with separate vhf conversion of Class C from AB1 for cw or fm service considerably higher than the operating
units for transmitting and receiving, tend is accomplished by merely raising the frequency, and it cannot be neutralized
to suit our purposes better than the drive from the low AB1 level. In AB1 out. Usually it is damped out by methods
transceiver-transverter combination, at service the efficiency is typically 30 to 35 illustrated in Fig. 5. Circuits A
and B are
least in home-station service. percent. No grid current is ever drawn. As commonly used in 6-meter transmitters.
Amplifier Design and Operation
the grid drive is increased, and grid Circuit A may absorb sufficient fundamen-
current starts to flow, the efficiency rises tal energy to burn up in all but low-power
All amplifiers in vhf transmitters once rapidly. In a well-designed amplifier it transmitters. A
better approach is to use
ran Class C, or as near thereto as available may reach 60 percent, with only a small the selective circuit illustrated at B. The
drive levels would permit. This was amount of grid current flowing. Unless circuit is coupled to the plate tank circuit
mainly for high-efficiency cw and quality the drive is run well into the Class C and tuned to the parasitic frequency. Since a
high-level amplitude modulation. Class C region, the operating conditions in the minimum amount of the fundamental
is now used mostly for cw or fm, and in amplifier can be left unchanged, other energy will be absorbed by the trap, heat-
either of these modes the drive level is than the small increasing of the drive, to ing should no longer be a problem.
completely uncritical, except as it affects improve the efficiency available for cw or At 144 MHz and higher, it is difficult to
the operating efficiency. The influence of fm. No switching or major adjustments of construct a parasitic choke that will not be
ssb techniques is seen clearly in current any kind are required for near-optimum resonant at or near the operating fre-
amplifier trends. Today Class AB1 is operation on ssb, a-m, fm or cw, if the quency. Should uhf parasitics occur, an
popular and most amplifiers are set up for amplifier is designed primarily for AB1 effective cure can often be realized by
linear amplification, for ssb and — to a service. If high-level a-m were to be used, shunting a 56-ohm 4 2-watt resistor across
lesser extent —
a-m. The latter is often there would have to be major operating- a small section of the plate end of the
used in connection with small amplitude- conditions changes, and very much higher tuned circuit as shown -in Fig. 5C. The
modulated vhf transmitters, having their available driving power. resistor should be attached as near the
own built-in audio equipment. Where a-m plate connector as practical. Such a trap
output is available from, the ssb exciter, it Tank-Circuit Design
can often be constructed by bridging the
is also useful with the Class AB1 linear Except in compact low-powered trans- resistor across a portion of the flexible
amplifier, for only a watt or two of driver mitters, conventional coil-and-capacitor strap-connector that is used in some
output is required. circuitry is seldom used in transmitter transmitters to join the anode fitting to
There is no essential circuit difference amplifiers for 144 MHz and higher the plate-tank inductor.
between the AB1 linear amplifier and the frequencies. U-shaped loops of sheet Instability in solid-state vhf and uhf
Class C amplifier; only the operating metal or copper tubing, or even copper- amplifiers can often be traced to oscilla-
conditions are changed for different laminated circuit board, generally give tions in the If and hf regions. Because the
classes of service. Though the plate higher Q and circuit efficiency at 144 and gain of the transistors is very high at the
7-3 Chapter 7
Capacitive reactance of C is chosen to be
AMP very low at the parasitic frequency. R then
appears as a swamping resistor, damping
144 MHz the oscillation.
and decoupling of stages is carried out. in parallel with a 0.00 1-wF disk capacitor lowest transmitter power that will do the
Low-frequency oscillation can usually be in such circuits as the emitter, base, or job at hand. Keep the power in the
cured by selecting a bypass-capacitor collector return. The actual values used multiplier and driver stages at the lowest
value that is effective at the frequency of will depend upon the frequencies involved. practical level, and use link coupling in
oscillation- and connecting it in parallel An additional stabilization method for preference to capacitive coupling. Plan for
with the vhf bypass capacitor in the same solid-state amplifiers is shown in Fig. 5E. complete shielding and filtering of the rf
C1 —
5-25-pF ceramic trimmer.
C2, C3 —
1 .8-5-pF air variable, E. F. Johnson
160-205.
C4, C5, C6, C7 —
1 .5-3-pF air variable, E. F
Johnson 160-203.
C8 — 1.5-5-pF variable, Johnson
air E. F.
160-102.
C9 — Trimmer capacitor, 15pF.
C10— See 14 and
Fig. text.
C1 C12 — These components are
1 , built into
T 44 cavity,
D1 — 90-volt, 0-watt Zener diode, N3004 or
1 1
equiv.
D2 — 200-volt, 0-watt Zener diode, 1N3015or
1
L1 —
chassis.
21 turns no. 26
3/16-inch dia. plastic rod.
enam. close-wound on
L2 —
7 turns no. 20 enam, cjose-wound on 3/8-
inch dia. slug-tuned form
L3 —
5 turns no. 16 enam. 1/2-inch dia,
made of
centertapped, turns spaced one wire diameter 1/4-in. brass. RFC1 —^22 turns no. 26 enam. on^/16-inch dia.
L4, L6— Hairpin loop, 1-7/8-inch long, 7/8-inch L9— Hairpin loop 1-inch long, 1-inch wide, no. plastic rod. Spaced on wire diameter.
wide, no, 1 4 tinned. 12 enam., spaced 1/8 inch above L8. RFC2-RFC5, inclusive — 5 turns no. 22 insulated
L5, L7 — Each two pieces no. 14 tinned, 3 inches L10, L11, L12— Part of T-44 cavity. hookup wire, 3/1 6-inch dia.
long. (75mm) looped frorr) C4 or C6 to the 6939 L101-L104, inclusive — 4 turns no. 20'insulated RFC6, RFC 7— 5 turns no. 26 enam., 1/8- inch
base. hookup wire, 1/4-inch dia., close wound. diameter, close-wound.
L8 —
Hairpin loop 1 -7/8-inch long x 1 - inch wide, L201-L205, inclusive — 4 turns no, 18 insulated RFC8, RFC9 — Part of T-44 cavity.
no. 12 enam., with plate connectors hookup wire, 1 /4-inch dia., close wound. Y1 — Overtone crystal, 67.333 MHz.
7-5 Chapter 7
—
L101 L10Z
_rrrr\ _nrm_
L103 L104
STTTX. -o
0.001/FT
—o _nrm_ -o
0.001/FT
—o
300
1W
X t
,
4000
10W
PLATE
CURRENT
D2
N3015
AMR
200V -J
(SEE 10W -<RFC5
V4 V5
TEXT) 6 9 39
6939
404 MHz 432 MHz ANT.
L5 L8 L9
Tm_T 2,7
'
RFC7
-^C8
; ^o.ooi 7TS
GRID
-,-0.001 CURRENT
|
V -O-H.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
28MHz (O) IN MICROFARADS (jiF) OTHERS
;
INPUT
ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR jiJiF);
(
L204
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS',
0-00I/FT
-o—o— jrm. 0.001/FT
-o—o- k -1000, M' 000 000
I
X 3;
FT = FEEDTHROUGH
unit, and all the hf operating features are voltage to the unit and adjusting the tuned
maximum on a The Circuit
retained when using the transmitting circuits for indication
converter. Single sideband and cw opera- wavemeter. Coupling between L3, and A single4CX250B is used in a conven-
tion, are prevalent on Mode B operation L4/L5 and L6 should be as loose as tional grounded-cathode arrangement
(70-crrr transmit, 2-meter receive) of the possible while still providing adequate (Fig. 10). The tuned grid circuit and the
OSCAR and a
linear transmitting
series, drive for the 6939s. Final adjustment is pi-network in the output is a standard
converter permits this option. made by applying approximately 0.5 watt design that works well on 6 meters.
A approach (using tubes) is
traditional of drive and adjusting for maximum Driving power is fed into the tuned grid
employed here 6 to 9). This unit is
(Fig. power output as indicated by a watt-meter circuit through a 50-ohm T pad. Selection
a modified version of one appearing in in the feed line. For normal use, of the correct T-pad value will compen-
November 1973 QST by W2AIH. De- approximately 0.5 watt of 28-MHz energy sate for driving power of a watt or so up to
tailed construction notes are described in is adequate for full output with minimum 25 watts. R5 provides very heavy swamping
that article. The output is 35 watts from a distortion. More drive will cause distor- and assures that the amplifier is completely
modified surplus Motorola T-44 transmit- tion in the mixer and will generate spurious stable. If R5 resistor is omitted for drive
ting module. OSCAR Mode B requires signals within and out of the ham band. of less than watt, the amplifier will have
1
less than 10 watts erp for effective access to be neutralized. Another advantage of
T-44 Cavity Modification
of the satellite. Feed-line loss in a typical the T pad and resistive input is a more
drop the 35-watt output
installation will It was felt that the inductive tuning constant load to the driving stage.
to the level where an omnidirectional, arrangement was somewhat inefficient so In the plate circuit, heavy copper-strap
Unity-gain antenna will be sufficient for this was. replaced with a capacitive type conductors are used to provide low
use with OSCAR. For other applications, instead. A "flapper" capacitor of spring inductance leads. The output capacitance
the most popular kilowatt amplifier for brass is attached to the newly fabricated of the 4CX250B (4.4 pF) plus strays and
432 MHz, a design by K2RIW (April and top cover. The top cover is bent from the plate tuning capacitance should be 10
May 1972 QST), requires in excess of 20 aluminum sheet stock (0.035 inch). Tun- to 12 pF for a reasonable circuit Q. The
watts of drive for maximum output. The ing is accomplished by means of a screw amplifier plate circuit should resonate at
output of this transmitting converter which bears against the spring-brass 50 MHz with the tuning capacitor (CI) as
handily provides for both situations. capacitor plate. Some adjustment of the near minimum value as possible.
Injection to the mixer is provided by line that forms LI 1 may also be needed to When drive is ^provided by a trans-
multiplication of 67.33-MHz energy from bring the plate tank near resonance. Final ceiver, a dpdt relay (Kl) places the
the oscillator. The 6922 dual triode is used adjustment is accomplished by means of amplifier in the line in the transmit
as a Butler oscillator. The plate circuit of C10. condition and connects the antenna to the
V1B is capacitively coupled to the input of transceiver in the receive condition.
the 6688 pentode doubler, V2. The
Optional LO Output Cutoff bias is applied to the amplifier in
following stage uses a 6939 as a tripler for In some applications, rf energy at the the receive condition and is reduced to the
an output frequency of 404 MHz. LO frequency (404 MHz) is required. This operating value while transmitting by
Inductive coupling is used between the is accomplished by mounting a BNC grounding one end of the bias potentio-
tripler and the 6939 mixer, V4, and connector (with the pin sawed off) near meter, R4. A double set of VOX send/
between the output of the mixer and the L5. Refer to the bottom view of the driver receive contacts is required to perform
6939 amplifier stages (L4, L5/L6 and L7, stages. The connector can be seen just these two functions (K2).
respectively). A 6939 driver-amplifier above C4 in the third compartment from
Construction
stage runs Class AB1 for good suppression the left.
of unwanted mixing products. The final An LMB CO-7 cabinet is used as the
A Low-Drive 6-Meter PA
amplifier is a cathode-driven 2C39 triode. basic amplifier housing (Fig. 11). It is
Input power to the cathode is coupled There have been some excellent articles necessary to add four small brackets to
through a variable capacitor to provide an on 6-meter amplifiers in the 1- and 2-kW stiffen the front and back panels. Two
impedance match to the exciter. The plate PEP levels. Usually grounded-grid design pieces of 1/2 X 1/2-inch (12.7 X 12.7-mm)
and cathode hardware are modified com- is used' and the amplifiers require exciters Reynolds aluminum angle stock are
ponents from a T-44 amplifier. A flapper in the 100-watt class. The new popular added to the sides of the built-in chassis to
type of capacitor is used to tune the plate solid-state 6-meter transceivers that de- provide additional strength and provide
circuit to resonance. The mica dielectric in velop approximately 10-watts PEP fall an air seal between the bottom and top of
Fig. 7 — Bottom view showing stages for V1 through V5. Fig. 8 — Bottom view of T-44 cavity.
7-7 Chapter 7
ANODE END
vice.This leaves two options for owners the tube (roughly 100 pF). The tube socket
NO. 32HOLES FOR
OF CAVITY FASTENING CIO of 10-watt-output rigs. One solution is to and add an additional 20 pF. This
strays
use a solid-state "brick" amplifier to tuning method places the tube input
drive the grounded-grid amplifier. This capacitance in series with the tuning
results complex
in relay-switching capacitor, effectively reducing the circuit
systems, not to mention the cost of the capacitance. A number of other networks
amplifier and a high-current supply to were one somewhat exotic
tried, including
— — 2-1/4" J power it. The other approach is to use a current-feed method, but none proved as
TOP COVER tetrode such as the 4CX1000A in ,a simple and effective as the one shown.
( INCHES k 25.4 = mm) grounded-cathode amplifier. In the circuit Bias voltage is shunt fed to the grid
--(-3/4'V described, 10 watts of drive will provide 2 through Rl. This resistor also heavily
kilowatts of input power, thereby ob- swamps the grid circuit and helps to pro-
o t
NO. 32 (-1/8 viating an intermediate amplifier stage. vide amplifier stability without the need
O
HOLES
i for neutralization. Should it be desired to
CIO Circuit Description
increase the gain of the amplifier for use
The schematic diagram of the amplifier with lower power rigs, the value of Rl can
Fig. 9 — Layout details for modified top cover is shown in Fig. 16. As the 4CX1000A is a be increased and the network components
and brass capacitor flap. Inches x 25.4 = -
high-mu tube, care must be taken in the changed as appropriate. The cathode is
mm..
design and construction of the amplifier grounded through short, heavy leads at
to prevent instability. In the circuit the base of the SK-800B tube socket. A
shown, this was accomplished without the screen bypass capacitor an integral part
is
4CX250B, through the chimney into the O.OQ1 RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS',
anode and out of the cabinet through the k -1000. MM 000 000
Results
A O JEXCITER
power supply is shown in
suitable
Fig. 14. With 2000 volts on the anode and
a plate current of 250 mA, the power out-
put as measured by a Bird Thruline watt-
meter into a Bird dummy load was 325
watts. This agrees closely with the tube
specification sheets.
capacitors are disc ceramic and resistors are c, 3on composition. (Inches x 25.4 = mm),
with that required to drive the popular C1 — 50 pF, receive spacing or aux. relay if only spst option available.
grounded-grid amplifiers. Even the high- C2 — 25 pF, 3 kV (surplus cap. in unit). L1 —6 turns no. 14 solid wire, 1/2-inch dia,
mu triodes, such as those of the 8874 C3 — 140 pF, receive spacing. 1-1/4 inch long. Tap 1-1/2 turns from gnd end.
family, require at least 25 watts of drive C4 — Cer. cap, 2 paralleled 500 pF, 5 kV. L2 —5 turns no. 10 solid wire, 1-3/88 dia, 2
tfl 12juF
I +2000 7-- l\
A 10A
1 n~n-
'
500
D5 5W
-w-
06
-vw
2200
J±4 0j,F J±40/iF -=f^r
350V 350V
Fig. 11 — Designed and by Dick Stevens,
built
W1QWJ, this amplifier fills the need for a low-
drive model usable with 10-watt exciters.
08
BOjuF
V D7 2W
E
C Xf0V /^L?
(5
6.3 AC
FIL.
12V RELAY -100V
V V
Fig. 14 —Power supply for the amplifier.
— Top view of the amplifier (note B1 —Blower motor (see text). ac coil.
Fig. 12
paralleled ceramic capacitors for C4).
D1-D4, incl. —Each leg consists of 2 series T1 — Power transformer, 1400 V ac, 500 mA.
silicon diodes (1 A, 1000 PRV). T2 — Power transformer, 500 V at 100 mA.
D5, D6, D7 —
Silicon diode, 1 A, 1000 PRV. sec. 12-V, 1-A sec. and 6.3-V, 3-A sec.
D8 -Silicon diode, 3 A, 100 PRV. T3 — Filament transformer. 6.3 V, 1A.
K3 —Power relay, dpdt 10 A, contacts 117-V
and slug-tuned techniques will cover little Rl and R2 form a regulator that limits the tinuously monitors cathode current.
more than 1-MHz of tuning range. Addi- current that can be drawn through the Meter shunts are provided in the bias and
tionally, the compressing and expanding transistor to 40 mA. This extra circuitry is screen supplies. M2 can be switched be-
of the coil does not have an adverse effect desirable in the event of high-voltage sup- tween grid and screen by means of S2.
on the inductor Q, as typically occurs with ply failure. No more than 40 of cur-mA This meter teads to 10 for grid andmA
the other systems. The tube capacitance rent can be drawn through the regulator, to 100 mA
for screen current.
7-9 Chapter 7
PLATE ENCLOSURE-
PLATE
CONTACT
AREA
Fig. 16 — Schematic diagram of the 6-meter amplifier. Parts designations shown on the schematic but not called out the parts are for text
in list
reference only
C1 — Miniature variable, panel mount, 32 pF D14 — Zener diode, 30 volt, watt.
1 M1 — 0-1 mA, Simpson 15070 or equiv.
maximum. DS1 — Neon indicator built into S1. M2 — 0-1 A, Simpson 15101 or equiv.
C2 — Silver mica, 15 pF, mounted directly F1 — Fuse,1 ampere. Q1 — 2N2905A or equiv.
across C1. j1 _ Coaxial connector, BNC chassis mount, R4 — Meter shunt, V 7-1/2" (41.4 mm) no.
C4 — Tube internal plate capacitance. 34 enam. wire wound on a high-value, 1/2-
UG-625B/U or equiv.
C5, C7 — Transmitting capacitor, 0.001 hF. J2 — Coaxial connector, type N chassis watt resistor.
5000 volt. Centralab 858S-1000 or equiv. mount, UG-58/U or equiv. R5 — Potentiometer, 25k-ohm, 5 watt.
C6 — Transmitting variable, 250 pF maximum. J3 _ High-voltage connector, Millen 37001 or R7 — Meter shunt, 4.3 ohm, 1/4 watt.
C8 — Screen bypass built into SK-800B socket. equiv. RFC1 — 36 turns no. 24 enam. wire on a 1"
C20, C24 — Electrolytic, 40 yF, 450 volt. J4 — 4 conductor. (25.4 mm) diameter Teflon rod.
D1, D2, D10-D12, incl.,D15, D16 — Silicon, 2.5 J5, J6 — Phono connector. RFC2, RFC3 — 6 turns no. 22 enam. wire on an
ampere, 1000 volt. L1 — 2 turns no. 24 enam. wire wound over L2. FT-50-43 core.
L2 — 10 turns no. 24 enam. wire on a 51 — Spst, rocker type with built-in neon
D3 — Zener diode, 45 volt, watt.
1
BUSHING
1/4 PANEL
I D.
BUSHING
THREADED DELRIN
1/4 " X 28
ROD 5-3/4" LONG.
DOUBLE NUTS 1-1/4" UNTHREADED
LOCKED TOGETHER
X- 3-1/2 TURNS
2-3/4 X 3-1/4 COPPER TUBING
1/4"
Fig. 19 — Dimensional drawing of the inductor assembly. Delrin can be obtained from most
plastic supply houses. Check the Yellow Pages of your local telephone directory for dealers.
A-7 C.^Z
'•IT-
C-2' i <~~T7
r-f? rr->
Fig. 21 —
Schematic diagram of the low-pass
filterthat is used after the amplifier/Good
quality capacitors such as silver-mica types
should be used.
C1, C2 —82 pF silver mica, 1000 V.
L1, L3 —
4 turns no. 14 enam. wire close
wound on a 5/16 in. (8 mm) form.
L2 —5 turns no. 14 enam. wire close wound
on a 7/16 in. (11 mm) form
Fig. 20 —
Photograph of the assembled ad-
justable inductor. Make certain to use only
Fig. 18 — This is the plate compartment of the plated brass hardware for pieces that come
amplifier. Details of the inductor are given in into contact with the coil.
the text and in additional photographs and
drawings.
used. The built-in screen bypass capacitor duty hand nibbler tool was used to make
is an important factor in amplifier stabili- the large hole. All leads entering the grid
ty. Other sockets without this capacitor compartment pass through 1000-pF feed-
should be avoided. through capacitors to ensure an rf-tight
The amplifier is on a 10 X 12 X 3
built enclosure. The amplifier input connection
The amplifier is intended to be operated inch (254 X 305 X 76 mm) aluminum is through a UG-625B/U (female) chassis-
from a high-voltage supply similar to the chassis that attached to an 8-3/4 inch
is mount BNC connector, directly into the
one described in the Power Supply chap- (222 mm) high, 19 inch (483 mm) wide grid compartment. The general placement
ter of this book. Since the design and con- rack panel.Sheet-aluminum panels are of the input-network components can be
struction of such supplies is routine, -one made so that the overall height of the seen in the photograph. A perforated
will not be described here. amplifier enclosure is 7-1/2 inches (191 aluminum cover is placed over the smaller
mm). grid-compartment chassis. This piece
Construction The grid compartment is constructed must allow adequate air flow for proper
Many of the construction details can be from a second aluminum chassis that tube cooling. It is a good idea to check air
seen in the accompanying photographs. measures 7 X 7 X 2 inches (178 X 178 flow with and without this piece in place
The general layout is not especially X 51 mm). It is easiest to cut the hole for in order to determine whether the material
critical, although good isolation between the tube socket with the smaller chassis is suitable.
the grid and plate circuitry is a must. To bolted in place. In this manner exact The remainder of the bottom chassis
this end, the Eimac SK-800B socket is alignment can be guaranteed. A heavy- houses the screen and bias power-supply
7-11 Chapter 7
2
Fig. 22 — Full scale etching pattern for the printed-circuit board. Black areas represent unetched copper.
TO R5
TOS2B TO S2A
AND SCREEN TO S2A T0 J5 AND GRID TO S2B
-TO C18
o m^ 1
— 56k
5W
D3
-TO C15
o 900SJ
5W
Fig. 23 — Parts-placement guide for the printed-circuit board as shown from the component side.
components and the control circuitry. for the diodes is supplied primarily by the heater/defroster hose. A
length of this
Many of the parts are contained on a system blower, as the diode stack is hose connects the pressurized chassis to
single-sided circuit board. The board mounted in the air flow path. Cooling for the blower, which can be mounted at
etching pattern and parts-layout diagram the tube is by means of a blower that is some convenient location. For ultra-quiet
are given in Figs. 22 and 23. Zener diodes mounted external to the chassis. A plastic operation the blower can be mounted in a
are mounted on an aluminum and plate flange (Newtone 366, used with central closet or in an adjoining room. Copper or
the circuit board. While the aluminum vacuum cleaning systems) is suitable for brass screening is used to cover the flange
provides some heat-sink action, cooling use with 2-inch (51 -mm) automobile opening, thus rnaintaining an rf-tight
7-13 Chapter 7
144MHz OUTPUT INPUT FL.1 OUTPUT
Fig. 26 —
Schematic diagram and parts list of the 144-MHz amplifier. Inches x 25.4 = mm.
—
B1 — Blower, 15 ft'/min. D14, D15 —
Light emitting diode (V F = 1.6 V, R13, R26 5kf!, 2-W potentiometer.
C1-C12, incl. —
0.01 (iF disc ceramic, 100-Vdc. = 60 mA). R14-R19, incl. — 39k£l, 10-W.
incl. — 20M1, 25-W.
l
F
C13 — 100 mF, 350 Vdc. D16 —33-V, 5-W Zener diode. R20-R25,
C14-C19, incl. —
200 jiF electrolytic, 450-Vdc. D17-D22, incl. —
56-V, 10-W Zener diode. . R27 — Meter shunt, 0.05555 ohms (3.375 feet
C20, C22 —
15-pF air variable, Hammarlund F1 —10-A fuse. (1.03 m) no. 22 enam. wire wound on any
HF-15-X or equiv. J1, J3, J4, J5 —
Type SO-239. large-value, 2-watt resistor).
C21 —5-pF air variable, Hammarlund J2 —Phono jack, panel mount. RFC1 —
20 turns no. 24 enam. wound on 100k,
prevents air leakage. The grid circuit electrical contact to the screen. A stan-
Construction
should be installed so that no other circuit dard Eimac ceramic tube chimney is
Despite the compact design, few pre- is in close proximity to the tuned line, link mounted on a wooden standoff. The
cautions are necessary. Caution with or tuning capacitor. Cooling air is blown chimney fits over the tube anode in an
respect to high-voltage leads is mandatory, into the plate compartment through a inverted style. The hole in the top cover is
of course. The plate circuitry is entirely screened hole. Several screw, nut and screened in the same way as is the fan
flat-washer combinations guarantee good inlet. Cool air enters through the fan hole
enclosed by a shielded box, which also
Chapter? 7-14
) "
Fig. 27 —
Top view of the 2-meter amplifier.
Voltage-dropping resistors and Zener diodes
may be seen on the left-hand side of the
-chassis. The small transformer next to the
plate compartment is T2. Details of the wood REFLECTOMETER
spacer may be seen at right.
Lnpf¥\_ JTTTl.
3.5"
~
( 69 mm 7\ 30
1.5
(38mm)
i_
L1 (NO. 14 ENAMELED WIRE)
(A)
3"
( 76mm)
200 10>
10W 25W
-WW-VvV
CATtfODE
L2 (N0.1B ENAMELED WIRE ) CURRENT
IN 3311
(B)
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
12V ^ y
^
D3 50w TO VOX RELAY
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE CONTACTS
0-100
IN MICROFARADS I JiFIOTHERS
;
GRID
Fig. 28 — Formation details for L1 and L2. ARE IN PICOFARADS t pF OR jjjiF); 200
10W
CURRENT
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS',
h-IOOO.M-IOOOOOO
B.M. -BUTTON MICA
Fig. 33 —
Schematic diagram of the 144-MHz amplifier. Included is information for the input reflec-
tometer used as an aid to tuning the cathode circuit for low SWR. C7, C8 and C9 are fabricated as
described in the text and Fig. 32. Inches x 25.4 = mm.
B1 — Blower, Fasco 59752-IN or Dayton 2C610. 82-62 or equiv.
Wheel diameter is 3-13/16 inches. J5 — HV connector, James Millen 37001 or
C2 — 5- to 30-pF air variable, Hammarlund equiv.
HF-30-X or equiv. L1 — Double-sided pc board, 1-1/4 x 4-7/16
C3, C4, C5, C6 — 0.1
nF, 600-V, 20-A inches.
feedthrough capacitor. Sprague 80P3 or L2 — 4-1/4 inches of no. 18 wire. L1 and L2 are
equiv. part of the input reflectometer circuit.
J1, J2, J6 — Type BNC. L3 — 6 turns no. 18 enam., 5/8-in. long on
J3 — Type N. 3/8-in. dia form (white slug).
J4 — Coaxial panel jack, UG-22B/U, Amphenol L4 — 3 turns no. 14 enam., 5/8-in. long x
The output traps are built into a box thoroughly checked for mistakes. The high
Fig. 29 — Bottom view of the amplifier. A thin
fabricated from copper-clad circuit board. voltage present can be lethal if not treated
sheet of Teflon has been placed between the The easiest approach to mounting it is by- carefully. Be sure no wires are touching
electrolytic capacitors and their aluminum means of a double-male UHF-type con- anything they shouldn't.
mounting strap. At upper right is the power
nector to the jack on the rear of the plate Primary voltage should initially be
supply rectifier board. Details of the grid cir-
compartment. applied through a variable line transfor-
cuit are also visible.
An input attenuator may be required to mer. This allows the voltage to be brought
reduce transceiver output power down to up slowly so that if something is awry it
the 2-watt level necessary to drive the can be noticed before any damage can
and passes through the tube anode cooler. amplifier. Standard composition resistors occur. Once the primary has been safely
Tube-warmed air exits through the chim- can be used in attenuator construction. brought up to its normal voltage, voltage
ney and out the screened hole in the top. The attenuator is built in a separate box checks on the tube should be made. Screen
A small portion of the cooling air passes from the amplifier. voltage should be about 325 and bias
through the tube socket, cooling the tube should be about -130 V. AC filament vol-
Tune-up and Operation
base before flowing through the underside tage should be about 6.
of the chassis. Upon completion, all wiring should be Shorting J2 places the amplifier in the
r~"
i
(SEE TEXT)!
|
C1P \ 9
C7
PLATE— LINE (SEE TEXT)
ENCLOSURE
If"
— Front-panel layout of the 2-meter
aCX13QOA7
6677
C9
t Fig. 30
kilowatt amplifier.
1500
04 Ji
DS ! I
0'
.001 0.001
6.m.: -e.M.
'9ft 9
FT
X V /0-001/FT
T
OUTPUT
|
UJJU
OUTPUT
rrm ^ meuTs»^ 6 Hv I
Fig. 31 —
The placement of input-circuit com-
ponents and supporting bracket may be seen
MOT 1 BLOWER
in this bottom view. When the bottom cover is
MULTIMETER I niA
in place, the screened air inlet allows the
blower to pull air in, pressurizing the entire
under-chassis area. The Minibox on the rear
0117 V - ACQ
apron is a housing for the input reflectometer
circuit.
Lead length to L3 is
9/16-in. ID. 5/8-in. Lead
length to cathode bus is 3/4-in. on 1-Mfi, 2-watt compostiton resistor.
L5 _ Air-dielectric strip See text
line. RFC3, RFC4 —
Each 2 ferrite beads on com-
P1 — Type BNC. ponent leads.
—
P2 — Type N. RFC5, RFC6 10 turns no. 12 enam., bifilar
R1 — Meter range multiplier. Ten 500-kO, 2-W wound, 5/8-in. dia.
composition resistors in series. S1 —
Single-pole, three position rotary switch,
RFC1 — 7 turns no. 16 tinned, 1/2-in. ID x non-shorting contacts.
1-in. long. T1 —
5-v, 10-A secondary, center tap not used,
transmit mode. With no drive applied, and disconnect the temporary load resis-
150-kft resistor from the grid terminal to indicator. The SWR may not be close to removed for clarity. The plate-tuning vane is at
of L 1 with bottom center. A bracket is attached to the
If not, readjust the position
ground. Turn on the power. Do not short 1 : 1,
side panel to support the rear of the Teflon rod
Adjust R13 until the grid-sensing LED respect to L2. Recheck the SWR. Continue supporting the tuning vane. The coil at the op-
J2.
just comes on. Turn the power off again. the process until the input SWR is close to posite end of the plate line is RFC1, connected
Since no voltage isapplied to the am- between the high-voltage-bypass plate and the
Connect a string of 10 1000-ohm, 1-watt 1:1.
top section of the plate-line sandwich. Items
adjustment is very simple. In the
resistors from the screen terminal of the plifier,
outside the tube enclosure include the filament
tube socket to ground. Turn the power on amplifier shown, the LI adjustment was transformer, blower motor, relays, and a power
again. Adjust R26 until the screen sensing optimum when placed approximately 1/8- supply to operate a VOX-controlled relay
. LED just comes on. Turn the power off inch (3-mm) from and parallel to L2. system.
7-17 Chapter 7
a
,
plate/cathode current, a rise in grid same rf potential; the heater is held above
current and a considerable increase in
rfground by the impedance of the filament
relative power output. Plate-current dip is
choke. The plate tank is a pair of quarter-
wavelength striplines placed symmetrically
not absolutely coincident with maximum
power output, but it is very close. Tuning about the tube. 2 This arrangement per-
Table 4
and output-loading adjustments should be mits a more uniform flow of current
Operating Conditions
for maximum efficiency and output as through the anode, preventing "hot spots"
432 MHz 432-MHz Addi-
indicated on the output meter. Final on the anode conducting surface.
drive power output power
watts watts adjustment for lowest VSWR at amplifier tionally, tube output capacitance is effec-
2 30 input should be done when the desired tively halved, as one-half the tube capaci-
4 50
plate input-power level has been reached. tance (13 pF) is used to load each stripline.
5 80
Striplines act as low-pass circuit elements
7 100 A 220-MHz High-Power Amplifier
9 140 even with the high unloaded-Q conditions
Circuits for 220-MHz power amplifiers found at 220 MHz. Linear inductors also
Ep— 1000 V
long been designed around the offer control of odd-mode harmonics. No
Ip — 60 mA, zero signal.
have
Ip — 300 mA, single tone (cw). 140 W output. external-anode tetrode. While these tubes spurious responses could be found in this
offer high gain, instability problems have amplifier up through the 900-MHz region.
caused many builders considerable con- A strip-line impedance can be varied by
sternation over the years. Multiple- changing its width and relation to its
tube amplifiers are often necessary to ground planes. Physical dimensions of the
obtain the high power levels many tube limit the position of the stripline
moonbouncers and weak-signal specialists above one ground plane. In order to
require. Push-pull amplifiers have been conynercially available chassis, the
utilize
1000-watt output point and worked tried with moderate success, and recently was placed 1-1/4 inch (32-mm)
stripline
backwards to calculate apparent stage parallel-tube designs have found favor.' above one side of an inverted 4-inch
gain and efficiency. Modern computer-aided tube designs (102-mm) high chassis. This means that
Efficiency measurements also were have brought forth high-tttriodes such as approximately 75 percent of the rf current
made employing the "tube air-stream the 3CX1500A7/8877, a 1500-watt dis- flows through the chassis, but only 25
heat-differential" method. Several runs sipation external-anode triode with maxi- percent through the top shield
flows
were made at 885 watts static dc and mum ratings good through 250 MHz. The cover. The percentage flowing
small
normal rf input. Apparent efficiencies of ceramic insulation allows a heavy flow of through the top reduces the effect of any
62 to 67 percent were noted. These values rf current through the tube, with no loss mechanical anomalies associated with a
were about five percent higher than the of stability in a properly designed circuit. removable cover.
actual power output values given in Table Low heater requirements (5 V at 10.5 A) F'or quarter-wavelength lines, the ratio
1. Both efficiency measurement schemes add to the appeal of the 8877. This ampli- of line impedance to reactance should be
serve to confirm that the amplifier is fier employs the 3CX1500A7/8877 in . between 1.5 and 2.0 for the best band-
operating the upper limit of the
at cathode-driven circuit. The grid is grounded width. Taking stray capacitance into ac-
theoretical 50 to 60 percent efficiency directly to the chassis, adding to the stabil- count, expected tuning capacitance and
range for typical Class AB2 amplifiers. ity. The amplifier (Figs. 34 to 38) is un- tube output capacitance gives a value of
To commence routine operation, the conditionally stable — more so than some 55 ohms for Xc. Values of line impedance
variable capacitor in the input circuit amplifiers built for the hf region. versus line length for resonance at 222
should be set at the point where lowest MHz were computed on a programmable
Circuit Details and
input VSWR was obtained during the calculator for impedances between 30
"cold-tube" initial tune-up. The ability of The input circuit consists of a T
the plate tank to resonate at 144-145 MHz !
Barber,Rinaudo, Orr and Sutherland, "Modern
with the top cover in place should be Knadle, "A Strip-Line Kilowatt Amplifier for 432 CircuitDesign for VHF Transmitters," CQ,
verified with a grid-dip meter, via a MHz," QST, April and May 1972. November and December 1965.
'200 JD2
Now
Fig. 35 — Schematic diagram of the 220-MHz amplifier. Unless otherwise specified, all capacitors are disc ceramic and resistors are 1/2-watt carbon
composition. Inches x 25.4 = mm.
C1 — Air variable, 15 pF. J3 — High-voltage connector (Millen). RFC2, RFC3 — 10 turns no. 18 enam. bifilar
C2, C3 — Button mica, 500-pF, 500-V rating. L1 — 3 turns No. 14, 1/4-inch ID, 3/4-inch long. wound on 3/4-inch Teflon rod close wound.
C4-C9, inclusive — Teflon capacitor (use 10-mil L2 — 1/4-inch wide, 2-3/8 inch long copper —
• RFC4 5 turns no. 16 enam. wound on 1-Mt),
Teflon sheet). flashing strap. 2-watt composition resistor.
C10 — Doorknob capacitor, 500 pF, 5-kV rating. L3 — Plate inductor (see Fig. 38). —
T1 Filament transformer, 5.0 V at 10.5 A.
D1-D4 - 1000 PRV, 3A. RFC1 —
8 turns no. 18 enam. 1/2-inch dia.,
J1, J2 — Coaxial receptacle, type N. 3/4-inch long.
100 ohms. These were plotted on a graph. The plate blocking capacitor consists of along the same principles. A piece of
Final dimensions were determined using a sandwich of brass plate and the stripline, circuit board was once again sandwiched
this system,choosing dimensions that fell with Teflon sheet as the dielectric. This with Teflon sheet to the side wall of the
into the middle of the graph, thus forms a very low-loss, high-voltage capa- chassis. This technique is used effectively
allowing for any unpredicted effects. citor. The plate bypass capacitor is built throughout as an inexpensive bypass or
7-19 Chapter 7
— |
|*-(-1/4"
t
2-1/2"
1
6-1/4"
Jl
T
1-1/4"
BLOCKS TO SUPPORT
(2)
ENDS OF L3
MATER IAL "1/4" BRASS
7 5"
:1
PLATE FOR C6
MATERIAL- 1/16" BRASS
-3-1/2""^
Fig. 36 —
Bottom view of the amplifier. RFC2 and RFC3 can be seen above tube socket (bifilar
winding). Copper strap L2 shown connected to C1. Small coil is L1 and larger coil is RFC1. The
is
grid of the tube should be grounded to the chassis with finger stock similar to that used in the PLATES FOR C8 (2) PLATES FOR C7
(2)
plate line. Component mounted on the heat sink at left is the Zener diode used for biasing MATERIAL* 1/16" BRASS MATERIAL 1/16" BRASS
purposes.
Fig. 38 —
Construction details of plate line
and associated components. Inches x 25.4
mm.
series reactance (the loading capacitor). external blower, and holes in the chassis
The tuning capacitor is solidly grounded allow a portion of this air to pass through
by means of a flexible strap of negligible the grid and cathode structure. Most of
inductance. Mechanical details were de- the air flows through the anode, a
scribed by Sutherland.
3
handmade Teflon chimney, then out the
A rather elaborate metering system is top cover. Aluminum screening is tightly
employed. Although all of the meters bonded around these two openings. No
provide useful data, only the plate and radiated rf could be detected around the
grid meters are necessary for proper chassis except within one inch of the
amplifier use. At a repeater site where anode exhaust hole.
key-down service the rule rather than
is To commence operation, the input
measurement of heater should be adjusted for minimum VSWR
Fig. 37 — Interior view of the amplifier. Con-
the exception,
tact of the tube with "hot side" of C6 is ac- usage and voltage provide data requisite with no voltages applied. The covers
complished with suitable finger stock to tube replacement. The anode exhaust- should be in place whenever voltage is
(available from the tube manufacturer). This temperature metering circuit takes advan- present. Drive should never be applied
conductor, in conjunction with a similar one
tage of a thermal property of semiconduc- without plate voltage and a load con-
separated by the Teflon insulator, forms the
tors. As the temperature changes the for- nected if the 1
filament is energized.
L3/C6 combination. The entire assembly is
sandwiched together by means of four in- ward resistance of a diode changes in a Cooling air must always be supplied
sulated bushings (apprpximately 3/4-inch or nearly linear manner. The diode sensor is whenever the filament is turned on.
19-mm diameter). Placement of bushings is not After a 60-second warmup small amounts
critical. RFC4 can be seen at the right con-
made a part of a bridge circuit, allowing
nected to C9. C8 is seen at the center of the calibrated operation. Calibration may of drive may be applied. The plate circuit
photo and has a nominal spacing of 1 inch (25 be determined by packing the diode is then tuned for maximum output
mm) to similar plate soldered to L3. Tuning in ice for the low point (0° C) and immers- indication. The then in-
drive level is
capacitor, C7, can be seen at the right con- creased. Tuning and loading follow the
ing it in boiling water for the high point
nected to C9. C8 is seen at the bottom center
of the photo and has a nominal spacing of 1 (100° C). The amount of heat dissipated normal procedure for any cathode-driven
inch (25 mm) to similar plate soldered to L3. by the tube is inversely proportional to the amplifier: Adjustments are made for
Turning capacitor, C7, can be seen in upper maximum output and efficiency. When
center of photo (see Fig. 38 for dimensions). the desired plate output power has been
Drive mechanism can be of builder's
'
3/<00> pi
7500 50
£0
7W
usual external-anode design. At the 100- A half-wave grid line is fabricated from
duced. A small disc on the end of a coaxial watt output level, some transmission-line double-sided pc-board material. The
,
section provides capacitive input coupling to loss couldbe tolerated and still allow the input-coupling method departs slightly
the grid circuit. The flexible coupling shown use of a modest antenna for satellite ac- from previous examples, but only in the
here has since been replaced by two universal-
cess. mechanics of adjustment. The plate line is
joint type of connectors to remove some an-
noying backlash in the tuning control. A high- similar to published information, with
Ampl(fler Circuitry
wattage dropping resistor, part of the screen slight variations in the method of tuning.
supply circuitry, is shown at the right. The amplifier (Figs. 39 to 43) draws Input coupling to the amplifier is by
7-21 Chapter 7
protuberances to worry about behind the
cabinet. A standard-size chassis is used to
COPPER fill the gap between the panel and the
BLOCK
HEAT | BeO THERMAL amplifier proper, and incidentally to
SINK LINK
provide mounting space for peripheral
electronics. As long as the parts placement
within the amplifier grid and plate
-7-1/2"
(190 mm)
compartments not changed from the
is
Tube Placement
threads filed down is soldered into the output level no forced-air cooling was minimum strain on the tube are to be
movable piece of tubing to allow required. At higher output levels of 175 to obtained. The tube socket must have
inner,
sufficient clearance in its mounting hole
ease of connection from the exciter. A 200 watts, the temperatures on the anode
and heat sink were still below the that some lateral movement toward or
piece of copper wire and a couple of
maximum allowed by the manufacturer, away from the heat sink is allowed. The
Teflon discs extend the center conductor
but high enough that it was felt prudent to socket secured to the chassis with the
is
for attachment of the capacitor plate
usual toe clamps supplied. Because of the
inside the grid compartment. Once ad- add a quiet "whisper" fan for safety.
justed, the sliding portion is held in place Operational tests proved that the added rim formed on the socket by the integral
background noise was not distracting to screen-bypass capacitor, a spacer is
by means of a small compression clamp.
The plate line is the familiar half- the operator. needed between the thermal link and the
wavelength variety, with capacitive tuning heat sink. A piece of copper, 1/4-inch
provided by movable vanes or "flappers."
Construction (6.3-mm) thick and about 2-3/4 X 4-1/2-
In earlier versions using this tuning There are several configurations pos- inches (70 X 14-mm) serves as the spacer,
1
were moved by
flappers package, and the constructor
sible for the as well as providing excellent heat transfer
scheme, the
should feel free to mold them to fit his to the inner face of the heat sink. This
means of string that was allowed to wind
idea of how things should be assembled. copper spacer and the BeO thermal link
or unwind around a shaft, providing
An LMB cabinet (CO-1) was selected for are both held in place between the tube
front-panel control. After a few instances
of loss of control, caused by the nylon an enclosure because it matches many of anode and the heat sink by the pressure
becoming untied, the "gray boxes" found in a lot of shacks. applied by the ceramic pillars. The anode
fishing line melting or
the writers decided that there had to be a Rather than mount the heat sink through end of the plate line is bent up to form a
an unsightly hole in the rear panel of the surface that will permit screws to thread
better way. Accordingly, the cam-on-
was decided mount the into the insulators. In the early version of
a-rod method was tried and found satis- cabinet, it to
factory. Both plate-tuning and output- amplifier parallel to the front panel. This the amplifier this shaped and bent piece of
coupling flappers are adjusted in this places the heat sink inside, but there is aluminum was only long enough to
adequate ventilation through the box to provide some mounting surface to which
manner (Fig. 42).
allow proper cooling. This mounting the plate line (double-sided pc board in
Cooling scheme also permits a fan to be mounted this instance) was fastened by means of
so that there are no awkward five no. 6-32 screws and nuts with lock
Several tests were performed to check inside,
washers. The photograph shows this
the effectiveness of the thermal-link/heat- 'TemprobesTest Kit, by Tempilf Hamilton Blvd.
South NJ 07080. particular scheme in the top view. A later
sink cooling system. With the aid of Tern- Plainfield,
7-23 Chapter 7
)
RF OUT
J2
MMrLtn
RF SAMPLER —^ S3 RELAY CONTACTS:
/ Qf)^*o /C3 9{_£*. _J
NO - NORMALLY OPEN
NC- NORMALLY CLOSED AMPLIFIER
RF SWITCHING
(CONTACTS
r—&~
NOT SHOWN
V02 JiD3
NEUTRAL HOT
117 117
VAC VAC
during standby periods. Ml is used solely functions the metering and bias circuits
The half-wavelength cathode line is com- the 220-MHz
to monitor plate current in the high- are similar to those in
prised of W2, L2 and C2. Ll and CI serve 10
to match the tube input impedance to the voltage supply negative-return lead. M2 is amplifier.
50-ohm input. As the grid is switched to read grid current, high voltage
amplifier 'McMullen, "The Line Sampler," QST, April 1972.
grounded for dc as well as rf, Dl is used to and relative output. The latter function is '"Sutherland, "High Power Linear Amplifier for 220
by means of an external line sampler.' MHz," Ham Radio, December 1971.
develop operating bias at the cathode. R3
1-1/8'
FLAPPERS NO. 35
(OH IN.) /II TUBE SOCKET
/HOLE |-1/4"0IA
i-i/e"
3-1/4"'
— 6-3/4
— 84"
— Top view of the amplifier, with the Fig. 48 —Dimensions of the plate line are mm- INCHES X 25.4
Fig. 46 given here. The line may be constructed from (A)
plate compartment cover removed. The tube, 1/16-inch (1.6-mm) thick copper or brass. Cor-
plate line (W2) and RFC4 may be seen at ,the ners of the line should be filed to give a CLEARANCE
HOLE FOR
top of the photo. Note the large number of 3/16-inch (5-mm) radius. HV FEED-
holes drilled in the plate compartment to THRCUfiH
FOR N CONNECTOR ""J""""
receive the cover hold-down screws. A tight NO. 33 { 0.11 3 IN.) /
seal is required to prevent rf and air leaks.
X
used.
19-inch (133 x 483-mm)
1 1-3/lS
/
Gh) H t
1-1/2
i
t *— 3-i/e -*
5
piece of 1/16-inch (1.6-mm) thick brass.
Fig. 48 gives detailed information for
making the
8
"
— 10-1/2"
1 — J
Fig. 47 —
This bottom view shows the cathode printed circuit board would probably Fig. 49 —
At A, dimensions of the plate com-
compartment and the shafts for C6 and C7. A work as well. Best thermal stability was partment bottom cover. At B, dimensions of
cover is placed over the cathode compartment
obtained with the unplated solid-copper the rear panel of the amplifier.
during tune-up and operation.
line. The line is supported by 1.5-inch
7-25 Chapter 7
1-1/2-inch (38-mm) copper pipe. This xinderdrive an amplifier, of this type,
resulting in an efficiency of only 20 to 30
2" pipe has .an outside diameter of 1-5/8
inches (41 mm) and should fit snugly into percent. If a wattmeter is not available,
3/4"
T the hole. The Teflon chimney will be held
firmly in place and no air should leak
tune for maximum forward power as in-
dicated on the line sampler. For one-
kilowatt input, drive power must be at
from the box without passing through the from
* least 20 watts. Grid current will vary
5/4" .t anode cooler.
* -t/4 30 to 70 mA as a result of tube dif-
Operation ferences. Less grid current is a sign of in-
Receiving Systems
I
u low good should receiver performance being offered by some manufacturers, and practical receiver operates. Design data
be? A suitable answer might be, "As good although performance is acceptable in and related philosophy are included for
as is possible, consistent with the state of many instances, there is considerable those who are inspired toward developing
the amateur art and the money available room improvement. At least there is
for a homemade receiver.
to the purchaser." That opens up a wide only one mixer to cause intermodulation
area for debate, but the statement is not distortion (IMD) and overloading prob- Sensitivity
meant to imply that a receiver has to be lems in a single-conversion superhetero- One of the least understood terms
costly or complex to provide good dyne receiver. A strong doubly bal- among amateurs is sensitivity. In a casual
performance: Some very basic, inex- anced mixer (DBM) and careful gain definition the word refers to the ability of
pensive homemade receivers offer out- distribution in such a receiver can yield a receiver to respond to incoming signals.
standing performance. superb performance if a proper design
1
It is proper to conclude from this that the
For many years the evolution of effort is put forth. Of course, the local better the sensitivity, the more responsive
commercial amateur receivers seemed to oscillator should be stable and low in the receiver will be to weak signals. The
stagnate except for the window dressing noise components to further enhance popular misconception is that the greater
and frills added to the front panels. performance. Thus far, not many com- the receiver front-end gain, the higher the
Emphasis was placed on "sensitivity" mercially built amateur receivers meet the sensitivity. An amateur who subscribes to
(whatever was really meant by that term) foregoing criteria. In terms of dynamic this concept can ruin the performance of a
in the advertising. Some amateurs con- range, some manufactured receivers ex- good receiver by installing a high-gain
cluded, as a result of the strong push for hibit an MDS (minimum discernible preamplifier ahead of it. Although this
sensitive receivers, that the mark of a good signal) of -145 dBm (referenced to the will cause the S meter to read much higher
unit was seen when atmospheric noise on noise floor), blocking of the desired signal on all signals, it can actually degrade the
the hf bands could push the S-meter does not occur (1 dB of compression) until receiver sensitivity if the preamplifier is of
needle up to an S2 or S3. Very little the adjacent test signal is some 116-dB inferior design (noisy).
thought, if any, was given -
to the above the noise floor, and the two-tone A true measure of receiver sensitivity is
important parameters of a receiver — IMD ison the order of 85 dB. Greater obtained when the input signal is ref-
high dynamic range, fine readout reso- detail concerning this measurement tech- erenced to the noise generated within the
lution and frequency stability. Instead, nique will be given later in the chapter. A receiver. Since the significant noise genera-
countless receivers were placed on the receiver with the approximate figures just ted inside a receiver of good design
market with 5- or 10-kHz dial increments given is considered to be an acceptable originates in the rf and mixer stages
and excessive amounts of front-end gain. one for use where fairly strong signals (sometimes in the post-mixer amplifier), a
The latter caused the mixer (or mixers) to prevail. However, it is possible to improve low-noise front end is vital to high
collapse in the presence of moderate and those numbers considerably; it has been sensitivity. The necessary receiver gain
strong signals. Double-conversion super-
heterodyne receivers were for a long time
done by amateurs who designed and built can be developed after the mixer —
usually
their own receivers. Examples are W7ZOPs in the i-f amplifier section. The internal
the choice of manufacturers and ama- "Competition Grade Receiver" (March noise is generated by the thermal agitation
teurs. The second i-f was often 100 or 50 and April 1974 QST) and the W1CER of electrons inside the tubes, transistors or
kHz, thereby enabling the designer to get receiver described in June and July 1976 ICs. It is evident from the foregoing
fairly reasonable orders of selectivity by QST. discussion that a receiver of high sen-
means of high-Q i-f transformers. That The foregoing suggests strongly that sitivity could be one with relatively low
concept predated the availability of amateurs should consider designing and front-end gain. This thought should be
crystal-lattice and mechanical filters. The building their own receivers. Certainly, kept in mind as we enter the discussion of
low-frequency second i-f dictated the use such an endeavor is within the capability dynamic range and noise figure.
of a double-conversion circuit in order to of many experimenters. The satisfaction
minimize image responses. derived from such an effort can't be Noise Figure
Single-conversion receivers offer much measured. The following sections of this The lower the receiver noise figure
cleaner performance in terms of spurious chapter are written for those who wish to (NF), the more sensitive it is. Receiver
responses and dynamic range. They are acquire a better understanding of how a noise figures are established primarily in
8-1 Chapter 8
the rf amplifier and/or mixer stages.
fo
Low-noise active devices (tubes or transis-
tors) should be used in the receiver
front AUDIO
NOISE RECEIVER POWER -3dB ,/
end to help obtain a low noise figure or GEN. METER 0.707 A
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The un- OR
copy.
/ 1
high on 160, 80, 40 and 20 meters that coincide with maximum stage gain, —
A curve and equation for determ ining the
Fig. 2
emphasis is seldom placed on a low especially at vhf and higher. It is for this unloaded Q of a tuned circuit.
receiver noise figure for those bands. reason that actual noise measurements are
However, as the operating frequency is important to peak performance.
increased from 15 meters up through the
microwave spectrum, the matter of re- Selectivity
ceiver noise becomes a primary considera- Many amateurs regard the expression
tion. At these higher frequencies the "selectivity" as equating to the ability of a
receiver noise almost always exceeds that receiver to separate signals. This is a
from external sources, especially at 2 fundamental truth, particularly with re-
meters and above. spect to i-f selectivity which has been
established by means of high-Q filters
(LC, crystal, monolithic or mechanical).
Noise-Figure Measurements But in a broader sense, selectivity can be
Amateurs can use a thermal noise employed to reject unwanted signal
source for determining receiver noise energy in any part of a receiver the —
The resistance of the noise- front end, i-f section, audio circuit or
figure.
local-oscillator chain. Selectivity is a
generator output must match that of the
receiver input, 50 ohms to 50 ohms, for relative term, since the degree of band-
example. Fig. 1 shows a setup for making width can vary from a few hertz to more
than megahertz, depending on the
these measurements. The first reading is a -X-
design objectives. Therefore, it is not
taken with the noise generator turned off. -
uncommon to hear terms like "broadband t- <
observed on the audio power meter. The The degree of selectivity is determined >,
noise generator is turned on next, and its by the bandwidth of a filter network. The 1 s—
1-
output is increased until a convenient
power ratio, expressed by N2/N1, is
bandwidth is normally specified for the
minus 3-dB points on the filter response
X
-
s
If a thermal diode such as a 5722 tube is illustrates this principle and shows how
(B)
used as the noise source, and if the circuit the unloaded Q
of a tuned circuit or
is operated in the "temperature-limited resonator relates to the bandwidth charac- —
Fig.3 A tunable Cohn type of filter is shown at
mode" (portion of the tube curve where teristic. A. L5 and L6 are the bottom-coupling inductors
saturation occurs, dependent upon cathode If a tuned circuit is used as a filter, the (1.45 mH). L1 and L4are 70 uH and L2, L3are
temperature and plate voltage), the (ex- higher its loaded Q, the greater the 140 «H. A response curve for the tunable filter is
given at B.
cess) dB can be calculated by selectivity. To make the skirts of the
munications receivers rate the noise 3. The circuit is that of a tunable Cohn lectivity obtained.
characteristics with respect to signal type of three-pole filter for use in the front An ideal receiver with selectivity ap-
end of a 160-meter receiver. The response plied to various significant parts of the
input. The common expression is S+ Noise
PUT }
for 400-Hz cw bandwidth). theory sections of this chapter. The four Hot
c) RC active or passive audio filter for terms which have been defined in this
audio selectivity to reduce wideband section were thus treated to enable the
noise and provide audio selectivity in the reader to better understand the material
range from 400 to 2500 Hz (ssb), or a very that follows.
narrow bandwidth, such as 650 to 750 Hz,
for cw. Detection and Detectors
d) Selective circuits or filters in the local Detection (demodulation) is the process (A)
oscillator chain to reject all mixer in- of extracting the signal information from
DETECTOR
jection energy other than the desired a modulated carrier wave. When dealing
frequency. with an a-m signal, detection involves
This illustrates clearly that selectivity only the rectification of the rf signal.
does not simply mean the ability of a re- During fm reception, the incoming signal
ceiver to separate one amateur signal from must be converted to an a-m signal for
another that is nearby in frequency, or to put
detection. n / Hoi.
"separate the stations." More specifically, Detector sensitivity is the ratio of
it means that selectivity can be used to desired detector output to the input.
select one
frequency or band of fre- .Detector linearity is a measure of the
quencies while rejecting others. Practical ability of the detector to reproduce the
applications of selective circuit elements exact form of the modulation on the
will be found later in the chapter. incoming signal. The resistance or im-
pedance of the detector is the resistance or
impedance it presents to the circuits it is
Dynamic Range connected to. The input resistance is
confuse some amateurs and even some relativelylow it means that the detector
willconsume power, and this power must DETECTOR
receiver manufacturers. The confusion D2
concerns true dynamic range (as treated be furnished by the preceding stage. The
briefly at the start of this chapter) and the signal-handling capability means the abili-
age control range in a receiver. That is, if a ty to accept signals of a specified
receiver age circuit has the capability of amplitude without overloading or dis-
ID3
-W—
*~riH
1
8-3 Chapter 8
—
DETECTOR
MODULATED -AUDIO
SIGNAL APPLIED "^OUTPUT
TO DETECTOR
SIGNAL
AFTER
t A. ilk ilk
RECTIFICATION
(B)
VARYING DC
AFTER RF IS 0-
FILTERED OUT
(C) .(A)
AFTER PASSING*
THROUGH i
DETECTOR
COUPLING RFC
CAPACITOR
i
rm~ \ . /
-.audio
i-L!, -?
T i
1
It—©OUTPUT
(D) 0.1
1500
-w\
6800
o+b
0.5
The full-wave diode circuit at Fig. 4C
differs in operation from the half-wave
7^
circuit only in that both halves of the rf
cycle are utilized. The full-wave circuit has
RF
INPUT
,
i
3 -AUDIO
the advantage that rf filtering is easier i
-"output
than in the half-wave circuit. As a result,
^500
/~T7
less, attenuation of the higher audio
frequencies will be obtained for any given
degree of rf filtering.
The reactance of C2 must be small
compared to the resistance of Rl at the Fig. 7 — An infinite-impedance detector.
radio frequency being rectified, but at
audio frequencies must be relatively large
an increase in average plate shown, is good. Up to the overload point
compared to Rl. If the capacitance of C2 circuit causes
The average plate current follows the detector takes no power from the
is too large, response at the higher audio
current.
frequencies will be lowered. the changes in the signal in a fashion tuned circuit, and so does not affect its Q
Compared with most other detectors, similar to the rectified current in a diode and selectivity.
of the resistance coupling shown in Fig.6. that the load resistance, 27-kQ, is con-
Plate Detectors Usually 100 henrys or more of inductance nected between source and ground and
required. thus is common on both gate and drain
The plate detector is arranged so that is
The plate detector more sensitive circuits, giving negative feedback for the
rectification of the rf signal takes place in
is
circuit or the
of the tube than the diode because there is some audio frequencies. The source resistor is
the plate
amplifying action in the tube or transistor. bypassed for rf but not for audio, while
collector of an FET. Sufficient negative
It will handle large signals, but is not so the drain circuit is bypassed to ground for
bias is applied to the grid to bring the
tolerant this respect as the diode. both audio and radio frequencies. An rf
plate current nearly to the cutoff point, so in
Linearity, with the sejf-biased circuits filter can be connected between the
that application of a signal to the grid
type of filtering.
8-5 Chapter 8
converted to a-m by means of trans-
former Tl. The voltage induced in the Tl
PRODUCT DETECTOR secondary is 90 degrees out of phase with
Q1
the current in the primary. The primary
MPF102 RFC signal is introduced through a center tap
_nrm_ on the secondary, coupled through a
SIG
IN
°^ 1 0.005
IjuF
OUT
capacitor. The secondary voltages com-
bine on each side of the center tap so that
the voltage on one side leads the primary
'1500 signal while the other side lags by the
same amount. When rectified, these two
'100
voltages are equal and of opposite
polarity, resulting in zero-voltage output.
+12V
BFO A shift in input frequency causes a shift in
I NJ. the phase of the voltage components that
(A) result in an increase of output amplitude-
on one side of the secondary, and a
corresponding decrease on the other side.
The differences in the two changing
voltages, after rectification, constitute the
audio output.
PRODUCT DETECTOR RCA developed a circuit that has now
become standard in entertainment radios
AF and which eliminated the need for a
1 UT
preceding limiter stage. Known as the
0.005
_L 1juF
ratio detector, this circuit is based on the
idea of dividing a dc voltage into a ratio
which is equal to the ratio of the
'1500 amplitudes from either side of a dis-
criminator transformer secondary. With a
100 :iojuf detector that responds only to ratios, the
input signal may vary in strength over a
wide range without causing a change in
(B)
the level of output voltage —
fm can be
detected, but no a-m. In an actual ratio
detector, Fig. 12B, the dc voltage required
is developed across two load resistors,
— provided A and a dual-gate MOSFET shunted by an electrolytic capacitor.
Fig. 9 Active product detectors. A JFET example is at
circuit is used as a mixer which has ah i-f detector of Fig. 8B. Doubly balanced tightly coupled to the primary of the
that is close to the signal frequency. This active detectors are seen at B and C of Fig. transformer. Diode-load resistor values
problem is not apt to become manifest 10. These ICs contain two sets of are selected to be lower (5000 ohms or
audio frequency. differential amplifiers each. The "diff
when the output is at less)than for the discriminator.
Slightly more injection power is needed amps" are cross-connected in the exam- sensitivity of the ratio detector is
The
for circuit A than is necessary for the ples shown to obtain doubly balanced one half that of the discriminator. In
detector at B. An rms voltage of roughly circuits. The virtues of these detectors are
general, however, the transformer design
0.8 is typical (6.5 mW). similar to the equivalent four-diode types, values for Q, primary-secondary coupling,
The detector of Fig. 9B operates in a but they exhibit several dB of conversion and load will vary greatly, so the actual
similar fashion to that of A, but the BFO gain. The MC1496G is made by Motorola performance differences between these
is injected on control gate no. 2. and the CA3102E is an RCA device.
two types of fm detectors are usually not
Approximately 1 volt rms is needed (0.1 significant. Either circuit cart provide
mW). FETs with proper injection levels
FM Detectors
excellent results.
and moderate signal-input amounts have The first type of fm detector to gain A crystal discriminator is shown in Fig.
IMD popularity was the frequency discrimi-
excellent characteristics. Generally, 12C. This provides an adjustment-free
they are preferred to single-ended, bipolar- nator. The characteristic of such a discriminator by virtue of the quartz
transistor detectors. The circuits at A and detector is shown in Fig. 11. When the fm resonator. The components without as-
B contain rf chokes and bypass capacitors signal has no modulation,, and the carrier
signed values are selected to give the
at point zero, the detector has no A
in the drain leads to minimize the transfer is
desired bandwidth. unit of this type is
of BFO energy to the succeeding audio output. When audio input to the fm sold by Spectrum International Co.
stage. The bypass capacitors are useful transmitter swings the signal higher in
also for rolling off the unwanted high- frequency, the rectified output increases in
TRF Receivers
frequency audio components. the negative direction. Over a range
where the discrimination is linear (shown Tuned-radio-frequency receivers have
Active Balanced Product Detectors as the straight portion of the line), the little value in Amateur Radio today, but
conversion of fm to a-m which is talcing in the early days they were suitable for the
Examples of active IC product de-
A singly place will be linear. reception of spark and a-m signals. They
are given
.
tectors in Fig. 10.
A practical discriminator circuit is consisted mainly of a couple of stages of
balanced version is shown atA. It uses an
shown 12A. The fm signal is selective rf amplification, an a-m type of
RCA differential-pair IC. Except for the in Fig.
10juF
DEVIATION
LIMITS
*
"i
\
'
i i
SIGNAL-
INPUT ^ _ Hl-Z T1 lo-Z
U
is !
i /
+
-
I I I i i
z
FREQ. \/° !
< A !
' I
1
BFO
INJ.
(1.5V RMS2mW)
(A) Fig. 1 1 — Characteristic of an fm discriminator.
-A/W- • 0+12V
1200 J+ 100>jF uses for the TRF receiver are restricted
mainly to reception of a-m broadcast
(300mV RMS) ,2?oo
signals, for hi-fi reception and for field-
BFO O strength indicators of cw or a-m signals.
INPUT
U1 Superregenerative receivers were quite
MC1496G
AF
popular among vhf and uhf amateurs in
O,OUTPUT the '30s, '40s and early '50s. The principle
0.01
0.05 of operation was an oscillating detector
1000 L-A/W- 1
X 15V 5
which had its oscillation interrupted
-AA/V
1000
2
W
'.
BOTTOM
ui
10
8
(quenched) by a low-frequency voltage
slightly above the audible range (20 to 50
kHz being typical). Some superregenera-
(B)
tive detectors employed a so-called self-
quenching trait, brought about by means
of an RC network of the appropriate time
constant. The more esoteric "supergenny"
or "rushbox" detectors used an outboard
quench oscillator. This type of circuit was
more sensitive than the straight regenerative
detector, butwas best suited for reception
of a-m and wide-band fm signals. Because
of the quenching action and frequency,
the detector response was extremely
broad, making it unsuitable for narrow-
band signals versus audio recovery.
High-Q input tuned circuits helped make
them more selective, but a typical
superregenerative receiver which used a
tuned cavity at the detector input could
accommodate only 10 1000-^V, 30-percent
modulated a-m signals in a range from 144
from 144 to 148 MHz without signal
overlap. These tests were performed in the
ARRL laboratory with the 10 signals
separated from one another by equal
amounts.
A major problem associated with the
use of regenerative and superregenerative
Fig. 10 — Examples of IC product detectors. At A is a singly balanced version, while those at B and C receivers was oscillator (detector) re-
are doubly balanced. radiation. The isolation between the
detector and the antenna was extremely
poor, even when an rf amplifier was
employed ahead of the detector. In many
detector and an audio amplifier. Varia- could be copied, if they were loud, when instances the radiated energy could be
tions were developed as regenerative and the regeneration control was set for a heard for several miles, causing intense
superregenerative receivers. The straight non-oscillating condition. For weak-signal interference to other amateurs in the
regenerative detector was simply a self-os- a-m reception the regeneration control community.
cillating detector which provided in- was advanced to increase the detector
creased sensitivity (similar in function to a sensitivity and the signal was tuned in at Direct-Conversion Receivers
product detector) and a beat note for cw zero beat, thereby eliminating the het- A more satisfactory type of simple
reception. Amplitude-modulated signals erodyne from the carrier. Present-day receiver is called the direct-conversion or
8-7 Chapter 8
synchrodyne type. Although there is a
distinct possibility of signal radiation, it is
considerably lower in level than with
regenerative receivers. This results from
better isolation between the antenna and
the source of the oscillation. A modern
direct-conversion receiver uses a separate
oscillator and a balanced or doubly
balanced detector. Both features help to
reduce unwanted radiation.
The detection stage of this receiver is
actually a product detector that operates
at the desired signal frequency. The
product-detector circuits described earlier
in the chapter are suitable in this kind of
receiver. A tuned rf amplifier is useful
ahead of the detector at 14 MHz and
higher, but it is seldom necessary from 160
through 40 meters. This is because the
atmospheric and man-made noise from
the resonant antenna usually exceeds that
of the detector below 14 MHz. When no rf
stage is used, it is desirable to include a
tuned network ahead of the detector.
Fig. 12 shows typical front ends for
direct-conversion receivers. One circuit
(D) employs a passive detector. The other
(E) contains an active detector. The latter
is desirable in the interest of increased
gain.
The circuit of Fig. 12D shows a singly
balanced passive detector. Frqnt-cnd
is provided by a tuned circuit.
selectivity
Tl a broadband, trifilar-wound torOid
is
Characteristic Faults
A major difficulty connected with
direct-conversion receivers is microphonics.
The effect is noted when the operating
receiver is bumped or moved. An an-
noying ringing sound heard in the
is
EARTH "GROUND
• •
RECEIVER
• •
TOROIDAL
DECOUPLING
CHOKE
T
EARTH GROUND
loudness of the microphonics.
The other common problem inherent in
direct-conversion receivers is hum (Fig.
14). The most pronounced when
fault is
passive or RC active audio filter after the illustratedin Fig. 13 provide double- directly, as being radiated and
as well
gain control. Fig. 13 contains a circuit *
signal reception. That is, a cw beat note picked up by the antenna. The most
which shows a typical direct-conversion will appear either side of zero beat. This is practical steps toward a cure are to affix
receiver in its entirety. As was stated useful during sideband reception, wherein an effective earth ground to the receiver
earlier, the detector is operating as a the upper sideband is received on one side chassisand power supply, use a battery
product detector rather than a mixer, and of zero beat and the lower sideband will power supply, and feed the antenna with
the VFO is serving as a BFO. The appear on the opposite side of zero beat. coaxial cable. End-fed wire antennas
difference between the in-
frequency QRM will be greater, of course, with this increase the possibility of hum if they are
coming 7-MHz signal and the 7-MHz kind of receiver because there is no voltage fed impedance at the
(high
BFO injection voltage is at audio fre- rejection of the unwanted sideband. Some receiver end). Decoupling of the ac power
quency (zero i-f). This is amplified by designers have contrived elaborate circuits supply leads (dc leads to the' receiver) is
means of Ql, filtered through a passive which, by means of phasing networks, also an effective preventive measure for
LC audio network, then amplified by two provide single-signal reception. Unfor- hum. This was explained by Hayward,
40-dB op-amp stages. It is possible to tunately,the circuit becomes nearly as W7ZOI, in July 1977 QST, page 51. The
copy a-m signals with this type of receiver complex as that of superheterodyne. The cure is to add a toroidal decoupling
8-9 Chapter 8
I
choke, bifilar wound, in the plus and between the power supply and receiver. ted by the rectifier diodes and being
minus dc leads from the power supply. The effect is to prevent BFO
energy from reradiated by the ac line. This form of
This will prevent high-impedance rf paths entering the power supply, being modula- buzz is called "common-mode hum."
Superheterodyne Receivers
Nearly all of the present-day communi- shunt audio noise limiters. An assortment purpose of making the second i-f lower
cations receivers are structured as super- of techniques is being used to improve the than the first. This helps to increase the
heterodyne types. Fig. 15 shows a simple overall selectivity of these receivers — overall selectivity in some designs, but it
block diagram of a single-conversion elaborate i-f filtering, RC active or LC often degrades the receiver dynamic range
superheterodyne circuit. This basic design passive audio filters. However, the basic through the addition of a second mixer.
has been popular since the 1930s, and only circuit concept remains unchanged. The Multiconversion receivers are more prone
a few general circuit enhancements have advancement of greatest significance in re- to spurious responses than is the case with
been introduced in recent years. Sophisti- cent years is the changeover from vacuum single-conversion designs, owing to the
cated versions of this type of receiver use tubes to semiconductors. This has in- additional oscillator and mixing fre-
various alternatives to the circuits in- creased the life span of the of the equip- quencies involved. The "cleanest" per-
dicated in the block diagram. The local ment, improved overall efficiency, aided formance is obtained from properly
oscillator, for example, might utilize a stability (reduced heating), and con- designed single-conversion receivers.
phase-locked loop or synthesizer type of tributed to greater ruggedness and
Circuit Function
LO chain rather than a straight VFO. miniaturization.
Digital readout is used in some models in Some manufacturers still produce dou- In the example of Fig. 15 it is assumed
place of the more traditional analog ble- or multiconversion superheterodyne is adjusted to receive the
that the receiver
readout method. Rf types of noise receivers, but the circuits are similar to 20-meter band. Front-end selectivity is
blankers (often very complex) are chosen that of Fig. 15. Multiconversion receivers provided by the resonant networks before
by some designers in preference to simple have a second mixer and LO chain for the and after the rf amplifier stage. This part
intermediate frequencies (455 kHz and ' BAND / ' \ CAL. GAIN
similar), mechanical filters are often used.
BAND SWITCH
The i-f filter sets the overall receiver
selectivity. For ssb reception it is usually RF/I-F
GAIN HEADPHONE
2.1 kHz wide at the 3-dB points of the CONTROL 400- AND 25-kHz JACK
response curve. For cw reception it is
filter FREQ. CALIBRATE
between 200 and 500 Hz in bandwidth,
depending upon the design objective.
Fig. 1 6 — Layout of a typical modern amateur receiver.
Wider filters are available for a-m
reception.
age circuit. Energy can be sampled from Not only should the oscillator be stable Precautions should be taken to ensure
the i-f amplifier output or the audio with regard to short- and long-term drift, that the oscillator in a receiver looks into
amplifier. Depending on the method used, it should haye minimum noise in the a constant load impedance. Even minute
the resultant age is called i-f derived or output (at least 80 dB below the peak load changes will cause phase shifts which
audio derived. There are many arguments value of the fundamental energy) and be can affect the oscillator frequency. The
pro and con about which method is best. reasonably free of spurious responses. effect is more pronounced with VFOs
They shall- not be considered here. In Fig. Concerning the latter, it is not difficult to than is with crystal-controlled oscil-
it
15 the age voltage is sampled from the i-f design an oscillator which has all har- lators. Because of these conditions it is
strip, amplified by the age amplifier and monics attenuated by 60 or 70 dB. good design practice to couple very lightly
then rectified to provide a dc control Another important characteristic of an to the oscillator stage. The power level can
voltage. A dc amplifier is used to drive the oscillator is quick starting when operating be increased by adding one or more
8-11 Chapter 8
Cfb osc.
__+9V 2N4416
^reg.
7MH7 I I
) RFC
SlmH
Cfb
-*C1
^ 50 ^P^rX I 1000
0.01 r+i
COLPITIS
PIERCE
(A)
(B)
osc. 2V
0.01 I
OUTPUT
2N4416 | 42 MHz
18 — Method for changing crystals by
7
r
en
Fig.
means of diode switching.
MHz"
-&ci
7~~50
back must be ample to assure quick had by inserting the crystal as shown by
oscillators. Zener diodes are adequate for
starting of the oscillator. Some circuits the dashed lines. This method is especially
the purpose.
such as those in function quite well without the addition of useful when low-activity crystals are used
Magnetic cores,
external feedback components (internal in the overtone circuit. However, CI will
slug-tuned coils, change their properties
with variations in ambient temperature, capacitance within the transistor or tube have little effect if the crystal is connected
thereby causing inductance changes which being adequate). Other circuits need from gate to drain, as shown. C2-L1 is
can severely affect the oscillator fre- external feedback -capacitors. Poor-quality adjusted slightly above the desired over-
quency. Furthermore, mechanical in- (sluggish) crystals generally require larger tone frequency to ensure fast starting of
amounts of feedback to provide operation the oscillator. The circuits shown in Fig.
stability can result if the slugs are not
affixed securely in the coil forms. Toroidal which is comparable with that of lively 17can be used with dual-gate MOSFETs
Some surplus crystals are slug- also, assuming that gate 2 is biased with a
inductors are similarly unsuitable for use crystals.
VFOs. gish, as can be the case with those which positive 3 to 4 volts.
in stable
Oscillator can be held to an
noise have been reground or etched for a A large number of crystals can be
acceptable by employing high-Q
level different operating frequency. Therefore, switched by means of silicon diodes in the
tuned circuits. The higher the tank Q, the some experimentation with feedback vol- manner shown at Fig. 18. The advantage of
tage may be necessary when optimizing a this technique is that the switching is done
narrower the bandwidth, and hence, the
given circuit. As a rule of thumb it is at dc, thereby permitting the control point
lower the noise output voltage. Excessive
necessary to use one-fourth of the to be a considerable distance from the
LO noise will have a serious effect on
mixer performance. oscillator output power as feedback oscillator circuit. Dl through D3, in-
5.0-5.3 7.3-17.6
vxo 1
-t
^ MIXER FILTER
HAS 3.3-MHz
l-F
7^ 1
MAIN HET.
TUNING
I
r1^-3
MHz
OSC. ,
VFO
r /
WV
33k
-^A
•I00K
—
40673
G2^ 1
• —t~ 0+9V
Vj^? s ^po.oi
_I _t 1°2 •
5.0-5.5 MHz
-j( O0UTPUT
22
+ 9V # C1
(A) S.M.
(B) RES.
\
( OOUTPUT
amount. This calls for low-capacitance
switches, low minimum-capacitance vari-
able capacitors, and the avoidance of
crystal sockets. The crystals should be
spaced well away from nearby metal
surfaces and circuit components to further
reduce capacitance effects. The higher the 5.0-5.5 MHz)
8-13 Chapter 8
more of frequency change at 144 MHz. oscillator has a crystal for each amateur 25 percent of the total number of turns for
band accommodated by the receiver. The proper feedback.
VFO Circuits crystals and appropriate bandpass filters A comparison is drawn in Fig. 22
Variable-frequency oscillators are simi- are switched by means of a panel- between a bipolar transistor and JFET
lar in performance to the VXOs which mounted control. The band-pass filter version of a series-tuned Colpitts oscil-
were described in the foregoing text. The (Fig. 20) is desirable in the interest of lator (some times called a "series-tuned
essential difference is that greater fre- preventing 5- and 12.3-MHz energy from Clapp")- This type of oscillator can be
quency coverage is possible, and no reaching the receiver mixer. doubly A made very stable by using polystyrene
crystals are used. The practical upper balanced mixer is recommended if mini- capacitors in the frequency-determining
frequency limits for good stability range mum unwanted energy is desired at the part of the circuit.' Silver-mica capacitors
between 7 and 10 MHz. For operation at mixer output. are satisfactory if they have been graded
higher frequencies it is better to employ a Some typical VFOs are shown in Figs. out for temperature stability, but most
heterodyne type of VFO. This calls for a 21 and 22. A vacuum-tube ECO (electron- run-of-the-mill, silver-mica units have
VFO operating at ,
say, 5 MHz. The VFO coupled oscillator) is compared to a unpredictable characteristics in this re-
output is heterodyned in a mixer with similar one which utilizes a dual-gate gard. Some are very stable, while others
energy from a crystal-controlled oscillator MOSFET in Fig. 21. The capacitor shown from the same lot may exhibit positive or
to provide a resultant sum or difference in dashed lines (CI) can be used in that negative drift characteristics. Polystyrene
frequency at the desired LO-chain output part of the circuit rather than at the low capacitors are considerably better in this
frequency. A block diagram is given at end of the tank coil if greater bandspread respect. These VFO
circuits can be scaled
Fig. 20 to illustrate the concept. Most is desired. CI is the main-tuning capacitor to other operating frequencies by using
modern receivers employ this style of and C2 is the padder for calibrating the the values shown determine the
to
local-oscillator circuit. The heterodyne oscillator. The coil tap is approximately reactances of the capacitors. This in-
formation will enable the designer to
select approximate values in pF for other
frequencies.
VFO Fig. 23 illustrates a composite VFO
which has a buffer stage that is followed
by an amplifier. Dl can be included to
provide the necessary frequency offset
-0+9V when switching the receiver from upper to
lower ssb. This is necessary in order to
eliminate the need to readjust the receiver
calibration dial when changing sidebands.
CI is adjusted for the desired offset
amount. The pi-network output from the
amplifier stage is designed to transform
+ 9V REG.
BUFF
+12V —
O 'W\/— 01
100
3300
,50-OHM
.5.0-5.5 <
MHz
QL = 4
J
-I -L
7- -7-
Fig. 23 — Suggested circuit for a stable series-tuned Colpitts VFO. Buffering follows the oscillator to increase the output level and provide load isolation.
100 k 330 k
peaking adjustments would not be nec-
essary once the trimmers in the filters were
set for the desired response. A similar
tuned circuit for either example in Fig. 24
would be used between the rf amplifier
and the mixer.
Regardless of the type of LC input
network used, a built-in step attenuator is
worth considering. If can be used for
measuring changes in signal level, or to
reduce overloading effects when strong
signals appear in the receiver passband.
Fig. 25 shows how this can be done. The
example at A is suitable for simple
receivers when. calibration in dB is not a
requisite, and when maintaining an
impedance match between the tuned
circuit and the antenna is not vital. The
circuit at B is preferred because the pads
are of 50 ohm impedance. In the circuit
shown there are three steps available: 6, 12
and 18 dB, depending on how the switches
are thrown. The resistance values speci-
fied are the closest standard ones to the
actual values needed to provide precisely 6
or 12 dB of attenuation. For amateur
work the accuracy is adequate. Front-end
attenuators are useful when vhf converters
are used ahead of the station receiver. If
the converters have a significant amount
of overall gain they can degrade the
dynamic range of the main receiver when
strong signals are present. The attenuators
can be set to simulate a condition of unity
gain through the converter, thereby aiding
receiver dynamic range. It is worth
remembering, however, that an attenuator
used at the input of a receiver when no
converter is attached will degrade receiver
sensitivity and noise figure. A receiver
used frequently for antenna and received-
(B) signal dB measurements might have
several 3-dB pads included, thereby pro-
viding greater resolution during measure-
Fig. 24 — Method for selecting band-pass filters for 75 and 80 meters at the input to an rf amplifier. ments.
RF Amplifiers
ments with type of circuit -at the
this front-end network may have a 3-dB band- It was implied earlier in the chapter that
frequency specified indicated a maximum width of 100 kHz for a given Q and load rf amplifiers are useful primarily to
shift of 60 Hz over a three-hour period. factor. At 40 meters the same type of net- improve the receiver noise figure. When
Output was measured at approximately 1 work would be 200-kHz wide at the 3-dB atmospheric and man-made noise levels
volt rms across 50 ohms. points of the response curve. It is for this exceed that of the mixer it should be
reason that most receivers have a tunable possible to realize better dynamic range
Receiver Front Ends
front-end section (preselector). If fixed- by not having an rf amplifier. The gain of
The designer has a number of options tuned filters were used, at least two such the rf stage, when one is used, should be
available when planning the input section filters would be necessary to cover from set for whatever level is needed to override
of a receiver. The band-pass characteristics 3.5 to 4 MHz or 1.8 to 2.0 MHz, this the mixer noise. Sometimes that is only a
of the input tuned circuits are of consider- would complicate the design and cost of few dB. A good low-noise active device
able significance if strong out-of-band the equipment. should be employed as the rf amplifier in
signals are to be rejected —
an ideal de- Fig. 24 shows the two concepts just such instances. For hf-band work 40673s,
sign criterion. Most of the commercial re- discussed. The circuit at A covers all of MPF102s and 2N4416s are good. Most
ceivers available to the amateur use tuned the 80-meter band, and if selective enough modern receiving tubes specified for use
circuits which can be adjusted from the offers some in-band rejection. A pair of as rf amplifiers are suitable also. For vhf
front panel of the equipment. The greater Butterworth band-pass filters might be work the Siliconix E300 and U310 FETs
the network Q, the sharper the frequency used at FL1 and FL2 of Fig. 24 to cover are excellent low-noise devices.
response, and hence, the better the adja- all of the 80-meter band. A lot of A well-designed receiver should not
cent-frequency rejection. For a given net- additional components would be required, have age applied to the rf amplifier. The
work design the bandwidth doubles for and the in-band rejection of unwanted best noise figure and rf-stage dynamic
each octave higher. That is, an 80-meter signals would be less than in the range will result when age is not applied.
8-15 Chapter 8
This is because the. age voltage changes
the operating characteristics of the rf
amplifier from Class A
to a less linear INPUT
TUNED CIRCUIT
mode. _qTO RF
Fig. 26 shows some typical rf amplifiers AMP.
for use in amateur receivers. Tube-type
circuits have not been included because
they are not much in vogue, nor do they
offer any particular advantages over
solid-state amplifiers.
The circuit at A in Fig. 26 is likely to be
the least subject to self-oscillation of the (A)
four examples given. The common-base
hookup helps to ensure stability if the gate
-6dB
lead kept as short as is physically
is
ANT0-
antO- -O OUTPUT
-qoutput
(50/1.
ant. O-
100> ~0.01
Fig. 26 Narrowband rf amplifiers are shown from A to C. A fed-back broadband. rf amplifier is seen at D.
8-17 Chapter 8
dynamic range.
An LC, crystal-lattice, or mechanical
type of band-pass filter is almost always
used after the mixer or the post-mixer
amplifier. This helps to establish the
overall selectivity of the receiver. It also
rejects unwanted mixer products that fall
outside the passband of the filter.
In the interest of Optimum mixer
performance, the LO energy supplied to it
should be reasonably clean with respect to
frequencies other than the desired LO
one. Many designers, for this reason, use a
band-pass filter between the LO output
and the mixer input. Excessive LO noise
will seriously degrade receiver performance.
LO noise should be 80 dB or more below
the peak level of the desired LO frequen-
cy. Excessive noise will appear as noise
side-bands in the receiver output.
than loss. This means that the stages whereas an FET active mixer may exhibit proximately 50 ohms.
following the mixer need not have as a conversion gain as great as 15 dB. The Irriproved IMD characteristics can be
much gain as when diode mixers are used. cost of gain stages in this era is relatively had from a diode-ring mixer, by placing
a diplexer after the mixer as seen in
A typical doubly balanced diode mixer small/This easily justifies the use of strong
will have a conversion loss of some 8 dB, passive mixers in the interest of high Fig. 30. The diplexer consists of a
Fig. 31 — CA3028A singly balanced mixer. The circuit for the IC is given at B.
high-pass network (LI) and a low-pass mixer as that of Fig. 29. However, it has CA3028A and MC1590G ICs are the
one (L2). L2 is tuned to the i-f and good conversion gain and a fairly low most popular ones amateur work
for
serves as a matching network between 50 noise figure. because they are easy to obtain and are
ohms and Ri_, the FET gate resistor. LI relatively low in cost. With careful layout
and the associated series capacitors are I-F Amplifiers
techniques either device will operate in a
tuned to three times the i-f and terminated The amount of i-f amplification used in stable manner. Bypassing should be done
in 50 ohms. This gives the mixer a proper a receiver will depend upon how much as near to the IC pins as possible. Input
resistive termination without degrading signal level is available at the input to the and output circuit elements must be
the 9-MHz i-f. The high-pass network has i-f strip. Sufficient gain is needed to ensure separated to prevent mutual coupling
a loaded Q of 1. ample audio output consistent with which can cause unstable operation. If IC
driving headphones or a speaker. Another sockets are used they should be the
IC Mixers consideration is the amount of age- low-profile with
variety short socket
Although there numerous ICs
are initiated i-f gain range. The more i-f stages conductors.
available for use as mixers, only two are used (a maximum of two is typical) the Fig. 33 contains examples of bipolar
shown here. Fig. 31 shows a CA3028A greater the gain change caused by age and FET i-f amplifiers. Typical
transistor
singly balanced active mixer. The diagram action. on the order of 80 dB
The range is component values are given. A CA3028A
at B shows the inner workings of the IC. when two CA3028A ICs are used in the i-f IC, connected for differential-amplifier
The LO is injected at pin 2 of the IC. strip. A pair of MC1590G ICs will operation, is shown
in Fig. 34 as an i-f
Conversion gain is on the order of 15 dB. provide up to 120 dB of gain variation amplifier. Up 40 dB of gain is possible
to
Fjg. 32A illustrates a doubly balanced with age applied. with this circuit. The IC is useful up to 120
IC active mixer which employs an Nearly all modern receiver circuits MHz and has a low noise figure.
MC1496G. A schematic diagram of the utilize ICs as i-f amplifiers. Numerous A Motorola MC1590G IC will provide
IC is shown at B. The performance of this types of ICs are available to provide linear up to 50 dB of stage gain when used as an
mixer is excellent, but it is not as strong a rf and i-f amplification at low cost. The i-f amplifier. An example of the circuit is
8-19 Chapter 8
l-F AMP l-F AMP
I-F 2N2222A
TO o_ ^ l-F
MIX. -OoUT
:o.oi
100
lO.Oi
1000
AGC
+12V (MAX. GAIN +9V
MIN. GAIN +3V)
ASC
(MAX. GAIN 3-V
MIN. GA IN 1-V)
Fig. 35 — Age is applied to an MC1590G IC.
(A)
—vw
l-F AMP
22k
-O+AGC
(MAX. GAIN +4V
MIN. GAIN -2V)
TO Q_ Choice of Frequency
MIX.
- The selection of an intermediate fre-
quency compromise between con-
is a
flicting The lower the i-f, the
factors.
0.01 higher the selectivity and gain, but a low
;o.oi >ioo i-f brings the image nearer .the desired
,i
VW MHz, pulling is likely to be bad without
very loose coupling between mixer and
•2200 oscillator. Tuned-circuit shielding also
helps.
With i-f of about 1600 kHz,
an
O satisfactory image ratios can be secured
AGC
(MAX. GAIN +9 V on 14, 21 and 28 MHz with one rf stage of
MIN. GAIN +2 V)
good design. For frequencies of 28 MHz
and higher, a Common solution is to use
Fig. 34 — An IC type of i-f amplifier with age applied. double conversion, choosing one high i-f
for image reduction (9 MHz is frequently
used) and a lower one for gain and
selectivity. A popular i-f at present is 3.3
to 3.4 MHz, which is used by some
commerical designers as the last i-f in
given Fig. 35. Age operates in the
in With both amplifiers (Figs. 34 and 35) double-conversion receivers.
reverseof that which is applied to a the input impedance is on the order of In choosing an i-f it is wise to avoid
CA3028A. With the latter the gain will be 1000 ohms. The output impedance is close frequencies on which there is considerable
maximum with maximum age voltage. An to 4000 ohms. These values are for activityby the various radio services, since
MC1590G delivers maximum gain at the single-ended operation, as shown. The such signals may be picked up directly by
low age voltage level. . values are doubled when either device is the i-f wiring. Shifting the i-f or better
kHz. A two-stage i-f amplifier at 85 or 100 reduction. ignored but correct. Narrow-response
kHz will be sharp enough to cut some of filters are used after the last mixer or
Table 1
Min. 3 dB Min. 4 dB Max. 60 dB Max. 60 dB Max.RV Max. RV Max. IL Max. IL Min. 60 dB S&L fles. Cap.
Part& Type BW@25°C BWOTR BW@25°C BWOTR @25°C OTR @25° COTR SBR -5% +5%
Numbers (kHz) (kHz) (kHz) (kHz) (dB) (dB) (dB) (dB) (kHz) ohms (pF)
526-9689-010 0.375 0.375 3.5 4.0 3.0- 4.0 10.0 12.0 445-F60L ,2000 350
F455FD-04 F60H-465 350
526-9690-010 1.2 1.2 8.7 9.5 3.0 4.0 10.0 12.0 445-F60L 2000 350
F455FD-12 F60H-465 350
F526-9691-010 1.9 1.9 5.4 5.9 3.0 4.0 . 10.0 12.0 445-F60L 2000 330
F455FD-19 F60H-465 330
526-9692-010 2.5 2.5 6.5 7.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 12:0 445-F60L 2000 510
F455FD-25 F60H-465 510
526-9693-010 2.9 ,2.9 7.0 8.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 12.0 445-F60L 2000 510
F455FD-29 F60H-465 510
526-9694-010 3.8 3.8 9.0 10.0 3.p 4.0 10.0 12.0 445-F60L 2000 1000
F455FD-38 '
F60H-465 1000
'
526-9695-010 5.8 5.8 14.0 15.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 12.0- 445-F60L 2000 1100
F455FD-58 F60H-465 1100
OTR = Operating Temperature Range, RV = Ripple Voltage, IL = Insertion Loss, SBR = Stop Band Range, S & L = Source and Load
8-21 Chapter 8
l
,
BFO frequency is placed on the part of Perhaps the most significant feature of a facturer's data sheet specifies the proper
the low-frequency slope (left) which gives mechanical filter is the high Q of the capacitor values.
the desired beat note respective to resonant metallic disks it contains. A Q Most bipolar transistor i-f amplifiers
f (approximately 700 Hz), single-signal figure of 10,000 is the nominal value have an input impedance of 1000 ohms or
reception will result. To the right of obtained with this kind of resonator. If L less. There are situations where the output
1
f o in Fig. 36A the response drops sharply and C constants were employed to acquire impedance of the stage preceding the filter
to reduce output on the unwanted side of a bandwidth equivalent to that possible is similarly low. In circuits of this variety
zero beat, thereby making single-signal with a mechanical filter, the i-f would it isbest to use series-resonating capacitors
reception possible. If no i-f filter was used, have to be below 50 kHz. in preference to parallel ones. Stray circuit
or if the BFO frequency fell at f neajly , Mechanical ifilters have excellent fre- capacitance, including the input and output
equal response would exist either side of quency-stability characteristics. This makes capacitances of the stages before and after
zero beat (double-signal response) as is it possible to fabricate them for fractional the filter, should be subtracted from the
the case with direct-conversion receivers. bandwidths of a few hundred hertz. value specified by the manufacturer.
QRM on the unwanted-response side of Bandwidths down to 0.1 percent can be Collins mechanical filters are available
the i-f passband would interfere, with obtained with these filters. This fheans with center frequencies from 64 to 500
reception. The single-crystal filter shown that a filter having a center frequency of kHz and in a variety of bandwidths.
is capable of at least 30 dB of rejection on 455 kHz could have a bandwidth as small Insertion from 2 dB to as
loss ranges
the high-frequency side of zero beat. The as 45.5 Hz. By inserting a wire through the much as 12 dB, depending on the style of
filter termination R x has a marked effect
, centers of several resonator disks, thereby filter Of
greatest interest to ama-
used.
on the response curve. It is necessary coupling them, the fractional bandwidth teurs are455-kHz mechanical filters
the
to experiment with the resistance value can be made as great as 10 percent of the specified as F455. They are available in
until the desired response is obtained. center frequency. The upper limit is bandwidths of 375 Hz, 1.2 kHz, 1.9 kHz,
Values can range from 1500 to 10,000 governed primarily by occurrence of 2.5 kHz, 2.9 kHz, 3.8 kHz and 5.8 kHz.
ohms. unwanted spurious filter responses adja- Maximum insertion loss is 10 dB, and the
cent to the desired passband. characteristic impedance is 2000 ohms.
A half-lattice filter is shown at B in Fig.
symmetrical and Mechanical filters can be built for Different values of resonating capacitance
36. The response curve is
center frequencies from 60 to 600 kHz. are required for the various models,
there is a slight dip at center frequency. ;
minimized by proper selection The main limiting factor is disk size. At spreading from 350 to 1 100 pF. Although
The dip is
the low end of the range the disks become some mechanical filters are terminated
of R T Yl and Y2 are separated in
.
through the input transducer it is con- i-f. filters provide suitable bandwidths
to
Y2 would be 1.5 kHz apart, yielding a
verted to mechanical energy. This energy for ssb and cw. Most of the commercial
3-dB bandwidth of approximately 2.25
is passed through the disk resonators to receivers use a 500- or 600-Hz bandwidth
kHz. For cw work a crystal spacing of 0.4
filter out the undesired frequencies, then filter for cw and a 2.1- or 2.4-kHz
kHz would result in a bandwidth of
roughly 600 Hz. 'The skirts of the curve through the output transducer where the bandwidth for ssb. The input and output
mechanical energy is converted back to ends of a filter should be well isolated
are fairly wide with a single half-lattice
filter, which uses crystals in the hf region. the original electrical form. from one another if the filter characteristics
The transducers serve a second func- are to be realized. Leakage across a
The skirts can be steepened by placing
cascade, as tion:They reflect the source and load filter will negate the otherwise good
two half-lattice filters in
shown 36C. Rl and Rt must be
in Fig. impedances into the mechanical portion performance of the unit. The problem
selected to provide minimum ripple at of the circuit, thereby providing a becomes worse as the filter frequency is
termination for the filter. increased. Mechanical switches are not
the center of the passband. The same rule
between the crystals Mechanical filters require external re- recommended above 455 kHz for filter'
for frequency spacing
sonating capacitors which are used across selection because of leakage across the
applies. CI is adjusted for a symmetrical
the transducers. If the filters are not switch wafers and sections. Diode switch-
response.
resonated there will be an increase in ing is preferred by most designers. The
The of Fig. 36 can be built
circuits
insertion loss, plus a degradation of the switching diodes for the filter that is out of
easily and inexpensively by amateurs. The
passband characteristics. Concerning the the circuit are usually back-biased to
transformers shown are tuned to center
frequency. They are wound bifilar or latter, there will be various unwanted dips ensure minimum leakthrough.
the nose response (ripple), which can In the interest of reducing wideband
trifilar on ferrite of powdered-iron cores in
of appropriate frequency characteristics. lead to undesirable effects. The exact noise from the i-f amplifier strip it is
>
SMALL
C
443 kHz
TO
-OPROD.
DET.
reduced as the signal strength becomes
greater. The control will be more com-
plete and the output more constant as the
number of stages to which the age bias is
applied is increased. Control of at least
two stages is advisable.
Various schemes from simple to ex-
travagant have been conceived to develop
age voltage in receivers. Some perform
poorly because the attach time of the
circuits is wrong for cw work, resulting in
AGC TO
I-F AMPS "clicky" or "pumping" age. The first
Table 2
CWor
Application SSB Tran. SSB Rec. Digital Data A-M A-M CW ; FM
Filter type XF-9A XF-9B XF-9NB XF-9C XF-9D XF-9M XF-9E
No. of crystals 5 8 8 8 8 . 4 8
6-dB bandwidth 2.5 kHz 2.4 kHz 0:5 kHz 3.75 kHz 5.0 kHz 0.5kHz 12 kHz
Passband ripple ' <1 dB <2dB <0.5dB <2dB <2dB <1 dB <2dB
Insertion loss <3dB <3.5dB <6.5 dB <3.5dB <3.5 dB <5 dB <3 dB
Term, impedance soon soon soon soon soon 500(2 120011
Ripple capacitors 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF
Shape factor 6:50 dB 6:60 dB 6:60 dB 6:60 dB 6:60 dB 6:60 dB 6:60 dB
1.7 1.8 2.2 1.8 1.8 4.4 1.8
Stop-band atten. >45 dB ,>100dB >90dB >100dB >100dB >90dB >90dB
Courtesy of Spectrum International
8-23 Chapter 8
tuned circuit of the i-f amplifier. The i-f
energy is amplified by the age amplifier,
then converted to dc by means of an age
rectifier. Rl and CI are selected to
provide a suitable decay time constant
(about 1 second for ssb and cw). Ql and
Q2 function as dc amplifiers to develop
the dc voltage needed for age control of
the i-f (and sometimes, rf) amplifier
stages. The developed age voltage can be
used to drive an S meter. A level control
can be placed at the input of the age
amplifier to establish the signal input level
(receiver front end) which turns on the age
system.Most designers prefer to have this
happen when the received signal level is
between 0.25 and 1 /*V. The exact
parameters are based somewhat on sub-
jectivity.
An af-derived age loop is shown in Fig.
DeMaw in June
used 100
-A/VWr — I
1
SOURCE
FOLL.
Beat-Frequency Oscillators
The circuits given for crystal-controlled
oscillators earlier in this chapter are
suitable for use in BFO circuits. A beat A BFO need not be crystal controlled. fier helps to boost the oscillator output
oscillator generates energy which is It can use a VFO type of circuit, or it can to satisfy the requirement.
frequency of the i-f filter. For example, a builder, but frequency stability may not readings. Such might be the case when
BFO used during cw reception is usually be as good as when crystal control is another operator asks for a comparison
some 700 Hz above or below the i-f center employed. between two antennas he is testing.
frequency. During ssb reception the offset When the BFO is operated at frequen- Because S meters are relative-reading
is slightly more — approximately 1.5 kHz cies above 3 MHz itis helpful to use a instruments, signal reporting based on the
above or below the i-f center frequency, buffer stage after the oscillator to mini- amount of needle deflection is generally
depending upon the need for upper or mize the effects of pulling. Furthermore, without meaning. No two receivers render
a passive product detector is used in the the same reading for a given signal, unless
lower sideband operation. Typically, the if
BFO is placed roughly 20 dB down on the receiver, a substantial amount of BFO by coincidence. This is because the gain
slope of the i-f passband curve for ssb output power will be required ap- — distribution within an amateur receiver
proximately +7 dBm. The buffer/ampli- varies from band to band. Since most S
reception or transmission.
complex.
An attempt was made by at least one
receiver manufacturer in the early 1940s
to establish some significant numbers for
S meters. S9 was to be equivalent to 50
fiV, and each S unit would have been
equal to 6 dB. The scale readings above S9
were given in dB. The system never took
hold in the manufacturing world, probably
for the reasons given earlier in this
section.
In addition to the example shown in
Fig. 41, some typical S-meter circuits are
offered in Fig. 42. The example at C can
be used with rf- or audio-derived age.
Noise Reduction
In addition to active-device and circuit
noise, much of the noise interference
experienced in reception of high-frequency
signals is caused by domestic or industrial
electrical equipment and by automobile
ignition systems. The interference is of
two types in its effects. The first is the
"hiss" type, consisting of overlapping
pulses similar in nature to the receiver
noise. It is largely reduced by high
selectivity in the receiver, especially for
code reception. The second is the "pistol-
shot" or "machine-gun" type, consisting
of separated impulses of high amplitude.
The hiss type of interference usually is
caused by commutator sparking in dc and
series-wound ac motors, while the shot
type results from separated spark dis-
charges (ac power Jeaks, switch and key
clicks, ignition sparks, and the like).
Fig. 42 —Various methods for using an S meter. At A, V1 is a meter amplifier. As the age voltage
The only known approach to reducing increases the plate current decreases to lower the voltage drop across R1. An up-scale meter reading
tube, transistor and circuit noise is results as the current through the meter increases. At B, the i-f energy is rectified by means of D1 to
deflect the meter. A 10-kft control sets the meter sensitivity. At C, the negative age voltage forward
through the choice of low-noise, front-
biases the transistor to cause an increase in collector current, thereby deflecting the meter upwards
end, active components and through more with signal increases.
overall selectivity.
Impulse Noise
Impulse noise, because of the short because of its short duration, and very adaptable to most receivers without any
duration of the pulses compared with the effective noise reduction is obtained. Such modification of the receiver itself. However,
time between them, must have high devices are called "blankers" rather than they cannot prevent noise peaks from over-
amplitude to contain much average "limiters." loading previous stages.
energy. Hence, noise of this type strong In passing through selective receiver
enough to cause much interference generally circuits, thetime duration of the impulses Noise-Limiter Circuits
has an instantaneous amplitude much is bandwidth of
increased, because of the Pulse-type noise can be eliminated to an
higher than that of the signal being the circuits. Thus, the more selectivity extent which makes the reception of even
received. The general principle of devices ahead of the noise-reducing device, the the weakest of signals possible. The noise
intended to reduce such noise is to allow more difficult it becomes to secure good pulses can be clipped, or limited in
the desired signal to pass through the pulse-type noise suppression. amplitude, at either an rf or af point in the
receiver unaffected, but to make the receiver circuit. Both methods are used by
receiver inoperative for amplitudes greater Audio Limiting receiver manufacturers; both are effective.
than that of the signal. The greater the A considerable degree of noise re- A simple audio noise limiter is shown at
amplitude of the pulse' compared with its duction in code reception can be ac- Fig. 43. It can be plugged into the
time of duration, the more successful the complished by amplitude-limiting ar- headphone jack of the receiver and a pair
npise reduction. rangements applied to the audio-output of headphones connected to the output of
Another approach is to "silence" circuit of a receiver. Such limiters also the limiter. Dl and D2 are wired to clip
(render inoperative) the receiver during maintain the signal output nearly constant both the positive and negative peaks of
the short duration time of any individual during fading. These output-limiter sys- the audio signal, thus removing the high
pulse. The listener will not hear the "hole" tems are simple, and they are readily spikes of pulse noise. The diodes are
8-25 Chapter 8
DET. "ANL
O.OfjiiF
OAF
AF AMR
GAIN
i JW\r l 1
1.5MEG. I rf
'O.ljuF
HIGH-Z
PHONES
x
X
St \0F
Fig. 43 —
A simple audio limiter/clipper. R1 sets
the bias on the diodes for the desired limiting
level.
TO AGC RECX,
-OPROD.DET..AND
A-M DET.
D1
-H-
-A/W-
2.2M
0.001 1
'N91 4^0.001 1N34AJ I
*100k
»1M
FROM INPUT
TO FIRSTO IM-
ON
o
OFF
+12VO-
A——
are used to cut' off an amplifier stage
during the pulse. A manual "threshold" u |cj
control is set by the operator to a level DETAIL OF INTERNAL
SEE DETAIL EXTERNAL WIRING OF
that only permits rectification of the noise 22-mH COIL LEADS TO
O DRAWING
pulses that rise above the peak amplitude GIVE B8 mH .
SIG. IN Rq SIG. OUT
of the desired signal. The clamp transistor,
Q3, short
"overshoots."
circuits the positive-going pulse
Running the 40673 con-
1 1 Rl
amplifiers has the potential of degrading 'All tabulated designs are based on L1 = L3 = 88 mH and L2 = 264 mH.
bandpass filter. It was designed by Ed is immediately after the 1st audio The active type of audio filter is more
Wetherhold, W3NQN, for use in this amplifier stage. However, this type of popular than the passive type shown in
book. It contains five 88-mH telephone- filter can be used between the receiver Fig. 46A. The primary advantages of ac-
type toroidal inductors (available as audio output and the headphones if atten- tive filters are (1) unity gain or greater
surplus). Table 3 provides component tion is given to the value of R and Rl- (passive filters have some insertion loss),
g
values and pertinent data for the center Fixed- value resistors can be used to ensure ,
and (2) they can be built more compactly
frequencies of 379.4 and 650.6 Hz. The fc correct filter termination. Fig. 46B shows than LC filters can. Another advantage of
8-27 Chapter 8
RC ACTIVE FILTER
-0+ 12 V
Pick H 0iQ,«o=2jrfc
where =center.freq.
Choose C
"2,
Then R, = „®
H rC
©
1
£u
R,=
2-(2Q'-H> C
. NEXT FILTER SECTION
— Circuit example of one pole section of an RC active audio filter which uses discrete Fig. 47B — Equations for designing an RC ac-
Fig. 47A tive audio filter.
active devices, Q1 and Q2.
3.5-W
DRIVER AF OUTPUT
0+12V
AF
PREAMP
2juF
PR00. ?.+
POLY. "POLYSTYRENE
FL5
I+-12V
RC ACTIVE
750-Hz CW
FILTER
Fig. 48 — Practical circuit for a two-pole cw RC active filter, showing how it can be switched into and out of the audio channel of a receiver.
dency toward "ringing." This becomes Design data for RC active filters which shown, the filter represents the minimum
manifest in the speaker or earphones as a use ICs is given in Fig. 47B. One pole is acceptable design for most cw work. A
howling sound which can be most unplea- shown. The term H is the desired voltage three- or four-pole filter of this type
sant to hear. The same is true of passive gain of the filter. Gains between unity (1) would be more desirable for cw work
audio filters which have extremely high and 2 are the most common. under adverse band conditions (QRM or
loaded-Q values. weak signals).
Fig. 50— Schematic diagram of the direct-conversion receiver. Capacitors are disk ceramic
unless noted otherwise. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt
C2, C3 — Mica compression trimmer, Arco 427 for 40-meter version.
Fig. 49 — Front view of the beginners receiver. orequiv. D1 — Silicon switching diode. N914 or equiv.
1
The panels are made from double-sided pc C5— Miniature air variable, Hammarlund HF-15 D2 — Zener diode, 9.1-V, 400 mWor watt. 1
board material. or similar for 80-meter version. HF-10 or similar D3— Silicon rectifier diode, 50 PRV, 1 A suitable.
8-29 Chapter 8
Table 3
Component Data tor the Direct-Conversion Receiver
'
(pF) C2(pF) C3 (pF) C4 (pF) C5 (pF) C6(pF) C7, C8 {pF)
Band LI. L2(uH) C1
240 nom. 198 nom. 42 s.m. 10 max. 200 560
40 M 2 _
, 5
poly, or poly, or
Arco 427 Arco 427
20 ts. no. s.m.
s.m.
•
20 enam. on
T68-6toroid
core. Use 2-
turn link on L1.
'300
184 nom. 116 nom. 68 s.m. 1 5 max. 950
80 M 8.7
* 7
Arco 427 poly, or pojy. or
40 ts. no.
Arco 427
s.m. s.m.
24 enam.on
TeS^toroid
core. Use 2-
turn link on L1.
connected in place of the transmitter and coupled to the drain of the product
provide the proper termination for FL1.
detector. An additional 40 dB of audio
A rough approximation of the proper FL1 adjusted as outlined later.
settings for the tuner can be found by Ql of Fig. 50 operates as a fed-back gain is provided by Ul, an operational-
adjusting for maximum sensitivity while broadband amplifier. Output from Ql is amplifier IC. A
330-ohm resistor is in
weak signal. A better routed to the product detector. (Q2) series with the headphone line to permit
listening to a
the use of 8- and 16-ohm phones. Without
the resistor the IC tends to self-oscillate at
audio frequencies. The resistor is not
required when the headphones have an
impedance of 600 ohms or greater.
AF
AMR A
protection diode, D2, is included to
AF
PRE AMP prevent accidental damage to the receiver
if the power supply is attached with the
Construction
The receiver is built from pieces of
Q3
double-sided pc board, except for the
(32,04
etched-circuit board which is single sided.
The overall layout is larger than need be,
inorder to make the project less difficult
G
SD CBE E Hr
BC 2
for inexperienced builders to assemble.
U1
3 The VFO is enclosed in a separate
4-
compartment made from three pieces of
-
TOP
'
PHASING VIEW double-sided pc board. The side pieces
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
measure 2-1/2 X 3 inches (64 X 76 mm).
IN MICROFARADS (jiF) OTHERS , ; The rear wall of the VFO box is 2 X 2-1/2
ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR jiJiF);
(
inches (51 X 64 mm). The rear corners of
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS',
k -IOOO, M« 000 000
I
the box are joined by flowing solder along
the inner seams. A
1-1/2 X 2-inch (38 X 51
mm) plate is soldered inside the front of
the compartment, 1/2 inch (13 mm) frorh
composition. Numbered components which do not have assigned values are so designated for the front panel. This plate is also made
layout purposes. Others appear in Table 3. FT indicates feedthrough type.
from double-sided pc board. It is the
J1— SO-239 R1 —
10-kO carbon control, audio taper
mounting plate for the main-tuning
J2— Two-circuit phone jack, preferred.
„._,,.,.
U1 - 741 op amp, 8-pin dual in line.
„ .
Mount ,
capacitor. Three no. 6 spade bolts hold
J3- Single-hole mount phono jack.
Q2, Q4 — Motorola MPF1 02 JFET. VFO
box to the main circuit board.
directly on pc board or use 8-pin IC socket. the
permit ample leeway when mounting the photographs. D3 is connected between J3 This is particularly true when the builder
vernier-drive mechanism., and the pc board 12-volt bus. desirescompact equipment for portable
A blank area is provided near the rear
operation. The simplicity concept is
of the etched-circuit board. This was done Checkout and Operation
enhanced further by the low current drain"
to allow room for accessories to be added, The VFO tuning range should be which can be realized when only the bare
such as an RC active audio filter or a checked first. With operating voltage essentials are designed into the circuit.
small crystal-controlled converter to per- from two 6- volt lantern batteries (series This superheterodyne receiver rep-
mit reception of the 20- or 15-meter connected), 10 size D
flashlight cells in resents themost basic approach that will
bands. Alternatively, an audio amplifier series, or a 12-volt regulated dc power provide acceptable selectivity, immunity
8-31 Chapter 8 *
|
Rl LOW
TO Rl ARM TO J2
I
1 I
100K Dl Mp = 1
-trr„ JUMPER.
2(lF=
I
820K
I
2 ** F
T
,
-1000!! — I
D2 CATH
-330fl-
100K Q4 G 5 U
-0.1— I
1
PIN 1
D 5
— 0.1"
Ul
Q2 °1 50pF„ 50J1F,
[
lboon -o.oj- ce
180fi TO FT 1000J1 I
10012
TO Rl HIGH
ioo on
500/ih J. ' 47K
T -O.li
»L3
-220S?-
lOjiF
| I 560S2
ioon i
~" 10 ""~
XJx
1
°-
Tl PRI \ . I
C4
— 100S1
I
C!> SI AT OR
0.01
\
Tl SEC
I
\ — C3 TRIM —
I
CI
500J1F
I — C2 TRIM-
\
LI
\
LI LINK
TO Jl (ANT)
D3 (+13V)
TO J3 VIA
Fig. 53— Scale pattern of the pc board showing parts placement. Shown from the component side of the board.
comprise the semiconductor count in the any of the Collins 455-kHz mechanical provides a 4-kHz bandwidth at the 3-dB
A supply voltage of 11 to 14 is filters designed for ssb bandwidth can be points of the response curve. It is
design.
on the order used, provided the insertion less is low. suggested that the Miller 8814 be used in
The current drain
suitable. is
D2, D3—
Silicon switching diode, 1N914or
v
equiv.
D4 — Polarity-guarding diode. Silicon rectifier,
50 PRV, 1 A.
—
D5 Zener diode, 9.1 volts, 400 mW or 1 watt.
FU1 —
Band-pass filter (see text)
FL2— Collins Radio CB-type mechanical filter,
Rockwell International no. 5269939010, 453.55
kHz center freq.
J1 — SO-239.
J2 — Single-hole-mount phono jack.
J3 — Two-circuit phone jack.
L1 — Two turns no. 24 insulated wire over ground
end of L2.
12, L3 —
40 turns no. 24 enam. wire on T-68-6
toroid core.
L4 — Slug-tuned inductor, 3.6 to 8.5 range, J. W.
Miller42A686CBI or equivalent suitable.
Substitutes should have Q of 100 or greater at
4 MHz and be mechanically rigid.
Q1-Q5, incl. —
Texas Instruments 3N21 1 FET.
R1 —
Dual control, 1 0-kn per section, linear
taper, Allen Bradley type JD1 N200P or similar.
Separate controls can be used by providing
extra hole in front panel.
RFC1, RFC3 —
10-mH Miniature rf choke, J. W.
Miller 70F102AI orequiv.
RFC2— 1-mH Miniature rf choke, J. W. Miller
70F103AI or equiv.
S1 — Two-pole, two-position phenolic or ceramic
wafer switch.
Ti — 455-kHz miniature transformer (see i-f text),
J. W. Miller no. 2067.
U1 — 8-pin dual-in-line 741 op amp.
Y1 Y2 — International Crystal Co. type GP, 30-pF
,
controlled manually by means of a dual that take-off point. Some oscillator Audio gain is provided by Ul, a 40-dB
control, R1A/R1B. The bias on gate 2 of pulling (slight) will be observed when FL1 op amp. The receiver output is adequate
Q2 varied at R1A to set the i-f gain
is is aligned. However, once the front-end for weak signals (1 «V or greater) with the
level.In order to obtain a wide range of filter is tuned the effect will not be arrangement shown in Fig. 54. Addition
control it is necessary to place gate 2 at a noticed. A VFObuffer/amplifier would of a 0.5 or 1-watt audio IC would enable
volt or two minus with respect to gate 1. resolve this condition, but is not necessary the builder to employ a speaker rather
This achieved by "bootstrapping" the
is in practice if circuit simplicity is to be than phones, but the current drain of the
stage with Dl, an LED which conducts at keynoted. D2
used as a switching diode
is receiver would be considerably higher.
roughly 1.5 volts. Therefore, when R1A 1
AF AMR
PROD. DET.
Fig. 57 shows the scale pc pattern and
parts placement for this receiver. The
panels are soldered to the ground foil
which forms the perimeter of the etched-
circuit board.
COAX TO Ql
3«K
LI
s Hi A ARM Jl ANT
360PF xooon
JUMPER 8K sH *
-J3- PHONES
10QK c .uAXTOqg
.0.1-
©I Tl
1 I
won-
FL2QR
ADAPTOR
-0.1-
3700
o'l
'
iaK
1
? ?
JUMPER
1
I
s«on I
I
n fMJHI
28JJ
JUMPER
COAX TO FL3 -47K_ I
3*jj{>F
I
0.1
I
50PF 1S0KF
JL
Fig. 57— Scale template of the circuit board and the parts-placement guide.
regular 455-kHz Collins mechanical filters The main frame of this receiver is the spread of the VFO. A 10:1 vernier drive is
in amateur receivers. FL2 was chosen for one described by W1FB in QS^for June recommended for the VFO if that is done.
this project because the price is roughly and July of 1974. It tunes the 160-meter Analog readout over a 500-kHz tuning
one-third that of the mechanical filters band and provides coverage of the 80-, range is rather impractical, owing to the
used by most amateur builders. 40-, 20-, and 15-meter bands by means of lack of dial resolution which will result. If
down-converters which are switch- the wider frequency coverage is desired,
A Medium-Grade Receiver selected from the front panel. The the bandwidth of the converter circuits
This circuit, represents a fair tradeoff 160-meter tunable i-f receiver covers only will not cover all of the 80- and 40-meter
between simplicity and good dynamic 200 kHz. Hence, any 200-kHz segment of bands. There will be some loss of front-
range. The packaging format (Fig. 58) is the higher bands can be accommodated end gain at the edges of those bands.
pretty much up to the builder. Etched cir- with a given down-converter. The builder
cuit boards and parts kits can be obtained must decide if cw or ssb is his or her Main-Frame Circuit
from a supplier. 2 choice when ordering the converter and The tunable i-f receiver (main frame) is
BFO Those wishing to use a
crystals. shown schematically in Fig. 59. LI pro-
!
Circuit Board Specialists, P. O. Box 969, Pueblo, digitalfrequency readout can extent the vides a 50-ohm input to the tuned circuit
CO 81002. Tel. 303-542-5083. Negatives, pc tuning range of the main frame to 400 or
boards and complete parts kits available for this (L2) from the down-converters or a
project. 500 kHz by increasing, the frequency 160-meter antenna. Tl is tapped across
8-35 Chapter 8
receiver. Output is sampled from the pro-
duct detector, then amplified by means of
U3. D3 and D4 rectify the amplified audio
and drive a cascaded dc amplifier con-
sisting of Q6 and Q7. The age time con-
stant is set by a capacitor in parallel
with a 1M-Q resistor. The time constant
can be varied to suit the operator by
changing the value of the charging
capacitor in that ^network. Values of less
than 1 jiF will shorten the discharge time
and vice versa. D5
serves as a gating diode
to prevent loss of the age drive voltage
through the i-f gain control, R3.
The age strip drives the S meter, Ml,
through Q7. Age voltage for Ul and U2 is
obtained at the emitter of Q7. R2 should
be set so that maximum receiver input
signal provides + 9 volts at pin 4 or Ul
and U2.
Local Oscillator
Q13 operates as a highly stable series-
— tuned Colpitis oscillator. Polystyrene
Fig.58 Photograph of the miniature 5-band superheterodyne receiver. This layout arrangement
was developed by WA0UZO of Circuit Board Specialists. fixed-value capacitors are used to ensure
stabilityand offer drift compensation
which corrects for the positive drift of the
core material in L12. Silver-mica capaci-
tors can be substituted with a possible
degradation in long-term stability. C2 is
500 and a + 9. Minimum gain at the + 2-volt age the main-tuning capacitor. C4 is optional.
part of the tuned circuit at is is
If it is used it should be panel-mounted to
center-tapped broadband transformer. level.
permit dial calibration from band to
Mixer and Filter Product Detector and Audio Channel band. This will be necessary because the
A converter crystals may not be precisely on
Two 40673 or 3N211 MOSFETs are singly balanced product detector is
and Q2. Output from the mixer is by for use with the Collins cw filter specified of Q15, a Class A broadband amplifier.
FL1 If a Collins ssb i-f filter is used at Sufficient LO output is available at 50Q to
means of T2, a broadband trifilar-wound for .
A
10-kO resistor is FL1, the BFO crystal will have to be of a swing the no. 2 gates of the balanced mix-
pot-core transformer.
frequency that falls 20 dB down on the er to 3 volts pk-pk. The added power
bridged across the mixer drains to limit
the signal swing —
an aid to mixer IMD. filter curve, upper or lower sideband. The developed by Q15 is necessary to provide
the required injection voltage across the
FL2 filters the LO voltage to keep har- manufacturer specifies which frequencies
are correct for the filter being used. For 50-0 load presented by harmonic filter
monic energy to the mixer at a low level.
The 68-pF capacitor between FL2 and the upper and lower sideband operation it will FL2. A
40673 can be used in place of the
be necessary to use two BFO crystals. 3N211 specified at Q13. Similarly, a
mixer gates can be changed in value to ob-
2N4416 will be satisfactory at Q14.
tain the 3-volt pk-pk LO voltage which is Thus, a selector switch will be needed be-
specified. tween the gate of Q5 and the two crystals.
Front-End Converters
An MPF102 or 2N4416 JFET is used as RC filtering is used at the output of the
a post-mixer amplifier (Q3). The drain product detector to keep the BFO and i-f The same circuit-board pattern is used
load resistor is chosen to match the filter leakage from reaching the audio for the 40, 20 and 15 meter converters. In
impedance. A
2-kO value is specified for preamplifier, Q4. Any JFET will suffice order to obtain a 200-kHz bandwidth on
use with the Collins F455FD-04 filter at at Q4, such as a 2N4416. 80 meters, FL3 is used. Also, no rf amp-
FL1. If a different filter is used, such as Q17 functions as an audio muting lifier stage is necessary on 80 meters.
anssb type, the drain load resistor may switch during transmit. It is actuated via Therefore, the pc-board pattern is dif-
have to be changed to match the im- J2 by grounding the Q17 base line through ferent from that for the other hf bands.
pedance of the filter. Also, the end an external set of relay contacts or The converters of Fig. 60 are designed
resonating capacitors at FL1 may need to bipolar-transistor dc switch. for a broadband i-f output of 1.8 to 2.0
be a different value (see manufacturer's U4 amplifies the audio to speaker level. MHz. They are selected for the desired
data sheets). LC filtering is used at the output of U4 to operating band by means of S 1 When this .
pin 4 of the CA3028As through Q7. Maxi- AGC System ment of interest. It is broad enough in
mum gain occurs when the age voltage is Audio-derived is used in this response to require no additional tuning.
CI J*
(007p
68 ;
'
S.M
TO
SIBO-
ARM
(FIG. '
680 ;
r
S.M.'
Fig. 59 — Schematic diagram of the receiver main frame. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless noted otherwise. Poly, signifies polystyrene
capacitor. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic or tantalum. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-watt composition unless noted differently.
C1 — Miniature 100-pF variable (panel- J2 —
Phono Jack. L12 —
17 to 41 tiH high-Q slug-tuned inductor
mounted). J3 —
Three-conductor closed-circuit jack. (Q u = 175 at f op ). (J. W. Miller Co.
C2 — 50-pF air variable (vernier driven). Should L1 —
2 turns no. 26 enam. wire over the 43A335CBI or equiv.).
have double-bearing format and low torque.
—
ground end of L2 winding. Ml —
Panel meter, 0-1 dc. mA
C3 Miniature 30-pF air trimmer. L2 —
70 turns no. 26 enam. wire on a T68-1 R1 —
Audio-taper, 50-kO composition control.
C4 — Miniature 10-pF air variable (panel- toroid core (55 j»H). This core and others R2 —
Pc-mount 50-kll control.
mounted). avail, from Amidon Assoc., Q. R. Whitehouse R3 — Linear-taper, 10-ktl composition control.
D1-D6, incl. —
Silicon switching diode. and Palomar Engineers (see QST ads). R4 — Pc-mount, 100-0 composition control.
D7, D8 — Zener diode. L10, L11 —
3-(iH inductor. 26 turns no. 26 RFC1 — Miniature 10-mH choke W. Miller
FL1 — Collins mechanical filter (see text). enam. wire on T37-2 toroid core. 70F102A1 or equiv.).
(J.
The same is true of the drain tuned circuit. cordingly. This will depend on the actual The principle of operation for the
A broadband bifilar-wound transformer, gain of Q10 and the activity of Y2. Sub- 80-meter converter (Fig. 61) is similar to
T6, couples the mixer output to LI of the miniature coaxial cable, such as RG- that of the other unit?. FL3 is a fixed-
main receiver. LO injection to gate no. 2 174/U, should be used for all connections tuned bandpass filter. The 120-pF series
of Q9 should be on the order of 3 volts pk- to SI and other distant parts of the circuit. center capacitor could be replaced by a
pk. The 15-pF coupling capacitor between The shield braid must be grounded at each 200-pF miniature trimmer to permit pre-
Q10 and Q9 may need to be chosen ac- end of each run of coax. cise peaking at mid frequency. This
8-37 Chapter 8
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
DC SWITCH
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE 2N3904
IN MICROFARADS ( jiF ); OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR jjJiF);
(
—fVv/v-f—
rx
0+13V
RFC2 — Miniature 33-jiH choke (J. W. Miller T2 — Trifilar-wound bobbin with 50 turns of no. U3 — 741 op-amp IC (any brand).
70F335A1 or equiv.). 28 enam. wire on PC-2213-77 pot core U4 — Motorola audio IC.
RFC4, RFC5 — Miniature 1-mH choke (J. W. (L = 10 mH). Amidon Assoc. core. U5 — Three-terminal regulator IC, 8 V.
Miller 70F103A1 or equiv.). T3, T4 —Miniature 455-kHz i-f transformer Y1 — BFO crystal, HC-6/U holder. International
— (J. W. Miller 2067 or equiv.). Crystal Mfg. Co. type GP, 30-pF load
S2 Spst toggle or slide switch.
T1 — Primary with 6 turns no. 26 enam. wire T5 — Broadband bifilar-wound transformer. 10 capacitance. Choose frequency for filter
over ct portion of secondary. Secondary has bifilar turns no. 24 enam. wire on FT50-43 used (see text).
of the converters and the main receiver respect to FL3, since it is designed for a shielded from one another and from other
4.8-2.0 MHz
09 Tt
_IS_
40673 o s,f
-0»—OTO L1
(FI8.59)
4^JJk •Lnnm_
0»—O + 'S V
Fig. 60 —Schematic diagram of the 40-, 20- and 15-meter converters, shown for 40-meter operation. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless
otherwise indicated. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition.
C5, C6 —Miniature ceramic or mica trimmer, wire (8 iiH) on T50-6 toroid core. Tap 4 turns wafers to aid isolation.
5 tb 25 pF. above ground. 15 meters: 25 turns no. 28 T6 —
Bifllar broadband, transformer (70 nH).
C fb — Feedback capacitor. 39 pF for 20 and enam. wire (4 pH) on T50-6 toroid core. Tap Use 12 bifilar turns no. 24 enam. wire on
15 meters. 4 turns above ground. FT50-43 toroid core 5 950).
L3 — 2 turns no. 28 enam. wire over ground L5 —
40, 20, 15: same as L4 but tap each coll Y2 —
International Crystal Mfg. Co. type GP
end of L4 winding (40, 20 and 15 meters). at midpoint. (30-pF load) In FM-1 holder, fundamental
L4 — 40 meters: 50 turns no. 28 enam. wire (13 R5 —
500-0 linear-taper cqmposltion control. mode. 40 meters: 5.20 MHz. 20 meters:
hH) on T50-2 torold core. Tap 4 turns above S1 —
3-pole, 5-posltion rotary wafer switch, 12.20 MHz. 15 meters: 19.2 MHz.
ground end. 20 meters: 44 turns no. 28 enam. phenolic or ceramic Insulation. Use three
-o
provide the circuit fundamentals for a TO
SIB
working receiver of above average perfor-
FIG. 60)
mance.
The board and kit supplier refer-
circuit
enced an alternative to the
earlier provides
Collins filter: A piggyback board mounts
in place of FL1 allowing the use of a low-
,
8-39 Chapter 8
current amateur literature. Therefore, this oscillations should not be allowed to take quartz element and the circuit to minimize
section of chapter 8 is devoted to design place in any part of a receiver. the generation of IM products.
objectives, circuit techniques and some 5) Wide-range age. The age circuit Careful attention must be given to cor-
should engage at low signal levels and rect filter termination and input/output
practical examples. This will serve as the
basis for individual designs which can be hold the receiver output at a constant resonance to ensure minimum passband
plateau over a wide range of input-signal ripple (unwanted dips in the nose of the
carried out by the more experienced
amateur. levels. For example, the audio output response curve): Most filters require a
homemade should remain constant in amplitude over specified external terminal capacitance to
The interest in building
receiversof the more complex variety has a range of input signal from less than a resonate the input and output trans-
waned in a tragic fashion during the past microvolt to better than 10,000 yiV, formers within the filter module.' Similar-
depending on the external noise level ly, each filter has a characteristic input
decade. This has been brought on by an
increased interest in operating and which reaches the receiver front end. The and output impedance which must be
through the availability of sophisticated age attack time should be set so that matched to the source and load.
receivers and transceivers found on the "pumping" and "clicking" is not noted 9) Detector and audio channel. An
commercial market. For this reason it when strong signals are received. otherwise excellent receiver can be spoiled
seems prudent to devote this portion of 6) Local oscillator. Not only must the by an inferior product detector or audio-
local oscillator be stable, it needs to have amplifier strip. The detector must be able
the Handbook to design approaches. The
information given here is based on circuit low noise and good spectral purity at the to handle the highest output signal from
ARRL laboratory. It is slanted toward the be 80 to 100 dB below the peak output active product detectors are sometimes
practical side of design and application in voltage. Spurs and harmonics in the out- used, they are the most prone to the fore-
order to be of greater use to amateurs who put should fall at least 50 dB- below peak going malady. The preference of most
have no formal background in electronics. output. LO output energy must be con- designers is a passive diode detector of the
fined to the mixer by means of ap- singly or doubly balanced variety. This
Performance Objectives propriate shielding and filtering. type of detector can handle high signal
7) /-/ amplifiers. An i-f amplifier strip levels with large amounts of BFO injec-
What should an amateur look for in
needs to have sufficient gain to drive the tion. Since the detector is the lowest-level
terms of high performance when building
A
subjective outlook would detector and provide ample excitation to part of the audio channel, hum and noise
a receiver?
the audio channel. The design should in- should be minimal at. that point in the cir-
call for a lot of "bells and whistles" with
clude active devices which can ensure a cuit. Passive detectors do not need
which to play, but a discerning operator is
collective 80 dB or greater age swing over operating voltages; hence one primary
interested in performance under all of the
adverse conditions one might encounter in the input-signal range mentioned in item source of hum is avoided.
the course of operating an amateur sta- 5. A low-noise audio preamplifier should
tion. The following are representative of Wide-band noise is generated within follow the detector in a quality design. It
the major considerations in receiver per- most i-f amplifier chains. An improve- should be able to withstand the maximum
formance: ment in receiver "noise bandwidth" can output from the detector at peak receiver
High dynamic range. This is the be realized by adopting the W7ZOI filter input signal without operating in a non-
1)
"tailending" scheme which calls for use linear manner. The audio gain control can
abilityof the receiver to perform well in
the presence of strong signals within and of a second immediately after the
i-f filter be used to the best advantage when it is
outside the amateur band of interest. last i-f amplifier. The second
filter can located after the af preamplifier. If it is
Poor dynamic range results in cross- have slightly greater bandwidth than the used ahead of the preamplifier, the noise
receiver desensitiza- filter used ahead of the first i-f amplifier. figure of the audio channel may be de-
modulation effects,
tion and spurious responses from the mix- The tailend filter will reduce the wide- graded at low settings of the gain control.
er which appear in the tuning range as band noise components. This technique is Audio shaping is normally applied to
additional signals (mixer IMD). discussed in greater detail in Solid State the af channel to provide a low-frequency
Design for the Radio Amateur, by The rolloff at some frequency well above 60 or
2) Good selectivity. This feature in-
cludes the receiver front end (rf amplifier ARRL. 120 Hz. This greatly reduces the chance of
In order for a filter to power-supply ripple appearing in the
and mixer) along with the i-f and audio 8) I-f filters.
selectivity. The objective (ideal) is to have function as such, there must be some in- audio output. Also, there is little need for
the receiver pass only those frequencies to sertion loss (IL) if a passive network is low-frequency response below, say, 300
which it is tuned, while rejecting all being used. The IL is typically highest Hz in a communications receiver. Simi-
This Utopian goal can not be when a mechanical filter is used. This fac- larly, the high-frequency response should
others.
realized, but it can be approached closely tor must be taken into account when plan- be restricted so that rolloff starts around
enough to ensure good performance. ning the receiver gain distribution. Most 2000 Hz. A satisfactory tailoring of the
mechanical filters have an IL of 8 dB or audio passband can often be done by
3) Low noise figure. The noise figure
should be such that it is somewhat below greater, whereas a well designed crystal- proper selection of the R and C com-
the level of the receiver antenna noise lattice filter has a characteristic IL of less ponents in that part of the circuit.
under typical "quiet" band conditions. than 5 dB. All of the audio stages must operate as
This means that the noise generated In some designs the i-f filter is the linearly as possible up to peak signal
minimum so that it does not mask the movement of the mechano-electrical prudent, therefore, to use an output stage
(degrade) weak incoming signals. contacts within the filter, which generate which is capable of delivering greater un-
High order of stability. All of the IM products which are independent of distorted power output than will ever be
4)
receiver oscillators, crystal-controlled or those in the mixer. Laboratory investiga- needed. Cross-over distortion is to be
LC types, need to be drift free in an ideal tions indicated that mechanical filters avoided also. The effects of this are most
circuit. Since this is practically impossible, were somewhat worse than crystal filters apparent under weak-signal conditions.
maximum drift (long term) should not ex- in this respect, limiting the receiver IMD The signal has a "fuzzy" sound when this
ceed 50 to 100 Hz a good design. The
in profile to roughly 95 dB. The crystal type of distortion is present. Some of the
greater the i-f selectivity, the more impor- holders in lattice filters must be able to audio-power ICs have significant cross-
tant the oscillator stability. Self- provide positive electrical contact with the over distortion which can not be cor-
8-41 Chapter 8
. '
TO OBM
. ATTEN. \
-6dB
300/S.M. ,
36 ( 50A)|I
AAAr-
1500 _L 3000 -i- 1500
"T S.M. "T
S.M. S.M.
—
S.M.
-r- C2~~
,50
-*-470 Sic:
/
-fc. C4
250
<I50
f c0 .2.2MHz
X
Fig! 62 — Schematic diagram of a high-level rf amplifier for a receiver. L1 contains 41 turns of no. 24 enam. wire on a T68-2 toroid core.(10 »iH). L2
and L3 have 26 turns of no. 24 enam. wire on a T68-2 toroid core (4 mH). L4, L5 and L6 consist of 43 turns of no. 24 enam. wire on a T68-6 toroid core
(8.74 pH). T1 contains 16 bifilar turns of no. 26 enam. wire on an FT50-43 ferrite core.
The measured gain of this circuit from the R2 can be obtained from The equations don't yield standard
input tuned circuit to the output of the at-
tenuator pad is 7.5 dB. This amount of
gain was chosen when the preamplifier
Rl = S. resistance values in most instances. In an
amateur application the nearest standard
value will often suffice. R2 of Fig. 64 con-
was designated for use ahead of a diode- sists of six 30-0 resistors in parallel to ob-
the component values shown. Noise figure band input and output transformers at version gain of 6 dB. Output intercept is
is 4 dB at 30 MHz. A 1-dB saturation specific lower levels. (A thorough discus- + 23 dBm and the input intercept checks
power output of 3.7 watts was observed, sion concerning diode mixers and their out at +17 dBm. Indications are that
indicating the suitability of this type of behavior is presented in the League's with further experimentation with VMOS
circuit for high signal-handling applica- book, Solid State Design for the Radio devices, mixer biasing and LO injection
tions. Amateur, chapter 6.) Fig. 65 shows a power the input intercept could be im-
The basic circuits of Figs. 66 and 68 are practical circuit for a DBM. It includes a proved to at least in an op-
,+ 25 dBm
suitable also as post-mixer amplifiers in diplexer at the i-f port to establish a 51-fi timized case. Theof Fig. 66 was
circuit
receivers. The VMP4 is a fairly expensive termination for the mixer. This offers an biased for a total mixer current of 50 mA
Siliconix transistor. It is likely that one of improvement to the IMD level by a few with LO power (+ 15 dBm) applied. The
the lower-pricedpieces, such as the dB over a similar mixer with no diplexer. use of 'Siliconix VMP-4 transistors should
VN66AK, would provide good service at The diodes can be HP2800 hot-carrier lead to even better mixer performance. A
hf in the circuit of Fig. 64. types. Carefully matched lN914s are photograph of the assembled experimen-
sometimes used as substitutes. Tl and T2 tal mixer with its post-mixer amplifier and
High-Performance Mixers are broadband toroidal transformers filter is shown in Fig. 67.
Doubly balanced diode-ring mixers (baluns). For wideband use in the hf spec- Fig. 66 shows that a broadband linear
(DBMs) of the type discussed early in this trum the cores should have a high post-mixer amplifier is used. It is followed
chapter are often used to obtain high permeability. A (9.4-mm)
0.37-inch by a 6-dB pad and diode clamps. The pad
dynamic range. Among the advantages diameter ferrite core (Amidon FT37-43) provides a constant load for the amplifier,
are low noise (diode mixers generate very with a mu of 950 will work nicely. Ten Q3, and stabilizes the filter termination
little noise) and broadband charac- trifilar turns of no. 30 enamel wire can be (FL3). The diodes prevent damage to FL3
teristics. The
mixer noise figure is used for the windings. Output intercept in the presence of very strong receiver in-
approximately the conversion loss of the for this circuit is typically + 13 dBm with put signals. FL1 filters the LO output to
diode ring —
typically 7 to 8 dB. The the LO injection at + 7 dBm. This pro- ensure a clean injection voltage to the
balanced mixer circuit provides port-to- vides an input intercept of 20 dBm (output mixer. The VMOS balanced mixer ex-
port isolation which is not possible with intercept plus the 7 conversion loss =
dB hibits a noise figure of roughly 8 dB at 14
single-ended or singly balanced mixers. 20 dBm). Calculations for a high-level MHz.
This feature can aid the mixer IMD and diode mixer, assuming a +17 dBm LO
help to minimize spurious responses level(recommended), the output intercept I-F Amplifiers
resulting from the LO energy entering willbe + 23 dBm. Again, assuming a 7-dB The criteria for i-f amplifiers are pretty
other parts of the receiver circuit. conversion loss the input intercept well defined in the philosophy section of
The main shortcomings of diode mixers becomes quite desirable +30 dBm. — this part of the chapter. The choice of
are the high level of LO injection needed This is based on the respective perfor- active devices for i-f strips usually leads to
(approximately + 7 dBm for most) and mances of the commercially available ICs. The Motorola MC1590G of
the necessity of proper mixer termination, SRA-1 and SRA-1H DBMs. It can be seen MC1350P are commonly found in high-
especially at the i-f output port. This type from the foregoing that better mixer per- performance These and the
receivers.
of mixer is subject to harmonic mixing — formance can be realized at the higher RCA CA3028A IC offer good gain and
another trait which the designer must deal LO-injection levels. The actual LO power age range with low noise figures. So, the
with. applied will depend upon the ability of the choice will depend in- part on availability
Some high-level diode-ring mixers are diodes to handle the current. and whim. Normally, just two IC stages
available commercially.They require a are used in an i-f strip.
high amount of injection power (+17
Singly Balanced VMOS Mixer Dual-gate MOSFETs are used as i-f
dBm foracceptable performance). The circuit of an experimental active amplifiers by some amateurs, but at least
Laboratory analysis suggests that high- mixer with highlevel capability is shown in four stages are needed to approach the
level mixers misbehave as a result of diode F^ig. 66. Two VMOS power FETs are gain of two ICs designed for .the applica-
imbalance at specific current levels. The employed in a singly balanced format. tion. Furthermore, FETs do not provide
effect is one of the IMD not dropping 3 Laboratory measurements of the circuit the age range of ICs unless the control
dB when the input tones are lowered 1 dB between Tl and T2 (50-Q terminations) at gates can be made to swing slightly
in level. This phenomenon could be 14 MHz, with a frequency of 5 MHz
LO negative. The usual gate no. 2 age range is
caused in part by saturation of the broad- and an i-f of 9 MHz, yielded a mixer con- from -2 volts to +4 volts for full age
8-43 Chapter 8
;
+ 6dB
BAL. MIX. 9MHi
FL2
INPUT
Fig. 66 — Circuit details are for a VMOS power FET singly balanced mixer. L1 and L2 have 13 turns of no. 24 enam. on a T50-6,torold core. L4 con-
tains 21 turns of no. 26 enam. wire on a T50-2 core. T1 and T2 have 12 trlfilar turns of no. 26 enam. wire on an FT50-61 torold core. T4 contains 7
primary turns of no. 26 enam. and 21 secondary turns of no. 26 enam. on an FT50-61 torold core. FL3 is a Spectrum International 8-pole crystal lat-
tice filter. Bandwidth is 500 Hz.
control.
Fig. 72 contains the circuit of an i-f strip
which uses two Collins mechanical filters
in the "tail-ending" scheme discussed
earlier. The ssb filter is at the front end of
the strip and the narrower (400 Hz) filter
is diode-switched into the circuit for low-
noise cw reception. For phone-only recep-
tion both filters can be of a 2. 1-kHz band-
width, and both would remain in the cir-
cuit at all times. At considerably greater
expense one could have a cw and a ssb
filter at the output end of the i-f strip.
They would be selected by means of diode
switching to permit a tail-end filter to be
in the circuit for either mode. The
photograph 69 was taken before
in Fig.
some circuit changes were made, so it does
not conform exactly to the diagram in Fig.
68. It does, however, illustrate the recom-
mended layout for good filter isolation.
by FL2. During ssb operation the gain of Board Specialists, Box 969, Pueblo, CO 81002.
HOdB)
COLLINS +60 dB + 50dB
(-10dB )
FB n FERRITE BEAD
F.T. = FEEOTHROUGH
Fig. 68 — Schematic diagram of a 455-kHz i-f strip which uses filter tail-ending. See the text.
8-45 Chapter 8
. 6p«=30dB .
CLASS A
AF PRE AMP
AF OUTPUT
40673
^7~0+ 24 V
500 AlF
* - HEAT SINK 50 V
Fig. 71 —
Assembled view of the VMOS audio
Fig. 70 — Circuit of a VMOS audio amplifier with 2.5 watts of output. T1 is a Triad TY-29X channel. For actual use, the large transistor near
(see text). T1 should have a heat sink (see text).
CI is necessary to provide a roll-off at recommended in the interest of preventing The shield compartment is made from sec-
high audio frequencies. It serves also to vhf oscillations. The copper on the com- tions of double-sided pc board. A feed-
prevent hf and vhf self-oscillations at Q2. ponent side of the board serves as a through capacitor serves as a terminal for
The peak voltages and currents which ground plane and should be made com- BFO and helps to
the 12-volt line to the
result from self-oscillation can destroy Q2 mon ground foils on the etched side
to the prevent rf energy from leaving the BFO
immediately (gate-source and drain- of the board at several points. A U-shaped module via the 12-volt lead.
source breakdown). Dl and D2 are heat sink (not shown should be
in Fig. 71)
necessary across Tl to damp transients used at Q2. It can be made from 16-gauge Local-Oscillator Structure
which can occur when the field in Tl col- aluminum stock. The vertical members of The local oscillator system shown in
lapses. Without the Zener diodes in the the sink should be at least 1-1/2 inches (38 Fig. 74 is an assembled version of the
circuit, drain-source breakdown poses a mm) high. practical VFO shown in chapter 6. The
significant threat. compartment is made from pc-board sec-
Feedback is taken from an 8-0 tap on Universal BFO tions. A U-shaped press-fit aluminum
Tl and supplied to the source of Ql to Fig. 72 provides a diagram of a BFO cover is used to enclose the top of the box.
keep distortion at a minimum (observe the which can be tailored for use at any of the This kind of shielding is important for the
polarity at Tl).An 8-0 speaker should not popular intermediate frequencies. The prevention of stray radiation from the
be attached to the 8-0 tap, as it will lower constants shown are for use at 455 kHz. VFO into other parts of the receiver cir-
the feedback and increase distortion. For higher operating frequencies it will be cuit.The enclosed module tends to pre-
Almost any large-signal VMOS tran- necessary only to modify the feedback vent rapid internal changes in ambient
sistor can be used at Q2. The Siliconix capacitors of the oscillators (G1-C5, in- temperature —
an aid to frequency stabili-
VN67AF and N89AF devices (plastic clusive). The higher the operating fre- ty. Double-sided etched-circuit boards are
TO-202 format) would be good choices at quency the lower the capacitance value. not recommended for LC oscillators. This
Q2. The division ratio established by C4 and is because the etched foils and the ground
Tl is a 24-0 to 4 and 8 ohms C5 should be maintained at all frequencies plane form numerous low-value
transformer. A
Triad TY-29X is shown in on which this circuit is used. This will pre- capacitors, none of which are stable: The
the model of Fig. 71. A homemade vent the 50-0 input impedance of Q4 from pc-board insulating material represents a
transformer would be easier to realize and loading the oscillators and preventing poor dielectric material for stable
it would be quite inexpensive. The core them from functioning. capacitors.
stack from a 1 -ampere or large filament This circuit was designed especially for
transformer would be suitable as a foun- use with a diode-ring product detector, A High-Performance AGC Circuit
dation for a homemade unit. The turns which requires a substantial amount of in- of an i-f strip
Fig. 75 contains the circuit
ratio would be 1.73:1 for the primary /8-0 jection power. A 50-0 pad can be placed and age chain which offers excellent per-
windings. For the primary/4-0 combina- in the output of Tl if lower injection formance. This circuit was designed by
tion it would be 2.45:1. No. 26 enameled
. levels are needed. Tl should be terminated W7ZOI for use in his Competition Grade
wire will be suitable for the current taken in approximately 500 for the best perfor- CW The complete receiver cir-
Receiver.
by Q2. Use the maximum number of turns mance. cuit found in Solid State Design for the
is
possible, consistent with the turns ratios Yl, Y2 and Y3 provide the proper BFO Radio Amateur, chapter 9.
mentioned. This will ensure sufficient in- frequencies for upper sideband, lower This age circuit is suitable for use with
ductance to prevent the loss of low- sideband and cw. JpETs can be substi- the i-f strip of Fig. 72. It employs a full
frequency audio. tuted for the 40673s at Ql, Q2 and Q3. "hang" action. The age is defeated by
Double sided pc-board material is The assembled BFO is seen in Fig. 73. means of SI. The time constant is selec-
18
DRAIN 10.6 35
01, Q2.Q3
D
SOURCE 6.42
Q4 DC pk-pk
e(O o)c
0^3 t_T BASE
COLL.
2.2
11.6
8
20
BOTTOM VIEWS EMITTER 2.5 2
Fig. 72 — A 3-channel BFO for universal use in receivers. T1 contains 25 bifilar turns of no. 30 enam. wire on an FT5Q-43 toroid core (950 mu).
8-47 Chapter 8
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jiF); OTHERS
Fig. 75 — Circuit details of the W7ZOI i-f amplifier and high-performance age system. This circuit provides full-hang age characteristics.
able at S2. Rl at U3 should be set for + 5 in Fig. 41 of this chapter. It does not in- A broadcast-band filter is a good exam-
volts at pin 6 of U3 with the age off. With corporate the hang feature used in Fig. 75. ple. The circuit and construction informa-
Q5 and Q6 as part of the circuit, the tion for such a filter appear later in this
receiver is practically silent after a strong
RECEIVER ACCESSORIES section.
signal disappears from the passband. But, A
number of receiver accessories have
after a timing period associated with net- become popular either through necessity A Stable 10-Meter Preamp
work C1-R2, the receiver will return to or through the operating convenience that When receivers run out of gas in terms
full gain in roughly 50 milliseconds. This they provide. Notable among these items of front-end gain and noise figure, it
is very advantageous when loud pulses of are noise blankers, audio filters, usually happens on 15 and 10 meters. A
noise enter the receiver. The effect is preamplifiers, frequency converters and typical symptom is the need to carry the
similar to that of a noise blanker. A de- interference Although
filters. only audio gain wide open to copy a weak
tailed descriptionof this type of age cir- relatively few amateurs choose to build signal. This problem can often be resolved
cuit can be found in chapter 5 of Solid own receivers from the ground up,
their by adding a preamplifier between the
State Design for the Radio Amateur, by many more are inclined to try their hand receiver input and the antenna.
the ARRL. at a somewhat less complex station ac- not beneficial to add gain ahead of
It is
A less complex age circuit for use with cessory — especially if it is something that a receiver that has sufficient sensitivity.
RCA CA3028A i-f amplifiers is provided is needed for -successful station operation. The end product may be excessive front-
Fig. 76 —
Exterior view of the enclosed
preamplifier. A U-shaped, press-fit aluminum
cover is used. Fig. 78 — Inside view of the preamplifier.
end gain, leading to the demise of common-gate (grounded gate) type. regardless of the load connected to the
dynamic range. If the latter is degraded Stability is relatively easy to obtain with amplifier. Properly applied feedback en-
significantly, cross modulation, IMD and the latter, but a tradeoff in gain will ac- sures unconditional stability. Circuits of
desensitization will become manifest when company modification. common-gate A this kind are ideal for amateur builders
strong signals are present in and near the JFET amplifier usually provides between who have limited practical experience in
band of interest. In other words, don't use 10 and 14 dB of gain, whereas a common- the workshop.
a preamp if your receiver performs source version will yield up to 25 dB of Fig. 77 shows the preamplifier circuit.
satisfactorily now. All that will be gain in some circuits. Tl is a toroidal input transformer which is
achieved is a higher S meter reading and a An alternative to using a common-gate tuned to the operating frequency by
higher ambient noise level when no signals configuration was highlighted in Solid means of CI. Rl and C2 form a shunt
are present. State Design for the Radio Amateur, feedback-network which aids stability by
where Hayward and DeMaw gave design lowering the gain. R2 provides additional
Circuit Description
data for fed-back bipolar-transistor rf stability by introducing degenerative feed-
A major problem experienced by some amplifiers. The same principles apply to back. R2 is not bypassed for rf.
builders who use common-source FETs in FET amplifiers, where gain is traded for The drain circuit contains a second
rf amplifiers is instability. Despite careful bandwidth and stability. tuned transformer, T2. R4 and C5 form a
layout and input-output isolation, in- A design objective with any amplifier decoupling network in the 12- volt supply
stability seems to occur. A quick solution should be unconditional stability no — line. This helps prevent unwanted signal
might be to change the circuit to a self-oscillations at any frequency, energy from entering the preamplifier via
the power-supply leads.
Construction Data
RF AMP A printed-circuit layout is given to scale
R1 C2 in 79. Pc-board material (double
Fig.
I
Wv |f- sided) used as a shield enclosure for the
is
8-49 Chapter 8
about 80 dB. This is sufficient to suppress
interference since the rf signal-to-noise
ratio very rarely exceeds 60 dB. Practical
experiments have shown this noise
blanker to be superior to other configua-
tions. The famous "woodpecker" com-
pletely disappears when it is switched in.
The circuit layout should not be too
critical. However, some care is required to
build the switching gate without leakage.
Good balance is required. Slightly better
performance can be expected using HP
3081 pin diodes, but this is achieved at
considerable higher expense.
A Space-Perception CW Filter
The circuit described here was originally
conceived as an experiment to test the
excellent under all conditions, including Hahn-Meitner Institute, Berlin, West Ger- ability of the brain/ear subsystem to dif-
2
an open-loop situation (no termination at many.' Martin's circuit is very involved ferentiate between tones of different
either end of the circuit). The noise figure and expensive. The simpler version pitch. An example of where this would occur
is under 2 dB at 30 MHz. A slightly better published here can be added to any hf is in a "pileup" situation where many sta-
noise figure and increased dynamic range receiver with a first i-f between 9 and 70 tions are transmitting at the same time on
might be possible with a Siliconix U310 MHz. assumed that the receiver has
It is or about the same frequency. When these
JFET. However, at 10 and 15 meters no and that the amplifier
rf preamplifiers signals are of the same relative amplitude,
either the MPF102 or 2N5484 are entirely following the mixer has a low enough it is difficult to separate them. It was
suitable. A 2N4416 FET would be an noise figure to make such a preamplifier thought that if the brain/ear system was
acceptable substitute. unnecessary. This circuit originally ap- given more information than just frequen-
Operation on 15 meters can be had by peared in an article by Rohde in the May cy difference between tones, that separa-
adding two turns of wire to teh main wind- 1980 issue of QST. tion of the individual signals would be
ings of Tl and T2. No ohter changes are The noise blanker uses a Siemens enhanced. Initial tests with several users
necessary. The circuit constants given in TCA440 IC that incorporates all the of this filter indicate that this is likely the
Fig. 77 are for 10-meter operation. A elements of a single-conversion receiver. case.
parts kit, pc board or pc negative are The i-f chosen is about 2 MHz and the The filter detailed here is_ actually com-
available from Circuit Board Specialists, values of the input coils are selected for an prised of two filters — a high-pass and a
P.O. Box 969, Pueblo, CO 81002. This input frequency of 9 MHz. [Editor's low-pass. The output from the low-pass
circuit is 40 and 80
suitable for use on 20, Note: This circuit is provided for tutorial filter is left ear and the informa-
fed to the
meters by merely changing the Tl/Cl and purposes. Further design information on tion from the high-pass filter is applied to
T2/C3 circuits for the desired frequency. the TCA440 is contained in "Designed the right ear. Stereo headphones are re-
Examples of Semiconductor Circuits," quired. The frequency response is tailored
A High-Dynamic-Range Noise Blanker Siemans Corp., Issue 1975/76. Copies of as shown in Fig. 82. As can be seen, the
The two most violent sources of pulse the material relevant to the TCA440 are roll-off is such that aj 700 Hz (the center
interference are discharges during a from Siemens Corp., IC Com-
available of the pass-band) each tone is down 6 dB.
lightning storm and noise generated by ponent Group, 186 Wood Ave. South, It is assumed that the receiver i-f band-
receiver that can become part of the ex- and the switching gate has a depth of signals close in frequency are received),
isting receiver system without degrading the filter will split the signals, placing the
the overall receiver performance. lower-pitched tone more in the left ear
'Martin, "Moderner Stocraustaster mit hoher luter-
The noise blanker example of Fig. 80 is modulationsfestigkett," cq-DL magazine, July and the higher-pitched tone in the right
based on a publication by M. Martin, 1978, p. 300. ear. By doing this, the signals are
'Martin, "Grosssignalfester Stocraustaster fuer
Kurzwellen-und UKW-Empfaenger mit grossem separated not only in tone, but also in
'Circuit Board Specialists, Box 969, Pueblo CO 81002. Dynamikbereich," UKfV-Berishte, Feb. 1979, p.74. relative position. With a little practice,
Adjustment of the filter involves setting vide an optimum gain/noise setting. tion is desired only below or above the
the level controls for each of the two broadcast band, then a less complex low
channels. This is accomplished by first in- A BC- Band Energy Rejection Filter or high-pass filter will suffice. Because a
serting a pair of stereo headphones at J2 Inadequate front-end selectivity, of majority of ham receivers are used for
and making a connection between the out- bipolar-transistor ff amplifier and mixer reception above 1600 kHz, a high-pass
put of the station receiver and Jl. Apply a stages which perform poorly, can result in filter will generally be preferable to the
regulated 10 to 15 volts dc at J3. Adjust unwanted cross-talk and overloading band-reject filter. For the same number of
o_rrm_
U2
74LSI23
Fig. 81 — Photograph of the space-perception cw filter. Press-on lettering was used to label the
control and jack functions.
+ 12
4.7k TO 15 V 840 HZ
AAA O
k -IOOO
-O son
TO RECEIVER FILTER
,5 ',H
^_L- 2000
-Q + 5V
Fig. 82 —
Relative frequency response of the two filter sections. The left ear receives information
from the low-pass filter and the right ear receives signals from the high-pass filter.
reject type.
Since the power level of broadcast sta-
tions can be quite high, the stop-band at-
tenuation of the high-pass filter should
also be high, preferably in excess of 60 dB.
The cutoff frequency should be selected
so less than dB of
attenuation occurs
1
— It—
| U2C
PUT o
rT7
Fig. 83 —
^Schematic diagram of the cw filter. All resistors are 1/4-watt, 5-percent types. All polarized capacitors are electrolytic. Others are miniature
ceramic types. J3 — Miniature power-supply connector.
J1 — Phono connector. S1 — Rotary, 4 pole, 4 position. U1, U2— TL084C BiFET quad op-amp, Radio
J2 — Stereo headphone connector. T1, T2 — Primary 1000 ohm, secondary 8 ohm. Shack 276-1714 or equiv.
8-53 Chapter 8
tenuatioh rise, a filter of 10 elements was ficulty in obtaining the desired response. 100 MHz, the insertion loss of the filter
considered necessary. Finally, to simplify If the attenuation peaks (f2, f4 and f6) at gradually increased to 2 dB. The
construction, only those designs permit- Q.677, 1.293 and 1.111 MHz are not ob- measured input impedance versus fre-
ting the use of standard-value capacitors tained, a slight squeezing or separating of quency was in good agreement with the
were considered. the toroidal-inductor winding should be calculated input impedance between 1.7
all that is required to tune the series- amd 4.2 MHz. (The frequency range
Building the Filter resonant circuits. Note that series circuit above 4.2 MHz was not tested.) Over the
The filter layout, schematic diagram C6-L6 should resonate at f6 = 1.111 range tested, the input impedance of the
and response curve, the component values MHz, but from the response curve it ac- filter remained within the 37 to 67.7 ohms
used, and the toroidal-inductor winding tually resonated at about 1.130 MHz. This input-impedance window (equivalent to a
specifications are shown in Fig. 88. The
all frequency error of about 2 percent is small maximum VSWR of 1.353).
design parameters and the calculated filter enough to ignore. The A s value was Construction of the filter is relatively
components values and other calculated selected to be 58.3 dB, and examination of simple, as shown in the photograph, and
parameters are shown in the upper right- the reponse curve shows the measured no difficulty should be experienced if the
hand corner of Fig. 88. The standard- filter response to be in good agreement. Mallory SXM polystyrene capacitors are
value capacitors used are listed under the The measured values of cutoff frequency used. These capacitors have a standard
filter schematic diagram. Note that all (at theattenuation level of 0.0988 dB) and tolerance of 2.5 percent and are available
standard values are within 2.8 percent of the measured value of fA s (the frequency through all Mallory distributors. The
the design values. Since the maximum A
where s is first reached) are also in good Micro-metals iron powder T50-2 toroidal
deviation between the actual capacitance agreement with the calculated values. The cores are available through either Amidon
used and the design value will be only 5.3 measured pass-band loss was less than 0.8 or Palomar Engineers. This material
percent, there should be little or no dif- dB from 1.8 to 10 MHz. Between 10 and originally appeared in a QST article by
Wetherhold, W3NQN, in February 1978. •
// -
100 mF
m « so
RECEIVER/ TRANSCEIVER
V4 AT INTERFERING
FREQUENCY
LINE LENGTH =
(38'3"0F CABLE FOR
4MHZ)
Fig. 86 —
Full-scale etching pattern for the pc board used in the cw filter. Black areas indicate
A VF OF 0.66)
increased loss of the cable at higher fre- quency has been shifted to twice the fre-
quencies. quency as that shown in Fig. 90. Now, ad-
The display in Fig. 91 is for the same ditional notches occur at every even multi-
Fig. 89 — A quarter-wavelength of coaxial
cable used as a notch fitter. The length of
is
piece of cable, only this time it is shorted ple of the quarter-wavelength frequency. line can be calculated using the formula that
at the far end. The fundamental notch fre- All notch frequencies for filters such as is given.
8-55 Chapter 8
ELLIPTIC FILTER DESIGN PARAMETERS
(Taken from Saal's Catalog CO?15)
R.C. * 15%, VSWP = 1.353. Ap = 0.0988 OB
bl, A, = 58.3 dB, U s = 1.28676
Ho A 6~ 2-495. 1.307, 1.521
f coad * » -69MHz. Ro = 53 oh
„_ \ f (.
FREQUENCY (MHZ)
1% 88 — Filter-response curve, insertion loss, layout and schematic diagram. Terminal impedance is 50 ohms for this 1.7-MHz, high-pass filter.
END
Fig. 90— Spectral photograph of how notches Fig. 91 —Spectral photograph of notches at
appear at every odd multiple of the quarter- every even multiple of the quarter-wavelength
wavelength frequency for an open-ended line. as occurs with a shorted line. Horizontal
Each horizontal division represents 5 MHz and calibration is S MHz per division and the ver-
each vertical division is 10 dB. tical axis is 10 dB for each division.
Fig. 92 — Spectral photograph (far left) for a
continuous loop of cable used as a notch filter.
Here the continuous loop acts as two open-
circuited lines connected in parallel (center).
Each horizontal division represents 5 MHz and
each vertical division Is 10 dB.
Chapter 9
9-1 Chapter 9
Noise temperature, noise factor Brief analysis of this equation shows that
noise.
the first stage of a receiving system is the
and noise figure are all measures of this 3O0O
device noise. The results are expressed in
most important with regard to noise figure.
2000 If the gain of this and succeeding stages is
terms of temperature, ratios and decibels,
respectively.
* greater than unity, the denominator of
Consider a 50-ohm termination con- 1000 each successive term becomes greater. The
900
nected to the input of a device with the •00 numerical value of terms beyond the
TOO
termination cooled to absolute zero. eoo second or third approaches zero and can
800
There would be no noise produced by this NF (dB)_o K be ignored.
It might seem that the more gain an rf
source, and the noise output from the 300 0.1 — 6.75
0.2 13.67 amplifier has, the better the signal-
device would be that of the internally 0.3 20.74
200 to-noise ratio and therefore the better the
generated noise. If the termination were 0.4 27.98
0.5 35.39 reception. Thisis not necessarily true. The
now heated to a temperature that would 0.6 42.96
0.7 50.72 primary function of an rf amplifier is to
raise the output noise of the device by 3 0.8 — 58.66
dB (thermal agitation noise equal to the 0.9 — 66.78 establish the noise figure of the system.
proportional noise
2.0 169.62
bring a signal to audible levels may be ob-
and is directly to
tained from intermediate-frequency stages
power. For example, if we were to halve NOISE FIGURE (dB)
or in the audio channel. Use of the
the noise temperature we would double
the signal-to-noise ratio.
minimum gain necessary to set the overall
Teceiver noise figure is desirable in order
In order to convert a noise temperature Fig. 1 —
Relationship between noise figure
to avoid overloading and spurious signals
measurement to noise figure an in- and noise temperature.
termediate calculation is required — noise in subsequent stages.
Further examination of the equation
factor (f). Noise factor is by definition the
temperature, the equation can be points out the desirability of mounting the
ratio of the total output noise power to re-
first stage of the receiver system at the
the input noise power when the termina- arranged as follows:
antenna. The transmission line from the
tion is at the standard temperature of
antenna to the receiver can be considered
290° K (17° C). The noise power caused TE = 290 [antilog(NF/10)- 1]°K
as a stage in the receiving system. The first
only by the input noise of the termination
stage of a receiving system makes the
is simply the noise power of the source where noise figure is expressed in dB. A
major contribution of noise figure to the
multiplied by the gain of the device. graph illustrating the relationship between
system, so it is highly desirable that the
Mathematically noise figure and noise temperature is given
first stage be a low-noise amplifier with
in Fig. 1.
Stability
Npower total = GKB(T + T E) =
S/N at input
10 login
S/N at output Excessive amounts of gain or undesired
where TE is the effective input noise feedback may cause amplifier instability.
temperature and T is 290° K. The noise A vhf receiving system consists of an Oscillation may occur in unstable ampli-
factor (0 is calculated as interconnection of individual stages, some fiersunder certain conditions. Damage to
noisier than others. Each stage's noise the active device due to overdissipation is
- Nppwer total
contribution to the reduction of signal- only the most obviqus effect of oscillation.
'power input to-noise ratio can be expressed as a noise Deterioration of noise figure, spurious
figure. How much the noise figure of a signals generated by the oscillation; and
particular stage affects system noise figure reradiation of the oscillation through the
GKBT + GKBT E
= 1 + depends on the gain of the stages between antenna, causing interference to other
GKBT n T„
that stage and the antenna. That is, if a services (i.e., RFI), can also occur from
stage's gain is sufficiently large, its noise amplifier instability.
figure will tend to override or "mask" the Neutralization or other forms of feed-
where TE is the effective input noise
back may be required in rf amplifiers to
noise contribution of the stage following
temperature and T is 290° K. Noise
it.Mathematically, the noise factor of a reach stability. Amplifier neutralization is
figure can then be calculated as follows:
receiving system can be expressed as achieved by feeding energy from the
amplifier output circuit back to the input
f,-l f„ -1 in such an amount and phase as to cancel
NF = 10 log 10 f = 10 logio (1 + F =f, + -
+ •+: out the effects of device internal ca-
lo G,G, G 2G,
pacitance and other unwanted input-output
where noise figure is expressed in decibels. where coupling. Care in termination of both the
th
Should the noise figure of the device be fn = noise factor of the n stage input and output can produce stable
known and it is desired to find the noise G n = gain of the n th
stage results from an otherwise unstable ampli-
Typical Circuits
existing equipment.
The choice of active device has a
profound effect on the weak-signal per- Fig. 2 —
Typical grounded-source rf amplifiers. The dual-gate MOSFET, A, is useful below 500
formance of an rf amplifier. Although MHz. The junction FET, B, and neutralized MOSFET, C, work well on all vhf bands. Except where
given, component values depend on frequency.
tubes can be used on the vhf and uhf
bands, their use is seldom seen, as
solid-state devices provide far better
performance at lower cost. Bipolar transis-
tors can provide excellent noise figures noise figure. also be employed in the input circuit to
up through 4 gHz if chosen and used At 432 MHzand above, inexpensive further reduce the losses.
properly. The JFET is usable through the FETs cannot provide the low noise figure It should be pointed out that the
432-MHz band, although the most com- attainable from bipolars. The wavelength terminating impedance of transistors for
monly available ones drop off in per- at these higher frequencies also allows the optimum noise figure is usually not the
formance quickly beyond that frequency. convenient use of tuned lines rather than same as that for optimum power transfer
Dual-gate MOSFETs also are usable conventional coils, easing the possible (gain).This complicates the designing and
through 432 MHz. The GaAs FET, design difficulties of the lower terminating tuning procedures somewhat, but careful
though somewhat costly, provides superior impedances of bipolars. measurements and adjustment can com-
noise figures past the 1296 MHz band. The input network of an rf amplifier pensate for these shortcomings. The
Most rf amplifiers for use below the should be as low in loss as possible, if a dual-gate MOSFET has different internal
432-MHz band use FETs rather than low noise figure is desired. Since any loss geometry, so optimum noise match is
bipolars. Unless bipolar* transistors are before the first stage is effectively added to virtually identical to optimum gain match.
run at relatively high standing currents the noise figure, it is well to keep these This means that adjusting a dual-gate
they are prone to overloading from strong losses to a minimum. High-selectivity MOSFET amplifier for maximum gain
signals. Additionally, their lower termi- circuits oftenhave significant losses and usually provides best noise figure.
nating impedances can present some- should be avoided at the front end. L Some examples of common-source
what awkward design considerations to networks usually provide the least loss amplifiers are shown in Fig. 2. Many pro-
the builder. The FET minimizes these while assuring proper impedance match- perly designed dual-gate MOSFET
problems while presenting acceptable ing. High-quality components should amplifiers do not require neutralization to
9-3 Chapter 9
Fig. 5 shows typical bipolar amplifiers
for the uhf range. Fig. 5A illustrates a
common-emitter amplifier, analogous to
the common-source FET amplifier. The
common-base amplifier of Fig. 5B can
similarly be compared to a common-gate
FET amplifier.
Front-End Protection
The first amplifier of a receiver is
RF Selectivity
Using the gate as the common stage ele- amplifiers, securing some of the advan- (216 mm) in diameter and 1 1.3 inches (287
tages of each. Increased gain over a single mm) long. Even at 432 MHz, where
ment introduces negative feedback and
greatest asset. coaxial cavities are common, the use of a
eliminates the need for neutralization in a stage is its
432 MHz
_mnn_
Q u =50D VX~ nomograph for round helical resonators To obtain as high an unloaded Q as
which can be used with slide-rule
in Fig. 7, possible, the shield should not have any
accuracy, is based on these formulas. seams parallel to the axis of the helix. This
where D = inside diameter of the shield in
Although there are many variables to is usually not a problem with round
inches (X 2.54 = mm) and f = fre-
consider when designing helical resona- resonators because large-diameter copper
quency in MHz tors, certain of shield size and
ratios tubing is used for the shield, but square ,
SHIELD NUMBER
INSIDE FREQUENCY, MHi OF TURNS IMPEDANCE
DIAMETER
< 5000 10,000
-i r 4000 9000
8000
7000
015 04 2000 6000
0.2 J" 0.9 1500 100~£- 5000
90 -
SHIELD
INSIDE
DIAMETER
D
I NCHES :
- 5000
TURNS ~ - 2500
SPACING
900
02 ~ z 5
1000 £.0 -
'-
SO 005 - t
- - 60 -. - I
aos - _
—TO IOO0
3.0
i|. B0
1-20
- 900
oi
40-7 IQ0 800
5.0 700
600
500
40 J ~ K
20 -
7 50 50 J :
- 60
- 200
5000
1 00 260
5500
by a variable capacitor, the shield size is the bottqm of the helix, capacitive probes
covers, the top and bottom of the shield
based on the chosen unloaded Q at the at the top of the helix, direct taps on the
may be left open with negligible effect on
operating frequency. Then the number of coil,or any combination of these. Al-
frequency or unloaded Q. If covers are
provided, they should make
however, turns, N
and the winding pitch, P, are though the correct tap point can be cal-
with the shield. In based on resonance at 1.5f Tune the culated easily, coupling by loops and
good electrical contact
.
A helical resonator designed from the given by When coupling loops are used, the
Fig. 7, if carefully built, plane of the loop should be perpendicular
nomograph of
to the axis of the helix and separated a
will resonatevery close to the design fre-
quency. Resonance can be adjusted over a
IL=201og
(f^ u
)
dB small distance from the bottom of the coil.
For resonators with only a few turns, the
small range by slightly compressing or ex-
If the helix is made where Q a = loaded plane of the loop can be tilted slightly so it
panding the helix.
adjacent
is parallel with the slope of the
slightly longer than that called for in Fig. Q u = unloaded Q. conductor. Helical resonators with in-
8, the resonator can be tuned by pruning
This plotted in Fig. 10. For the most ductive coupling (loops) will exhibit more
the open end of the coil. However, neither is
practical cases > 5) this can be attenuation to signals above the resonant
of these methods is recommended for (Q d
closely approximated by IL = 9.0 (Q a/Q u) frequency (as compared to attenuation
wide frequency excursions because any
length will dB. The selection of a loaded Q for a tuned below resonance) whereas resonators with
major deviation in helix
capacitive coupling (probes) exhibit more
circuit is dictated primarily by the required
degrate the unloaded Q of the resonator.
noise figure, prudent consideration should tween 0.019 and 0.028 inch (number 22-or 24
AWG).
be made of filter choice and placement in
the receiver.
Mixers
Conversion of the received energy to a
Fig. 8 —
Helical-resonator design chart. After lower frequency, so that it can be
the shield diameter has been determined, helix
amplified more efficiently than would be NSERTION LOSS
diameter, d, helix length, b, and shield length,
B, can be determined with this graph. Index possible at the signal frequency, is a basic
line indicates that a shield diameter of 3.8 principle of the superheterodyne receiver.
inches (97 mm) requires helix mean diameter The stage in which this is done may be
of 2.1 inches (53 mm), helix length of 3.1 in-
ches (79 mm), and shield length of 5 inches
called a "converter," or "frequency
(127 mm). converter," but we will use the more
,
common term, mixer, to avoid. confusion
with converter, as applied to a complete
vhf receiving accessory. Mixers perform
similar functions in both transmitting and
attenuation below the passband as shown receiving circuits, and mixer theory and Fig. 10 — Insertion toss of all tuned resonant
for a typical 432-MHz resonator in determined by the
circuits is ratio ofloaded to
practice are treated in considerable detail
Fig. 11. This characteristic may be a con-
unloaded Q as shown here.
elsewhere in this Handbook.
siderationwhen choosing a coupling A receiver for 50 MHz
or higher usually
method. The passband can be made more has at least two such stages; one in the vhf
symmetrical by using a combination of or uhf converter, and usually two or more
coupling methods (inductive input and in the communications receiver that
capacitive output, for example). follows it.We are concerned here with the
If more than one helical resonator is first mixer. •7 -r—
required to obtain a desired bandpass The mixer would convert any
ideal -i
this method of coupling is not very figure (or equivalent loss) has yet to be FREQUENCY (MHzl
practical unless you're building a large conceived. This means that the proper use
number of identical units. of rf amplification and perhaps post- Fig. 11 —
Response curve for a single-
resonator 432-MHz filter showing the effects of
Since the loaded Q of a resonator is mixer amplification is necessary for
capacitive and inductive input/output coupling.
determined by the external loading, this maximum receiver performance with re- Response curve can be made symmetrical on
must be considered when selecting a tap gard to sensitivity. Improving sensitivity is each side of resonance by combining the two
(or position of a loop or probe). The ratio the less difficult of the mixer failings to methods (inductive input and capacitive output
or vice versa).
of this external loading, Rb, to the mend.
characteristic impedance, Z for a quarter-
, Because the mixer operates in a
wavelength resonator is calculated from nonlinear mode, reduction of distortion amplifier before the mixer will increase
becomes a major design problem. As the the input levels to the mixer, lowering the
mixer input level is increased, a point is point where the input level to the receiving
reached where the output no longer system will cause compression. It be-
Qu increases linearly with input. A phe- hooves the builder not to use more gain
nomenon known as compression occurs. than is necessary to establish system noise
Even when filters are properly designed When the compression point is reached, figure prior to the mixer.
and built, they may be rendered totally the sensitivity of the mixer is reduced for If more than one signal is present in the
ineffective if not installed properly.Leak- every signal in the passband. This is passband going into the mixer, they may
age around a filter can be quite high at vhf manifested as desensing. Different types mix with each other to produce spurious
and uhf where wavelengths are short. of mixers characteristically reach their responses known as intermodulation dis-
Proper attention to shielding and good compression points at different input tortion (IMD) products. As the input
grounding is mandatory for minimum so proper rnixer choice can
levels, levels further increase, higher-order IMD
leakage. Poor coaxial cable shield con- minimize this type of distortion. Any products may appear, seemingly filling the
9-7 Chapter 9
O '
osc. TA (B)
Field-effect transistors have good square-
law response and are very popular vhf
mixers. The dual-gate MOSFET is proba-
2N5486 bly the most common mixer found in
220 MHz 144 MHz
vhf amateur equipment. The MOSFET
INPUT O- OUTPUT can provide considerable conversion gain,
— while at the same time maintaining a
reasonable noise figure. MOSFET over-
.0.001 load characteristics are suitable for the
vast majority of applications. Local-
oscillator energy can be applied at one of
OSC. the MOSFET gates, effectively isolating
INJECTION
0+12 V the local oscillator from the other signals.
The gate impedance is high, so relatively
little injection is needed for maximum
conversion gain. A typical example is
improve cross modulation and prevents unwanted out-of-band sig- Noise figures as low as 4 dB are possible
teristics also
nals from possibly overloading the mixer. with circuits like that shown in Fig. 12C.
performance.
A problem inherent to all mixing The injection level of the local oscillator
affects mixer performance. Raising LO
systems is image generation. Whenever Single-ended Mixers
level increases conversion gain in an FET
two signals are mixed, components are
Most mixers are single-ended. The mixer. The local-oscillator signal should
produced at the sum and difference of the
two signal frequencies, and at multiples of simplest type of mixer is the diode mixer. be as large as possible without pushing the
Balanced Mixers
(A)
Use of more than one device in either a
singly or doubly balanced mixer offers
many advantages over a single-ended
Dt-04 HP 5082-2835
mixer. The balance prevents energy
injected into a mixer port from re- RF
appearing at another port. The implications
of this are significant when minimum
mixer distortion is sought. The port-
INPUT
1 # I
OSC.
INJECTION
each other, and is broadband throughout vhf. A special dual JFET is used in C to give high
conversion loss. High local-oscillator dynamic range with low noise figure. •
9-9 Chapter 9
injectionis needed to reach optimum
performance with these mixers. Proper Q12V
broadband termination of all the mixer
ports is necessary to prevent unwanted
signals from being reflected back into the
mixer "rat race," only to emerge at
another port. The i-f port (shown in Fig. 9V
13B) is the most critical with respect to 400 mW
termination and should be terminated at 0.0
0.001
50 + jO ohms. Transmission line trans- "If—
formers provide the necessary phase shift, 3,
as half the bridge is fed 180 degrees out of OUTPUT
v
O 116-MHz
phase with respect to the other half. These
can be wound on ferrite toroid forms to
MOIl
effect a broadband response. Careful
winding of the transformers improves
balance in the circuit, which in turn
improves port-to-port isolation.
Active devices can be used very
effectively in balanced mixers. Both FETs
and bipolars can be used successfully.
Active balanced mixers offer all the
~47 O000
benefits of balanced diode mixers plus the
added advantage of conversion gain (A)
rather than loss. Less rf amplification is
needed to establish low system noise
HP5082-2835
figure because of this conversion gain
than would be needed with a diode mixer.
IN O- • • •
w
Low gain prior to the mixer keeps mixer -O OUT
input levels low, maximizing mixer over-
load resistance. High dissipation active
devices can be used, yielding better mixer HP5082-2835
performance than is available from diode
balanced mixers. Fig. 13C shows a dual
FET which has been specially designed for (B)
will mix with signals present in the mixer, proper overtone is the actual oscillation
Injection Stages creating spurious outputs at the mixer frequency. The network is
collector tank
Oscillator and multiplier stages sup- output. A clean local oscillator will paralleltuned and can be wound on a
plying heterodyning energy to the mixer prevent these unwanted outputs. The toroid core to reduce radiation. The
should be as stable and free of unwanted oscillator chain output can be heavily output is link coupled from the tank,
frequencies as possible. Proper appli- filtered to cut down the harmonic content minimizing harmonic coupling. This oscil-
cation of crystal control^ gives stability of the oscillator, but good planning and lator would be followed by a buffer to
design will minimize the unwanted energy, bring the signal up to that level needed
pursuant to needs. Two major influencing
factors control oscillator stability, tem- making the filter job less demanding. A and to purify the oscillator signal further.
perature and operating voltage. As the high-frequency crystal in the oscillator A similar oscillator could be used in a
minimizes the number of times the 220-MHz converter. Since crystals are not
temperature of a component changes, its
have good temperature characteristics band-pass filter would be needed at the can be made from a trifilar winding on a
tripler to eliminate the second ferrite core. Hot-carrier diodes allow the
helps in this regard. Minimum power output of a
should be extracted from the oscillator as harmonic and the higher ones. Finally, use of a doubler like this up through at
good shielding and power-line filtering least 500 MHz. There is a loss of about 8
excessive heat dissipation within either the
should be used throughout to prevent any dB through the doubler, so amplification
crystal or the transistor will cause internal
capacitance changes in those units, moving stray radiation from reaching the mixer or is needed to bring the injection signal to
the resonant frequency. Voltage to the causing RFI problems elsewhere. the appropriate level. Fundamental energy
Fig. 14A shows a typical circuit useful is down by as much as 40 dB from the
transistor should be regulated for best
stability. Simple Zener diode regulation is for providing the 116-MHz injection second harmonic with a balanced diode
IC energy necessary to convert a 144-MHz doubler such as this. All the odd
sufficient or a three-terminal regulator
can be used. signal down to 28 MHz. R z dampens the harmonics are well down in amplitude
crystal action somewhat, assuring that the also, all without tuned circuits. A low-
Any unwanted injection frequencies
9-11 Chapter 9
drain, at 12 to 15 volts dc. Touch the
TO +V SUPPLY neutralizing coil, L2. If there is any
THROUGH C8
oscillating.
R4 TAP LI change in current, ttie stage is
/
Keeping contact with L2 (to prevent
' ' X * INPUT oscillation), readjust mA. Using a Rl for 5
I .
I
,
1
i
, "I
°
r,
rises,
C2 and C4
then back off one turn and readjust
for maximum signal.
CS
:5 i -C3-
1 .
RFC1, and the one used at the receiver best noise figure. lead directly to the copper foil. The drain lead
of the transistor passes through a hole in the
input (to isolate the dc from the rf) are not
Low-Noise GaAs FET Preamplifiers for shield. At B, a 1296-MHz GaAs FET
critical. Any
reasonably good vhf choke preamplifier built by WA2ZZF. In this model,
432 and 1296 MHz
should do. If you're still willing to take the the transistor is connected to striplines etched
losses involved in the line, and you want Gallium-arsenide field-effect transistors on glass-epoxy board. SMA-type coaxial con-
(GaAs FETs) have recently come into use nectors are shown although type N or BNC
to use the preamp at the receiver input,
connectors may be used.
leave RFC1 out of the circuit, and connect as low-noise microwave amplifiers. Ama-
the dc as shown in Fig. 18. teur experimentation has shown that they
can provide excellent performance on the
Adjustment uhf and lower microwave amateur bands. ticularly the ones characterized as C-band
First set Rl for about 5 mA current These devices are rather expensive, par- and X-band (4-12 GHz) microwave
low-noise amplifiers. However, other
GaAs FETs, power
characterized as
amplifiers for low and medium-power (up
to 1 /4 watt) microwave applications will
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL provide almost the same noise figure at
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
uhf and are being made available to
IN MICROFARADS tjiF); OTHERS
T-37-0 toroidal core (Amidon Associates). Tap when preamp is antenna mounted (see text). soldered to the central shield board with
Handling Precautions
The MSC GaAs FETs have
T
static-
resistant gold gates,and are only sus- Q
L— ^
^
2 470
ceptible to damage from overvoltage or
Some
excess heating.
ticularly those
other types, par-
of Japanese manufacture,
have aluminum gates which are very
I QiA? J
l"° -J
k-
Ay
sensitive to static burnout, and should be
handled in the same manner as un-
protected MOS devices. In any case, work 6. 0.O01
9-13 Chapter 9
.
Table 2
Manufacturer Relcom Anzac MCL MCL MCL MCL
M6F MD-108 SRA-1 SRA-1 H RAY-1 MA-1
Model
Frequency Range (MHz)
2-500 5-500 5-500 5-500 5-500 1-2500
LO
2-500 5-500 51-500 5-500 5-500 1-2500
rf
DC-500 DC-500 DC-500 DC-500 1-1000
i-f DC-500
Conversion loss Q
9 UD may
HR 111 OA 7.5 dB max. 6.5 dB typ. 6.5 dB typ. 7.5 dB typ. 8.0 dB typ.
Mid-range
34-40 dB min. 40 dB min. 45 dB typ. 45 dB typ. 40 dB typ. 40 dB typ.
Isolation, LO-RF
Af\ AD ton A(\ HR Afi HR tun 40 dB tvo
Mid-range LO i-f 25-35 dB min. 35 dB mm. 4u ob typ. \\ir\
specifications apply only at stated LO power level. Anzac Electronics, 39 Green Street, Waltham, MA 02154.
All
MCL —
Mini-Circuits Laboratory, 2625 East 14th St., Brooklyn, NY 11235.
0.110
devices have noise figures in excess of
(2.7mm) those published for them as rf amplifiers
and will not provide sufficient sensitivity
for weak-signal work N To minimize noise,
mixer-device current is generally main-
tained at a low level.' This can reduce
dynamic range, increasing overload po-
0.137 (3.4mm)
(A) tential, as defined in the terminology
appendix. Gain contributions of rf ampli-
fiers (used to establish a low system noise
0.125 TYR figure) further complicate the overload
t (3.1mm) problem. LO-noise leakage to the rf and
0.023 i-f ports adversely affects system per- —
Fig.23 The i-f port of a double-balanced
(0.58 mm)~ formance. Mixer dynamic range can be mixer is matched at fLO —
hf and reactive at
0.420 limited by conversion of this noise to i-f, fLO ± frf. In this configuration conversion
"(10. •mm) placing a lower limit on mixer system loss, rf compression and desensitization levels
- 0.285 can vary ±3dB while harmonic modulation and
sensitivity. Generally 20 dB of mixer
( 6.7mm) third-order IMD products can vary ±20 dB.
midband interport isolation is required,
O.I10
(2.7mm) and most passive DBM can offer greater
than 40 dB. requirement, as will be demonstrated
A commercially manufactured doubly later. Additional LO power is fairly easy
0.123 TYR provide outstanding strong-signal mixer to be overcome in the DBM, those of
(3.1mm) SATE"
^ (2)0.062 OIA. performance (up to about dBm at the rf conversion loss and i-f output interfacing.
J ^ (1.3mm) input port) and add little (0.5 dB or so) to To minimize conversion loss in a DBM,
the diodes are driven by the LO beyond
_
common single-device active mixers with power requirements, and (c) i-f-interface equal in amplitude to the desired i-f
gain at vhf and uhf are beset with problems. The first two points are closely signal, and this unused energy must be
problems of noise, desensitization and interrelated. Conversion loss necessitates effectively terminated to obtain no more
small local-oscillator (LO) isolation from some low-noise r-f amplification to es- than the specified mixer-conversion loss.
03
. I-F
;PC5 OUTPUT
Fig. 24 — A schematic diagram for the double-balanced mixer and i-f post amplifier. The i-f can be either 14 or 28 MHz. Parts values are given in
Table 3.
This is not the image frequency,7LO -fi -f, Also greatly affected are third-order directly at themixer i-f terminal. This
which will be discussed later. inter-modulation-product ratio and the approach is easiest for the amateur to
In any mixer design, all rf port signal suppression of spurious signals, both of implement and duplicate, so a form of it
components must be bypassed effectively which may vary ±10 dB or more. It is was tried —
with success. In our circuit,
for best conversion efficiency (minimum the most sensitive
ironic that the i-f port is CI serves a dual purpose. Its reactance at
loss). Energy not "converted" by mixing to a reactive termination, as this is a fif + JLO is small enough to provide a
action willreduce conversion gain in receiving point where sharp-
system low-impedance "short-circuit" condition
active systems, and increase conversion skirted filters are often desired. to this term for proper mixer operation.
loss in passive systems such as the diode Briefly, here is what happens with a Additionally, it is part of the input
DBM. Rf bypassing also prevents spur- reactive i-f port termination. Fig. 23 reactance of the mixer i-f-amplifier inter-
ious resonances and other undesired shows a DBMwith "high side" LO face.Fortunately the network impedance-
phenomena from affecting mixer per- injection and an i-f termination matched transfprmation ratio is large enough, and
formance. In this system, rf bypassing at at JLO - fif but reactive to JLO +fif. The in the proper direction, to permit a fairly
the i-f-output port will be provided by the latter term re-enters the mixer, again large amount of capacitance (low react-
input capacitance of the i-f interface. The combines with the LO and produces terms ance) at the mixer i-f-output port. The
DBM is not a panacea for mixing ills, and that exit at the rf port, namely 2/LO +/rf, capacitor, in its dual role, must be of good
its effectiveness can be reduced drastically a dc term, and JLO + fif - yLO (the quality at vhf/uhf (specifically /rf + JLO),
if all ports are not properly terminated. original input frequency). This
rf-port with short leads, to be effective. The mixer
condition affects conversion loss, as condition (/rf + JLO)/Jxf - JLO) > 10 is
DBM Port Terminations
mentioned earlier, in addition to rf-port met at 432 and 220 with a MHz
Most DBM-performance inconsisten- VSWR, depending on the phase of the 404/192-MHz LO (2Sf-MHz i-f) and on 14
cies occur because system source and load reflected signal. The term 2/LO + /rf also MHz with a 130-MHz LO (14-MHz i-f).
impedances presented to the mixer are not affects the harmonic spectrum resulting in At 50 MHz, with a 36 MHz LO, we are
matched at all frequencies encountered in spurious responses. slightly shy of the requirement, but no
normal operation. The terminations (at- One solution to the i-f-interface prob- problems were encountered in an operat-
tenuator pads) used in conjunction with lem is the use of a broadband 50-ohm ing unit. The pi-type interface circuit
test equipment by manufacturers to resistive termination, like a pad, to assures a decreasing impedance as i-f
measure published performance char- minimize reflections. In deference to operation departs from midband, thereby
acteristics are indeed "broadband" match- increased post-conversion system noise lessening IMD problems.
ed. Reactive mixer terminations can cause figure, seemed impractical to place such
it
system problems, and multiple reactive a termination at the mixer i-f output port.
The LO Port
terminations can usually compound these While a complimentary filter or diplexer The primary effect of a reactive LO
problems to the point where performance (high-pass/low-pass filters appropriately source is an increase in harmonic modula-
is very difficult to predict. Let's see how terminated) can be used to terminate both tion and third-order IMD
products. If
we can deal with reactive terminations. fif + JLO and /rf - JLO', a simpler the drive level is adequate, no effect is
method can be used if fif + JLO is less noted on conversion loss, rf compression
The I-F Port than 1 GHz and fif + (JLO)/(fif - JLO) > and desensitization levels. A reactive LO
The i-f port is very sensitive to 10. Place a short-circuit termination to ./rf source can be mitigated by simply
mismatch conditions. Reflections from + yLO, like a simple lumped capacitance, padding the LO port with a 3- or 6-dB pad
the mixer/i-f amplifier interface (the pi and increasing the LO drive a like
'Presentation and calculation format of these terms is
network in Fig. 24) can cause the based on "low-side" LO injection. See the appen- amount. If excess LO power is not
conversion loss to vary as much as 6 dB. dix for explanation. available, matching the LO source to the
9-1 S Chapter 9
mixer will improve performance. This the modular-construction approach per-
Table 3 mits good signal isolation and enables the
method acceptable for single-frequency
is
practical in the 14-MHz i-f-output model, much greater with the use of a simple to the non-ideal mixer-port-termination
while the 28-MHz-output unit is most gating scheme —
such a system is a bit problem have been offered. To achieve
useful from 175 to 500 MHz. Mixer -esoteric for our application. Double or from most commercially
best performance
contribution to system noise figure will be multiple-conversion techniques can be manufactured broadband in ama- DBM
almost completely overcome by a low- used to advantage, but they further teur receiver service, the following guide-
noise rf amplifier with sufficient gain and complicate an otherwise simple system. lines are suggested:
adequate image rejection. Image noise and signal rejection will 1) Choose i-f and LO frequencies, which
depend on the effectiveness of the filtering will provide maximum freedom from
Image Response provided in the rf-amplifier chain. interference problems. Don't "guessti-
Any broadband mixing scheme will mate"; go through the numbers!
Mixer Selection 2) Provide a proper i-f-output termina-
have a potential image-response problem.
In most amateur vhf/uhf receiver systems The mixer used in this system is a tion (most critical).
(as in these units) single-conversion, Relcom M6F, with specifications given in 3) Increase the LO-input power to
techniques are employed, with the LO Table 2. Suitable substitute units are also rf-input power ratio to a value that will
placed below the desired rf channel for presented. The M6F is designed for provide the required suppression of any
non-inverting down-conversion to i-f. printed-circuit applications (as are the in-band interfering products. The speci-
Conversion is related to both i-f and LO recommended substitutes), and the lead fied LO power (+7 dBm) will generally
frequencies and, because of the broad- pins are rather short. While mixers are accomplish this.
band nature of the DBM, input signals at available with connectors attached, they 4) Provide as good an LO match as
the rf image frequency (numerically fLO are more expensive. The simple package is possible.
-./i-f in our case) will legitimately appear suggested as, aside from less expense, 5) Include adequate pre-mixer rf-image
inverted at the i-f-output port, unless improved interface between mixer and i-f filtering at the rf port.
proper filtering is used to reduce them at' amplifier is possible because of the short When the mixer ports are terminated
the mixer rf-input port. For example, a leads. The combining of mixer and i-f properly, performance usually in excess of
144-MHz converter with a 28-MHz i-f amplifier in one converter package was published specifications will be achieved
output (116-MHz LO) will have rf done for that reason. Along these lines, — and this is more than adequate for
9-17 Chapter 9
level of two input tones by 10 dB will
cause the desired output to increase by 10
dB, but the third-order output will
increase by 30 dB. If the mixer exhibited
no compression, there would be a point at
which the level of the desired output
would be equal to that of the third-order
product. This is called the third-order
intercept point and is the point where the
desired-output slopes and third-order
slopes intersect (Fig. 29).
Noise Figure
Noise figure is a relative measurement
based on excess noise power available
from a termination (input resistor) at a
particular temperature (290° k). When
measuring the NF of a double balanced
mixer with an automatic system, such as
the HP-342A, a correction may be
necessary to make the meter reading
consistent with the accepted definition of
receiver noise figure.
In a broadband DBM, the actual noise
bandwidth consists of two i-f passbands,
one on each side of the local-oscillator
frequency (fLO +/i-f and/LO -fi-f). This
double sideband (dsb) i-f response in-
cludes the rf channel and its image. In
general, only the rf channel is desired for
further amplification. The image con-
— A third order intercept determined by extrapolating the desired product curve tributes nothing but receiver and back-
Fig. 29 point is
beyond the mixer compression point and intersecting with the third-order IM-product curve. In this ground noise.
case LO power is + 7 dBm, conversion loss is 5 dB. When making an automatic noise-
figure measurement using a wideband
noise source, the excess noise is applied
mixer overload problems, leaving the signal that causes the small-signal con- through both sidebands in a broadband
station receiver as the potentially weak version loss to increase by 1 dB, i.e., DBM. Thus the instrument meter in-
link in the system. When properly reducing a weak received signal by 1 dB. dicates NF
as based on both sidebands.
understood and employed, the broadband Intermodulation Products This means that the noise in the rf and
DBM followed by a selective low-noise i-f
Distortion products caused by multiple
image sidebands is combined in the mixer
amplifier can be a useful tool for the i-f-output port to give a double con-
and their harmonics mixing with
rf signals
amateur vhf/uhf receiver experimenter.
each other and the LO, producing new
tribution (3 dB greater than under ssb
conditions). For equal rf-sideband re-
Appendix output frequencies.
sponses, which is a reasonable assumption,
Mixer Terminology and in the absence of preselectors, filters,
Mixer Intermodulation Intercept Point
frf— input frequency
rf or other image rejection elements, the
fLO — local-oscillator input frequency Because mixers are nonlinear devices, automatic NF meter readings are 3 dB
/i-f — i-f output frequency
all signals applied will generate others.
When two signals (or tones), Fl and F2,
lower than the actual NF for DBM
measurements.
By convention, mixing signals and their are applied simultaneously to the rf-input most
The noise figure for receivers (and
products are referred to the LO frequency port, additional signals are generated and DBM) is generally specified with only one
for calculations. In the mixer system appear in the output as fLO ± («F1 + sideband for the useful signal. As men-
presented, /rf is always above fLO, so we wF2). These signals are most troublesome tioned in the text, most DBM
diodes add
will refer our signals to /rf, with the when n ± m is a low odd number, as the no more than 0.5 dB (in the form of NF)
exception of Fig. 23 which uses the ./LO resulting product will lie close to the de-
to conversion loss, which is generally
reference. sired output. For n - 1 (or 2) and m - 2
measured under single-signal rf-input
Overload (or 1), the result is three (3), and is called the (ssb) conditons. Assuming con- DBM
two-tone/third-order intermodulation prod-
A generic term covering most undesired version efficiency (or loss) to be within
operating phenomena associated with When Fl and F2 are separated by
ucts. 1
specifications, there is an excellent proba-
device non-linearity.
MHz, the third-order products will lie 1
bility that the ssb NF is also satisfactory.
MHz above and below the desired Noise figure calculations in the text
Harmonic Modulation Products outputs. Intermodulation is generally were made using a graphical solution of
Output responses caused by harmonics specified under anticipated operating the well known noise-figure formula:
of fLO and /rf and their mixing products. conditions since performance varies over
RF Compression Level the broad mixer-frequency ranges. Inter- fT = f, +(Lzi
Si
modulation products may be specified at
The absolute single-signal rf input T
levels required (i.e., 50 dB below the converted to dB.
power level that causes conversion loss to
desired outputs for two 0-dBm input
increase by 1 dB. Improved Wide Band I-F Responses
signals) or by the intercept point.
RF Desensitization Level The intercept point is a fictitious point The following information was de-
The rf input power of an interfering determined by the fact that an increase of veloped in achieving broad-band per-
Fig. 30 — Suggested changes in the mixer-to 3N140 pi-network interface circuit, producing lower Fig. 31 —
Completed 6- and 2-meter converters
Q L and better performance. (left and center) with power supply.
formance in the mixer-to-amplifier cir- cross-modulation as a prime system Id at both choices of i-f. Best inter-
cuitry. In cases where only a small portion consideration, this 3: 1 change (reduction) modulation figure for the 3N201 was
of a band is of interest the original circuit in source resistance implies a 3:1 im- obtained with a small forward bias on
values are adequate. For those who need provement in cross-modulation and total gate 1, and the bias-circuit modification
to receive over a considerable portion of a harmonic distortion. shown may be tried, if desired.
band, say one to two MHz,
a change of Tests on the 3N201 dual-gate MOSFET
some component provide improved
will have shown device noise performance to Converters for 50, 144 and 220 MHz
performance over a broad range while be excellent for source impedances in the The were originally
converters here
maintaining an acceptable noise figure. 1000- to 2000-ohm region. For optimum designed by the Rochester VHF Group
The term "nominal 50-ohm impedance" noise and good cross-modulation per- and appeared in August 1973 QST. The
applied to diode DBM
ports is truly a formance, the nominal 50-ohm mixer i-f design was the basis for a club project so
misnomer, as their reflective impedance is output impedance is stepped up to about the same board is used for all three
rarely 50 ohms + jO and of 1 is a VSWR 1500 ohms for i-f amplifier gate 1, using converters, with only slight modifications
almost never achieved. Mixer perform- the familiar low-pass pi network. This is a for each band. Design features include
ance specified by the manufacturer is mismatched condition for gate 1, as the 1) Low noise figure.
measured in a 50-ohm broadband system, device input impedance for best gain in 2) State-of-the-art freedom from cross
and it is up to the designer to provide an the hf region is on the order of 10kS2. modulation.
equivalent termination to ensure that the Network loaded-Q values in the article are 3) Sufficient gain to override the
unit will meet Appropriate
specifications. a bit higher than necessary, and a design front-end-noise of most receivers.
matching techniques at the rf and LO ports for lower Ql is preferred. Suggested 4) Double-tuned bandpass interstage
will reduce conversion loss and low-power modified component values are listed in and output circuits to achieve a flat
requirements. Complex filter synthesis can Fig. 30. High-frequency attenuation is response over a 2-MHz portion of either
improve the i-f output match. However, if reduced somewhat, but satisfactory noise band.
one does not have the necessary equip- and bandwidth performance is more 5) Filtering of the local oscillator chain
ment to evaluate his efforts, they may be easily obtained. Conform size is the in the 144- and 220-MHz models to
wasted. Simple, effective, easily reproduced same, so no layout changes are required reduce spurious responses.
reduced circuitry was desired as long as for the modification. Components in the 6) Small size and low power con-
the trade-offs were acceptable, and measure- interface must be of high Q and few in sumption.
ments indicate this to be the case. number to limit their noise contribution 7) Freedom from accidental mistuning
The most critical circuit in the com- through losses. The 28-MHz values during the life of the converter.
bined unit is the interface between mixer provide satisfactory interface network Other points considered were such things
and i-f amplifier. It must be low-pass in performance over a 2-MHz bandwidth. A as freedom from the necessity of neu-
nature to satisfy vhf signal component higher Q l in the 28-MHz interface can be tralization and the use of moderately
bypassing requirements at the mixer i-f useful if one narrows the output network priced transistors.
port. For best mixer IMD characteristics and covers only a few hundred kilohertz Several breadboard models were con-
and low conversion loss, it must present to bandwidth, as is commonly done in structedand tested as the design evolved.
the i-f port a nominal 50-ohm impedance 432-MHz weak-signal work. Fig. 31 shows two completed converters
at the desired frequency, and this im- Device biasing and gain control methods and a power supply.
pedance value must not be allowed to were chosen for simplicity and adequate
increase as i-f operation departs from Circuit Design
performance. Some sort of gain adjustment
midband. The impedance at the i-f is desirable for drain-circuit overload pro- Schematic diagrams for the three ver-
amplifier end of the interface network tection. It is handy way to "set" the
also a sions areshown in Figs. 32, 33 and 34.
must be in the optimum region for receiver S meter. A good method for gain The configuration of the rf and mixer
minimum cross-modulation and low noise. adjustment is reduction of the gate-2 bias portions of the circuit are virtually
A dual-gate device offers two important voltage from its initial optimum-gain bias identical for all three with the values of
advantages over most bi-polars. Very point (greater than +4 V dc), producing a the frequency-determining components
little, any, power gain is sacrificed in
if remote-cutoff characteristic (a gradual re- being scaled appropriately. The major
achieving best noise Tigure, and both duction in drain current with decreasing gate difference between the converters is a
parameters (gain and NF) are relatively bias). The initial gain-reduction rate is higher change in the local oscillator chain. A
independent of source resistance in the with a slight forward bias on gate 1, than for minor change in the method .of interstage
optimum region. As a result, the designer Vgis = 0. Input and output circuit coupling was necessary to prevent stray-
has a great deal of flexibility in choosing a detuning resulting from gain reduction capacitance effects from making the
source impedance. In general, a 3: . (Miller effect) is inconsequential as the alignment critical on the 50-MHz con-
change in source resistance results in only gate- 1 and drain susceptances change very verter.
a 1-dB change in NF. With minimum little over a wide range of Vg2S and All inductors in the 50-MHz model and
9-19 Chapter 9
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS ( JiF OTHERS
1 ;
-Q»12V
Fig. 32 — Schematic diagram of the 50-MHz converter. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition. C2, C8, C10 and C15 are 0.001 ytF disc ceramic. C4 is
0.01 -nF disc ceramic. All other capacitors are dipped mica.
L1-L6, incl. —
All no. 28 enam. wire wound on L3, 12 turns; L4, 18 turns; L5, 18 turns tap- tapped at 6 turns from hot end.
Amidon T-25-6 cores as follows: L1, 14 turns ped at 4 turns from cold end; L6, 26 turns Y1 — 22-MHz crystal. International Crystal
tapped at 4 turns and 6 turns; L2, 13 turns; Mfg. Co. type EX.
0+12V
Fig. 33 —
Schematic diagram of the 144-MHz converter. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition. C8, C10, C15 and C18 are O.OOI-pF disc ceramic. All
other capacitors are dipped mica units.
L1, L2, L3, L7, L8 —
All no. 20 enam. wire from hot end. cold end.
formed by using the threads of a 1/4-20 bolt L4 —
18 turns no. 28 enam. wound on Amidon L6 —
16 turns no. 28 enam. wound on Amidon
as a guide. L1, 5 turns tapped at 1-3/4 turns T-25-6 core. T-25-10 core.
and 3/4 turn from cold end; L2, 5 turns; L3, L5 —
18 turns like L4, tapped at 4 turns from Y1 —
38.666-MHz crystal. International Crystal
4 turns; L7 and L8, 5 turns tapped at 2 turns Mfg. Co. type EX.
the 28-MHz output circuit are wound on winding wire around the threads of a feedback in this case. The drain tank is
Amidon toroid cores. The tuned circuits 1/4-20 bolt. The turns of LI are spread to modified to provide output at the third
are aligned by spreading or compressing permit adding taps prior to mounting on harmonic, thus eliminating the need for a
the turns around the toroid core. After the board. The degree of interstage separate tripler stage. Q4 is used as an
alignment the coils are glued in place with coupling in the two-meter model is isolation amplifier running at very low
Silastic compound (sold as bathtub controlled by the positions of L2 and L3. current level (as controlled by R9) to
caulk). Since they are mounted at right angles, the provide attenuation of the adjacent
The rf amplifier, Ql, is used in a coupling is very light. By changing the harmonics. This stage is not needed for
grounded-gate configuration. The input angle between these two coils, the amplification of the oscillator signal but
circuit is tapped to provide a proper passband may be optimized. without the additional filtering, severe
match between the antenna and source of In the 144- and 220-MHz converter oscil- "birdies" may result from nearby fm or
the FET while maintaining a reasonable lator stages, Q3 is changed to an oscil- TV stations. In all three versions, a
Q. The 50-MHz interstage coupling lator/tripler by replacing the source bias ,
number of printed-circuit pads will be left
network consists of C3, C5, L2 and L3. resistor with L6. Replace bypass capa- over when construction is completed.
Band-pass coupling .is controlled by the citor, CI 3, with a suitable value to These are the result of providing both
capacitive T network of C3 and C5 in resonate L6 near the crystal frequency. bands on a common pc layout. For
ratio with C6. A 40673 dual-gate MOS- Source-to-gate capacitance provides the example, the isolation amplifier following
FET is used in the mixer circuit (Q2).
Gate 1 receives the signal, while gate 2 has
the local-oscillator injection voltage ap-
plied to it through C7. A slight amount of
positive bias applied to gate 2 through
is
9-21 Chapter 9
using a sweep generator, diode probe, and
oscilloscope is a necessity to assure the
flat response over the tuning range.
1
(A)
figure. When this occurs, an rf FET
should be carefully with an
traded
oscillator FET, since performance of the
FET as an oscillator usually is satisfac-
tory.
Small ceramic trimmers can be used in
place of the fixed-value mica capacitors in
the tuned circuits of these converters. The
midrange of the trimmer should be
approximately the value of the mica
CIS capacitors replaced. This procedure may
NOT ON PC BOARD I
-Wv-
FROM -Cl-
CONVERTER ' R3 TO l-F
l-F OUT RECEIVER
(B)
Fig. 37 —
An i-f attenuator may be necessary if
the receiver following the converter is excep-
tionally hot. Values for 6 dB; R1, R2 18 — Fig. 38 — Schematic diagram and parts-placement guide for the power supply to the -converters.
ohms; R3 —
68 ohms. For 10 dB: R1, R2 27 — The transformer is mounted external to the board. Pc board size is identical to the one used for
ohms; R3 —
39 ohms. the converters.
the output i-f circuits can be tuned in a marily for use from 144.0 to 144.2 MHz.
manner similar to the interstage circuits. In this case the tunable i-f is 28.0 to 28.2
MHz.
A High-Performance 2-Meter Converter
Top performance is a requisite for vhf
RF Amplifiers and Filter
receivers during contests and when the 39 shows the front-end section of
Fig.
operator engaged in weak-signal wo"rk.
is the converter. CI was not needed in the
The criteria are low noise, frequency prototype model, but can be included in
stability and freedom from unwanted the interest of obtaining the lowest
spurious responses in the overall receiver, possible noise figure. The tap point to Fig. 40 —Close-up view of the interior of the rf
The latter can be assured by using an LO which CI is connected is approximately 50 front-end amplifier arid bandpass filters.
chain which has proper spectral purity, ohms without CI in the circuit. LI and C2 Spring-brass tabs are soldered to the divider
walls to assure good electrical contact with
and by using narrow-band filtering at the comprise the input resonator, FL1. Ql
the aluminum side plate (see text). A third
receiver front end. Additional benefits are operates in the common-gate mode. The 0.001-jjF feedthrough capacitor was added to
obtained when utilizing filtering at the i-f source tapped on LI to provide an
is the lower edge of the third compartment from
output of a vhf converter. This circuit, impedance match. A Siliconix E300 JFET the left after this photograph was taken. It
serves as a tie point for the 100-ohm decou-
developed by W1FB, complies with the is used at Ql and Q2 in the interest of low
pling resistors (see Fig. 39).
foregoing design and performance ob- noise and high dynamic range. It is rated
jectives. It intended for use on ssb, cw
is by the manufacturer as having a typical
and a-m, notably below 146 MHz. The noise figure of 1.3 dB at 100 MHz. The
dynamic range of this converter is dynamic range is specified as 100 dB or pc-board double-clad module wall. Three
excellent, owing in part to' the use of a greater. Power gain is listed as 17 to 0.00 1-«F feedthrough capacitors and two
doubly balanced diode-ring mixer that is 20 dB in the common-gate mode. In 100-ohm resistors serve as the 12- volt
followed by a diplexer. The diplexer this circuit the gainapproximately
is set at decoupling elements. Ql and Q2 are
assufes that the mixer terminated in its
is 10 dB per stage by means of the tap points* mounted on the outside wall of the
characteristic impedance - 50 ohms. on the resonators and the value of rf-amplifier module.
An overall gain of 15 dB was measured source-bias resistance. The 10-ohm re-
Mixer and Post-Mixer Amplifier
for the composite converter. All spurious sistors used in the drain leads of each
energy at the LO-chain output is — 72 dB transistor reduce the gain slightly. They Ul and Q3 of Fig. 41 are contained in
or greater below the desired output (116 are included for suppression of parasitic the second module. Ul is a four-diode
MHz). A two-pole Butterworth filter is oscillations. doubly balanced mixer assembly. It has a
used at the i-f output of the converter. FL2 consists oftwo aperture-coupled conversion loss of approximately 8 dB.
This 28-MHz filter prevents unwanted resonators. The aperture is set for an This requires the inclusion of a post-mixer
energy from the converter from reaching insertion loss of roughly 5 dB in order to i-f amplifier, Q3. The latter is set for a
aid to the elimination of birdies. The end selectivity. FL3 is the fourth re- supplied to Ul at 116 MHz. The LO
converter has a 3-dB bandwidth of 200 sonator. Output is taken at 50 ohms by power is +7 dBM (approximately 0.5 volt
kHz. This is established by the highly means of a 560-pF coupling capacitor. rms across 50 ohms).
selective four-resonator input filter which This circuit is unconditionally stable. The L5, the 51 -ohm resistor and two 39-pF >
is similar to a helical resonator. The gate lead must be made as short as capacitors form the diplexer in com-
converter can be adjusted for any 200-kHz possible to ensure stability. It is returned bination with the L network (L6/C6). L5
segment of the 2-meter band. The to ground on the inner conductor of the and the 39-pF capacitors comprise a
high-pass network with a loaded of Q
1 (X L and X
c = 50). The cutoff frequen-
cy of the network is three times the i-f (84
MHz). The 51-ohm resistor serves as a
144 MHz 144 MHz 144 MHz termination for the mixer. L6 and C6, by
FL1 FL2 F L3 virtue of the low-pass characteristic, help
prevent 116- and 144-MHz energy from
reaching Q3. This network is designed to
match 50 ohms to 2200 ohms.
Q3 is another E300 FET, chosen for the
low-noise characteristic. An unbypassed
10-ohm resistor is used in the source to
cause degeneration in the interest of
stability. A two-pole Butterworth band-
pass filter is used at the output of Q3. It
has a 3-dB bandwidth of 500 kHz and is
tuned for a center frequency of 28.250
MHz. The filter input characteristic is
12,000 ohms. The 10-pF output coupling
NO CONNECTION capacitor provides a 50-ohm terminal
impedance for looking into a 50-ohm
tunable i-f receiver. The circuit of Fig. 41
Fig. 39 — Schematic diagram of the converter front end. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic.
is contained in a module fashioned from
Feedthrough types are used where indicated. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition.
C1 — 50-pF ceramic trimmer (see text). single-sided pc board. The copper surfaces
C2-C5, incl. — 5-pF capacitor. Subminiature air inches (16 x 32 mm) long. Q1, Q2 sources are inside the box.
variable of glass piston trimmer of high-Q tapped 1/2 turn above ground. Input and out-
type. E.F. Johnson 160-102 suitable. Johnson put taps are 1/4 turn from ground. Drain Local-Oscillator Section
193-4-1 (13 pF max.) used in this model. taps are 1/2 turn from high end of coils.
L1-L4, incl. —4 turns no. 16 bare or silver- Q1, Q2 —
Siliconix E300 JFET. 2N4416 suit- A simple overtone oscillator is used at
plated copper wire, 5/8-inch ID x 1-1/4 able at slight reduction in performance. the beginning of the LO chain (Fig. 42).
9-23 Chapter 9
;
FL4
28- 28.5 MHz
BAL. MIX.
Fig. 41— Schematic diagram of the passive mixer, diplexer and post-mixer amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic except those shown
as feedthrough types. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition. ~ UAA1B
C6-C8 incl — 35-pF ceramic or Mylar trimmer. L5 — 5 turns no. 24 enam. wire on T-50-6 Q3 —
Silicomx E300 JFET or 2N4416.
Solder 47- and 33-pF silver mica capacitors toroid core (0.09 M H). U1 -
Diode-quad doubly balanced mixer. MCL
across pc foils for C7 and C8, respectively. L6 — 21 turns no. 24 enam. wire on T-50-6 SRA-1 or SBL1, or Cimarron CM-1 suitable.
toroid core (1.8 uH).
Fig. 42 —
Schematic diagram of the local-oscillator
chain. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic except
those shown as feedthrough types. Resistors are
1/2-watt composition.
C9, C10 —Miniature 60-pF ceramic or Mylar trimmer.
C11 —
25-pF miniature ceramic or Mylar trimmer.
C12, C13 —13-pF miniature trimmer or glass-piston
type, high Q. E. F. Johnson 193-4-1 used in this
model.
D1 — Zener diode, 9.1 V. 400 mW
or 1 watt.
D2, D3 — High speed silicon switching diode or hot-
carrier diode. 1N914 used here.
L9 —7 turns no. 16 bare wire, 1/4-inch ID x 1/2
inch long (6.3 x 12.7 mm). Tap diodes 1-3/4 turns
from ground.
L10, L11 —
7 turns no. 16 bare wire. 1/4-inch ID
x 3/4 inch long (6.3 x 19 mm). Tap 1 turn above
ground. Center-to-center spacing is 3/4 inch (19 mm).
Q4-Q6, incl. —
2N5179 transistor.
T1 —8 turns no. 24 enam. wire on T-50-6 toroid
core (0.25 /jH). Secondary has 3 turns over primary
winding, no. 24 enam.
T2, T4 —
6 bifilar turns no. 30 enam. wire on Amidon
FT-23-43 toroid core.
T3 —7 trifilar turns no. 30 enam. wire on FT-23-43
toroid core.
C9 can be adjusted to shift the oscillator LO chain as viewed on an HP analyzer. It disrupting the complete converter. Most
frequency by a small amount. Greater can be seen that all spurious responses are of the circuit boards are much larger than
range for netting the crystal can be 72 dB or greater below the desired necessary. This was done with a view
obtained by inserting a small amount of 116-MHz energy level. Imagine that the toward possible revisions to the circuits of
inductive reactance between C6 and Y 1 carrier amplitude is full scale when the first model. Those who are skilled at
A tuned toroidal transformer, Tl, is comparing the levels of the spurs. The layout work may want to compress the
adjusted for resonance at approximately 116-MHz carrier has been suppressed by circuits somewhat.
58 MHz. CIO is set for reliable starting of means of a trap to prevent front-end Small Teflon press-fit feedthrough bush-
the oscillator (consistent with high out- overloading of the analyzer. This has no ings are used as input and output
put) when the operating voltage is turned effect on the accuracy of the spur-level terminals for the various modules. They
on. Zener-diode regulation (Dl) is used to readings. The full-scale line at the far were purchased at a flea market, so the
aid oscillator stability. » . left in Fig. 43 is the zero-reference blip original source is not known. Any
Output from Q4 is routed to a fed-back, from the analyzer. It should be ignored. low-loss miniature bushing should be
broadband, Class A amplifier, Q5. The Q4, Q5 and the related circuitry are suitable as a substitute. Alternatively, the
feedback provides a 50-ohm input charac- contained in a module made from RG-174 miniature coaxial cables can be,
teristic and contributes to excellent stability single-sided pc board. The copper foil is routed directly and out of the
into
of the 58-MHz amplifier. Negative feed- on the inside of the box. D2, D3, Q6 and modules for connection to the circuits.
back and emitter degeneration are used at related components are in a separate For attachment to the +12- volt supply,
Q5 and Q6 for this purpose. T2 is a broad- container. Double-sided pc board is used. each module has 0.001-/xF feedthrough
band 4:1 toroidal transformer. It trans- capacitors. These components are mount-
forms the- collector impedance of Q5 to 50 Construction Data
ed on the box walls. Small Teflon
ohms. Output is taken at this point and Modular construction is used in this feedthrough bushings are used at Q 1 and
fed to a separate module which contains design so that various portions of the Q2 to permit circuit connections for the
T3 through FL5. circuitcan be isolated from one another in FET leads inside the module. The FETs
The output from Q5 is used to drive a an effective manner. Another benefit to are installed on the outer wall of the
two-diode balanced doubler, D2 and D3. this style of construction is that the front-end module.
A trifilar-wound broadband toroidal trans- builder can experiment with other circuits All of the modules are affixed to the
former (T3) couples the energy to the (substitutes) and install them without main chassis 7X11X2 inches (180 X 280
doubler. L9 and CI 1 comprise a 1 16-MHz
resonator which serves as an impedance
transformer between the diodes and Q6.
This resonator also suppresses energy at
other than 116 MHz. The diodes and the
base of Q6 are tapped close to ground on
L9 to effect an impedance match. The
stage gain from L9 to the output of FL5
was measured as 16 dB. The gain is
needed to ensure a +7-dBm injection level
at Ul, the mixer.
Another broadband step-down trans-
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF 3 (and)
former, T4, is used to effect an impedance
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( jiF I ;
match. It transforms "the collector im- OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR jiJlF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS
pedance of Q6 to the 50-ohm input k-IOOO, M'lOOO 000.
impedance of band-pass filter FL5. The
latter greatly suppresses the 58-MHz
energy passing through Q6. It also rejects
Fig. 45 —
Schematic diagram of the regulated 12-volt power supply used with the 2-meter con-
verter.Capacitors are disc ceramic except the one with polarity marked, which is electrolytic.
the harmonics of the 116-MHz LO chain. D4-D7, incl. are 50 PRV silicon diodes. S1 is a spst toggle switch. T5 delivers 24V ac at 1 A,
Fig. 43 shows the spectral output of the and U2 is a National Semiconductor three-terminal regulator.
9-25 Chapter 9
+ 12V
GtMD PUANt
FOR L.10, Lll
INPUT
TO HO 1AP
Fig. 46 — Scale layouts and parts-placement guides for the three circuit boards. Views are shown from the bottom (etched sides) of the boards.
amplifier assembly are 5-3/4 X 1-7/8 used for all of the etched circuits.
terial is
X 50 mm) by means of no. 6 spade bolts.
The latter are bolted to the side walls of inches (155 X 50 mm), length and width. A ground-bus copper strip is retained
assembly The box height is 1-1/2 inches (3.8 cm). around the entire perimeter of each board.
the modules. The rf amplifier
This container and the one for the This permits the builder to solder the
uses the chassis surface as part of the box
low-level stages of the LO chain do not boards into the shield boxes.
shield. An aluminum plate is attached to
module by means of have copper on the outside. Therefore it is The low-level section of the LO chain is
the side wall of the
necessary to provide a grounding contact housed in a box which is 5-1/4 inches (135
spade bolts. This type of construction was
for the press-fit U-shaped aluminum mm) long, 2-1/4 inches (58 mm) wide and
used to ease assembly of the front end
covers. Shim-brass or flashing-copper 2 inches (51 mm) high. The last half of the
filter and amplifiers. Spring-brass fingers
compartment dividers strips are located opposite one another on LO is contained in an enclosure
circuit
are soldered to the
the upper lips of the side walls. The strips which 4-1/8 inches (105 mm) long,
is
to assure solid contact to the aluminum
are approximately 1-1/2 inches long (38 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) wide and 1-1/4
side plate (see Fig. 44). The aperture size
mm) and 3/4 inch (19 mm) wide. They are inches (32 mm) high. The end com-
between L2 and L3 of FL2 is 1 X 5/8 inch
soldered to the inner walls of the box, then partment houses the bandpass filter. It is
(25 X 16 mm). Each resonator compart- 1-1/2 X 1-1/2 inches (38 X 38 mm) square.
bent over the edges and down the outside
ment measures 1-1/4 X 1-1/4 X 2 inches The depth of the compartment is 1 inch
of the box walls This provides a ground
(32 X 32 X 50 mm). The coils are
contact for the box covers (25mm). The lower surface of the filter
centered in the compartments.
Single-sided glass-epoxy pc-board ma- compartment is part of the main pc board,
Dimensions for the mixer/post-mixer
The
board
inner and outer copper surfaces of
the modules which use double-clad pc
sides should be connected together
to assure electrical contact. This can be
U-.8" » «
120.3mm) I'll
(121.9mm)
s»\
gi
10-32 NUT
^SOLDERED
SOLDER WALL
TO BOTTOM
GROUNDPLANE
.25" (6.32mm )
Alignment
Choose a 200-kHz segment of the
2-meter band that suits your purposes.
Place a 2-meter signal at the midpoint of
that tuning range (144.1 MHz for .75'
Power Supply
A well-filtered 12- volt regulated dc
supply is recommended for use with this
converter. It should be capable of
accommodating a load current of 100 mA
or greater. The unit shown here contains a
12- volt regulated supply under the main
chassis. A red LED is used as the on-off
indicator. The circuit is shown in Fig. 45.
A bottom can be added to the
plate
chassis. Adhesive-backed plastic feet (four)
should be affixed to the bottom plate to
prevent scratching the operating desk.
Pc-board layouts and parts-placement
guides are given in Fig. '46. The drawings
show the etched sides of the boards. Each Fig. 48 — The converter for 1296 MHz. This unit was built by R.E. Fisher, W2CQH. While the mixer
board is illustrated to scale. assembly (top center) in this model has solid brass walls, it can be made from lighter material, as
explained in the text and shown in Fig. 47. The i-f amplifier is near the center, just above the
Interdigital Converter for 1296 or 2304 mixer-current-monitoring jack, J1. A BNC connector at the lower left is for 28-MHz output. The
MHz local oscillator and multiplier circuits are to the lower right. Note that L6 is very close to the
chassis, just above the crystal. The variable capacitor near the crystal is an optional trimmer to
In a world where rf spectrum pollution adjust the oscillator to the correct frequency.
9-27 Chapter 9
t
220£i
,
'
SIUN/U- INPUT
c6
f C8 I I i
39PF/SM I 1.7
' I 1 PF 0.01 SRA 1
I •L6- t
12K 39pF
-LS-
10PF
I
C7
I
43PF/SM
. — M
'
1
r
1
.^lOfi
lOOli
r
0.0 5111 39PF
I
l-F
/
OUT
/
H2V
'
LO INPUT
+ 12V
116mHz I
OUTPUT*
560R C9
I
3 I
Fig. 46 — Scale layouts and parts-placement guides for the three circuit boards. Views are shown from the bottom (etched sides) of the boards.
amplifier assembly are 5-3/4 X 1-7/8 terial is used for all of the etched circuits.
X 50 mm) by means of no. 6 spade bolts.
The latter are bolted to the side walk of inches (155 X 50 mm), length and width. A ground-bus copper strip is retained
The box height is 1-1/2 inches (3.8 cm). around the entire perimeter of each board.
the modules. The rf amplifier assembly
This container and the one for the This permits the builder to solder the
uses the chassis surface as part of the box
low-level stages of the LO
chain do not boards into the shield boxes.
shield. An aluminum plate is attached to
module by means of have copper on the outside. Therefore it is The low-level section of the LO chain is
the side wall of the
necessary to provide a grounding contact housed in a box which is 5-1/4 inches (135
spade bolts. This type of construction was
for the press-fit U-shaped aluminum mm) long, 2-1/4 inches (58 mm) wide and
used to ease assembly of the front end
covers. Shim-brass or flashing-copper 2 inches (51 mm) high. The last half of the
filter and amplifiers. Spring-brass fingers
compartment dividers strips are located opposite one another on LO is contained in an enclosure
circuit
are soldered to the
the upper of the side walls. The strips
lips which 4-1/8 inches (105 mm) long,
is
to assure solid contact to the aluminum
are approximately 1-1/2 inches long (38 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) wide and 1-1/4
side plate (see Fig. 44). The aperture size
mm) and 3/4 inch (19 mm) wide. They are inches (32 mm) high. The end com-
between L2 and L3 of FL2 is 1 X 5/8 inch
soldered to the inner walls of the box, then partment houses the bandpass filter. It is
(25 X 16 mm). Each resonator compart- 1-1/2 X 1-1/2 inches (38 X 38 mm) square.
ment measures 1-1/4 X 1-1/4 X 2 inches bent over the edges and down the outside
of the box walls This provides a ground The depth of the compartment is 1 inch
(32 X 32 X 50 mm). The coils are
contact for the box covers (25mm). The lower surface of the filter
centered in the compartments.
Single-sided glass-epoxy pc-board ma- compartment is part of the main pc board,
Dimensions for the mixer/post-mixer
SOLDER WALL
the modules which use double-clad pc U~ .8" » U .8" » U .8" » « .8" —i TO BOTTOM
fin Haul i I
GROUNDPLANE
board sides should be connected together
I I
Alignment
Choose a 200-kHz segment of the
2-meter band that suits your purposes.
Place a 2-meter signal at the midpoint of
that tuning range (144.1 MHz for .75"
coverage from 144.0 to 144.2 MHz). (19mm)
Connect the converter to a receiver tuned
and peaked at 28.1 MHz. Apply power to SOFT COPPER TUBING
SOLDERED TO WALL 4-40 SCREW
the converter and locate the 2-meter signal AND NUT
in the receiver tuning range. It should fall
close to 28. 1 MHz. Observe
the receiver S ENCLOSURE DIMENSIONS
meter and adjust of the converter tuned
all FREQ. X y z
circuits for maximum meter reading. This 2.00" 2.00" 2.25"
1296 MHz (50.8mm) (50.8mm) (57.1mm)
procedure should be repeated two or three .9375" 100" 1.25"
- .375 2304 MHz (25-8mm) (25.4 mm) ( 3t.Tmm)
times again, using the weakest 2-meter (9.25mm)
signal that will provide needle deflection
on the S meter.
This circuit should provide a noise
figure of less than 4 dB with careful
adjustment. CI of Fig. 39 may be required
to achieve this result. It was not used in
the ARRL model because accurate noise- Fig. 47 —
Dimensions and layout for the filter and mixer portions of the interdigital converters.
figure measuring equipment was not The signal input is to the left rod, labeled "A." Local-oscillator injection^s through the diode to
available. However, without the input rod "E." D1 is the mixer diode, connected to the center rod in the assembly.
capacitor, a 0.1-fiV signal into the con-
verter provided a loud cw response in the
tunable i-f receiver, roughly equivalent to
an RST of 559. The test receiver was a
Kenwood TS-820 with a 500-Hz i-f filter.
A similar front end was built earlier, using
2N4416 FETs. When used with a 2-meter
fm receiver it provided 20 dB of quieting
with a 0.18 «V input signal.
Po wer Supply
A well-filtered 12- volt regulated dc
supply is recommended for use with this
converter. It should be capable of
accommodating a load current of 100 mA
or greater. The unit shown here contains a
12- volt regulated supply under the main
chassis. A red LED is used as the on-off
indicator. The circuit is shown in Fig. 45.
A bottom can be added to the
plate
chassis. Adhesive-backed plastic feet (four)
should be affixed to the bottom plate to
prevent scratching the operating desk.
Pc-board layouts and parts-placement
guides are given in Fig. "46. The drawings
show the etched sides of the boards. Each Fig. 48 — The converter for 1296 MHz. This unit was built by R.E. Fisher, W2CQH. While the mixer
board is illustrated to scale. assembly (top center) in this model has solid brass walls, it can be made from lighter material, as
explained in the text and shown in Fig. 47. The i-f amplifier is near the center, just above the
Interdigital Converter for 1296 or 2304 mixer-current-monitoring jack, J1. A BNC connector at the lower left is for 28-MHz output. The
MHz local oscillator and multiplier circuits are to the lower right. Note that L6 is very close to the
chassis, just above the crystal. The variable capacitor near the crystal is an optional trimmer to
In a world where rf spectrum pollution adjust the oscillator to the correct frequency.
9-27 Chapter 9
24V
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS jjF) OTHERSt ;
Fig 49 Schematic diagram of the 1296-MHz converter with oscillator and multiplier sections included. Dimensions for the filter and mixer assembly are
given in Fig. 47.
C1, C2 —
30-pF homemade capacitor.
-
See text D1 — Hewlett Packard 5082-2577 or 5082-2835. nominal).
and Fig. 2. D2 — Hewlett Packard 5082-281 or 5082-2835.
1 L3 — 10 turns like L1 (0.5 i*H).
C3, C4 — 0.8- to 10-pF glass trimmer, Johanson J1 — Closed-circuit jack. L4, L5— 6 turns like L1 (0.2 pH).
J2 — Coaxial connector, type BNC acceptable L6 — Copper strip, 1/2-inch wide x 2-1/2 inches
2945 or equiv.
C5 — 0.001-yF button mica. L1, L2 — 18 turns no. 24 enam. on 1/4-inch (127 x 635 mm) long. See text and photo-
C6 — 2- to 20-pF air variable, E.F. Johnson 189- (6.3-mm) OD slug-tuned form (1.5 jjH graphs.
— 33
507-004 or equiv. RFC1 )jH, J.W. Miller 74F33SA1 or equiv.
is becoming more serious, even into the copper-clad epoxy fiberglass. One ground and serves as the coupling section to the
microwave region, it is almost as im- plane is made larger than the microwave input. Rod B is the high-Q resonator
filter
portant to keep unwanted signals out of a assembly and thus provides a convenient and is tuned by a 10-32 machine screw.
receiver as it is to prevent radiation of mounting plate for the remainder of the Rod C provides the filter output-coupling
spurious energy. An interdigital filter was converter components. section to the mixer diode, Dl.
described some years ago, featuring low The sidewalls are bent from 0.032-inch The mixer diode is a Hewlett-Packard
insertion loss, simplicity of construction, thick sheet brass or they can be made from 5082-2577 Schottkey-barrier type which is
and reasonable rejection to out-of-band 1/4 3/4-inch (6 X 19 mm) brass rod.
X available from distributors for about $4.
could be used in either One edge of each sidewall is soldered to the The cheaper 5082-2835, selling for 90
signals. It
larger ground plane. The other edge is cents, can be used instead, but this
transmitters or receivers.
This twice-useful principle has now fastened to the smaller ground plane by substitution will increase the 2304-MHz
been put to work again as a mixer. — 4-40 machine or self-tapping screws, each mixer noise figure by approximately 3 dB.
Again, the ease of construction and located over the centerline of a rod. The One pigtail lead of the mixer diode is
adaptation leads many to wonder that it sidewall should be sanded flat,
edges tack-soldered to a copper disk on the
had not been thought of before. It was before the ground plane is attached, to ungrounded end of rod C. Care should be
first described by in January W2CQH assure continuous electrical contact. Note taken to keep the pigtail lead as short as
that no end walls are required since there possible. If rod C is machined from solid
1974 QST
are no electric fields in these regions. brass stock, then it is feasible to clamp one
A Filter and Mixer Electrically, rods A, B, and C comprise of the mixer-diode leads to the rod end
A layout of the microwave portions of a one-stage, high-loaded-Q (Ql = 100), with a small setscrew. This alternative
both converters is shown in Fig. 47. The interdigital filter
6
tuned to the
which is method facilitates diode substitution and
structure consists of five interdigitated incoming signal frequency near 1296 or was us,ed in the mixer models shown in the
round rods, made of 3/8-inch (9.5 mm) 2304 MHz. The ungrounded end of rod A photographs.
OD brass or copper tubing. They are is connected to a BNC coaxial connector Fig. 47 also shows that the other end of
of 1/16-inch (1.6 mm) sheet brass or VHF/UHF Applications," QST, March 1968. 1/2-inch-square copper or brass plate
144-MHz
'
OUTPUT
B/ FROM FIG. SO
Fig. 50 — Schematic diagram of the 2304-MHz version of the converter, with the i-f amplifier. The oscillator and multiplier circuits are constructed
separately
C1, C23 — 30-pF homemade capacitor (see D2 — Hewlett Packard 5082-281 1 or 5082-2835. slug-tuned form (0.25 ^H).
text). J1 — Closed-circuit jack. L3— Copper strip 1/2 x 2-11/16 inches (13 x
C3, C4, C5 —0.8- to 10-pF glass trimmer, J2, J3, J4 —Coaxial connector, type BNC. 69 mm). See text and photographs.
Johanson 2945 or equiv. L1 — 5 turns no. 20 enam., 1/4-inch ID x 1/2 RFC1 — Ohmite Z-144 or equiv.
D1 — Hewlett Packard 5082-2577 or 5082-2835.' inch long. (6.35 x 12.7 mm). RFC2 — Ohmite Z-460 or equiv.
L2 — 6 turns no. 24 enam., on 1/4-inch OD
Fig. 51 —Schematic diagram of the oscillator and multiplier for the 2304 MHz converter. As explained in the text, a fixed-value resistor may be
substituted for R1 after the value that provides proper performance has been found.
C1, C2, C3 —
0.8- to 10-pF glass trimmer, L4 — Copper strip 1/2 x 1-1/2 in. (13 x 38
Johanson 2945 or equiv. L1— 10 turns no. 24 enam. on 1/4-in. OD slug- mm). Space 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) from chassis.
C4 — 0.001-^F button mica. tuned form. RFC1 —10 turns no. 24 enam. 1/8-in. ID, close
J1 — Coaxial connector, type BNC or equiv. L2, L3 — 3 turns like L1. wound.
9-29 Chapter 9
clamped to the sidewall_ with a 4-40 The multiplier circuits are tuned to
machine screw. The dielectric material is a
Table 4 resonance in the usual manner by holding
a wavemeter near each inductor being
small sheet of 0.004-inch (0.1 mm) thick Converter Specifications
Teflon or mylar. A
4-40 screw passes tuned. Resonance in the Q3 collector
through an oversize hole and is insulated 1296 MHz 2304 MHz circuit found by touching a VTVM
is
filter tuned to the, local oscillator (LO) gate of Ql by a pi-network matching multiplier stage must be provided initially
frequency. This filter passes only the section. It is most important that the to allow for the nonuniformity of transis-
fourth harmonic (1268 or 2160 MHz) proper impedance match be achieved tors.
from the multiplier diode, D2. The two between the mixer and i-f amplifier if a
low noise figure to be obtained. In this
A 2304-MHz Version
filters have a common output-coupling is
case, the approximately 30-ohm output Fig. 50 and 51 show the schematic
section (rod C) and their loaded Qs are
impedance of the mixer must be stepped diagrams of the 2304-MHz converter and
high enough to prevent much unwanted
coupling of signal power from the antenna up to about 1500 if Ql is to yield its rated multiplier. The mixer and i-f preamplifier
to the multiplier diode and LO power noise figure of 1.5 dB. It is for this reason was built on a separate chassis since, at
back out to the antenna. that a remote i-f amplifier was not the time of their construction, a multiplier
The multiplier diode is connected to the employed, as is the case with many chain from another project was available.
contemporary uhf converters. An i-f of 144 MHz was chosen, although
driver through C2, a 30-pF
circuitry
bypass capacitor identical to CI. D2 is a Q2 functions in an oscillator-tripler cir- 50 MHz would work as well. An i-f output
Hewlett-Packard 5082-2811 although the cuit which delivers about 10 milliwatts of 28 MHz, or lower, should not be used
of 158.5-MHz drive to the base of Q3. The since this would result in undesirable
5082-2835 works nearly as well. Fifty
milliwatts drive at one-quarter of the LO emitter coil, L3, serves mainly as a choke interaction between the mixer and multi-
frequency is sufficient to produce 2 ofmA to prevent the crystal from oscillating at plier interdigital filters.
mixer diode current, which represents its fundamental frequency. Coils L4 and The 2304-MHz mixer and i-f amplifier
about 1 milliwatt of the local-oscillator L5, which are identical, should be spaced section,shown in Fig. 50, is very similar to
its 1296-MHz counterpart. Ql, the dual-
injection. A Schottky-barrier was chosen closely such that their windings almost
over the more familiar varactor diode for touch. gate MOSFET, operates at 144 and MHz
doubles the frequency to 317 MHz,
Q3 thus has a noise figure about 1-dB higher
the multiplier because it is cheaper, more
stable, and requires no idler circuit. providing about 50 milliwatts drive to the than that obtainable at 28 MHz.
Fig. 49 shows the schematic diagram of multiplier diode. It is important that the The multiplier chain, Fig. 51, has a
MHzconverter. All emitter lead of Q3 be kept extremely separate oscillator for improved drive to
the 1296 to 28
components are mounted on a 7 X 9-inch short; 1/4-inch (6.3 mm) is probably too the 2N3866 output stage. Otherwise the
(178 X 229 mm) sheet of brass or long. L6, the strip-line inductor in the circuitry is similar to the 1296-MHz
copper-clad epoxy-fiberglass board. As collector circuit of Q3, consists of a 1/2 X version.
A
istence of
major justification
Amateur Radio
for
in the
the
USA
ex-
is to
220 and 440
reliable
MHz. It is expected that this
service mode will soon include
decrease power?" Thus, going from 800
watts to 500 watts is an act of QRP. Con-
provide a pool of experienced operators in widespread occupancy of the 1215-MHz versely, QRO means "increase power."
time of national or community need. band and higher. Power levels as low as a few milliwatts
When the call for emergency communica- Mobile hf-band operation still appeals are often suitable for emergency work
tions is voiced by cities, towns, counties, to numerous amateurs because it elimi- when the cw mode is employed in the hf
states or the federal government, mobile nates the constrictions imposed by vhf bands. Similarly, ssb and fm transmis-
and portable radio equipment is pressed and uhf repeaters, their operators and sions on vhf and uhf at the mW
level are
into service where heeded. Aside from the their normal coverage contours. When effective over line-of-sight paths. The ad-
occasional need for disaster and emergen- operating mobile on ssb or cw with hf vantage of this type of QRP
equipment is
cy communications provided by ama- transceivers, worldwide contacts are long-term operation from batteries.
teurs, a great deal of pleasure and possible for those who enjoy that style of Numerous examples of equipment design-
challenge can reward the amateur when communication. ed for QRP work are provided in the
operating portable or mobile under nor- High-power mobile operation has be- League's book, Solid State Design for the
mal conditions. In this regard, most come entirely practical from the automo- Radio Amateur.
mobile operation is carried out today by tive 13.6-volt dc battery system. This
means of narrow-band fm and repeaters. results from the use of transistorized
Electrical-Noise Elimination
The major repeater frequencies are 146, equipment.- With only two transistors, a One of the most significant deterrents
linear power amplifier can deliver 150 to effective signal reception during mobile
watts or more of rf output. For the most or portable operation is electrical im-
part, dynamotors, vibrator packs and dc- pulse noise from the automotive ignition
u>-dc converters are things of the past, system. The problem also arises during the
making mobile and portable operation
much less expensive and much more effi-
cient.
QKP Operation
Low-power operation has taken a
significant jump forward in recent years
and the ardent core of the movement
almost qualifies as a cult. The basic con-
cept do things the "hard way,"
is to
proving that power levels of less than 10
watts are entirely effective •
when
reasonably good antennas are used. QRP
is a relative term. To the station running 1
Spark-plug Noise the main areas to bond. 1) Engine to tromechanical vibrating contact units of
frame; 2) air cleaner to engine block; 3) earlier times. Interference from the charg-
Most manufactured prior to
vehicles
exhaust lines to frame; 4) battery ground ing system can affect a receiver in two
1975 were equipped with simple Kettering
ways: Rf radiation can be picked up by
inductive-discharge ignition systems. A terminal to frame; 5) hood to fire wall; 6)
steering column to frame; 7) bumpers to the antenna, and noise can be conducted
variety of noise-suppression methods were
frame; and 8) trunk lid to frame. directly into the circuits via the power
devised for these systems, including
In the United States, automobile cable. "Alternator whine" is a common
resistor spark plugs, clip-on suppressors,
manufacturers voluntarily comply with an form of conducted interference. It has the
resistive high-voltage cable and even com-
high-voltage RFI standard devised by the Society of greatest effect on vhf fm communica-
plete shielding. Resistive
SAE J551, most tions, because synthesized carrier
cable and resistor plugs provide the Automotive Engineers,
recently revised in May 1980. Basically, generators and local oscillators are easily
greatest noise reduction for the least ex-
the standard requires that the strength of frequency modulated by power supply
pense and effort. While almost all vehicles
resistance cable the field radiated by a random vehicle be The alternator ripple
voltage fluctuations.
produced after 1960 had
such cable no greater than 14 dB above 1 microvolt is most noticeable when transmitting,
as standard equipment,
per meter per kilohertz from 20 to 80 because the machine is more heavily load-
develops microscopic cracks in the insula-
MHz, sloping up to 25 dB in the 400- to ed in that condition. If the ripple
tion and segmentation of the conductor
1000-MHz range. The receiving antenna is amplitude is great enough, alternator
after a few years of service. These defects
located 33 feet (10 m) from the vehicle and whine will be imparted to all incoming
can defeat the suppression ability of the
oriented for measurements in both the signals by the LO.
cable before the engine performance is
turers and users of radios in the land be suppressed by filtering the alternator
tions to RFI caused by older Kettering
mobile service (j ust above the 2-meter leads. Coaxial capacitors (about 0.5 fjF)
systems cannot be uniformly applied to
band), represented by the Electronics In- are suitable, but don 't connect a capacitor
the modern electronic ignitions.
dustries Association, responded to the to the field. The field lead can be shielded
Such fixes may be ineffective at best,
NOI by stating that even vehicles comply- or loaded with ferrite beads if necessary.
and at worst may impair the engine per-
ing with J551 can seriously degrade A parallel-tuned LC trap in this lead may
formance. One should thoroughly under-
mobile vhf communications. SAE J551 be effective against radiated noise. Such a
stand an ignition system before at-
was never intended to protect vehicular trap in the output lead must be made of
tempting to modify it. One of the signifi-
cant features of capacitive discharge receivers —
only fixed receivers located no. 10 wire or larger, as some alternators
near roadways. conduct up to 100 amperes. The alter-
systems, for example, is extremely rapid
On the whole, modern automobiles are nator slip rings should be kept clean to
voltage rise, which combats misfire caused
cleaner from an RFI standpoint than prevent excess arcing. An increase in
by fouled spark plugs. Rapid voltage rise
The interference "hash" noise may indicate that the
depends on a low RC time constant those of 20 years ago.
problem, however, at least at vhf and uhf, brushes need to be replaced.
presented to the output transformer. For
this reason, high-voltage suppression persists because present-day receivers are
Instrument Noise
cable designed for capacitive-discharge about 10 dB more sensitive than their
predecessors. Some automotive instruments are
systems is wound with monel wire. It ex-
Useful tips for solving ignition noise capable of creating noise. Among these
hibits a distributed resistance of only
problems can be found in Giving Two- gauges and senders are the heat- and fuel-
about 600 ohms per foot, as contrasted
way Radio Its Voice, published by the level indicators. Ordinarily, the addition
with 10 kilohms per foot for carbon-
Champion Spark Plug Company. This of a 0.5 fiF coaxial capacitor at the sender
center cable used with inductive-discharge
covers noise- element will cure the problem.
systems. Increasing the RC product by well-prepared publication
suppression fundamentals, preliminary Other noise-generating accessories are
shielding or installing improper spark-
procedures, methods for pinpointing in- turn signals, window-opener motors,
plug cable could seriously compromise the
terference, and techniques for solving heating-fan motors and electric
capacitive-discharge circuit operation.
noise problems in automotive and marine windshield-wiper motors. The installation
Ferrite beads represent a possible means
environments. A copy of this booklet can of a 0.25-^iF capacitor will usually
RFI reduction in newer vehicles. Both
for"
be obtained for $1 from Champion Spark eliminate their interference noise.
primary and secondary ignition leads are
Chapter 10 10-2
Faraday shield between LI and L2 ensures
that the coupling is purely magnetic. The
coupling between L2 and L3 is purely elec-
trostatic. Adjusting the coil coupling
causes the noise The block
to null.
diagram of Fig. 3B illustrates a more
modern broadband approach to noise
cancellation. A short wire near the igni-
tion coil couples impulse energy into the
active impedance transformer, which is
simply an FET source follower stage. The
amplitude and phase of the noise are con-
trolled by the attenuator and delay line,
respectively. The signal combiner can be a.
^"7 hybrid ferrite transformer at hf or a
(A)
transmission line multicoupler at vhf.
NOISE VOLTAGE
PROBE SIGNAL \/ BATTERY POWER
ANTENNA
(The following material was assembled
by Dave Geiser, WA2ANU.) The
availability of equipment
solid-state
makes practical the use of battery power
under portable or emergency conditions.
Hand-held transceivers and instruments
are obvious applications, but even fairly
DELAY LINE
powerful transceivers (100 or so out- W
put) may be practical users of battery
power. Solid-state kilowatt mobile
Fig. 3 — Automotive noise-cancelling systems. At A, the circuit used in the BC-342 hf receiver. At
amplifiers exist, but these are intended for
B, a suggested broadband noise-cancelling scheme. operating from an auxiliary battery that is
constantly charged. The lower-power
equipment can be powered from either of
two types of batteries, the "primary" bat-
Corona-Discharge Noise The Soviet "woodpecker" over-the- tery intended for one-time use, and the
"
Some mobile antennas are prone to cor- horizon radar has inspired some serious storage (or "secondary") battery that
ona build-up and discharge. Whip anten- development work on noise blankers that may be recharged many times.
nas which come to a sharp point will don't degrade receiver dynamic range. A batterya group of chemical cells,
is
sometimes create this kind of noise. This Receivers for vhf fm service are generally usually connected to give some
series
is why most mobile whips have steel or designed for optimum noise figure at the desired multiple of the cell voltage. Each
plastic balls at their tips. But, regardless expense 'of resistance to overload. Recent assortment of chemicals used in the cell
of the structure of the mobile antenna, advances in rf amplifier design have pro- gives a particular nominal voltage, and
corona buildup will frequently occur dur- ven that low noise figure and high this must be taken into account to make
ing or just before a severe electrical storm. dynamic range are not mutually exclusive. up a particular battery voltage.
The symptoms are a high-pitched A high-performance noise blanker is
•useless if the front end of the receiver Primary Batteries
"screaming" noise in the mobile receiver,
which comes in cycles of one or two overloads on the noise pulses. A helical The most common primary cell is the
minutes duration, then changes pitch and resonator at the receiver input affords carbon-zinc flashlight type, in which
dies down as it discharges through the some protection against noise overload chemical oxidation converts the zinc into
front end of the receiver. The condition because it restricts the total noise energy salts and electricity. When there is no cur-
will repeat itself as soon as the antenna delivered to the front end. rent flow, the oxidation stops until the
system charges up again. There is no cure Some fm receivers suffer from impulse next time current is required. Some
for this condition, but it is described here noise because of inadequate a-m rejec- chemical action does continue, so even-
to show that it is not of origin within the
tion.The cure for this ailment is to ensure tually stored batteries will degrade or dry
electrical system of the automobile. hard limiting in the i-f stages and to use a out to the point where the battery will no
detector that is inherently insensitive to longer supply the desired current. If this
amplitude variations. has happened without battery use, the
Electronic Noise Reduction
Particularly troublesome vehicular im- time taken for the degradation is called
When all electrical noise generated pulse noise can sometimes be cancelled at shelf life.
within a vehicle has beer^ eliminated, the the receiver input. The technique involves The carbon-zinc battery has a nominal
mobile operator can be annoyed by RFI sampling the noise voltage from a separate voltage of 1.5 volts, as does its "heavy
from passing vehicles. Some measures can "noise antenna" and adjusting its phase duty" or "industrial" brother. These lat-
be taken in the receiver to reduce or reject and amplitude to cancel the noise ter types are capable (for a given size) of
impulse noise. (Noise limiters and noise delivered by the "signal antenna." For producing more milliampere hours and
blankers are discussed in the hf receiving this sytstem to be effective, the signal less voltage drop than a carbon-zinc bat-
chapter.) The placement of a noise antenna must be positioned to provide the tery of the same size, and also have longer
blanker in the receiver is important. The best possible signal-to-noise ratio, and the shelf life. Alkaline primary batteries have
blanking circuit must be placed ahead of noise antenna located close to the noise even better characteristics and will retain
the sharp selectivity, otherwise the i-f source and effectively shielded from the more capacity at low temperatures.
filter will stretch the noise pulses, and they desired signal. Fig. 3A shows the noise Nominal voltage is 1.5 volts.
cannot be blanked without destroying a. cancellation circuit used in some models Lithium primary batteries have a
major portion of the received intelligence. of the BC-342, a WWII receiver. The nominal voltage of about 3 volts per cell
shelf-life and temperature characteristics. teries.These batteries may furjiish be- A practical limit of discharge occurs
tween 1000 and 1200 watt-hours per when the load will no longer operate
Their disadvantages are high cost and the
charge at room temperature, and when satisfactorily on the lower output voltage
fact that they cannot be readily replaced
properly cared for may be expected to last near the "discharged" point. Much gear
by other types in an emergency.
Silver oxide (1.5 V) and mercury (1.4 V) more than 200 cycles. They often have intended for "mobile" use may be de-
batteries are very good where nearly con- lifting handles, screw terminals as well as signed for an average of 13.6 V and a peak
stant voltage is desired at low currents for the conventional truncated-cone of perhaps of 15 V, and not operate well
long periods. Their main use (in sub- automotive terminals, and may be fitted below 12 V. For full use of battery charge
miniature versions) is in hearing aids, with accessories such as plastic carrying the gear should operate well (if not at full
though they may be found in other quan- cases, with or without built-in chargers. power) on as little as 10.5 V with a
tity uses such as household smoke alarms. Lead-acid batteries are also available nominal 12 to 13.6-V rating.
with jelled electrolyte. These types may be Somewhat the same condition may be
Rechargeable or Storage Batteries mounted in any position if sealed, but seen in the replacement of carbon-zinc
some are position-sensitive if vented. cells by nickel-cadmium storage cells.
Many of the chemical reactions in
Lead-acid batteries with liquid elec- Eight of the former will give 12 V, while
primary batteries are theoretically revers-
trolyte usually fall into one of three classes ten of the same-size nickel-cadmium units
ible if current is passed through the bat-
tery in the reverse direction. For instance,
— conventional with filling holes and are required. If a 10-cell battery-holder is
vents, permitting the addition of distilled used, the equipment should be designed
zinc may be plated back onto the negative
water lost from evaporation or during for 15 V in case the carbon-zinc units are
electrode of a zinc-carbon battery.
high-rate charge or discharge, '
plugged in.
Recharging of primary batteries should
"maintenance-free" from which gas may Deep-cycle and nickel-cadmium storage
not be done for two reasons: It may be
generated escape but water cannot be added, and batteries should be run to the end of their
dangerous because of heat
sealed. Generally, the deep-cycle batteries useful charge before recharging, and then
within sealed cells,and where there may
both the charge and life have filling holes and vents. charged fully. Both types will tolerate a
be some success,
light continual charge (trickle) and the
are limited. In the zinc-carbon example,
Battery Capacity sealed nickel-cadmium types tolerate a
the zinc may not replate in the locations
The common rating of battery capacity near-full charging rate continuously.
that had been oxidized. Pinholes in the
case result, with consequent fluid leakage is ampere hours, a product of current
Discharge Planning
that will damage the using equipment. drain and time, the symbol "C" is com-
monly used; C/10, for example, would be Transceivers "usually drain a battery at
One type of alkaline battery is
the current available for 10 hours con- two or three rates: one for receiving, one
rechargeable, and is so marked. If the
not marked tinuously. The value of C changes with perhaps for transmit standby, and one for
recommended charging rate is
the discharge rate and might be 110 at 2 key-down or average voice transmit. Con-
on such a battery, the manufacturer's ad-
amperes but only 80 20 amperes. Fig. 4 sidering just the first and last of these
vice should be asked. In a number of cases at
gives capacity-to-discharge rate for two (assuming the transmit standby equal to
the manufacturer markets chargers and
standard-size lead-acid batteries. Capacity receive),average 2-way cw communica-
recommends that only those should be
used. may vary from 35 mA
hours for some of tion would require the low rate 3/4 of the
the small hearing-aid batteries to over 100 time and the high rate 1/4 of the time. The
The most-common small-storage bat- ,
ampere hours for a size 27 deep-cycle ratio may vary somewhat with voice. The
tery the nickel-cadmium type, with a
is
user may calculate the percentage of bat-
nominal voltage of 1 .2 V per cell. Careful- storage battery.
The primary cells, being sealed, usually tery charge used in an hour by the com-
ly used, these arecapable of 500 or more
benefit from intermittent (rather than bination (sum) of rates. If, for example,
charge and discharge cycles, compared to
50 or so for alkaline types. The nickel- continuous) use. The resting period allows 20% of the .battery capacity is used, the
completion of chemical reactions needed battery will provide 5 hours of com-
cadmium battery must not be fully
dispose of by-products of the munications per charge. In most actual
discharged for best life. Where there is to
more than one cell in the battery, the discharge.
most-discharged cell may suffer polarity All batteries will fall in output voltage
reversal. All storage have batteries as discharge proceeds. "Discharged" con-
discharge limits, and nickel-cadmium dition for a 12-V lead-acid battery, for in-
types should not be discharged more than stance, should not be less than 10.5 volts.
1.2 V below nominal battery voltage. (It isalso good to keep a running record
The most widely used storage battery is of hydrometer readings, but the conven-
the lead-acid type. In automotive service tional readings of 1.265 charged and 1.100
ed high-power electronic application is the freeze, but those with full charges are less AMPERES
Chapter 10 10-4
traffic and DX-chasing situations the time
spent listening should be much greater
than that spent transmitting.
Chapter 10 10-6
MMMHHMNHMMHMMMMMMHHMHMHI Table 1
Solec International
12533 Chadron Ave.
Hawthorne, CA 90250
Tel. 213-325-6215
AUTOMOTIVE BATTERY
NPUT
AUTOMOTIVE IICA0QR»^^
GROUND
Fig. 8 — Parts-placement guide tor the mobile NiCad charger pc board. The component side is
shown with an x-ray view of the foil.
PORTABLE AC POWER SOURCES megawatts of power. Perhaps the most Fig. 9 —Solar-electric arrays are excellent for
short -or long-term field and emergency use to
practical power range for most purposes power amateur stations. A 14-volt, 1 .5-A solar
There are two popular sources of ac would be in the neighborhood of 2 kW. panel and two automobile batteries in parallel
power for use afield. The first' is what is Larger units tend to become too heavy for can provide many after-dark hours of operation
referred to as a dc-to-ac converter, or one person to lift and handle easily while with typical 100-watt hf-band transceivers of
more commonly, an inverter. the solid-state variety.
smaller generators lack sufficient power
The ac output voltage is a square wave. output for many applications. A 2-kW
Therefore, some types of equipment can alternator is quite heavy but is capable of thenumbers on the drawing.
not be operated satisfactorily from the in- supplying power for just about any large Use the proper grade of fuel. Newer
1)
verter. Certain types of motors are among power tool. It is roughly the equivalent of models will burn either "no-lead" or
those items which require a sine-wave out- having a single 15-A outlet in an ordinary regular leaded gasoline. Do not use
shows a picture of one style of
put. Fig. 12 electric service. Of course,
handle will premium or so-called "hi-test"
it grades
commercial inverter. Heat sinks are used moderate-power amateur equipment with unless the owner's manual recommends it.
to cool the switching transistors. The unit ease. Such have a high lead content for
fuels
shown is available from Heath Company proper burning in high-compression
in kit form. It delivers 117 volts of ac at Maintenance Checklist
automobile engines and are generally un-
175 watts continuous power rating. The Although more suitable
complicated for small, low-compression
'primary voltage is 6 or 12 dc. maintenance chores should be performed engines found in most alternator com-
When sine-wave output is required by qualified service personnel, many sim- binations. Check the owner's manual to
from a portable ac power supply, ple measures which will prolong the life of determine whether oil must be mixed with
gasoline-engine alternators are used. They the alternator can be done at home or the gasoline. While two-cycle models re-
are available with ratings of several afield. Perhaps the best plan is to log the quire an oil-gas mixture, most generators
kilowatts, or as little as500 watts. One of dates of when the unit was used and the have a four-cycle engine that burns or-
the large/ units is shown in Fig. 13 where operating time in hours. Also included in dinary gasoline with no extra additives.
WB9QPI has just completed a the log would be dates of maintenance Gasoline for emergency purposes should
maintenance run for the W0OHU/0 Field and type of service performed. Oil only be stored in small amounts and
Day group. changes, when gasoline was purchased for rotated on a regular basis. Older stock can
Alternators powered
by internal- emergency purposes, and similar data be burned in a car (that uses the same
combustion engines have been used for Would fall under this category. grade of gas as the generator) since storing
years to supply 117/235 ac independently Important points that are common to gasoline for any length of time is inad-
of the commercial mains. Such combina- all types of generators are indicated for a visable. The more volatile components
tions range from tiny units powered by typical one in Fig. 14 (Consult the evaporate, leaving excess amounts of a
two-cycle or four-cycle gasoline engines in manufacturer's manual for additional in- varnish-like substance that will clog car-
the low-wattage class to giant multi- structions that might apply to a particular buretor passeges. Also, be sure gasoline
cylinder diesels capable of supplying model.) The following checklist relates to containers are of an approved type with a
* HEAT SINK
0-25 O I VOLT
-
^0= ±Q *
TEST
REFERENCE
7805
12V TO
RIGS
=- BT1 ~ CI
FROM SOLAR
PANEL
tooo
35V
2N2907 2N3055
Fia 11 - Schematic diagram of the electronic switch. Resistances are in ohms; k = 1000; capacitance values are in microfarads OiF)
2 (5800 mm 2 or more.
BT1 — Automotive storage battery, lead-acid rent rating sufficient to pass output of 9 full in. )
Chapter 10 10-8
Some manufacturers recommend a high-
detergent oil that comes in various service
grades such as MS, SD, and similar types.
Examine the top or side of the cans in
which the oil is sold and see if the letters
correspond to those recommended by the
engine manufacturer.
3) The carburetor mixes gasoline with
air, which is then burned in the engine.
Unlike their larger counterparts in the operation in such a location. "Quiet damage to the magneto. It is also a good
automobile, most small engines do hot hours" may also be imposed in some idea to ground the spark-plug wire to the
have oil filters, which is another reason places during the nighttime hours if engine frame with a clip lead in case the
why required changes are more frequent. generator exhaust noise is too loud. switch is accidentally activated.
Newer generators are supplied with a paper or fabric tubing of large diameter is
three-wire outlet and the ground connec- antennas are favored by some, it is better suitable for making homemade loading
to place the antenna mount on the rear coils. It should be coated with liquid
tion should go to the plug as shown in Fig.
deck of the vehicle, near the rear window. fiberglass, inside and out, to make it
15. On older types, the ground would
have to be connected separately to the This locates the antenna high and in the weatherproof. Brass insert plugs can be
clear, assuring less detuning of the system installed in each end, their centers drilled
generator frame and then to the common
terminal in the junction box. A pipe or when moves to and from the
the antenna and tapped for a standard 3/8 X 24 (9.5
rod can then be driven into the ground car body. Never use a base-loaded anten- mm X 24) thread to accommodate the
and a wire connection made to either a na on a bumper mount. Many operators mobile antenna sections. After the coil
clamp supplied with the rod or by means avoid cutting holes in the car body for winding is pruned to resonance it should
of a C-clamp for larger sizes of pipe. fear of devaluation when selling the be coated with a high-quality, low-loss
From an ignition-noise-suppression stand- automobile. Such holes are easily filled, compound to hold the turns securely in
and few car dealers lower the trade-in place, and to protect the coil from the
point, the ground is desirable along with
safety considerations when power tools price because of the holes. weather. Liquid polystyrene is excellent
are being used. The choice of base or center loading a for this. Hobby stores commonly stock
mobile antenna has been a matter of this material for use as a protective film
The ground connection goes to the
controversy for many years. In theory, the for wall plaques and other artwork.
green wire in commercially made three-
center-loaded whip presents a slightly Details for making a home-built loading
wire conduit. Conduit purchased from an
higher base impedance than does the base- coil are given in Fig. 16.
electrical store comes with a color-coded
insulation and the colored wires should be loaded antenna. However, with proper
Impedance Matching
connected as shown in Fig. 15. Consult impedance-matching techniques employed
Fig. 17 illustrates the shunt-feed
the owner's manual for the generator for there is no discernible difference in per-
further details on power hookup that
might apply to your particular model.
Table 2
HF MOBILE ANTENNAS Approximate Values for 8-foot Mobile Whip
The antenna perhaps the most impor-
is
Chapter 10 10-10
Table 3
BRASS END PLUG
Suggested Loading-Coil Dimensions
TOP
Req'd No. VIEW
Wire D/a. Length
Turns Size In. In.
FIELD" STRENGTH
700 190 22 3 10 METER, SEVERAL
loo 3 10 FEET AWAY FROM
MOBILE ANT.
150 100 16 2-1/2 10 SOLDER LUG
77 75 14 2-1/2 10 AND WASHER
77 29 12 5 4-1/4
40 28 16 2-1/2 2
40 34 PHENOLIC TUBING
12 2-1/2 4-1/4
1/(6" OR 1/8" WALL
20* 17 16 2-1/2 1-1/4 THICKNESS
20 22 12 2-1/2 2-3/4
8.6 16 14 2 2
8.6 15 12 2-1/2 3
.PLUG TO MAKE
4.5 10 14 2 1-1/4 SNUG FIT IN TUBING
4.5 12 12 2-1/2 4
2.5 8 12 2 2 BRASS INSERT
25 8 6 2-3/8 4-1/2 PLUG
1.25 6 12 1-3/4 2
1.25 6 6 2-3/8 4-1/2
NO. 6 SCREW
To obtain dimensions in millimeters, multii
inches by 25.4.
^WINDING
I COAT WITH COIL DOPE)
-CAR-BODY GROUND
loaded whip, L2 will have approximately Fig. 17 — A mobile antenna using shunt-feed
(B) matching. Overall antenna resonance is deter-
18 turns of no. 14 wire, spaced one wire mined by the combination of L1 and L2. Anten-
thickness between turns, and wound on a na resonance is set by pruning the turns of L1,
1-inch (25-mm) diameter form. Initially, Fig. 16 — Details for making a home-built or adjusting the top section of the whip, while
mobile loading coil. A breakdown
view of the observing the field-strength meter or SWR in-
the tap will be approximately 5 turns
assembly given at A. Brass end plugs are
is dicator. Then, adjust the tap on L2 for lowest
above" the ground end of L2. Coil L2 can snug-fit into the ends of the phenolic tubing, SWR.
be inside the car body, at the base of the and each is held in place by four 6-32 brass
antenna, or it can be located at the base of screws. Center holes in the plugs are drilled
the whip, outside the car body. The latter and tapped for 3/8-24 thread. The tubing can be
The chart of shows the
Fig. 19
any diameter from one to four inches (25 to 100
method is preferred. Since L2 helps deter- mm). The larger diameters are recommended. capacitive reactance of Cm
and the induc-
mine the resonance of the overall antenna, Illustration B shows the completed coil. tive reactance of Lm necessary to match
LI should be tuned to resonance in the Resonance can be obtained by installing the various antenna impedances to 50-ohm
coil,applying transmitter power, then pruning
desired part of theband with L2 in the cir- coaxial cable. The chart assumes the
the turns until the lowest SWR is obtained.
cuit. The adjustable top section of the antenna element has been resonated.
Pruning the coil for maximum field-strength-
whip can be telescoped until a maximum meter indication will also serve as a resonance In practice, L M need not be a separate
reading is noted on the field-strength indication. inductor. Its by
effect can be duplicated
meter. The tap is then adjusted on L2 for adding an equivalent amount of induc-
the lowest reflected-power reading on the tance to the loading coil, regardless of
SWR bridge. Repeat these two ad- Lm X103 " H whether the loading coil is at the base or at
justments until no further increase in field "L 2nf(kHz) J the center of the antenna.
strength can be obtained; this point where
should coincide with the lowest SWR. The Adjustment
Ra = the antenna feed-point
number of turns needed, for L2 will have impedance In adjusting this system, at least part
of
to be determined experimentally for Rq = the characteristic impedance Cm should be variable, the balance being
40-and 20-meter operation. There will be of the transmission line. made up of combinations of fixed mica
proportionately fewer turns required. As an example, if the radiation capacitors in parallel as needed. A small,
resistance is 20 ohms and the line is one-turn loop should be connected be-
Matching with an L Network tween C M and the chassis of the car, and
50-ohm coaxial cable, then at 4000 kHz,
Any resonant mobile antenna that has a the loading coil should then be adjusted
V 20 (50 - 20) 9
feed-point impedance less than the 10 for resonance at the desired frequency as
.28) (4000) (20) (50) -]
characteristic impedance of the transmis- indicated by a dip meter coupled to the
sion line can be matched to the line by loop at the base. Then the transmission
_ r /6oo
600 I 4
means of a simple L network, as shown in * 10 line should be connected, and a check
|_(6.28) (4) (2) (5)_|
Fig. 18. The network is composed of C M made with an SWR indicator connected at
and L M The required values of C M and
. 24.5 the transmitter end of the line.
X 10 4 = 975 pF
L M may be determined from the follow- 251.2 With the line disconnected from the
ing: antenna again, C M should be .readjusted
20 (50 - 20) and the antenna returned to resonance by
X 10 3
-]
CM
rVR A (Ro-RA) 1 28) (4000) readjustment of the loading coil. The line
x 1Q9pF should be connected again, and another
L 2nf (kHz) RA R J "600 24.5
= 0.97 /jH
check made with the SWR bridge. If the
and 25.12 25.12 SWR is less than it was on the first trial,
10-11 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment
the adjustment and slight compensation 1
V
COIL x
that portion of the mobile antenna that is
f
LM above the loading coil (Fig. 20). To
1 achieve resonance, the inductance of the
LOADING COIL
coil is reduced proportionally. "Capacity
,
t
hats," as they are often called, can consist 1
of a single stiff wire, two wires or more, or
a disc made up from several wires like the SPRING MOUNT
spokes of a wheel. A solid metal disc can
also be used. The larger the capacity hat, 1
in terms of volume, the greater the
capacitance. The greater the capacitance,
Fig.20 —
A capacitance "hat" can be used to
COAX the smaller the amount of inductance improve the performance of base- or center-
1
needed in the loading coil for a given reso- loaded whips. A solid metal disc can be used
place of the skeleton disc shown here.
d
in
nant frequency.
> LM
> CM ~ There are two schools of thought con-
COAX
cerning the attributes of center-loading the signal than is the case with the
T"'ll IlllHifc-
and base-loading. It has not been 5/8-wavelength type of antenna. The
1
flut-
|
established that one system is superior to ter that takes place when vertical polariza-
1
<
par nT*nv the other, especially in the lower part of tion is caused by vertical conduc-
used is
the hf spectrum. For this reason both the tive objects being between the mobile
/-J *7
base and center-loading schemes are antenna (near field) and the station being
popular. Capacity-hat loading is ap- worked (or the repeater). As the vehicle
— A whip antenna may also be plicable to either system. Since more in- moves past these objects there is a
Fig. t8
matched to coax line by means of an L net- ductance is required for center-loaded momentary blockage or partial blockage
work. The inductive reactance of the L network whips to make them resonant at a given of the signal path.
can be combined in the loading coil, as in- frequency, capacity hats should be par-
dicated at the right.
ticularly useful in improving their efficien-
2-METER 5/8-WAVELENGTH
cy.
VERTICAL
Perhaps the most popular vertical
VHF QUARTER-WAVELENGTH antenna for fm mobile and fixed-station
VERTICAL use is the 5/8-wavelength vertical. As
Ideally, the vhf vertical antenna should compared to a 1/4-wavelength vertical, it
be installed over a perfectly flat plane has some gain over a dipole. Additionally,
reflector to assure uniform omnidirec- the so-called "picket-fencing" type of
tional radiation. This suggests that the flutter which results when the vehicle is in
reactance varies only slightly over the It has been established that quarter- The dimensions for this and other parts of
range of antenna resistances likely to be wavelength vertical antennas for mobile the antenna are given in Fig. 23. A length
encountered in mobile work. Therefore, work through repeaters are not as effec- of brazing rod is used as the whip section.
most of the necessary adjustment is in the tive as 5/8-wavelength verticals are. The The whip should be 47 inches (1.2 m)
capacitor. The one-turn loop at the base 1/4- wavelength types cause considerably long. However, brazing rod comes in
should be removed at the conclusion of more "picket fencing" (rapid flutter) of standard 36-inch (0.9-m) lengths, so it is
Chapter 10 10-12
Fig. 21 — At A and B, an illustration of how a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna can be
mounted on a car roof. The whip section should be sdldered into the cap portion of the Millen
connector, then screwed to the base socket. This handy arrangement permits removing the anten-
na when desired. Epoxy cement should be used at the two mounting screws to prevent moisture
from entering the car. Diagrams C and D are discussed in the text.
NO. 6 SOLDER LUG open-end stub of twin lead can serve as end of the coil is soldered to the coaxial
well, provided it is dressed at right angles connector.
TO SOLDER LUG
LOCK WASHER to the transmission line for some distance.
The stub method has the advantage of
6-32 THREAD, easy adjustment of the system resonant
l" DEEP PLEXIGLAS FORM
3/4" * 3-1/2" frequency.
NO. 10 OR 12 The dimensions and capacitor values
WIRE 10-1/2 TURNS
COIL TAP TO F.T.
for twin-lead dipoles for the hf bands are
GROUND COIL END-Jg BUSHING
given in Table 4. These dimensions were
10-32 THREAD, TO COAX CABLE 28.5
1" DEEP calculated by Jerry Hall, K1TD, and Jay
CORK OR RUBBER 10-32 x 3/4" SCREW
Rusgrove, W1VD. To preserve the (0.72m)
GASKET balance of the feeder, a 1 1 balun must be
(COAT WITH EPOXY GLUE :
AT ASSEMBLY TIME
LOCK WASHER
NO. 10
1
used at the end of the feed line. In most
ON BOTTOM OF BRACKET
applications the balance is not important,
(A) and the twin lead can be connected direct-
ly to a coaxial output jack, one lead to the
center contact, and one lead to the shell.
SIMPLE ANTENNAS FOR HF capable of matching 50 ohms to practical- (13-mm) diameter washer can be soldered
PORTABLE OPERATION ly any impedance an antenna might pre- to the end of the 1/4-inch (6.3-mm) drive
sent. shaft before the cementing is done. This
The antenna is a
typical portable hf Small components can be used for QRP willensure adequate mating surface at the
random-length wire flung over a tree and equipment because the developed rf point where the cement is applied. The
end-fed through a Transmatch. QRP voltage and current are low. CI and C2 end of the rod should be scored
Transmatches can be made quite com- can be miniature bc-band variable (checkered) by means of a metal file to aid
pact, but each additional piece of equip- capacitors for power amounts up to 25 the bond between the rod and the drive
ment necessary makes portable operation watts. A small-diameter coil can be used shaft.
less attractive. The station can be at LI. If additional inductance is needed to en-
simplified by using resonant impedance- An experimental model of the coil ar- sure a wide range of matching conditions,
matched antennas for the bands of in- rangement of Fig. 27B was tried in the simply insert a small amount of fixed-
terest. Perhaps the simplest antenna of ARRL laboratory. This method proved to value inductance between the ground end
this type is the half-wave dipole, center- be unique in eliminating the need for coil of LI (Fig. 27 A) and chassis ground. An
fed with 50- -or 75-ohm coax. Unfor- taps and a switch. The ferrite-rod slug is spst switch can be utilized to short out the
tunately, RG-58, RG-59 or RG-8 cable is pushed into LI from the front panel to added coil when it is not needed. Similar-
Chapter 10 10-14
(DC) receivers are so simple they can't
possibly compete with a good superhet,
right? Wrong! DC receivers have only one
significant disadvantage when compared
to superhets: the presence of an audio im-
age which doubles the amount of noise
and interference heard.
The only other inherent disadvantage is
tor in parallel with LI. This can be ac- conversion receiver; and small size (1-1/2 and can easily be accomplished by pulling
complished by means of a switch also. X 2-1/2 X 3-1/2 in. [40 X 70 X 90 the VFO.
In order to realize the full inductance mm]). Since the rig was designed for portable
range of the ferrite slug and LI, the rod This material has been excerpted from use, current-drain was a major considera-
travel should permit total withdrawal an August 1980 QST article by Roy tion. Experience indicates that many solid
from the coil to full entry into it. An SWR Lewallen, W7EL. Fig. 28 shows the ex- contacts may be had using simple anten-
indicator should be used with the terior of the transceiver. nas and operating during the night with 2
Transmatch to permit proper adjustment. watts on 40 meters. This power level is
Some Underlying Philosophy
also more than adequate for short-range
AN OPTIMIZED QRP "High-performance direct -con version daytime operation. Power drain is low-
TRANSCEIVER receiver" may seem to be self- enough that the rig will run for about a
contradictory. After all, direct-conversion week of evening operation from one
Many QRP rigs have been described in
Amateur Radio publications over the
years. The distinguishing characteristic of
this transceiver is that it was designed and 3.5-29 MHz
\l/ WIRE ANT.
then optimized for high performance. It's 50-JV
INPUT J2
relatively easy to build something that Jl
C2 ^COAX ANT.
works, but it usually requires a great deal
The VFO
The oscillator, Fig. 29, is a good exam-
ple of the principle that a circuit doesn't
necessarily need to be complex to work
well, properly designed. This simple
if
The VFO buffer, although designed for diode can't be measured, the 385-pF fixed greatest.
low current drain, is the major power con- capacitor should be made variable and ad- Following the preamp is the active
sumer in the receiver, requiring 10 raA. justed for best transmitter efficiency. audio filter. This one is a peaked low-pass
The key to efficiency in this sort of buffer The value of L2 is not critical, as long as type with a Q of five —
low enough to
is to choose the transformer turns ratio to it's not much smaller than the 10 (iH keep ringing unnoticeable. It is simple,
sustain as large a voltage swing at the out- shown. Conventional solenoidal rf chokes noncritical and adequate for general
put stage collector (or drain) as possible. will work fine also, but toroids are re- operating. The peak frequency is about
Buffer voltage gain is approximately one quired in a tightly packed rig to keep 650 Hz, which corresponds to the
half, providing about 2.5 volts pk-pk out- mutual coupling acceptably low. transmit-receive frequency difference with
select a series capacitor (here 15 pF) to ob- Receiver signal pickoff is through the rolled off outside the range of about 150
tain a tuning range of about 1300 Hz with 51-pF capacitor from the transmitter out- to 1500 Hz.
a diode reverse bias variation of about 9 to put filter. When transmitting, the diodes U3 is a sidetone oscillator. The injec-
4 volts. When the control is adjusted to protect the receiver and cause the 51-pF tion level is set by the 100-kfl resistor at
the center of its range, the frequency shift capacitor to become part of the transmit- pin 6 or U2B; this may be varied to suit in-
should equal the center frequency of the ter output network. When receiving, the dividual taste.
receiver audio filter (about 650 Hz). Dur- capacitor and L5 make up a fairly low-Q
Keying and T-R
ing transmit, or when the zero button is seriesresonant network to reduce signal
depressed, the shift is removed, causing attenuation by maintaining an approx- Three events must occur when this type
the transmit frequency to be the same as imately 50-ohm source impedance to the of transceiver is keyed, and they must oc-
that of a received signal peaked at the mixer. The additional filtering it provides cur in the proper sequence if operation is
audio-filter center and tuned to the cor- is helpful also. The mixer is a conven- to be clean. They are, in order: (a) receiver
rect side of zero beat. tional doubly balanced type. mutes, (b) VFO shifts frequency, and (c)
Following the mixer is a diplexer. Its transmitter keys. These events must occur
The Transmitter purpose is to provide a wide-band 50-ohm in reverse sequence when switching back
The transmitter is a fairly efficient termination for both rf and af, while from transmit to receive. The sidetone
preventing rf energy from getting into the oscillator must also be keyed, but its
(75%) Class C design. The Zener diode
was added after twice blowing the output af amplifier and preventing af energy timing isn't as critical.
transistor by inadvertently transmitting from being wasted in the rf termination. Attention to this sequence and proper
with the antenna disconnected. The diode The rf termination consists of the 0.1 -pF transmitter waveform shaping makes the"
protects the output transistor from this capacitor and 5 1 -ohm resistor; RFC1 and difference between a poor-sounding rig
hazard. Some caution is necessary when the 0.47-^F capacitor form a low-pass and a really clean one. Many people have
using a Zener diode at the output-stage filter which prevents any residual rf from been surprised to learn my power input —
Chapter 10 10-16
10-17 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment
because "it doesn't sound like a QRP
rig." Only a few parts are required to ac-
complish this. In addition, it's easier to
copy a clean weak signal than a poor one,
so good keying and freedom from chirp,
clicks and roughness are particularly im-
portant for QRP transmitters.
The receiver is muted by Ql 1 which acts
as a series gate. Q10, Ul and U2A are all
further by limiting the swing of either or tically allows dense packing. It helps a
both Q10 and Ul, or biasing Ul and U2A great deal to mount components on both
Fig. 29 — The circuit of the W7EL 40-meter outputs closer to the postive supply sides of the board, and to ignore the con-
QRP transceiver. Resistors are 1/4 or 1/8-watt, voltage. vention of placing parts in neat rows. The
5%. All ferrite cores are available from Amidon use of 1/8-watt resistors saves a surprising
Oscillator frequency shift is obtained by
Associates. When winding the inductors that
use BLN-43-2402 cores, the wire should be changing the bias on the Zener diode amount of space compared to 1/4-watt .
passed once through both holes of the core for (used as a voltage-variable capacitor) in units.Another great space-saver is the use
each "turn" specified. See the illustration. the VFO circuit when going from transmit of tantalum, rather than aluminum, elec-
C1 —
IpF, 3-V non polarized ceramic.
The timing pro- Small parts are nearly
trolytic capacitors.
— Silicon general-pur- to receive or vice versa. is
D2, D3, D5-D13, incl.
pose/switching diode; 1N914, 1N4152 or vided by Q8, which comes on fast when always more expensive and less available
equiv. the key is closed, but goes off some five than their larger counterparts, so each
D4 — Zener, 33-V, 400-mW, 1N973 or equiv. milliseconds after the transmitter output builder must decide if the trade-off is a
D14 — Zener, 10-V, 400-mW, 1N961 or equiv. •
good one.
— Approx. 3mH; 26 turns on a T-44-6 drops to zero following the release of the
L1
core. Tap at seven turns from ground end. key. Shaped transmitter keying is provid-
12 — Approx. 10 43 turns on a T-50-2
/iH, ed by Q7 and associated components. Adjustment and Operation
core. Simultaneous keying of the base and col- The only adjustments required are the.
L3, L4 — iM\ 19 turns on a T-37-6 core.
1
Fig. 30 shows the interior of the which is peaked at the center of the fre-
Q6, Q7 — General purpose, silcon pnp, 310
mW, 2N3906. transceiver. It would be very difficult to quency range. None should require re-
Q8 — General purpose, npn, 310 mW, duplicate the unit exactly, because many adjustment once set.
2N4124 or 2N3565. hard-to-find miniature components are Operation is, by design, simple. The
Q9 — General purpose, silicon npn, 310 mW, used. Lewallen suggests starting with a only point worth noting is that, as with
2N3565.
RFC1 — 100-mH subminiature choke, wound on box and building the rig into it, rather any direct-conversion receiver, signals
a 1/4-watt-resistor-sized ferrite form. Dc re- than the other way around. Get a good must be tuned on the correct side of zero
sistance is approx. 8 0. idea of the placement of controls, con- beat so that the transmitter will be on the
T1 —Primary 15 turns, secondary 3 turns.
nectors and large components before you same frequency as the received signals.
Wound on a BLN-43 2402 core.
T2 —Primary 39 turns (approx. 6.7 ^H), begin. Since it's difficult to troubleshoot Guest operators have picked this up in a
secondary 5 turns. Wound on a T-44-6 core. or modify such a rig once built, ideally a few minutes, so the spot button is seldom
T3, T4 —
Five trifilar turns on a BLN-43-2402 larger breadboard version should first be used. When the rig is new, however, it's
core.
constructed, perfected and operated. nice to have the assurance of knowing just
U1 — op amp, LM301.
U2, U3 —Dual op amp, LM358N (one section Building the circuitry on small pieces of where the transmitter will be when the key
of U3 unused). perfboard and mounting the boards ver- is pressed.
Chapter 10 10-18
1
Chapter 1
Code Transmission
R
I 1 adiotelegraphy is a popular medium To illustrate the key-click problem we problem is a function of power supply
of amateur communications because it is used a square-wave model. In real life, the load regulation (see chapter 5). Note that
highly effective and relatively un- situation may be worse because the keying in a class C amplifier the change in power
complicated. The process by which a envelope often has a sharp spike on the output related to plate or collector voltage
radio signal is interrupted to generate a leading edge and decays exponentially regulation is proportional to the square of
coded message of dits and dahs is called throughout the duration of the pulse. This the voltage change (see chapter 6). The
on-off keying or make-break keying. On- type of wave is even richer in harmonics power supply for a solid-state transmitter
off keying may also be used in than a square wave. The severity of the may be regulated easily and inexpensively
Radioteletype transmission; although this
method is seldom used today. In the early
years of Amateur Radio, keying a
transmitter consisted of inserting a
telegraph key in any convenient power
lead — even the ac input! Such a
haphazard approach today is an invitation
to trouble, from the standpoints of signal
quality and safety. Our cw subbands may
shrink in the future. Successful operation
under crowded conditions and adherence
to FCC regulations concerning stability
and purity of emissions requires clean
signals. In this chapter we define good
keying, analyze keying defects and show
how radiotelegraphy can be implemented
with modern technology.
Oi-off keying is a form of amplitude
modulation and, as such, generates
sidet ands whose spacing from the carrier
is proportional to the keying speed. A
keying speed of 12 wpm corresponds to an
information rate of 5 Hz, which
theoretically requires 10 Hz of bandwidth.
An untreated keying waveform, however,
approaches square-wave modulation,
consisting of the keying frequency plus all
of the odd harmonics. These harmonics
(C)
create sidebands extending many kilohertz (D)
11-1 Chapter 11
— 4
TV/ "I
RIZONTAL
FLECTION brought under control, it is a simple mat-
TRANSISTOR
tr;
ter to shape the keying envelope with an
2N3904 100PF RC network. The figures in this section il-
I.0GIC INPUT O- -WV-i 2N4401 tov -
lustrate the application of time-constant
circuits to various keying methods.
When a circuit carrying current is
opened or closed mechanically, a spark is
KEYED STAGE
breakdown of the base-emitter junction.
Mechanical contacts frequently bounce
several times before stabilizing in the
closed state. The beginnings of keying
pulses formed by bouncing contacts are
poorly defined. This defect can degrade
4N25
the readability of a code signal under
adverse conditions. Relays and
semiautomatic keys are especially prone to
this malady. The circuit of Fig. 9 will help
J34 39
clean up the pulses generated by
2N2222
2N4401 mechanical contacts.
2N3904
A satisfactory code signal can be
^ O W—-AAAA-
o
-300V
amplified by means of a linear amplifier
without affecting the keying characteris-
tics. If, however, the signal is amplified by
with an optical isolator. The rise time of the keying envelope is controlled by the "integrating"
troducing significant key clicks. It is possi-
capacitor connected to the base of the phototransistor. ble to compensate for this effect by using
11-3 Chapter 11
run con-
If the transmitter oscillators
tinuously, they may
be audible as a
backwave between keying pulses. A
strong backwave may indicate the need
for neutralizing one or more transmitter
stages.' In general, if the backwave con-
forms to the -40 dB spurious signal rule, it
won't be objectionable.
The figures in this section illustrate
methods by which various solid-state and
thermionic devices may be keyed. In these
armature of the hand key is at
circuits, the
ground potential and the voltages across
the key are imperceptible. The current
through the key is generally less than one
milliampere. A neon bulb with a proper
series resistor across thekey will alert the
operator to junction breakdown of the
high-voltage transistors. As long as safety
is given due consideration, the key-at-
Break-In
Break-in (QSK) is a system of
radiotelegraph transmission in which the
station receiver is sensitive to other signals
between the transmitted keying pulses.
This capability is very important to traffic
handlers, but can be used to great advan-
tage in ragchewing as well. Break-in gives
1M
AAAA cw communication the dimension of more
natural conversation.
Fig. 9 —
Debouncing circgit for hand keys and relay contacts. The minimum dit length is deter- Most commercially manufactured
mined by the R1C1 product. transceivers feature a "semi break-in"
mode in which the first key closure ac-
tuates the VOX relay. The VOX controls
are usually adjusted to hold the relay
closed between letters.With proper VOX
adjustment, it is possible for the other
operator to break your transmission be-
tween words, but this system is a poor
substitute for true break-in.
Separate Antennas
The simplest way to implement break-
in is to use a separate antenna for receiv-
ing. If the transmitter power is low (below
50 watts or so) and the isolation between
transmitting and receiving antennas is
good, this method can be satisfactory.
Best isolation is obtained by mounting the
antennas as far apart as possible and at
right angles. Smooth break-in involves
protecting the receiver from permanent
damage by the transmitter power and
assuring that the receiver will "recover"
fast enough to be sensitive between keying
pulses. If the receiver recovers fast enough
but the transmitter clicks are bothersome
1N914
is used to couple the antenna to the
receiver. When the transmitter is keyed,'
the rf output causes the tube to draw grid
current through a high-resistance grid
leak. The high negative bias thus
developed cuts off the plate current, -300V
(MAX)
limiting the signal delivered to the
receiver.
Unfortunately, when the grid circuit is Fig. 12 —
An external T-R switch. The primary of T1 is 50 turns of no. 30 enameled wire on an
FT37-43 toroid core. The secondary is 15 turns of no. 30 wound 6ver the primary.
driven into rectification, harmonics are
generated. A commercially manufactured
low-pass filter after the T-R switch can
help to eliminate TVI caused by the har-
monics, but the lower-order harmonics prevents any grid current flow at power received signal. It is commonly stated that
may cause interference to other com- levelsup to 800 watts. This power figure electronic T-R switches are usable only
munications. Another common shortcom- assumes a 50-ohm system with a unity with transmitters having Class C output
ing of T-R switches is that the transmitter VSWR. The circuit can withstand peak rf stages because the "diode noise"
output circuit may "suck out" the re- voltages up to 300. The power capability generated by the resting current of a linear
ceived signal. In a transmitter having a must be derated if the impedance at the amplifier will mask weak signals. Actual-
high-impedance tuned output tank circuit, point of connection is higher than 50 ly, the class-of-service designation is not
both of these problems can be cir- ohms. Although the path has a signal related to key-up conditions, so there is no
cumvented by connecting the T-R switch diode, it is effectively "linearized" by the reason that a linear amplifier can't be
to the input side of the tank circuit. With high-value series resistor, and should not biased off during key-up periods.
this configuration, the .grid rectification significantly degrade the spectral purity of
Reduction of Receiver Gain
harmonics are suppressed and the received the transmitter output.
External T-R switches should be well
During Transmission
signal peaked by means of the tuned cir-
cuit. Fig. 1 1 shows a MOSFET T-R switch shielded and the power leads carefully For absolutely smooth break-in opera-
that works on this principle. filtered. In general, the coaxial cable to tion withno clicks or thumps, means must
A T-R switch for use external to any the transmitter should be as short as possi- be provided for momentarily reducing the
transmitter shown in Fig. 12. The tube is
is ble, but some experimenting may be gain through the receiver. A muting
grid-block keyed, and the fixed-value bias necessary to eliminate "suckout" of the function completely disables the receiver
11-5 Chapter 11
.
IN914
O.OI
0^5 T O 15
FROM
T-R
(oV
SWIToNi'
-w— TO RECEIVER
OR INPUT CIRCUIT
RECEIVIN 50")
ANTENNA (
(50A) LOGIC
INPUT
+15 V-
Q
10 K 10K
OVWfWWH 555
> VlNSM
OUTPUT
6 IN9I4
LOGIC INPUT O—
Fig. 15 —
A 555 universal timer used as a
0.1 =t R2 sidetone generator. Pin 4 is taken to ground to
interrupt the tone. The frequency of oscillation
is about 500 Hz with the constants shown.
Fig. 13 — A diode attenuator for receiver gain reduction during keying. The logic threshold is
If the audio output muted, the
determined by ———
R1 + R2
( + VCC), For +l5-volt CMOS logic, R1 = R2 = 1M. For + 5-volt receiver can be used to monitor one's key-
isn't
Keying Speeds
In radiotelegraphy the basic code ele-
OOOV
ment is the dit, or unit pulse. The time
270K> '270K>
SIGNAL \0-
INPUT
I!" duration of a dit and a space together is
that of two unit pulses.A dah is three unit
pulses long. The space between letters is
GATE PROTECTED
three unit pulses; the space between words
or groups is seven unit pulses. A speed of
Fig. 14 — Gain-reduction circuit for receivers using a fixed-bias dual-gate MOSFET in the first
one baud is one pulse per second.
stage. As much as 40 dB of attenuation is possible with this method. The logic threshold is
calculated as in Fig. 13.
Assuming that a speed key is adjusted
to give the proper dit, space and dah
values mentioned above, the code speed
can be found from
audio during key-down periods. Assum- monitor one's sending. A 555 timer con- = dits/min
Speed (wpm)
ing the transmitter signal at the receiver is nected as an astable multivibrator is com- 2.5
held below the damage level, muting the monly used for this purpose. This device 2.4 X dits/sec.
audio output can be an effective means of delivers rectangular output pulses, and the For example, a properly adjusted elec-
achieving smooth break-in, provided no resulting signal often sounds quite tronic key gives a string of dits which are
age is used. Age systems suitable for cw raucous. A variation of the standard 555 counted as 10 dits per second. Speed =
operation are characterized by long circuit appears in Fig. 15. The diodes 2.4 X 10 = 24 wpm.
"hang" times. Unless the transmitter maintain the symmetry of the waveform Many modern electronic keyers use a
signal in the receiver is at a level similar to independently of the pitch and the RC clock or pulse-generator circuit which
that of the other station, the age system filter removes many of the objectional feeds a flip-flop dit generator. For these
will seriouslydesense the receiver, render- harmonics. A keying monitor can be keyers the code speed may be determined
ing the break-in system useless. diode A powered by the rf output of the transmit- directly from the clock frequency
attenuator suitable for use with T-R ter. Such a circuit is shown in Fig. 16.
switches or separate antennas is shown in Keying monitors often have built-in Speed (wpm) = 1.2 X clock'frequency (Hz)
Fig. 13. If the receiver uses a dual-gate loudspeakers, but it is less expensive and
MOSFET with no age in the first stage, more convenient to inject the monitor For a quick and simple means of deter-
the method of Fig. 14 may be used. signal into the audio output stage of the mining the code speed, send a continuous
receiver. With this system one always string of dahs and count the number of
Monitoring hears his sidetone from the same source dahs which occur in a five-second period.
If the receiver output is muted, an (speaker or headphones) as the other sta- This number, to a close approximation, is
audio sidetone oscillator must be used to tion's signal. the code speed in words per minute. A
Circuit Description
11-7 Chapter 11
fo the proper scanning lines (given in zero is added as an "end bit," and the ones. An optional circuit "examines" the
Table 1),the combinations corresponding characters are sent from right to left. All contents of the FIFOs and displays the
to the valid Morse characters are selected. of the characters must be represented by buffer status on three LEDs. The com-
In the keyer, binary zero represents dit, seven-bit binary numbers where all of the plete circuit is given in Figs. 18, 19 and 20.
and binary one represents dah. An extra unused bits to the left of the end bit are This circuit description is necessarily
*o— >
^7
+TH 01
U4
v 0I) 4528 -™ .
A-7-7
v+O-
r C(1)
8
V 3S - TR
11
+TR RST
12 13
2
Vdd
Q7
Ul
U5 -{>
» o- 4051 4024
DEMUX BINARY U6B
COUNTER /
RST rT7 4528
1
ONE SHOT V.
Q3. vss
» <r r*+i
02 /T7
CLK 10k
» 04
-VvV* O v+
A0
O- I/O
c 03 J2
1
*'
<r I/O
B 02 «
{>
1
I/O
U2 11 ,
6 U8 Ql 3
4051
A
40105 40105 t>
\
A3 O- I/O
I/O
DEMUX 1MH
FIFO
REGISTER
12
13
5
4
FIFO
REGISTER
0« 2 H
IN /OUT
A5 COM V+O-
O- I/O
v EE
14 3
A6 <3_ I/O
15 2
A7
O- I/O
-r -Ov+
16
-0
v+ C
0.1
I/O
c
A9 I/O 10 7
B D3 02
-l>
10k
EXTERNAL
POWER
v+o —vw IT U6A
4528 + TR
Fig. — Keyswitch encoder and buffer circuits for the K2BLA keyer.
18
U1, U2,U3 — CD4051B decoder/multiplexer. U5 — CD4024B binary counter.
U4, U6 — MC14528 dual monostable multi-vibrator. U7, U8, U9, U10 — CD40105 FIFO register.
Fig. 19 — Decoder and output circuits for the keyboard. The open-collector output is suitable for transmitters having positive key lines up to 40 V.
Arrangements for other key lines are given earlier in the chapter.
U11, U12 —
CD4035B parallel shift register
U13 — CD4013B dual D flip-flop U19 —
CD4011B quad 2-input NAND gate
U14, U15 —
CD4027B dual JK flip-flop U16, U17, U18 — CD4001B quad 2-input NOR gate U20 —
MC14501 8-input NAND/AND gate
11-9 Chapter 11
11
Table 1
Keyswitch Connections
Connect
Character From To
A B7 A10
B B6 .
A1
C B6 A5
D B7 Al
E B7 Al £.
B7 AA
A4 .
F
A
Ml
G B7 I
AlA
H B6 MV
B7 AQ
AO
I
J B6 A14
AC +vo- 470
K B7 AO U22
A2 88C30
L B6
470
M B7 A1 1,
7
I
I
A^/vV-
N B7 A9 FULL IN-USE
B7 A7
P 1
B6 A6 _
^7 vO
U7PIN14 <^]
Q B6 A1
R B7 A2
S B7
A Ik
U7 PIN 2 < —
^j
T B7 A13
U B7 A4
V B6 A8
w B7 A6 Fig. 20— Optional sidetone generator and buffer status indicator.
X B6 A9 U21 — CD4001B quad 2-input NOR gate. U22 — 88C30 dual differential line driver.
Y B6 A13
z B6 A3
1 > B5 A14
~ A il£
O
2 B5 A dc voltage from 5 to 15; a regulated supply recovery speed of the receiver. If the
3 B5 A8
AA isn't necessary. Penlight cells will work receiver age time constant is fairly fast, it
4 B5 Av
5 B4 Av fine, but if the optional circuitry is in- should be possible to hear signals between
6 B4 A1
Al cluded, the larger C or D cells should be characters at keying speeds of up to 25
AQ
AO
7 B4 used. wpm. If the receiver age is turned off, or
8 B4 A7
AID
Figs. 27 and 28 reveal some of the con- set for very fast recovery, signals can be
9 B4
SK B2 A8 struction Apollo cabinet
details. An heard between characters at speeds of up
AR B4 A10 houses the assembly, but a home-made to 50 wpm. If you prefer, the receiver can
KN B4 A13 enclosure will work as well. The dimen- be muted during characters and two out-
AS B4 A2
sions and mounting arrangements will be puts, the + mute and — mute, are pro-
BT B5 A1
AA B6 A5 dictated by the keyboard the builder ob- vided for this purpose. Several transmit-
B3 A3 tains. ters were tried with this system and it was
B2 -
A10 possible to use them without modifica-
Operating the Keyboard tion, so long as the final amplifier was
Sending Morse code with this keyer is biased off under key-up conditions. No
very much like typing. Character spacing background hash was noticable.
is automatic (provided one types in step The PIN diode T-R system is not
brief. Helfrick's original QST article with or ahead of the output), and word plagued by problems commonly asso-
(January 1978) contains a more com- •
spaces are made with the space bar. With ciated with some other systems. First,
prehensive treatment of the keyboard cir- the buffer the operator may type up to 32 "suckout" (receiver desensing) has been
cuitry. characters ahead of the output. The unit eliminated, as has the problem of critical
has a "dump" switch, so if the operator interconnecting line lengths. Also, since
Hardware Assembly must abort a transmission, pushing the the saturated diode technique has been
The keyer circuits are assembled on two button will instantly terminate the code abandoned there should be no chance for
6 x 4-1/2-inch (152 X
1 14-mm) double- output. Using the buffer takes a little TVI. No high-priced vacuum relays are
sided pc boards. One board holds the key- getting used to. Most operators like to used. No amplifiers are placed ahead of
switch encoder and buffer, while the other copy exactly what they send, and with the the receiver that could affect receiver per-
holds the shift registers and output de- buffer you can't do that. You must type formance. In short, the system described
coding circuitry. Figs. 21 through 24 con- and ignore the output (or disable the side- here provides excellent performance and
tain the etching patterns and component- tone), or you may become quite confused. suffers none of the ills of earlier systems.
over the other. A small third circuit board The T-R switch system described here is A schematic diagram of the circuit is
holds the optional sidetone oscillator and usable with most any 100-W (output) shown in Fig. 30. The diagram is divided
buffer indicator. This is a single-sided power level transmitter/receiver or trans- into two sections, as is the actual circuitry.
board and its etching pattern and parts ceiver/receiver combination. This system That portion of the circuit to the left of
layout appear in Figs. 25 and 26. The buf- isdesigned for flexible operation and in- the dotted line intended to be mounted
is
fer indicator draws 100 times the current terconnection to various pieces of com- at the operating position for easy access.
of the main circuit; therefore a separate mercial or home-made equipment. For the Circuitry to the right of the line can be
power switch should be used to disable the /simplest setup, no, modifications to the mounted remotely, perhaps behind the
indicator. All of the ICs are CMOS units. transmitter or receiver are necessary. All station equipment.
The oscillator circuits using gates require that's required is to plug the station equip- The transmitter is connected to the
any series can be used
B-series devices, but ment into the system. The only limitation antenna through a quarter- wavelength,
elsewhere. The keyboard will work on any associated with this simple setup is the lumped-constant circuit. SI selects the ap-
Code Transmission ,
11-10
Fig. 21 — Bottom-side etching pattern for the encoder/buffer circuit board. Black represents unetched copper.
.
Mii§i§isiiiiiw>
UUUUUUUU UUUUUUUU
nnnnnnnn % *
U9 .
U7
\ uuuuu UUU'I
^ SPACE BAR
UUUUUUUU JO
DxlQQnnjQQ. nnnnnnnn i
U8 C
UUUUUUUU x
UUUUUUUU
>
^iiil
J = WIREJUMPER
X = THROUGH CONNECTION
Fig. 22 — Component-side etching pattern and component-placement guide for the encoder/buffer board.
11-11 Chapter 11
Fig. 23 — Bottom-side etching pattern for the decoder/output board.
KEYING OpF Y
OUTPUT" y x x i
nnnnnnn nnnnnnnn, nnnnnnnn,
Q »,
U12 C
UUUUUUUU
U11
UUUODUU* / UUUUUUUU
C m
3
D
pnnnnnn. "nnnnnnn nnn nnnnn ,
C 3 U18
018 U2C C
c D
c D DUDUDD07 uuuuuuu uuuuuuuu
x —
1 >
nnnnnnnn nnnnnnn
U15 UI3
uuuuuuuuD
(
uuuuuuu'
G
Fig. 24 t- Component-side etchirig pattern and component-placement guide for the decoder/output board.
Fig. 25 — Etching pattern for the buffer indicator/sidetone generator board, shown from the foil
side.
16 470
470
f[ ftnnoftao.ls
'
021 j„ p uJS"
'
DDUOOOO
propriate circuit for the frequency in use. D2 connected in series and D3 in shunt. The station keyer (or straight key, bug
Quarter-wave circuits are required to pre- Combination switches provide superior or keyboard) connected to either J6 or
is
vent "suckout" of the received signal. attenuation performance to either the J7 depending on the output keying poten-
"Suckout" occurs with tube-type trans- series orshunt elements alone. Approxi- tial. Ql and Q2 provide a suitable signal
mitterswhen the high-impedance end of mately 50 dB of isolation from the anten- for driving Q3 through Q9. Q3 controls
the transmitter pi network becomes na to the receiver connection is provided D3 and turns the diode on during trans-
unloaded; during receive periods, for ex- throughout the rf range. These results mission and off during receive. Q4 and Q5
ample. As the pi network is one type of should be reproducible if the same type of control Dl and D2, biasing the diodes on
impedance-inverting network, the high PIN diodes are used and the board layout for receive and off for transmit. At first
resistance presented by the non- shown is followed closely. glance it might appear that some
operational tube causes the low-
impedance end of the network to ap-
proach ohms. The quarter-wavelength
lumped-constant sections provided in the
T-R system serve to. step the nearly zero
impedance level of the transmitter output
up to an almost' infinitely high impedance
that will not reduce the received signal
level. As shown in the schematic diagram,
the antenna is connected directly to; J3
which feeds the PIN diode switch section
of the T-R circuit.
The components located between J3
and J4 comprise the switch that protects
the receiver from the transmitted signal. A Fig. 29 — Exterior view of the PIN Diode T-R Switch. The box at the right is mounted at the
"T" configuration is used, with Dl and operating position. The box at the left can be mounted remotely.
11-13 Chapter 11
Fig. 30 — Schematic diagram of the T-R switch system! All resistors are 1/4-watt composition types. All capacitors are miniature ceramic, 50-volt
types unless polarization is indicated. Polarized types are aluminum electrolytic or tantalum. Component designations listed in the schematic, but
not called out in the parts list, are for text or layout reference only
C1, C2 — Mica, 820 pF, 500 V T-80-6 core.
C3, C4 — Mica, 470 pF, 500 V. choice). RFC1, RFC2 — Toroid choke, 20 turns no. 26
C5, C6 — Mica, 220 pF, 500 V. —
J6, J7 Phone, 1/4 inch or builder's choice. enam. wire on a FT-37-75 core.
C7, C8 — Mica, 150 pF, 500 V. —
J8-J11, incl. Phono or builder's choice. RFC3-RFC9, incl. — Toroid choke, 26 turns
C9, C10 — Mica, 110 pF, 500 V. —L1 Toroid, 20 turns no. 18 enam. wire on a no. 30 enam. wire on an FT-23-75 core.
C32 — Electrolytic, 1000 (iF, 35 V. T-80-2 core. 51 — Rotary wafer, 2 sections, 5 positions,
C33 — Tantalum, 1 pF, 35 V. —L2 Toroid, 15 turns no. 18 enam. wire on a ceramic.
D1-D3, incl. — PIN diode, Unitrode 1N5763 or T-80-2 core. 52 — Toggle, spst.
equiv. —L3 Toroid, 11 turns no. 18 enam. wire on a T1 — Miniature power, primary 117 V, sec-
D4-D9, incl. — Power, 100 PRV, 1 A. T-80-6 sore. ondary 12 V at 300 mA. Radio Shack 273-
D10 — Light-emitting diode. —L4 Toroid, 9 turns' no. 18 enam. wire on a 1385 or equiv.
F1 — Fuse, 1/2 A. T-80-6 core. U1 — Three-terminal regulator, 12-V output.
J1-J5, incl. — Rf connector, female l(builder's —L5 Toroid, 8 turns no. 18 enam. wire on a Radio Shack RS-781 2 or equiv.
Fig. 32 —Inside view of the remotely mounted portion of the system. Short lengths of wire are
used to attach the connectors to the appropriate circuit board foils. All power supply components .
simplification of the switching diode and are mounted on the circuit board.
control circuitry might be possible. Since
it was desired to power the system from a
12-V dc source (for portable operation),
and high negative voltages could not be
used to reverse bias the diodes during
transmit, an unusual arrangement was
devised. Hence, the more complicated cir- parts-placement patterns are shown in component leads are grounded. Many ol
cuit. J8 and J9 are provided for keying the Figs, 33 and 34. An interior 'view of this the component ground connections are
transmitter; one of the two outputs should unit is shown in Fig. 31. The rotary-switch not made on the pattern (bottom) side of
be suifable for almost any transmitter. J 10 wafers are positioned to line up closely the board. These components must be
and J 1 1 are for muting the station receiver with the appropriate circuit board connec- soldered on the top side to- complete the
during transmission. Again, dual-polarity tion points. An extra ceramic spacer is in- gound connection.
outputs are provided. Choose the one ap- serted in each of the switch section sup- Garden-variety components are used,
plicable to the equipment in use. port rods to provide the needed separa- with the exception of the PIN diodes. The
The power supply is depicted at the bot- tion. Short lengths of no. 18 tinned wire diodes are Unitrode 1N5763 types, which
tom center of the schematic diagram. are used for the connections from the can be obtained from many supply
Power to the system is routed through an board to the switch contacts. RG-58A/U houses. All of the rf chokes are hand
on/off switch that is mounted at the con- cable is used to make the connection from wound on small ferrite cores. Since encap-
head. An LED indicator is included as
trol the antenna coaxial connector to the front sulated chokes are relatively expensive and
a reminder that power is switched on. wafer. The cable braid is soldered to cores are not, the time spent winding the
Connection from the control head to the ground lugs at each end. chokes can result in reduced cost.
remote unit is made via feedthrough The second enclosure used for the T-R
capacitors at each box. These capacitors switch system is constructed from sheet Circuit Checkout
ensure that each cabinet remains rf-tight. aluminum and measures 2-1/8 X 4-1/8 Interconnection of the two modules re-
The power supply is of the usual variety in X 7 inches (54 X 105 X 178 mm). An hookup wire, each
quires four lengths of
all respects. A step-down transformer, ideal commercial enclosure would be the long enough to reach between the two
full-wave rectifier, filter and three- Bud CU-247 die-cast aluminum box. units when installed in their operating
terminal regulator provide the necessary These boxes are extremely rugged and rf positions. The wires are twisted, cable-
voltage. A fuse is included in one leg of tight. The power supply, PIN-diode tied or laced together. Wires of different
the ac line. switch and control circuitry are mounted colors will help distinguish the connec-
on a circuit board. Circuit board etching tions and prevent possible surprises the
Construction and parts-layout information are shown in firsttime power is applied! Connections
As mentioned earlier, the T-R switch Figs. 33 and 34. Double-sided circuit- are as follows: Cll to C27, C12 to C28
system is constructed in two enclosures. board material was used, with the top side and C13 to C29. The fourth wire, ground,
The circuitry intended for mounting at the of the board left substantially unetched to connects the two boxes. A
coaxial cable is
operating position is built into a Bud act as a ground plane. Copper must be used to connect J3 and J4.
Minibox that measures 3x4x5 inches removed from around circuit-hole loca- Connection to the station equipment is
11-15 Chapter 11
.
Fig. 33 — Parts-layout patterns of the two printed-circuit boards. Each board is shown from the component side.
can nowbe made. If all is in order at this step attenuator' and received, signals. At- receiver noise when the keyer is activated.
the signals to become inaudible. The exact a received signal and the receiver S-meter jack and J8 or J9. If muting of the
amount of attenuation can be measured may be used. A strong signal should receiver is desired, make the appropriate
using a calibrated signal generator or a become almost completely buried in the connection at J 1 or J 1 1
\ '
o oo
o o o o ooo^oo.
o o
o o o o o o.oo
o o 0^,0
°
ooo^o
°
o o o
o
o
o
o o o o
o
Q
o
O
o
A
o
A ° ° ° o WWW
o o o oo o o o ooo
o o
Fig. 34 — Etching patterns for the two printed-circuit boards. THe smaller board is single-sided while the large one is double-sided. Patterns are pro-
vided for both sides of the board. Patterns are to scale. Black areas represent unetched copper.
1 1-17 Chapter 11
,
Chapter 12
Single-Sideband Transmission
the high-frequency amateur All of the intelligence is contained in the cent a-m signals. Perhaps the most impor-
bands, single-sideband is the most widely sidebands, but two-thirds of the rf power tant advantage of eliminating the carrier is
used radiotelephony mode. Since ssb is a is in the carrier. The carrier serves only to that the overall efficiency of the transmit-
sophisticated (or simplified, depending on demodulate the signal in the receiver. If ter is increased. The power consumed by
one's point of view) form of amplitude this carrier suppressed in the transmitter
is the carrier can be put to better use in the
modulation, it is worthwhile to take a and reinserted in the proper phase in the sidebands. The power in the carrier is con-
brief look at some f-m fundamentals. receiver, several significant communica- tinuous and an a-m transmitter requires a
Modulation is a mixing process. When rf tions advantages accrue. If the reinserted heavy-duty power supply. A dsb (double
and af signals are combined in a standard carrier strong compared to the incoming
is sideband) transmitter having the same
a-m transmitter (such as one used for doubleTsideband signal, exalted carrier power output as an a-m transmitter can
commercial broadcasting) four output sig- reception is achieved in which distortion use a much lighter power supply because
caused by frequency-selective fading is the duty cycle of voice operation is low.
nals are generated: the original rf signal,
called the carrier, the original af signal, greatly reduced. A refinement of this
Balanced Modulators
and two sidebands, whose frequencies are technique, called synchronous detection
the sum and difference of the original rf uses a phase-locked loop to enhance the The carrier can be suppressed or nearly
and af signals, and whose amplitudes are rejection of interference. Also, the lack of eliminated by using a balanced modulator
proportional to that of the original af a transmitted carrier eliminates the or an extremely sharp filter. In ssb trans-
signal.The sum component is called the heterodyne interference common to adja- mitters it is common practice to use both
INJ.
2-5V
BAL. MOD.
01
2N2925
BAL.
MOD.
- Typical circuits of balanced modulators. Representative parts values are given and should serve as a basis for designing
one's own
Fig. 2
equipment.
SINGLE-SIDEBAND EMISSION Fig. 4 — Additional balanced-modulator circuits in which integrated circuits are used.
A further improvement in communica-
tions effectiveness can be obtained by
transmitting only one of the sidebands.
When the proper receiver bandwidth is BALANCED MODULATOR
(4 E A HPA-5082-5826
used, a single-sideband signal will show an )
portant. INPUT
Generating the
If the
SSB Signal: Filter
modulator is applied lo a bandpass filter, Fig. 5 — Balanced-modulator design using hot-carrier diodes.
one of the sidebands can be greatly at-
tenuated. Because a filter cannot have in-
finitely steep skirts, to obtain adequate
suppression of the unwanted sideband the Table 3
response of the filter must begin to roll off Guidelines for Amateur SSB Signal Quality
within about 300 Hz of the phantom car-
Parameter Suggested Standard
rier. This effect limits the ability to
Carrier suppression At least 40-dB below PEP.
transmit bass frequencies, but as Will be
Opposite-sideband suppression At least 40-dB below PEP.
shown in the section on speech processing, Hum and noise At least 40-dB below PEP.
these frequencies have little communica- Third-order intermodulation distortion At least 30-dB below PEP.
tions value. The filter rolloff can be used Higher-order intermodulation distortion. At least 35-dB below PEP.
Long-term frequency stability At most 100-Hz drift per hour.
to obtain an additional 20 dB of carrier
Short-term frequency stability At most 10-Hz pk-pk deviation in
suppression. The bandwidth of an ssb fil-
a 2-kHz bandwidth.
ter is selected for the specific application.
For voice communications, typical values
are 1800 to 4000 Hz. image rejection. This consideration re- tions. High quality components and
Fig. 6 illustrates two variations of the quires the heterodyne-oscillator frequency careful adjustment are required for good
filter, method of ssb generation. The to be above the fixed ssb frequency on results with this type of filter. An alternate
heterodyne oscillator is represented as a some bands and below it on others. To possibility is a "synthesized" filter com-
simple VFO, but may be a premixing sys- reduce circuit complexity, early amateur of high-performance operational
prised
tem or synthesizer. The scheme at B is per- filter types of ssb transmitters did not in- amplifiers used as gyrators or "active in-
haps less expensive than that of A, but the clude a sideband selection switch. The ductors." A further drawback of ssb
heterodyne oscillator frequency must be result was that the output was lsb on 160, generation in this frequency range is that
shifted when changing sidebands if the 75 and 40 meters, and usb on the higher multiple conversion is necessary to reach
dial calibration is to be. maintained. The bands. This convention persists despite the desired output frequency with ade-
ultimate sense' (erect or inverted) of the the flexibility of most modern amateur ssb quate suppression of spurious mixing pro-
final output signal is influenced as much equipment. ducts.
by the relationship of the heterodyne- Mechanical filters are an excellent
oscillator frequency to the fixed ssb fre- Filter Types
choice for ssb generation in the 400- to
quency as by the filter or carrier frequency For carrier frequencies in the 50- to 500-kHz region. These filters are de-
selection. The heterodyne-oscillator fre- 100-kHz region, a satisfactory filter can scribed in some detail in the receiving
quency must be chosen to allow the* best be made up of lumped-constant LC sec- chapter. For wide dynamic range receiving
12-4 Chapter 12
— (
I
.
A fundamental crystal filter section is
9. sideband suppression
Good unwanted
can be obtained with only two crystals
using this approach. The crystals are
ground the same frequency. The
for
potential bandwidth here is only half that
obtained with a half-lattice design. The
maximum bandwidth of almost any
crystal filter can be increased by using
plated crystals intended for overtone
operation.
The home construction of crystal filters
can be very time-consuming, if not expen-
sive. The reason for this is that one must
Fig. 8 — Half-lattice filters cascaded in a back-to-back arrangement. The theoretical curve of such experiment with a large number of crystals
a filter has increased skirt selectivity and fewer spurious responses, as compared with a simple
halflattice, but the same passband as the simple circuit. to produce a filter with satisfactory per-
Y1 Y2 Y3
IN Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 OUT
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y8
(R1
. 220/V
t
7^'71 pF
±
"ZiZ 120pF ^;150 pF OUTPUT
5
XTAL
7
)jTAL
9673 74 73 76 77 78 79 9680 81 82 83
FREQUENCY (kHz)
Fig. 9 — An asymmetrical filter and theoretical Fig. 10 —Some ladder filters based on CB crystals, with the response that can be expected from
attenuation curve. the 6-pole unit.
formance. Crystal grinding and etching very little on the 3-dB bandwidth.
effect
can be a fascinating and highly educa- Ladder having six or more elements
filters Table 4
tional activity, but most'home builders are suitable for ssb transmitting and CB Frequencies
would prefer to spend their time on other receiving service. In general, the band-
Frequency Frequency
aspects of equipment design. High-quality width is inversely proportional to the Channel (MHz) Channel (MHz)
filters are available from several manufac- values of the shunt capacitors and directly
1 26.965 21 27.215
turers in the $50 to $100 price class. Most proportional to the terminal impedances. 2 26.975 22 27.225
amateurs who build their own ssb equip- Table 4 lists the frequencies of the CB 3 26.985 23 27.255
Jhent adopt a "systems engineering" ap- channels. Overtone crystals for CB service 4 27.005 24 27.235
proach and design their circuits "around 5 27.015 25 27.245
have fundamental resonance at approxi-
6 27.025 26 27.265
filters of known performance. Some filter mately one third of the listed frequency. 7 27.035 27 27.275
suppliers are listed in the Construction 8 27.055 28 27.285
and Data Tables chapter. It is still worth- Filter Applications 9 27.065 29 27.295
while to have an appreciation for the basic 10 27.075 30 27.305
The important considerations in circuits
11 27.085 31 27.315
design ideas, however, for many of the using bandpass filters are impedance 12 27.105 32 27.325
less expensive filters can be improved matching and input/output isolation. The 13 27.115 33 27.335
markedly by the addition of a couple of requirements for the latter parameter are 14 27.125 34 27.345
''crystals external to the package. The 15 27.135 35. 27.355
less severe transmitting applications
in
16 27.155 36 ,27.365
technique is to steepen the skirts by group- than they are for receiving, but with prop- 17 27.165 37 27.375
ing sharp notches on either side of the er layout and grounding, the opposite 18 27.175 38 27.385
passband. sideband suppression should be deter- 19 27.185 39 27.395
An important exception to the above 20 27.205 40 27.405
mined by the shape factor rather than
commentary is the ladder filter. Although signal leakage. The filter must be ter-
this type of filter is treated in textbooks, it minated with the proper impedances to
has received attention in the amateur ensure a smooth bandpass response.
literatureonly recently. , The significant Fig. 11A shows a typical ssb generator transformer of the modulator. The tank
feature of ladder filters is that all of the using a KVG (see QST nds) crystal filter. circuit is broadly resonant at 9 MHz and
crystals are ground for the same fre- The grounded-gate JFET presents a rejects any spurious signals generated in
quency.. Low-cost CB crystals are ideally broadband 50-ohm termination to the the modulator that might be propagated
suited to this application. Representative balanced modulator and transforms the through the filter. Crystal filters should be
designs by F6BQP and G3 JIR are given in impedance to the 500 ohms required by isolated from any dc voltages present in
of this type can be
Fig. 10. Filter sections the filter. The dc return for the source of the circuit.
cascaded for improved shape factor with the JFET is through the output A circuit using a Collins mechanical
12-6 Chapter 12
-Q+12V
DOUBLY BALANCED
MODULATOR
CARRIER a
NPUT r 0.01
TdBro
\[ O Z.-50A
AUDIO
INPUT
O '
(A)
Fig. 11 - Connecting a packaged filter into an ssb generator. (A) 9-MHz crystal filter. (B) 455-kHz mechanical filter.
limited to 2 mA. Table 5 shows the required phase accuracy 2.0 35.01
31.42
of one channel (af or rf) for various levels 3.0
28.85
SSB Generation: The Phasing Method of opposite sideband suppression. The
4.0
5.0 26.85
Fig. 12 shows another method for ob- numbers given assume perfect amplitude 10.0 20.50
taining a single-sideband signal. The balance and phase accuracy in the other 15.0 16.69
'
channel. It can be seen from the table that 20.0 13.93
audio and carrier signals are each split in- 9.98
30.0
to components separated 90° in phase and a phase accuracy of ± 1 ° must be main- 6.0
45.0
applied to balanced modulators. When tained the signal quality is to satisfy the
if
the dsb outputs of the modulators are criteria tabulated at the beginning of this
combined, one sideband is reinforced and chapter. It is difficult to achieve this level
the other The figure shows
is cancelled. of overall accuracy over the entire speech ± 2° if the peak deviations can be made
band. Note, however, that speech has a to occur within the spectral gap.
sideband selection by means of transpos-
complex spectrum with a large gap in the The major advantage of the phasing
ing the audio leads, but the same result
that the ssb signal can be
can be had by means of switching the car- octave from 700 to 1400 Hz. The phase- system is
generated at the operating frequency
rier leads. accuracy tolerance can be loosened to
SIDEBAND
SELECTION
\
CARRIER
AUDIO 90"
PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
NETWORK RF 90°
PHASE SHIFT RF COMBINER LINEAI
NETWORK RF AMP.
BALANCED MODULATOR
MPF102
1 BAL
_Q MOD
LU47/UF
J> 500
r 15 V
300-
3 -O + V
1
3000 Hz O- 12
T I
J 4
-o T0
E -O MOD
BAL
Fig. 13 — A circuit using the B&W 2Q4 audio phase shift network.
® 2
100 k
AA/V-
180
LOW- Z
INPUT 0°Q
R : 12k ±10%
CI : 0.044juF (2 x 0.022juF
C2 i 0.033>jF
C3 : 0.02/iF Ul, U2 : HIGH PERFORMANCE
C4 : O.OIjuF
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
C5: 5600pF
C6 !
4700PF
Fig. 14 — A high-performance audio phase shifter made from ordinary loose-tolerance components.
12-8 Chapter 12
\. ( TO BAL
CARRIER ^S». MOD NO \
INPUT DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER 3> LIMITEF^ ^ O
-O TO BAL MOD
NO. 1
DOUBLY BALANCED
MIXER
CARRIER
0-5>- INPUT
TO BAL-
-O TO BAL MOD PHASE SHIFT NETWORK MOD NO. 2
NO. 2
DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER
LIMITER^ > Q
^^^^^
Fig. 15 —A simple rf phase shifter. One of the
capacitors can be variable for precise align-
ment. I
-XT PHASE ADJUST
without the need for heterodyning. Phas-
ing can be used to good advantage even in
fixed-frequency systems. A loose-toler-
ance ( ± 4°) phasing exciter followed by a
simple two-pole crystal filter can generate
a high-quality signal at very low cost.
Fig 16 — Block diagram of a phase-locked-loop phase-shifting system capable of maintaining
Audio Phasing Networks quadrature over a wide bandwidth. The doubly balanced mixer is used as a phase
detector.
MODULATOR
(A)
(B)
Fig. 18 - Independent-sideband generators. (A) Filter system. (B) Phasing system. The block marked "rf combiner" can be a hybrid combiner
summing amplifier.
One methodfor obtaining a 90° phase microphone input, F5 emission will result. Many commercially manufactured ssb
over a wide bandwidth is to generate
shift Two alternating tones from an afsk RTTY transceivers have provisions for control-
the quadrature signals at a fixed frequency keyer will cause the transmitter to produce ling the transmit or receive
frequency with
and heterodyne them individually to any A
an Fl keyed audio tone will be
signal. an external VFO
or receiver. With slight
desired operating frequency. Quadrature translated into an Al signal. This tech- modification it should be possible to slave
hybrids having multioctave bandwidths nique is a perfectly legitimate way to two transceivers to a single VFO for isb
are manufactured commercially, but they operate cw with an ssb transceiver, and is operation. The oscillators in the trans-
cost hundreds of dollars. Another prac- simpler than the more traditional method ceivers must be aligned precisely.
tical approach is to use two VFOs in a of upsetting the balanced modulator for The most obvious amateurapplication
masterrslave phase-locked loop system. carrier leakage. One can vary the for independent sideband is the transmis-
Many phase detectors lock the two signals transmitting frequency independently of sion of slow-scan television with
in phase quadrature. A
doubly balanced the receiving frequency by means of simultaneous audio commentary. On the
mixer has this property. One usually changing the audio tone. The strength of vhf bands, other combinations, are possi-
thinks of a phase-locked loop as having a the tone determines the transmitter power ble, such as voice and code or SSTV and
VCO locked to a reference signal, but a output. Good engineering practice re- RTTY.
phase differential can be controlled in- quires that the tone be frequency-stable
dependently of the oscillator. The circuit and that the total harmonic distortion be The Speech Amplifier
in Fig. 16 illustrates this principle. A less than one percent. Also, the carrier The purpose of a speech amplifier is to
digitalphase shifter is sketched in Fig. 17. and opposite sideband must be suppressed raise the level of audio output from a
If ECL ICs are used, this system can work at least 40 dB. Of course the rise and microphone to that required by the modu-
over the entire hf spectrum. decay times of the audio envelope must be lator of a transmitter. In ssb and fm trans-
controlled to avoid key clicks. This sub- mitters the modulation process takes place
Other SSB Modes ject is treated in detail in Chapter 1 1 at low levels', so only a few volts of audio
An ssb transmitter simply a frequency
is are necessary. One or two simple voltage-
translator. Any frequency- or amplitude- Independent Sideband Emission
amplifier stages will suffice. A-m
varying signal (within .the bandwidth If two ssb exciters, one usb and the transmitters often employ high-level plate
capabilities of the transmitter) applied to other lsb, share a common .carrier modulation requiring considerable audio
the input
will be translated intact oscillator, two channels of information power, compared to ssb and fm. The
(although frequency inversion takes place can be transmitted from one antenna. microphone-input and audio voltage-
in Isb) to the chosen radio frequency. If Methods for isb generation in filter and amplifier circuits are similar in all three
amplitude-limited tones corresponding to phasing transmitters are shown in Fig. 18. types of phone transmitters, however.
the video information of a slow-scan May 1977 QST carried an article on con- When designing speech equipment it is
television picture are fed- into the verting the popular Drake TR4-C to isb. necessary to know (1) the amount of
12-10 Chapter 12
.
will reduce reverberation by a factor of the plates would, and being charged, it re-
1.7:1. Some types of unidirectional quires no bias voltage. A
low voltage pro-
microphones have a proximity effect in vided by a battery used for an FET im-
CRYSTAL, CERAMIC, OR Hl-Z DYNAMIC
that low frequencies are accentuated when pedance converter is the only power re-
the microphone is too close to the mouth. quired to produce an audio signal.
Ekctrets traditionally have been suscep-
Carbon Microphones tible to damage from high temperatures
The carbon microphone consists of a and high humidity. New materials and dif-
metal diaphragm placed against a cup of ferent charging techniques have lowered
loosely packed carbon granules. As the the chances of damage, however. Only in
diaphragm is actuated by the sound extreme conditions (such as 120°F or
pressure, it alternately compresses and 49 °C at 90 percent humidity) are prob-
decompresses the granules. When current lems present. The output level of a typical
•—0-M2V
LO-Z DYNAMIC is flowing through the button, a variable electret is higher than that of a standard
anywhere in the system. translated into electrical energy. Rochelle- and frequency response. The voltage
its
The level of a microphone is its elec- treme dryness. Although the output level mum af voltage that can be secured from
is higher, their use is declining because of the stage without distortion. The
tricaloutput for a given sound intensity.
their fragility. amplifier frequency response should be
The level varies somewhat with the type.
It depends to a large extent on the distance Ceramic microphones are impervious to adequate for voice reproduction; this re-
from the sound source and the intensity of temperature and humidity. The output quirement is easily satisfied.
the speaker's voice. Most commercial level is adequate for most modern ampli- The voltage gain and maximum un-
They are capacitive devices and the distorted output voltage depend on the
transmitters are designed for the median fiers.
output impedance is high. The load im- operating conditions of the amplifier. The
level. If a high-level mic is used, care
should be taken not to overload the input pedance will affect the low frequencies. output voltage is in terms of peak voltage
To provide attenuation, it is desirable to rather than rms; this makes the rating in-
amplifier stage. Conversely, a microphone
of too low a level must be boosted by a reduce the load to 0.25 megohm or even dependent of the waveform. Exceeding
preamplifier. lower, to maximize performance when the peak value causes the amplifier to
of a operating ssb, thus eliminating much of distort, so it is more useful to consider
The frequency response (fidelity)
microphone is its ability to convert sound the unwanted low-frequency response. only peak values in working with
amplifiers.
uniformly into alternating current. For
high articulation it is desirable to
Dynamic Microphones A circuit suitable for use as a
reproduce a frequency range of 200-3500 The dynamic microphone somewhat microphone preamplifier or the major
resembles a dynamic loudspeaker. A light- gain block of a speech system is shown in
Hz. When all frequencies are reproduced
weight coil, usually made of aluminum Fig. 20. The response rolls off below 200
equally, the microphone is considered
"flat." Flat response is highly desirable as wire, is attached to a diaphragm. This coil Hz to reduce hum pickup. Ordinary 741
Gain Control
A means for varying the overall gain of
the amplifier is necessary for keeping the
—w— —o—
INPUT O——)|- |(——OOUTPUT (A)
Phase Inversion
Some balanced modulators and phase
shifters require push-pull audio input.
X 0.47
0.4
tE 50juF
i >»<n 6 O.
„ IC -j-
X
;Me
Speech -Amplifer Construction good ground between the circuit board power outputs too low for consistently ef-
Once a suitable circuit has been selected and the metal chassis is necessary. Com- fective communications. Most modern
for a speech amplifier, the construction plete shielding from rf energy is always re- grounded-grid linear amplifiers require 30
problem resolves itself into avoiding two quired for low-level solid-state audio cir- to 100 watts of exciter output power to
difficulties—. excessive hum, and un- cuits. The microphone input should be drive them to their rated power input. An
wanted feedback. For reasonably humless decoupled for rf with a filter, as shown in exciter output amplifier serves to boost
operation, the hum voltage should not ex- Fig. 22. At A, an rf choke with a high im- the output power to a useful level while
ceed about one percent of the maximum pedance over the frequency range of the providing additional selectivity to reject
audio output voltage —
that is, the hum transmitter is employed. For high- spurious mixing products.
and noise should be at least 40 dB below impedance inputs, a resistor may be used Two stages are usually required to ob-
the output level. in place of the choke. tain the necessary power. The stage
Unwanted feedback, if negative, will When using paper capacitors as preceding the output amplifier is called
reduce the gain below the calculated bypasses, be sure that the terminal mark- the driver. Some tubes that work well as
value; if positive, is likely to cause self- ed "outside fojl," often indicated with a drivers are the 6CL6, 12BY7, 6EH7 and
oscillation or"howls." Feedback can be black band, is connected to ground. This 6GK6. Since all of these tubes are capable
minimized by isolating each stage with utilizes the outside foil of the capacitor as of high gain, instability is sometimes en-
decoupling resistors and capacitors, by a shield around the "hot" foil. When countered in their use. Parasitic suppres-
avoiding layouts that bring the first and paper or mylar capacitors are used for sion should be included as a matter of
last stages near each «other, and by coupling between stages, always connect course. Some form of neutralization is
shielding of "hot" points in the circuit, the outside foil terminal to the side of the recommended. Driver stages should be
such as high-impedance leads in low-level circuit having the lower impedance to operated in Class A or AB1 to minimize
stages. ground. distortion. The higher quiescent dissipa-
If circuit-board construction is used, tion can be easily handled at these power
Driver and Output Stages
high-impedance leads should be kept as levels. The new VMOS power FETs are
short as possible. All ground returns The most-commonly-used balanced well suited to ssb driver circuits.
should be made to a common point. A modulators and transmitting mixers have The exciter output amplifier can be a
12-12 Chapter 12
i 3
+ 15V
f )l o
MPF102 D
,nput
i»f j -
vjy S +,, 15V
VMf
412 V
o
~lo,
(A)
3,
-W\A—
10 K
INPUT 0.1
10 K 1 uf
o-)|- -W\A- + m15V
tubes are capable of lower distortion than peak -envelope power of a given transmit- 24A theaverage amplitude, found
others, but if not overdriven most of them ter is intimately related to the distortion graphically, is such that the peak-to-
are satisfactory for amateur use, yielding considered tolerable. The lower the signal- average ratio of amplitudes is almost 3:1.
IMD levels between - 26 and - 30 dB, to-distortion ratio the lower the attainable The ratio of peak power to average power
typically, Some types suitable for AB1 ser- peak-envelope power, as a general rule. is something else again. There is no simple
vice are 6DQ5, 6GB5, 6GE5, 6HF5, 6JE6, For splatter reduction, an S/D ratio of 25 relationship between the meter reading
6JS6, 6KD6, 6LF6, 6KG6 and 6LQ6. A dB is considered a border-line minimum, and actual average power, for the reason
genuine transmitting tube such as a 6146B and better figures are desirable. mentioned earlier.
can be operated in the higher efficiency The signal power, S, in the standard
Class-AB2 or B modes for the same dis- definition of S/D ratio is the power in one DC Input
tortion produced by sweep tubes in AB1. tone of a two-tone test signal. This is 6 dB FCC regulations require that the
Transmitting tubes have the additional below the peak-envelope power in the transmitter power be rated in terms of the
advantages of uniformity and ruggedness. same signal. Manufacturers of amateur dc input to the final stage. Most ssb final
Linear amplifiers, including those using ssb equipment usually base their publish- amplifiers are operated Class AB1 or
solid-state devices, are treated in detail in ed S/D ratios on PEP, thereby getting an AB2, so that the plate current during
chapter 6. S/D ratio that looks 6 dB better than one modulation varies upward from a
based on the standard definition. In com- "resting" or no-signal value that is
POWER RATINGS OF paring distortion-product ratings of dif- generally chosen to minimize distortion.
SSB TRANSMITTERS ferent transmitters or amplifiers, first There will be a peak-envelope value of
Fig. 24A is more or less typical of a few make sure that the ratios have the same plate current that, when multiplied by the
voice-frequency cycles of the modulation base. dc plate voltage, represents the instan-
envelope of a single-sideband signal. Two taneous tube power input required to pro-
Peak vs. Average Power duce the peak-envelope output. This is the'
amplitude values associated with it are of
particular interest. One is the maximum Envelope peaks occur only sporadically "peak-envelope dc input" or "PEP in-
peak amplitude, the greatest amplitude during voice transmission, and have no put." It does not register on any meter in
reached by the envelope at any time. The direct relationship to meter readings. The the transmitter. Meters cannot move fast
other is the average amplitude, which is meters respond to the amplitude (current enough to show it —
and even if they did,
the average of ajl the amplitude values or voltage) of the signal averaged over the eye couldn't follow;. What the plate
contained in the envelope over some several cycles of the modulation envelope. meter does read is the plate current
significant period of time, such as the time (This is true in practically cases, even
all averaged over several modulation-enve-
of one syllable of speech. though the transmitter output meter
rf lope cycles. This multiplied by the dc plate
The power contained in the signal at the may be calibrated in watts. Unfortunate- voltage is the number of watts input re-
maximum peak amplitude is the basic ly,such a calibration means little in voice quired to produce the average power out-
transmitter rating. It is called the peak- transmission since the meter can be put described earlier.
12-14 Chapter 12
>
2200
ti- 50>uF
AAA ^-0+i2v
0.002
03 f-AA/v f Q4
04 1(
MPF102 Fl LTER
OUTPUT
LEVEL
20H T
FILTER
Mic[)—
-AyvV AF
47k GAIN
>10k " IPPED AF
± 0.02>jF~ 1
n r.l
X ^output
1N3754 ETC.
- (B)
Fig. 26 — This drawing illustrates use of JFETs or silicon diodes to clip positive and negative voice peaks.
torsand four diodes are used in U2. this purpose should have relatively little
The compressor will hold the output attenuation below about 2500 Hz, but
\/X
RF CLIPP NG
level constant within 2 dB over a 40-dB high attenuation for all frequencies above
range of input signal. The nominal output 3000 Hz.
level is 80 mV; the microphone used The values of L and C should be chosen
should develop at least 3 mV
at the gate of to form a low-pass filter section having a PPING
Ql. cutoff frequency of about 2500 Hz, using
Fig. 25B shows an IC audio compressor the value of the terminating resistor load
circuit using the National Semiconductor resistance. For this cutoff frequency the
AUDIO COMPRESSION
(SEE TEXT)
LM-370. This IC has two gain-control formulas are
points, pins 3 and 4; one is used for the in-
LI = R ^. _
CI = C2 = ™ 63.6 5 10
>-RF COMPRESSION
dB OF PEAK COMPRESSION
15
put gainadjustment while the other 7850 OR CLIPPING (SSB)
receives age voltage whenever the output
level exceeds a preset norm. R2 establishes where
the point at which compression starts. R = ohms Fig. 27 —
The improvement in received signal-
LI = henrys to-noise ratio achieved by the simple forms of
"
signal processing.
Speech Clipping and Filtering CI = mF
In speech waveforms the average power C2 = fiF
content is considerably less than in a sine There is a loss in naturalness -with capacitor follow the clipper to form a sim-
wave of the same peak amplitude. If the "deep" though the voice is
clipping, even ple R-C filter for attenuating the high-
high amplitude peaks are clipped off, the highly intelligible. With moderate clipping frequency components generated by the
remaining waveform will nave a con- levels (6 to 12 dB) there is almost no clipping action, as discussed earlier. Any
siderably higher ratio of average power to change in "quality" but the voice power is top-hat or similar silicon diodes can be
peak amplitude. Although clipping dis- increased considerably. used in place of the 1N3754S. Germanium
torts waveform and the result
the Before drastic clipping can be used, the diodes (1N34A type) can also be used, but
therefore does not sound exactly like the speech signal must be amplified several will clip at a slightly lower peak audio
original, it is possible to secure a worth- times more than is necessary for normal level.
while increase in audio power without modulation. Also, the hum and noise
SSB Speech Processing
sacrificing intelligibilty. Once the system must be much lower than the tolerable
is properly adjusted // will be impossible level in ordinary amplification, because Compression and clipping are related,
to overdrive the modulator stage of the the noise in the output of the amplifier in- as both have fast attack times, and when
transmitter because the maximum output creases in proportion to the gain. the compressor release is made quite
amplitude is fixed. In the circuit of Fig. 26B a simple diode short, the effect on the waveform ap-
By itself, clipping generates high-order clipper is shown following a two- proaches that of clipping. Speech process-
harmonics and therefore will cause splat- transistor preamplifier section. The ing is most effective when accomplished at
ter. To prevent this, the audio frequencies lN3754s conduct at approximately 0.7 radio frequencies, although a combina-
above those needed for intelligible speech volt of audio and provide positive- and tion of af clipping and compression can
Fig. 29— (A) Control voltage obtained by sampling the rf output voltage of the final amplifier. The diode back bias, 40 volts or so maximum, may be
taken from any convenient positive voltage source in the transmitter. R may be a linear control having a maximum resistance of the order of 50 ko.
D1 may be a 1N34A or similar germanium diode.
(B) Control voltage obtained from grid circuit of a Class AB1 tetrode amplifier. T1 is an Interstage audio transformer having a turns ratio, secon-
dary to primary, of 2 or 3 to 1. An inexpensive transformer may be used, since the primary and secondary currents are negligible. D1 may be a 1N34A
or similar; time constant R2C3 is discussed in the text.
(C) Control voltage is obtained from the grid of a Class AB1 tetrode amplifier and amplified by a triode audio stage.
(D) Ale system used in the Collins 32S-3 transmitter. * v '
(E) Applying control voltage to the tube or (F) linear IC-controlled amplifier.
12-16 Chapter 12
ISOLATION AMR l-F AMP.
MECHANICAL
l-F FILTER
TRANSFORMER l-F AMP
(B)
MIXER
L.
3
I
GROUND (REC.)
+iov + 10V (TRANS.)
( C)
Fig. 30 — Transceiver circuits where a section is made to operate on both transmit and receive. See text tor details.
speech, but such a compressor added little ping. The effect of such clipping on a two- dB is typical. An ale circuit with shorter
to the intelligibilty threshold at the tone test pattern is shown in Fig. 28. time constants function as an rf
will
receiver, only about 1-2 dB. Automatic level control, although a syllabic compressor, producing up to 6 db
Evaluation of rf clipping from the form of rf speech processing, has found improvement in the intelligibility thresh-
receive side with constant-level speech, its primary application in maintaining the old a distant receiver. The Collins
at
and filtering to restore the original band- peak rf output of an ssb transmitter at a Radio Company uses an ale system with
width, resulted inan improved in- relatively constant level, hopefully below dual time constants (Fig. 29D) in their
telligibility threshold of 4.5 dB with 10 dB the point at which the final amplifier is S/Line transmitters, and this has proven
of clipping. Raising the clipping level to 18 overdriven when the audio input varies to be quite effective.
dB gave an additional 4-dB improvement over a considerable range. These typical Heat an extremely important con-
is
at the receiver, or 8.5-dB total increase. ale systems, shown in Fig. 29, by the sideration in the use ofany speech pro-
The improvement of the intelligibility of a nature of their design time constants offer cessor which increases the average-to-
weak ssb signal at a distant receiver can a limited increase in transmitted average- peak power ratio. Many transmitters, in
thus be substantially improved by rf clip- to-PEP ratio. A
value in the region of 2-5 particular those using television sweep
12-18 Chapter 12
Fig. 32 —Waveform of an amplifier with a
single-tone input showing flattopping and
crossover distortion.
(D)
tube life or transistor heat-dissipation
problems.
The two primary causes of distortion .
distortion begins for the two-tone test high spurious^produot levels exist at fre- ating frequency and can be eliminated by
signal and an actual voice signal is a rather quencies removed from the passband of filtering.
simple one. The maximum deflection on the desired channel but is less serious if As implied in the foregoing, the effect
the scope is noted (for an acceptable two- such products fall within the bandwidth of frequencywise,
distortion, is to
tone test waveform) and the transmitter is of operation. In this former case, such generate components which add or sub-
then operated such that voice peaks are distortion may cause needless interference tract in order to make up the complex
kept below this level. If the voice peaks go to other channels ("splatter") and should waveform. A more familiar example
above this level, a type of distortion called be avoided. This can be seen quite drama- would be the harmonic generation caused
"flattopping" will occur and results are tically in Fig. 3 IF when the flattopping by the nonlinearities often encountered in
shown for a two-tone test signal in Fig. region is approached and the fifth and amplifiers. However, a common miscon-
3 IE. IMD-product levels raise very rapid- higher order terms increase drastically. ception which should be avoided is that
ly when flattopping occurs. For instance, On the other hand, attempting to sup- IMD is caused by fundamental-signal
third-order product levels will increase 30 press in-band products more than neces- components beating with harmonics.
db for every 10-dB increase in desired out- sary isnot only difficult to achieve but Generally speaking, no such simple rela-
put as the flattopping region is approach- may not result in any noticeable increase tion exists. For instance, single-ended
ed, and fifth-order terms will increase by in signal quality. In addition, measures re- stages have relatively poor second-har-
50 dB (per 10 dB). quired to suppress in-band IMD often monic suppression but with proper bias-
cause problems at the expense of other ing to increase the idling current, such
Interpreting Distortion Measurements qualities such as efficiency. This can lead stages can have very good IMD-suppres-
Unfortunately, considerable confusion to serious difficulties such as shortened sion qualities.
Fig. 36 — A voice signal can be represented as an a-m waveform, which results from multiplication of a relatively slowly varying envelope (B) wit+i a
carrier (C). Note the carrier peak amplitude is constant. The speech processor separates components B and C, and filters out B, leaving the carrier
portion only.
+ 15V
12-20 Chapter 12
U6.U7 U9.UIO
U1 U4.U5 LOGAR- U8
MIC O >-— SPEECH
AMP.
RECTIFIER
FULL -WAVE
ITHMIC
AMR
HP
FILTER
EXPONENT-
IAL AMP
_OOUTPUT TO
XMTR
tion does exist between the desired com- "order" of such products is equal to the ing. As pointed out previously, such terms
ponents in an ssb signal and the "distor- sum of the multipliers in front of each fre- do not normally result from fundamental
tion signals."" Whenever nonlinearities quency component. For instance, a term components beating with harmonics. An
exist, products between the individual such as (3fl - 2f2) would be called a exception would be when the fundamental
components which make up the desired fifth-order term since 3 + 2 is equal to 5. signal along with its harmonics is applied
signal will occur The" mathematical result
. In general, the third, fifth, seventh, arid to another nonlinear stage such as a mix-
of such multiplication is to generate other similar"odd-order" terms are the most er. Components at identical frequencies as
signals of the form (2fl - f2), (3fl), important ones since some of these fall the IMDproducts will result.
(5f2 - fl) and so on. Hence the term near the desired transmitter output fre- When two equal tones are applied to an
amplifier and the result is displayed on a
spectrum analyzer, the IMD products ap-
pear as "pips" off to the side of the main
signal components (Fig. 31). The
amplitudes associated with each tone and
the IMD products are merely the dB dif-
ference between the particular product
and one tone. However, each desired tone
is 3 dB down from the average power out-
where
Ep = the plate voltage
I
p
= the average plate current
I = the idling current
+ 15V FROM TO ALL
POWER
SUPPLY
+15V IN Fig. — Circuit diagram fOF the speech processor.
38 Generally speaking, most actual voice
D1, D2 — Pair of matched silicon diodes (see
CIRCUIT
patterns will look alike (in the presence of
XT (text)..
D3, D4 — Same as D1 D2. ,
RFC3 R5, R6 — Circuit-board type pots. too common since most rigs have an ale
-15V FROM TO ALL
POWER -I5V IN S1 — Dpdt toggle switch.
system which prevents overdriving the
T1 — 1000-ohm to 8-ohm audio transformer,
r
SUPPLY CIRCUIT
»
cessing schemes have been employed, with These will be considered now in a stage- further amplified by U2 and then limited
varying degrees of success, to raise the by-stage operational description of the by a diode clipper, D5 and D6. Because of
average-to-peak power ratio of a voice sig- processor. The reader is referred to the the very high gain of the U1-U2 cascade,
nal and improve communications effec- block diagram in Fig. 37 and the circuit in the clipper produces almost pure square-
tiveness. The various methods generally diagram Fig. 38. Speech amplifier Ul first wave output. Thus, any positive input to
fall into one of two categories —
compres- boosts the incoming audio signal to a con- Ul produces a level of about - 1 volt.
sion or clipping. Described here a pro- is venient and usable level. Before taking The square-wave output is multiplied with
cessor which represents a departure from logarithms, however,' output from Ul the signal from the exponential amplifier
these standard approaches, Processing is must be full-wave rectified to be all by an analog multiplier, U14. The
done at audio frequencies, but in a unique positive since the logarithmic amplifier LM1595 used at U14 produces an output
fashion. The unit is used between the works only for positive signal input. The voltage equal to the mathematical product
microphone and the transmitter so that.no logarithm of a number
defined only for
is of its two input signals, which in this case
modification to the transmitter is re- positive numbers. U4 and U5 serve as a are the signals from U2 and U10. The
quired. full-wave rectifier and precede the result, then, is to multiply the rectified
logarithmic amplifier, U6 and U7. signal from the exponential amplifier by
Technical Description
Matched silicon diodes are recommended plus or minus one produce the
volt to
Operation is a consequence of the fact for Dl and D2. If none are available, in- desired bipolar signal. Output is taken
that speech energy resembles an ampli- dividual 1N914 diodes may be substituted. from buffer amplifier Ull. The processed
tude-modulated signal. The speech The logarithmic stage separates the voice- signal is passed through a low-pass filter
waveform represents multiplication of a frequency and envelope components of with sharp cutoff above 3 kHz to
slowly varying envelope containing energy the speech waveform, as described above, eliminate unwanted high-frequency
below 100 Hz with a voice-frequency and the envelope is filtered by an active energy.
signal contained mostly between 300 and RC high-pass filter, U8. A
two-pole But- Because the processor is inherently sen-
3000 Hz. In an analogous fashion, a con- terworth configuration is used with the sitive toeven the smallest input signals,
ventional a-m modulator multiplies an lower half-power frequency set at undesired background noise or induced ac
amplitudeTvarying low-frequency signal approximately 50 Hz. Those who are ex- hum will be processed along with the
(the applied modulation) with a constant- perimentally inclined may wish to try sp'eech and will appear as a loud distur-
amplitude higher-frequency carrier. Thus lower or higher cutoff frequencies. The bance at the output. To help eliminate this
the speech, waveform envelope corres- expression for cutoff frequency, f c in , problem, noise blanker U3 is included in
ponds to the carrier. Note that the voice terms of the filter components is the design. It consists of a free-running
carrier actually varies continuously in fre- multivibrator with square-wave output at
quency, unlike the conventional fixed- about 20 kHz, which is beyond audibility.
frequency a-m case, but is constant in When this signal is added to the output of
amplitude. The object of this speech pro- 2nV R3R2C1C2 the speech amplifier, the effect is to mask,
cessor is to reproduce only the carrier por- before processing, any noise which is
tion of speech. The voice envelope is lower in amplitude than the 20-kHz
separated from the voice carrier, and where it is required that CI = C2 and R3 signal.
because their respective frequency spec- = 2 X R2 for proper filter response. U
An audio amplifier, 13, at the output,
trums are nonoverlapping, the envelope Varying the cutoff frequency corresponds provides a convenient means of monitor-
can be filtered leaving only the carrier. to changing the compression level setting ing the processed audio output with low-
(See Fig. 36). on a conventional speech compressor. impedance (eight-ohm) headphones. If
To separate the envelope and carrier, Lower cutoff frequencies result in reduced high-impedance headphones are to be
the speech signal is passed through a "compression." In the original model of used, Tl may be omitted and output can
logarithmic amplifier which performs the this processor, it was found that a filter be taken directly from pin 6 of U13
mathematical operation of taking loga- cutoff frequency of about 400 Hz or through a 5-yF coupling capacitor.
rithms. By analogy to the a-m model, this higher produced essentially constant-
signal can be represented as the amplitude output from the processor. Construction Information
mathematical product EV, where E repre- Harmonic distortion was quite noticeable, Anetched circuit board template pat-
sents the envelope and V, the voice car- however. Thus, 50 Hz was chosen as a tern available from ARRL, 225 Main
is
rier, both of which are functions of time. compromise between maximum "com- Street, Newington, CT 06111. Please in-
Taking the logarithm produces log EV, pression" and minimum distortion. The clude 50 cents and a self-addressed,
but log EV = Log E + log V (a well- distortion that is inherent in this unit oc- stamped envelope. Builders who use this
known property of the logarithm). The curs for signals that have considerable layout should experience no problems.
envelope and carrier components are then energy in the neighborhood of the high- Those attempting their own layout,
separated in terms of their logarithms and pass filter cutoff frequency. With a setting however, should be cautioned that be-
it is now a relatively simple matter to pro- of 50 Hz, the distortion is quite low. The cause of the relatively large number of ac-
cess the two components independently. filtered signal proceeds to an exponential tive devices, some operating with high
This is something which could not be done amplifier, U9 and U10. As with the -gain, the potential for instability (oscilla-
up to this point. A high-pass filter with an logarithmic amplifier, matched diodes for tion) exists in a haphazard layout. Ar-
appropriately chosen cutoff frequency at- D3 and D4 produce the best results,
will rangement of circuit components should
tenuates the envelope waveform but but individual lN914s will serve satisfac- be generally in a straight line from input
passes the higher-frequency voice carrier. torily. The signal at the output of U10 is to output. The shortest possible leads
The remaining signal is log V. It goes still in rectified form (all positive). To be should be used in all cases. Particular at-
through an inverse-logarithm amplifier converted back to its bipolar form, the tention should be paid to the positions of
which produces at its output the signal V. signal is multiplied by the correct sign in- Ul and U2 with respect to each other. Be-
The result is the desired constant- formation (either positive or negative) cause of the very high gain the input of Ul
amplitude voice carrier. portions of the signal which should be should be kept physically as far apart as
negative, leaving the remaining parts possible from the output of U2. Mounting
Circuit Description positive. The correct sign information is the circuit board inside a metal chassis,
Some additional issues arise when one obtained by hard-limiting the voice signal such as a suitable Minibox, is recom-
tries to implement the preceding scheme. at the processor input. Output from Ul is mended for rf shielding.
12-22 Chapter 12
— COMPARATOR
MIC PRE AMR AUDIO A MB
RCVR
AUDIO
INPUT
I
—
l_
Fig.39 —
Schematic diagram of the VOX unit. Unless otherwise specified, resistors are 1/4-watt composition. Capacitors with polarity marked are
plastic-encapsulated tantalum; others are disc ceramic.
C1 — For text reference. similar. R4, R5, R8 —
Miniature control (see text).
D1-D4, ingl. —
Germanium diode, 1N34A, 1N67 K1 —
Miniature type, 12-volt coil (see text). RFC1-RFC3, incl —
Ferrite bead.
or equivalent. Q1 —
2N5139 silicon pnp. U1 —
National Semiconductor LM3900.
D5 — Silicon diode, 50 PRV or more, 1N4001 or R1-R3, incl., R6, R7 —
For text reference. U2 —
Type 555 timer.
Procurement of parts should present no wave. Disconnect the generator, recon- readings maybe used. With the processor
particular problems. As of the time of this nect the. microphone, and plug head- switched "out" speak into the micro-
writing, the 741 and LM301 operational phones into J3. Advancing volume con- phone and increase the transmitter's
amplifiers used in the circuit can be pur- trol R8, one should now be able to hear microphone gain control until the ale
chased from mail order houses for about himself talking, although background meter starts to deflect. Note the peak
30 cents apiece. The LM1595 integrated noise and ac hum will probably be very readings. Switch the processor "in" and
circuit, probably the single most expensive high. Adjust noise blanking control R4 adjust R7 to obtain the same peak
item in the processor, was bought for for {he desired degree of background reading.
under $2. Matched diodes for Dl, D2, D3 noise suppression.
and D4 should cost less than a dollar. Those who do not have access to test
A Modern Solid-State VOX
The circuit is powered by a dual dc equipment may do the following: Set R4 Voice-operated T-R control is a great
power supply that provides plus and to the center of its range. Connect a convenience in ssb operation. The unit
minus 15 volts, as is typically used with microphone to Jl and headphones to J3. described here is compact and uses inex-
most operational amplifiers. Current con- Speaking into the microphone, advance pensive components. It is ideal for inclu-
sumption is approximately 50 mA from input gain control Rl and monitor volume sion ip a home-built transceiver or exciter,
each side of the supply. control R8 to the point where the speech or retrofitting to commercial gear that
becomes audible in the headphones. Ad- does not have VOX. The performance of
Initial Adjustments just offset controls R5 and R6 for mini- this unit is improved over previously
If an oscilloscope and audio sine wave mum distortion as monitored in the head- published versions because of a modifica-
generator are the following
available, phones. The final setting of Rl is not tion suggested by W7KGZ.
alignment procedure should be followed: critical. It should be high enough so that
too Circuit Description
Set R4 to minimum resistance. Connect a the circuit functions properly (is set
microphone to Jl and the oscilloscope low, the audio output will sound broken The schematic diagram of the VOX
up and "grainy") but not so high that the device is shown in Fig. 39. Three of the
probe to pin 6 of Ul. Adjust Rl, the input
gain control, while speaking into the speech amplifier itself distorts the signal LM3900 sections have been configured as
microphone so that the- voice peaks view- by clipping. Adjust R4 to suppress back- high-gain audio amplifiers. UlAand U1B
ed on the oscilloscope are slightly below ground noise as desired. amplify the signal from the microphone.
the output clipping level of Ul (approxi- Finally, connect the processor output at U1C functions as an amplifier for audio
mately 14 volts peak). Remove the micro- J2 to the transmitter's microphone jack. sampled at the station speaker. Coupling
phone and connect the signal generator to Switch the processor out of the line by capacitors in the audio stages have been
Jl. Set the generator frequency to about means of SI. If a Monitorscope is avail- chosen to reduce response below 300 Hz.
1000 Hz and adjust its output level to pro- able to view rf output, speak into the This will minimize hum problems.
duce about 10 volts peak at pin 6 of Ul. microphone and note the level of the voice .Outputs from the microphone and
Place the oscilloscope probe on pin 6 of peaks. Switch the unit "in" and adjust speaker amplifiers are capacitively cou-
U12. Adjust offset controls R5 and R6 for output level control R7 for the same peak pled to rectifier stages which convert the
the best-looking sine wave. It should be voice output level. If a monitorscope is audio signals to varying dc voltages. Ger-
possible to produce a nearly perfect sine not available, the transmitter's ale meter manium diodes, because of their lower
—O FROM
TRANSCEIVER
X
comparator to switch as soon as the refer-
ence is exceeded. Because the speaker-
Fig.40 —The VOX unit shown here was signal rectifier produces negative voltage,
Fig. 41 — Typical connections to the VOX unit.
designed and built by N1RM. It originally
it will not trigger the comparator. If the
appeared in March 1976 QST.
outputs of the two rectifiers are equal, as
will happen when the microphone is pick- /
DRIVER '
Fig.42 — Schematic diagram for the transverter. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition and capacitors are disc ceramic, unless otherwise noted.
C1 — Dual-section air variable, 140-pF per D2 — Zener diode, 6.8-volt, 1-watt (1N4736). L2, L4 — 19.5 to 24.3-yH variable, inductor
section, or two 150 pF air variable units. J1 — Phono type, chassis mount. (Miller 46A225CPC).
C2 — Air variable, Milton 19280. J2 — Coaxial receptacle, chassis mount. L3 — 22 turns of no. 28 enam. wire wound on
C3 — Dual-section broadcast variable, 365 pF K1, K2 — 12-V dc, 2-A contacts, dpdt relay L4 coil form.
per section, both sections connected in (Radio Shack 275-206). L5 — 18.8 to 41.0-f<H variable inductor, Miller
parallel. L1 — 11 turns of no. 28 enam. wire wound 42A335CPC.
D1 — Silicon, 50 PRV, 100 mA. over L2.
12-24 Chapter 12
stops. Ql
allows the 555 to be retriggered quirements. This writer's unit uses pc- . type of relay will depend on how the VOX
continuously. One of the major difficul- mount controls which are aligned on the device will be used. Any 12-volt relay
ties of earlier VOX
circuits was that the 'board so that they may be accessed which requires less than 200 of cur- mA
capacitor discharge circuits were used through small holes in the rear panel of rent can be employed. When the re- VOX
where the capacitor would not always be the transceiver. If panel-mount controls lay must drive a second relay, such as the
fully charged, so the time delay produced are desired, Mallory MLC units may be antenna relay in a transceiver, the fast
would vary. •
used for R4, R5 and R8. operating time of a reed relay is needed to
The 555 has a current-switching capa- The VOX device is smallenough so it prevent clipping of the first syllable
bility of 200 mA, sufficient to directly can be mounted inside most rigs. If a spoken. The total close time of all relays
drive either a relay or a solid-state switch- separate VOX unit is needed, a small util- connected in tandem should be 10 milli-
ing arrangement. D5 is included to protect ity box or Minibox will make an appro- seconds or less. If the VOX relay will per-
the IC from transients generated when priate housing. Rf interference can cause form switching functions directly, a
all
switching an inductive load such as a relay trouble, so the unit should be shielded in. miniature control relay such as the Potter
coil. any application where rf fields may be & Brumfield R10 series is appropriate.
present. The bypass capacitors for the These relays are available in 2-, 4- and
Components and Construction audio inputs are located on the circuit 6-pole versions, part numbers R10-E1-Y2-
The VOX unit is constructed on a 2-3/8 board. If the leads from the audio connec- 185, R10-E1-Y4-V185 and R10-E1-Y6-
X 2-3/4-inch (60 X 70-mm) etched cir- tors are more than a few inches long, the V90, respectively.
cuit board. The photo indicates that one- bypass capacitors and their associated The circuit board is designed for
third of theboard real estate is unused, so ferrite-bead chokes should be mounted at 1/4-watt resistors which are mounted flat.
a smaller Version is possible. The type of the connectors. If 1/2-watt units are used, they must be
controls and relay ernployed will be deter- No provision has been made for mount- positioned* vertically. Care must be
mined by the builder's individual re- ing the relay on the circuit board, as the employed when mounting and soldering
K1C ,
AAAA
i i i i
i i i i
L9 — 10.8 to 18.0-mH adjustable Miller coil, Q5, Q6 — RCA40673 MOSFET. Z1, Z2 — 2 turns, no. 18 enam. wound over
21A155RBI. RFC1 — 1-mH, 500-mA rf choke, Johnson 47-ohm, 2-watt composition resistor.
Fig. 43 — Top view of transverter with cover removed. Final amplifier Fig. 44 — The bottom view of the chassis. The sockets for the 6146B
The rear apron has an accessory socket for an
circuit is at the left. tubes are at the lower center. The etched-circuit boar* is above the
external power supply (transceiver), rf and remote-keying connectors. final amplifier tube sockets and the T-R relays at the upper right. The
The plate meter is at the lower left. different supply voltages are obtained from the associated transceiver.
12-26 Chapter 12
—
SPEECH AMR
,L
UUUU"
TUP 9 MHz OUT
500 n
o.oi
VWyO
TO' STBY SWITCH (+18V)
'08k.
(JJ >(00 J>100 6V EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I JiF I ;
+ 12V OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JiJlFV,
RESISTANCES/ ARE IN OHMS ',
2.2k
-V—W^ 1 I 1 CW S2
l~*~>
< SSB
4 3 2 1
GV XG2 nnnn
E
(b°61iC
foo\
UUUU
• = PHASING '
| [
= DC VOLTAGE BOTTOM VIEWS
Fig. 45 —
Schematic diagram of a practical 9-MHz ssb generator. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless otherwise noted. Polarized
capacitors are aluminum or tantalum. Fixed value resistors are 1/2-watt composition.
C1, C2 —
Miniature 30-pF trimmer. NPO R2 — 1000-0 pc-board-mount control. wire on a T50-2 iron core. = 10, dia = 0.5 ^
ceramic preferred. R3 — 25-kS! linear-taper control, panel
'
of the transceiver. Then connect an an- 2 1.1 -MHz cw drive power at Jl. Tune L6, amplifier in Fig. 45. Output from Ul is
tenna to J2 and listen for signals. Peak the L7, L8 and L9 for maximum meter supplied to the gates of Ql . Ql and Q2 are
incoming signals with the preselector con- reading. While monitoring the plate cur- used as a balanced modulator. MOSFETs
trol. The slugs of L2 and L4 should be ad- rent, tune C2 for a dip. C3 is the PA are used to prevent changes in gate-source
justed for the highest S-meter reading on loading control. When the PA capacitors capacitance when the audio level is in-
the transceiver. L5 should be set for maxi- are properly adjusted, the plate current creased by means of Rl. JFETs will not
mum output at 21 or 28 MHz. If the re- will be about 220 mA. work properly at Ql and Q2 because the
ceiving converter is functioning properly, junction capacitance changes with in-
ing the transmitter section. Set Rl for an design information for the additional operating level between Ql and Q2. This
indicated resting plate current of 50 mA stages is found elsewhere in this book and balancing control makes it unnecessary 'to
on Ml. This adjustment should be made in Solid State Design for the Radio use matched transistors in the balanced
without drive applied but with Kl and K2 Amateur. modulator. R2 is adjusted for maximum
energized. Next, apply about one watt of A 741 op amp functions as the audio carrier suppression, which will be on the
Fig. 46 —
Full-scale etching pattern for the ssb generator pc board, shown from the
They are adjusted for best "naturalness"
foil side.
Black represents unetched copper. of the operator's voice, consistent with
adequate rejection of the unwanted side-
+ 12V
band.
Q6 amplifies the 9-MHz output of Q5
to provide 4 volts pk-pk (1 .4 volts rms) of
injection on the sources of Ql and Q2.
Circuit boards and negatives for this
circuit can be obtained from Circuit
Board Specialists, Box 969, Pueblo, CO
81002.
12-28 Chapter 12
3 ,
Chapter 1
Frequency Modulation
and Repeaters
Fm has some impressive advantages for audio circuits of the be receiver is Fig. 1— The most effective repeaters are
vhf operation, especially when compared substantially eliminated. situated well above average terrain and
to a-m. With fm the modulation process obstacles which could be in the signal path.
Frequency Modulation
takes place in a low-level stage and
remains the same, regardless of transmit- Fig. 2 is a representation of frequency
ter power. The signal may be frequency modulation. When a modulating signal is
multiplied after modulation, and the PA applied, the carrier frequency is increased
stage can be operated Class C for best during one half cycle of the modulating
efficiency, as the "final" need not be signal and decreased during the half cycle
linear. of opposite polarity. This is indicated in
In recent years there has been in- the .drawing by the fact that the rf cycles
creasing use of fm by amateurs operating occupy less time (higher frequency) when
around 29.6 MHz
in the 10-m'eter band. the modulating signal is positive, and
The vhf spectrum now in popular use more time (lower frequency) when the
includes 52 to 54 MHz, 146 to 148 MHz, modulating signal is negative. The change
222 to 225 MHz, and 440 to 450 MHz. in the carrier frequency (frequency devi-
The subject of fm and repeaters is covered ation) is proportional to the instantaneous
in great depth in the ARRL publication, amplitude of the modulating signal. Thus,
FM and Repeaters for the Radio Amateur. the deviation is small when the instan-
taneous amplitude of the modulating
Frequency and Phase Modulation signal is small, and is greatest when
It is possible to convey intelligence by the modulating signal reaches its peak,
modulating any property of a carrier, either positive or negative. .
including its frequency and phase. When As shown drawing, the amplitude
in the
the frequency of the carrier is varied in of the signal does not change during
accordance with the variations in a modulation.
modulating, signal, the result is frequency Fig. 2— Graphical representation of frequency
Phase Modulation modulation. In the unmodulated carrier at A,
modulation (fm). Similarly, varying the
If the phase of the current in a circuit is each rf cycle occupies the same amourft of
phase of the carrier current is called phase time. When the modulating signal, B, is ap-
modulation (pm). changed there is an instantaneous fre- plied, the radio frequency is increased and
Frequency and phase modulation are quency change during the time the phase is decreased according to the amplitude and
not independent, since the frequency being shifted. The amount of frequency polarity of the modulating signal.
0.6 SIDEBAND —
pm system the amount of phase shift is kHz, and so on. The amplitudes of these 0.4
AMPLI
tude of the modulating signal. The rapidity index, not on the frequency deviation. O
THIRD SIDE BAND"'
0.2
of the phase shift is directly proportional Note that as shown in Fig. 3, the carrier , , , 1 , , , 1 , , ,
1
to the frequency of the modulating signal. strength varies with the modulation index. 1.0 2.0 3.0-
MODULATION INDEX
Consequently, the frequency deviation in (In amplitude modulation the carrier
pm is proportional to both the amplitude strength is constant; only the sideband
and frequency of the modulating signal. amplitude varies.) At a modulation index
The latter represents the outstanding of approximately 2.4, the carrier disappears
Fig. 3 —
How the amplitude of the pair of
sidebands varies with the modulation index in
difference between fm and pm, since in fm entirely. It then becomes "negative" at a an fm or pm signal. If the curves were ex-
the frequency deviation is proportional higher index, meaning that its phase tended for greater values of modulation index
only to the amplitude of the modulating is reversed compared to the phase the carrier amplitude would go through zero at
several points. The same statement also ap-
signal. without modulation. In fm and pm the
plies to the sidebands.
energy that goes into the sidebands is
FM and PM Sidebands taken from the carrier, the total power
The sidebands set up by fm and pm remaining the same regardless of the frequencies below 30 MHz is that it
differ from those resulting from a-m in modulation index. eliminates or reduces certain types of
that they occur at integral multiples of the Since there is no change in amplitude interference to broadcast reception. Also,
modulating frequency on either side of the with modulation, an fm or pm signal can the modulating equipment is relatively
carrier rather than, as in a-m, consisting be amplified without distortion by an simple and inexpensive. However, as-
of a single set of side frequencies for each ordinary Class C amplifier. The modu- suming the same unmodulated carrier
modulating frequency. An fm or pm lation can take place in a very low-level power in all cases, narrow-band fm or pm
signal therefore inherently occupies a stage and the signal can then be amplified is riot as effective as a-m with the methods
wider channel than a-m. by either frequency multipliers or straight- of reception used by many amateurs. To
The number of "extra" sidebands through amplifiers. obtain the benefits of the fm mode, a good
which occur in fm and pm depends on the If the modulated signal is passed fm receiver is required. As shown in Fig.
relationship between the modulating fre- through one or more frequency multi- 3, atan index of 0.6 the amplitude of the
quency and the frequency deviation. The pliers, the modulation index is multiplied firstsideband is about 25 percent of the
ratio between the frequency deviation, in by the same factor that the carrier unmodulated-carrier amplitude; this com-
hertz, and the modulating frequency,also frequency is multiplied. For example, if pares with a sideband amplitude of 50
in hertz, is called the modulating index. modulation is applied on 3.5 MHz and the percent in the case of a 100 percent
That is final output is on 28 MHz, the total modulated a-m transmitter. When copied
frequency multiplication is eight times, so on an a-m receiver, a narrow-band fm or
modulation index = carrier frequency deviation if the frequency deviation is 500 Hz at 3.5 pm transmitter is about equivalent to a
modulating frequency MHz it will be 4000 Hz at 28 MHz. 100-percent modulated a-m transmitter
Frequency multiplication offers a means operating at one-fourth the carrier power.
Example: The maximum
frequency de- for obtaining practically any desired On a suitable (fm) receiver, fm is as good
viation in an is 3000 Hz
fm transmitter amount of frequency deviation, whether or better than a-m, watt for watt.
either side of the carrier frequency. The or not the modulator itself is capable of The deviation standard now is ±5 kHz,
modulation index when the modulation giving that much deviation without popularly known as narrow band. For a
frequency is 1000 Hz is distortion. while after II, WW
2.5- to 3-kHz
deviation ("sliver band") was used on 10
3000
Modulation index = rrxx =3 Bandwidth meters and the vhf bands. During the '60s
FCC amateur regulations (97.61) limit and early '70s 15 kHz was extensively used
the bandwidth ofF3 (frequency and phase since many amateur rigs were commercial
At the same deviation with 3000 Hz modulation) to that of an a-m transmis- surplus.Narrow-band deviation develop-
modulation the index would be 1; at sion having the same audio characteristics ed as a middle ground between audio
100 Hz it would be 30, and so on. quality and spectrum conservation. The
below 29.0 MHz and in the 50.1- to
In pm
the modulation index is constant 52.5-MHz frequency segment. Greater rule-of-thumb for determination of band-
regardless of the modulating frequency; in bandwidths are allowed from 29.0 to 29.7 width requirements for an fm system is
fm it varies with the modulating frequen- MHz and above 52.5 MHz. 2(AF),+F Amax
cy, as shown in the above example. In If the modulation" index (with single- where
an fm system the ratio of the maximum tone modulation) does not exceed 0.6 or AF =1/2 total frequency deviation
x
carrier-frequency deviation to the highest 0.7, the most important extra sideband,
the second, will be at least 20 dB below the
F A max = maximum audio frequency
modulating frequency used is called the
(3 kHz for communication purposes)
deviation ratio. unmodulated carrier level. This should
shows how the amplitudes of the
Fig. 3 represent an effective channel width about Thus, for narrow-band fm, the bandwidth
carrierand the various sidebands vary equivalent to that of an a-m signal. In the equals (2)5 + 3 or 13 kHz. Wide-band
with the modulation index. This is for case of speech, a somewhat higher systems need a 33-kHz receiver band-
single-tone modulation; the first sideband modulation index can be used. This is width.
(actually a pair,one above and one below because the energy distribution in a
the carrier) is displaced from the carrier complex wave is such that the modulation Comparison of FM and PM
by an amount equal to the modulating index for any one frequency component is Frequency modulation cannot be ap-
frequency, the second is twice the modu- reduced as compared to the index with a plied to an amplifier stage, but phase
lating frequency away from, the carrier, sine wave having the same peak amplitude modulation can; pm is therefore readily
and so on. For example, if the modulating as the voice wave. adaptable to transmitters employing oscil-
frequency is 2000 Hz and the carrier The chief advantage of fm or pm for lators of high stability such as the
13-2 Chapter 13
1
50 OSC. TANK
LI 7^. C1
-0+12V
Fig.4 —
Output frequency spectrum of a
RFC
I
~z
^0.005
— 25<iF
50*iH [
50,uH
time or another have equal amplitudes.
Taking 3000 Hz as a suitable upper limit
rem.
for voice work, and setting the modu-
lation index at 0.5 for 3000 Hz, the
frequency response of the speech-amp-
lifier system above 3000 Hz must be
1 /~7~7 >390
of pm as on an fm
received +12VO V\Ar-
quality
receiver is to be avoided, the pm must be 91
1 k
changed to fm, in which the modulation
index decreases in inverse proportion to
the modulating frequency. This requires VARACT0R REACTANCE MODULATOR
shaping the speech-amplifier frequency- (B)
response curve in such a way that the
output voltage is inversely proportional to a high-transconductance MOSFET and (B) a varactor
Fig. 5 Reactance modulators using (A)
frequency over most of the voice range. diode.
When this is done the maximum modu-
lation index can only be used to some the reactance modulator. This is a vacuum radio-frequency choke, varies the trans-
relativelylow audio frequency, perhaps tube or transistor connected to the rf tank conductance of the transistor and thereby
300 to 400 Hz in voice transmission, and circuit of an oscillator in such a way as to varies the rf drain current.
N
act as a variable inductance or capacitance. The modulated oscillator usually is
must decrease in proportion to the
increase in frequency. The result is that Fig. 5A is a representative circuit. Gate operated on a relatively low frequency, so
the maximum linear frequency deviation 1 of the modulator MOSFET
is connected that a high order of carrier stability can be
is only one or two hundred Hz, when pm across the oscillator tank circuit, Cl/Ll, secured. Frequency multipliers are used to
is changed to fm. To increase the through resistor Rl and blocking capacitor raise the frequency to the final frequency
deviation for narrow band requires a C2. C3 represents the input capacitance desired.
frequency multiplication of eight or more. of the modulator transistor. The resis- A reactance modulator can be con-
It is relatively easy to secure a fairly tance of Rl is made large compared nected to a crystal oscillator as well as to
large frequency deviation when a self- to the reactance of C3, so the rf current the self-controlled type as shown in Fig.
controlled oscillator is frequency-modu- through R1/C3 will be practically in 5B. However, the resulting signal can be
lated directly. (True frequency modu- phase with the rf voltage appearing at more phase-modulated than it is frequen-
lation of a crystal-controlled oscillator the terminals of the tank circuit. However, cy-modulated, for the reason that the
results in only very small deviations and the voltage across C3 will lag the current frequency deviation that can be secured
so requires a great deal of frequency by 90 degrees. The rf current in the drain by varying the frequency of a crystal
multiplication.) The chief problem is to circuit of the modulator will be in phase oscillator is quite small.
maintain a satisfactory degree of carrier with the grid voltage, and consequently is The modulator (fre-
sensitivity of the
stability, since the greater the inherent 90 degrees behind the current through C3, quency change per unit change in grid
stability of the oscillator the more difficult or 90 degrees behind the rf tank voltage. voltage) depends on the transconductance
it is to secure a wide frequency swing with This lagging current is drawn through the of the modulator transistor. It increases
linearity. oscillator tank, giving the same effect as when Rl is rhade smaller in comparison
though an inductance were connected with C3. It also increases with an increase
Frequency Modulation Methods: across the tank. The frequency increases in L/C ratio in the oscillator tank circuit.
Direct FM in proportion to the amplitude of the However, for highest carrier stability it is
A simple, satisfactory device for pro- lagging plate current of the modulator. desirable to use the largest tank capaci-
ducing fm in the amateur transmitter is The audio voltage, introduced through a tance that will permit the desired devia-
47 0.001
tank instead of directly on a self- modulating audio frequency in pm makes
"
RF Hf- controlled oscillator. If audio shaping is it necessary" to cut off the frequencies
INPUT used in the speech amplifier, as described above about 3000 Hz before modulation
above, fm instead of pm will be generated takes place. If this is not done, un-
by the phase modulator. necessary sidebands will be generated at
The phase shift that occurs when a frequencies considerably away from the
circuit is detuned from resonance depends carrier.
AUDIO INPUT
X 10.001^
(A)
the amount of detuning needed to secure a
given number of degrees of phase shift. If
Speech Processing for
The speech amplifier
FM
preceding the
the Q is at least 10, the relationship modulator follows ordinary design, except
between phase shift and detuning (in kHz that no power is taken from it and the af
PRE-EMPHASIS either side of the resonant frequency) will voltage required by the modulatQr grid
be substantially linear over a phase-shift usually is small — not more than 10 or 15
range of about 25 degrees. From the volts, even with large modulator tubes,
standpoint of modulator sensitivity, the and only a volt or two for transistors.
tuned circuit Q on which the modulator Because of these modest requirements,
operates should be as high as possible. On only a few speech stages are needed; a
the other hand, the effective Q of the two-stage amplifier consisting of two
circuit will not be very high if the bipolar transistors, both resistance-coup-
1/uF amplifier is delivering power to a load led, will more than suffice for crystal
-^|( Oaf out since the load resistance reduces the Q. ceramic or Hi-Z dynamic microphones.
There must therefore be a compromise Several forms of speech prbcessing
af in O-
between modulator sensitivity and rf produce worthwhile improvements in fm
power output from the modulated amplifi- system performance. It is desirable to
er. An optimum Q figure appears to be limit the peak amplitude of the audio
about 20; this allows reasonable loading signal applied to an fm or pm modulator,
of the modulated amplifier and the so that the deviation of the fm transmitter
Fig.6 —
(A) The phase-shifter type of phase necessary tuning variation can be secured will not exceed a preset value. This peak
modulator. (B) preemphasis and (C) deem<
from a reactance modulator without limiting is usually accomplished with a
phasis circuits.
difficulty. It is advisable to modulate at a simple audio clipper placed between the
low power level. speech amplifier and modulator. The
tion to be secured while keeping within Reactance modulation of an amplifier clipping process produces high-order
the limits of linear operation. stage usually results in simultaneous harmonics which, if allowed to pas£
A change in any of the voltages on the amplitude modulation because the modu- through to the mddulator stage, would
modulator transistor will cause a change lated stage is detuned from resonance as create unwanted sidebands. Therefore, an
in rf drain current, and consequently a the phase is shifted. This must be audio low-pass filter with a cut-off
frequency change. Therefore it is ad- eliminated by feeding the modulated frequency between 2.5 and 3 kHz is
visable to use a regulated power supply signal through an amplitude limiter or one needed at the output of the clipper. Excess
for both modulator and oscillator. or more "saturating" stages that is, — clipping can cause severe distortion of the
amplifiers that are operated Class C and voice signal. An audio processor con-
Indirect FM driven hard enough so that variations in sisting of a compressor and a clipper, such
The same type of reactance-tube circuit the amplitude of the input excitation
. as described in chapter 12, has been found
that used to vary the tuning of the
is produce no appreciable variations in the to produce audio with a better sound (i.e.,
oscillator tank in fm can be used to vary output amplitude. less distortion) than a clipper alone.
the tuning of an amplifier tank and thus For the same type of reactance modu- To reduce the amount of noise in some
vary the phase of the tank current for pm. lator, the speech-amplifier gain required fm communications systems, an audio
Hence the modulator circuit of Fig. 5A or is the same for pm as for fm. However, as shaping network called preemphasis is
(A)
(B)
13-4 Chapter 13
TS-175, will provide sufficient accuracy.
Frequency counters that will work di-
-0+9-15V
rectly up to 500 MHz and higher are
available, but their cost is high. The less
Of SJ,,
expensive low-frequency counters can be
-W-cr > employed using a prescaler, a device
which divides an input frequency by a
preset ratio, usually 10 or 100. Many
TO
DISCRIMINATOR D2 S2,
prescalers may be used at 148 or MHz
higher, using a counter with a 2-MHz (or
more) upper frequency limit. If the
counting system does not have a sufficient
15V Ml +
upper frequency limit to measure the
output of an fm transmitter directly, one
VD3 50-mF of the frequency-multiplier stages can be
sampled to provide a signal in the range of
the measurement device. Alternatively, a
PEAK DEVIATION METER crystal-controlled converter feeding an hf
receiver which has accurate frequency
Deviation Produced readout can be employed, if a secondary
Audio
1st Null 2nd Null 3rd Null -standard is available to calibrate the
Frequency
receiving system.
905.8 Hz ±2.18 kHz ± kHz
5.00 ± kHz
7.84
1500.0 Hz ±3.61 kHz ± 8.28 kHz ±12.98 kHz Deviation and Deviation Linearity
±4.35 kHz ±10.00 kHz ±15.67 kHz
1811.0 Hz
2000.0 Hz ±4.81 kHz ±11.04 kHz ±17.31 kHz A simple deviation meter can be
2079.2 Hz ±5.00 kHz ±11.48 kHz ±17.99 kHz assembled following the diagram of Fig.
2805.0 Hz ±6.75 kHz ±15.48 kHz ±24.27 kHz 8A. This circuit was designed by K6VKZ.
The output of a wide-band receiver
Fig 8 — (A) Schematic diagram of the deviation meter. Resistors are 1/2-watt
composition and discriminator (before any deemphasis) is
D1-D3, incl., are
capacitors are ceramic, except those with polarity marked, which are electrolytic. fed to two amplifier transistors. The
high-speed silicon switching diodes. R1 is a linear-taper composition control, and S1,
S2 are spst
20-kQ center-tapped
output of the amplifier section is trans-
toggle switches. T1 is a miniature audio transformer with 10-kO primary and
null when the former coupled to a pair of rectifier diodes
secondary (Triad A31X). (B) Chart of audio frequencies which wilt produce a carrier
deviation of an fm transmitter is set for the values given. to develop a dc voltage for the meter, Ml.
There will be an indication on the meter
with no signal input because of detected
indirect method (B) often produces su- noise, so the accuracy of the instrument
added at the transmitter to proportionally
perior results. will be poor on weak signals.
attenuate the lower audio frequencies,
To calibrate the unit, signals of known
giving an even spread to the energy in the
Testing an FM Transmitter deviation will be required. If the meter is
audio band. This results in an fm signal of
Accurate checking of the operation of to be set to read 0-15 kHz, then a 7.5-kHz
nearly constant energy distribution. The
an fm or pm transmitter requires different deviation test signal should be employed.
reverse process, called deemphasis, is
accomplished at the receiver to restore the methods than the corresponding checks Rl is then adjusted until Ml reads half
on an a-m or ssb set. This is because the scale, 50^A. To check the peak deviation
audio to its original relative proportions.
shown in Fig. 6. common forms of measuring devices of an incoming signal, close both SI and
Sample circuits are
either indicate amplitude variations only S2. Then, read the meter. Opening first
FM Exciters (a milliammeter, for example), or because one switch and then the other will indicate
the amount of positive and negative
FM exciters and transmitters take two their indications are most easily inter-
check of
shown at Fig. 7A, preted in terms of amplitude. deviation of the signal, a
general forms. One,
The quantities to be checked in an fm deviation linearity.
consists of a reactance modulator which
shifts the frequency of an oscillator to transmitter are the linearity and frequency
Measurement of Deviation Using Bessel
generate an fm signal directly. Successive deviation and the output frequency, if the
Functions
multiplier stages provide output on the unit uses crystal control. The methods of
checking differ Using a mathematical relationship known
desired frequency, which is amplified by a in detail.
as the Bessel Function it is possible
PA stage. This system has a disadvantage Frequency Checking to predict the points at which, with certain
in that, if the oscillator is free running, it is
Crystal-controlled, channelized fm oper- audio-input frequencies and predeter-
difficult to achieve sufficient stability for
ation requires that a transmitter be held mined deviation settings, the carrier
vhf use. If a crystal-controlled oscillator is
within a few hundred hertz of the desired output of an fm transmitter will disappear
employed, because the amount that the
channel even in a wide-band system. completely. Thus, by monitoring the
crystal frequency is changed is kept small,
Having the transmitter on the proper carrier frequency with a receiver, it will be
it is difficult to achieve equal amounts of
frequency is particularly important when possible to identify by ear the deviation at
frequency swing.
method of generating fm operating through a repeater. The rigors which the carrier is nulled. A heterodyne
The indirect
of mobile and portable operation make a signal at either the input or receiver i-f is
shown in Fig. 7B is currently popular.
frequency check of a channelized trans- required so that the carrier will produce a
Shaped audioapplied to a phase
is
ceiver a good idea, at three-month beat note which can easily be identified. _
modulator to generate fm. Since the
intervals. Other tones will be produced in the
amount of deviation produced is very
Frequency, meters generally fall into modulation process, so some concen-
small, a large number of multiplier stages
two categories, the heterodyne type and the tration isrequired by the operator when
is needed to achieve wide-band deviation
digital counter. For amateur use, the making the test. With an audio tone
at the operating frequency. In general, the
vhf/uhf counterparts of the popular selectedfrom the chart (Fig. 8B), advance
system shown at A will require a less
BG-221 frequency meter, the TS-174 and the deviation control slowly until the first
complex circuit than that at B, but the
05C.
F M RECEIVER
ANT.
MIXER
FREQUENCY
OSC.
Fig. 9 —
Fm detector characteristics. Slope
detection, using the sloping side of the
receivers selectivity curve to convert fm to a-m Fig. 10 —
Block diagrams of (A) an a-m, (B)"an fm receiver. Dark borders outline the sections that
for subsequent detection. are different in the fm set.
FM Filters
Center Nonimal Ultimate Impedance (r) Insertion Crystal
Manufacturer Model Frequency Bandwidth Rejection In Out loss Discriminator
KVG (1) XF-9E 9.0 MHz 12 kHz 90 dB 1200 1200 3dB XD9-02
KVG (1) XF-107A 10.7 MHz 12 kHz 90 dB - 820 820 3.5 dB XD1 07-01
KVG (1) XF-107B 10.7 MHz 15 kHz 90 dB 910 910 3.5 dB XD1 07-01
-
KVG (1) XF-107C 10.7 MHz 30 kHz 90 dB 2000 2000 4.5 dB XD107-0*
Heath Dynamics {2, 21.5 MHz •
15 kHz 90 dB 550 550 • 3dB
Heath Dynamics (2 21.5 MHz 30 kHz 90 dB 1100 1100 2dB
Clevite (3) TCF4-12D3CA 445 kHz 12 kHz 60 dB . 40k 2200 6dB
Clevite(3) TCF4-18G45A 455 kHz 18 kHz dB
50 40k 2200 6dB
Clevite (3) TCF6-30D55A 455 kHz 30 kHz 60 dB 20k 1000 5dB
Fig. 11 —
A list of fm-bandwidth filters that are available to amateurs. Manufacturer's addresses are as follows': (1) Spectrum International, P. O. Box
1084, Concord, MA
01742; (2) Heath Dynamics, Inc., 6050 N. 52nd Ave., Glendale, AZ 85301, tel. 602-934-5234; (3) Semiconductor Specialists, Inc
,
null is heafd. If a higher-order null is side of the selectivity curve. When the Otherwise the functions, and often the
desired, continue advancing the control frequency of the signal varies with circuits, of the rf, oscillator, mixer and
further until the second, and then the modulation it swings as indicated in Fig. audio stages will be the same in either
third, null heard. Using a carrier null
is 9, resulting in an a-m output varying receiver.
beyond the third is generally not practical. between X and Y. This is then rectified as In operation, the noticeable difference
For example, if a 905.8-Hz tone is used, an a-m signal. between the two receivers is the effect of
the transmitter be set for 5-kHz
will With receivers having steep-sided se- ' noise and interference on an incoming
deviation when the second null is reached. lectivity curves, the method is not very
The second null achieved with a 2805-Hz satisfactory because the distortion is quite
audio input will set the transmitter severe unless the frequency deviation is
PLATE
deviation at 15.48 kHz. The Bessel- small, since the frequency deviation and CURRENT
function approach can be used to calibrate output amplitude is linear over only a LIMITER OUTPUT
a deviation meter, such as the unit shown small part of the selectivity curve.
in Fig. 8A.
The FM Receiver
Reception of FM Signals
Block diagrams of an a-m/ssb and an
Receivers for fm signals differ from fm receiver are shown in Fig. 10.
others principally in two features there — Fundamentally, to achieve a sensitivity of
is no need for linearity preceding de- less than 1 /iV, an fm receiver requires a
tection (it is, in fact, advantageous if gain of several million —
too much total
amplitude variations in signal and back- gain to be accomplished with stability on
ground noise can be "washed Out") and a single frequency. Thus, the use of the
the detector must be capable of converting superheterodyne circuit has become stari-
frequency variations of the incoming dard practice. Three major differences will INPUT SIGNAL
signal into amplitude variations. be apparent from a comparison of the two
Frequency-modulated signals can be block diagrams. The fm receiver employs
received after a fashion on any ordinary a wider-bandwidth filter, a different Fig. 12 —
Representation of limiter action.
Amplitude variations on the signal are removed
receiver. The receiver is tuned to put the detector,and has a limiter stage added by the diode action of the grid- and plate-
y carrier frequency partway down on one between the i-f amplifier and the detector. current saturation.
13-6 Chapter 13
signal. From the time of the first spark
transmitters, "rotten QRN"
has been a
major problem for amateurs. The limiter
in an fm set can
and discriminator stages
eliminate a good deal of impulse noise,
except noise which manages to acquire a
frequency-modulation characteristic. Ac-
curate alignment of the receiver i-f system
and phase tuning of the detector are
required to achieve good noise sup-
(A) <B> pression. Fm receivers perform in an
Fig. 13 — (A) Input wave form to a limiter stage shows a-m and noise. (B) The same signal, after unusual manner when QR.M is present,
passing through two limiter stages, is devoid of a-m components.
+ 250V
FROM
AMP.
6BH6 (2)
6.3V AC ^0 4
+ 250V
O 7
FROM
I-
AMP.
F o-K
LIMITER
0+9V
-H1V
(D)
Fig. 14 — Typical limiter circuits using (A) tubes, (B) transistors, (C) a differential IC, (D) a high-gain linear IC.
FROM
l-FO AAAr
AMP. 68k
r T AUDIO
OUTPUT
i X i
o
+B "UJULT
RFC .
13-8 Chapter 13
1 | o
FROM
FROM
l-F' PHASE ; DC
FI1LTER AMP.
DETECTOR
-AAA/-
1000
AUDIO
OUTPUT
"
25V
7h
f>l_L .DETECTOR
AAAr (A) .
1500
-WV— 1
68
-0 + 5V
^330
AUDtO
OUTPUT
AUDIO
+8
— OUTPUT
Fig. 19 —
(A) Block diagram of a PLL
demodulator. (B) Complete PLL circuit.
i-WV—
100k
10k TO
-O AUDIO significant. Either circuit can provide
AMP.
01--p 0.001^-p. |
excellent results. In operation, the ratio
FROM r4~7 A-7 detector will not provide sufficient limit-
LIMITERO-
!
detector that responds only to ratios, the 18. Some commercially made crystal dis-
secondary, coupled through a capacitor.
input signal may vary in strength over a criminators have the input-circuit in-
The secondary voltages combine on each
wide range without causing a change in ductor, LI, built in (CI must be added)
side of the center tap so that the voltage
on one side leads the primary signal while the level of output voltage fm can be — while in other types both LI and C2 must
detected, but not a-m. In an actual ratio be supplied by the builder. Fig. 18 shows
the other side lags by the same amount.
detector, Fig. 17, the dc voltage required typical component values; unmarked
When rectified, these two voltages are
,
and load will vary greatly, so the actual of a phase detector, a filter, a dc am-
the idea of dividing a dc voltage into a
plifier, and a voltage-controlled oscil-
ratio which is equal to the ratio of the performance differences between these
amplitudes from either side of a dis- two types of fm detectors are usually not lator (VCO). The runs at a VCO
13-10 Chapter 13
provided by the decoupling solid-state preamplifier can hold its own
instability is
of Ql and Q2. A when competing against a vacuum-tube
circuits in the drain leads
press-fit aluminum or brass cover (U-
.
equivalent. .The unit treated here (de-
elect to make the housing arid divider Precautions have been taken to prevent
the usual problems,inherent in homemade
walls from sections of 1/16-inch (1.6-mm)
brass, using silver solder to join the preamps.
mating surfaces. This unit is suitable for -
450-MHz Design
use anywhere in the 420- to
band. JFETs were chosen for use in the
preamp over gate-protected MOSFETs
A Selective 2-Meter Preamplifier because the former can sustain up to 80
Apreamplifier used ahead of a sur- volts pk-pk, gate to source, before being
plus receiver as part of a repeater must damaged. Protected MOSFETs are rated
be based on something more than casual at 20 volts maximum. Furthermore, the
AMP ...
AMR 146 MHz
146 MHz 146 MH
MHz.
I
O.OOi
s Qjo
AA/V
220
INNER SHIELD
U^RO^
THKUUoH
Ul
ARI^^N PICOFARADS I pF OR jJJiFU
RES1STANCES AR£ N 0HMS ;
,
PHASE
DET.
161M41M211W 9
kH0oo . M ., OO OOOO
5M 1 1 m 1
TO PINS 4 AND 6 OF U4q_
is. INPUT
-Ji> FROM
'
Ul, i 2345 678 PIN 4 OF U1 ,2,3 VCO
2.3,4
ALL DIODES
SILICON SWITCHING
TYPE IN914 OR
EQUIV.
FROM J1.PIN8
(FIG.4-40)
Fig. 25 — Schematic of the divide-by-N portion of the synthesizer. decade counter IC, Motorola MC4016P or
S1, S2 —
Printed-circuit thumb-wheel switch, 1776orequiv
10-position, BCD, single-pole, EECo type U1-U4, - TTL programmable modulo-N
incl.
equiv.
VCO Circuit .
6251V FROM -
DIVIDE — BY-N
CIRCUIT 5.5 TO 6.5 MHz AMP
(FIG. 4-38) DC AMP TO DIVIDE-BY-N INPUT
500/ F.FT. (FIS. 4-38)
S\ 500/ F. MC4044P
PHASE DET.
625
'
FROM '
R4
REF. OSC.
CIRCUIT
(FIG. 4-41)
14 |10
'
VW
3?
DC TO REF. OSC.
REGULATOR CIRCUIT
A
V
T
V
TO DIVIDE-BY-N
CIRCUIT
RF BOTTOM VIEW
TO GROUND FOR TRANSMIT OUT
TO +12V FOR RECEIVE
Fig. 27 —
Circuit of the VCO and PLL portion of the synthesizer. Resistors can be either 1/4 or 1/2 watt composition.
C1 — 9- to 60-pF compression trimmer, Arco enam. closewound on high-value 2-watt re- P1 —
9-pin chassis-mount connector, male.
404 or equiv. sistor. Miller 4506 slug tuned inductor also U5 —
Phase-frequency detector IC, Motorola
D1 — 15- to 60-pF voltage-variable capacitance suitable. MC4044P or equiv.
diode. Motorola MV2205 or MV2209 suitable. L2, L3 —
8.9 H miniature audio choke. Aladdin U6 —
5-volt regulator IC. 1A, National Semi-
L1 — 15 iiH nominal. Approx. 40 turns no. 28 86-101 or equiv. conductor LM309K or equiv.
13-14 Chapter 13
6.5-MHz output from for extremely rigid mechanical as-
influences the lockup time of the VCO, in The 5,5- to the call
OSCILLATOR
+ 5V
AND BUFFER
~r^~7 625 Hz
10 11
r^~> |
OUTPUT
C5
11
T-ts> TO
C3 SMHz' U6 U7 '
U8 U9 U10 U11B
PHASE
DET.
HEX DECADE DECADE SECADE DUAL FF (FIG.4-40)
INVERTER COUNTER COUNTER COUNTER FF
4-10 12 -HO -HO
68pF
S.M.
1
TOP VIEW
U6 THROUGH U11 U11A NOT USED
S.M. SILVER MICA 41312111098
I I I I I I I
12 34567
Instrument SN74H04N or equiv. U10 - TTL dual J-K master-slave flip-flop, capacitance. (International Crystal Co. part).
13-16 Chapter 13
the collector should have extremely low dc
15 resistance. Even a drop of 1 volt can signi-
1W ficantly reduce the power output of the
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
amplifier. A good goal is less than 0.5-volt
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE drop from the car battery to the transistor
IN MICROFARADS JiF (
OTHERS
) ;
-0+13.6V collector. With operating currents of
ARE-' IN PICOFARADS I pF OR >JiF); several amperes, the total dc resistance
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
should be only a fraction of an ohm. A
k "1000. M'1 000 OOO
standard commercially made heat sink is
used for the 50-watt amplifier, and it is
adequate for amateur communications.
Forced-air cooling across the heat sink
J1
146 MHz
INPUT should be used for any application requir-
ing longterm key-down operation at 40
12nH watts or more of output.
RFC2
"0.15juH Tune- Up Procedure
-2 Z.^ CZ -C4 .
o —'wv
INPUT R1
4700
° 001
output tank circuit for maximum rf out-
put and tuning the input circuit for
minimum SWR as measured between the
exciter and the final amplifier. This tune-
up procedure has the added advantage of
assuring that the amplifier presents a
RELAY TOP VIEW RELAY SIDE VIEW 50-ohm load to the exciter. A dc ammeter
to check collector current is a useful tune-
(o o) o _°) up aid. Since tuning is for peak output, a
T" Gv Monimatch-type SWR
bridge is adequate
o "o)
REMOVE for the job. The best tuning procedure is
1
CONNECTING
°) o_o) WIRES to monitor simultaneously both output
1 IK power (absolute or relative) and the SWR
(» » o'o)
between the exciter and amplifier.
First, apply dc voltage with no rf drive.
No collector current should flow. Then
FILTER apply a low level of rf drive perhaps 25—
rrrr\ percent or less of the rated 10 watts maxi-
INPUTO- -OOUTPUT
—
mum drive and tune the input network
X. for maximum indicated collector current.
(0)
X' The networks may not tune to resonance
at this low drive level, but you should a't
an indication of proper operation
least get
by smooth tuning and lack of any erratic
Fig. 30 — (A) Diagram of the amplifier which provides 40 to 50 watts output. Capacitors
are mica
unless otherwise noted. The heat sink is a Thermalloy 6169B, Allied Electronics no. 957-2890. (B) behavior in the collector-current reading.
circuit. Capacitors are disc ceramic. (C) The COR relay is modified by
COR removing the connect- Gradually increase the drive until full
ing wires from all four wiper arms and adding two shorting bars, as shown. Only the
stationary-
rated output is reached.
contact connections are used. (D) Pi-section output filter, C1 and C2 are 39-pF mica capacitors,
Elemenco 6ED3900J03 or equiv. and L1 consists of 2 turns of no. 18 tinned wire, 1/4 inch ID, 0.2 A Solid-State PA for 440 MHz
inch (61 x 5 mm) long (approximately 44 nH). K1 —
4pdt open-frame relay, 12-V contacts
C1, C7 —5- to 80-pF compression trimmer, (Comar CRD-1603-4S35 or equiv., Sigma Whether the application is by a person
Arco 462 or equiv. 67R4-12D also suitable), modified as de-
using a hand-held transceiver as a mobile
C2, C4, C5, C6, C8 —
Mica button, Underwood scribed above.
rig or by an experimenter building a
J-101. L1 —
12 nH, no. 10 tinned wire, 1-1/4-inch
'
C3, C9 9- to 180-pF compression trimmer, (32-mm) long straight conductor. repeater, medium-power
a amplifier
Arco 463 or equiv. L2 —
30 nH, 1-3/4 turns, no. 10 tinned wire, would come in quite handy for increasing
C10 — Feedthrough type. 3/8-inch ID, 3/4 inch (10 x 19 mm) long.
the effective range of his station. This arti-
C11 — Tantalum. L3 —
15 nH, no. 14 tunned wire, 3/4-inch (19-
cle describes a compact, inexpensive,
C12 — Ceramic disc. mm) long straight conductor. .
Circuit Analysis
cio
The employed is essentially a
circuit 680
-11
basic narrow-band amplifier capable of
being tuned over a broad range of fre-
quencies —
430 to 450 MHz. Input-match
and collector-load transformations are ac-
RFC3 £ r-h
420-450 MHz
y
JjuF
s^r^O-
420-450 MHz W2
complished by using multiple L sections
W1
comprised of 50-ohm microstrip-line and
.0(8
mica-compression variable capacitors.
The active device is theMotorola MRF618 .C4 .C5 _£ 50-OHM
50-OHM -25
— an C3 ^-35 y~ 7
OUTPUT
internally matched, 12.5-voIt, INPUT '
25
controlled-Q transistor designed for ap-
plication fro^n 420 to 512 MHz.
Construction
The amplifier is built on double-sided
Fig. 33 — Schematic diagram of the 15-watt amplifier.
C1, C7 — 0.9- to 7-pF mica compression C10 — 680-pF feedthrough capacitor.
G10 glass-cpoxy board. Fig. 34 is a 1:1 trimmer, Arco 400. —
C11 1-^F, 15-V tantalum.
drawing of the board layout. Care should C2, C5 — Unelco 15-pF mica. L1, L4 — 50-ohm microstrip line, 2.3, inches
be taken in etching to maintain the line C3, C4 — Unelco 25-pF mica. long, 0.110-inch wide.
width of the microstrip at 0. 1 10 inch for a C6 — 3- to 35-pF mica compression trimmer, RFC1 — Ferrite bead on cold lead of L2.
Z of 50 ohms.
Arco 403. RFC2 — 8 turns no. 22 enam., 1/8-inch ID,
C8 — 0.018 chip capacitor. ATC or equiv.
(*F close wound.
After the board has been etched, the (a250-pF Unelco mica or a 0.001-jiF Erie RFC3 — 4 turns no. 22 enam., 1/4-inch ID,
first step is to cut the hole in the board for Redcap may work as a substitute). close wound.
the transistor heat sink (flange). The tran- C9 —
0.1-/iF disc ceramic.
13-18 Chapter 13
and output, and tune until the desired
operating conditions are achieved. Fig. 35
12.0
shows examples of typical data taken in :
11.
Vcc e 13.5V the lab. You will find that operating fre-
ll.i 'Pout 15W quencies greater than 1 MHz away from
Bio.
the tune-up frequency can be used with-
\ 10.
out the necessity of further adjustment.
I *
9. REPEATERS
A repeater is a device which retransmits
received signals in order to provide im-
440
f (MHz) proved communications range and cover-
(A) age. This communications enhancement is
Now comes the remaining turning ele- voltages may.be sent directly, requiring no
ments and output dc-isolation capacitor. decoder. A three-minute timer to disable
Fig. 34 shows the mounting position. Care the repeater transmitter is provided for
should be taken to solder the ground taps fail-safe operation. This timer resets dur-
of the trimmer to the ground plane to ing pauses between transmissions and
reduce the amount of lead inductance in- may be used, ranging from a piece of coax does not interfere with normal communi-
herent in these capacitors, at uhf. C8 to RCA phono plugs. cations. The system just outlined is
list). Depending upon your application, tune the output capacitors for peak out- utilizes a superior location for transmis-
any 50-ohm outside-world connection put. Switch back and forth between input sion and reception, but is basically a
Table 1
EIA Standard Subaudible Ton* Frequencies
Reed
u
Freq. (Hz) Reed Freq. (Hz)
Vs DOWN
n
CONTROL
\ CHANNEL
XMTR
«S RECEIVER
wz
L2
67.0
69.3
71.9
2A
2B
3
114 8
118 8
101
1tzo. n
u
STATION WA 74.4 3B 131 8
UP L3 77.0 4 136 5
CHANNEL WB 79. 7 4A 141 3
RECEIVER L4 82.5 4B 146.2
YA 85.4 5 151.4
(A) L4A 88.5 5A 156.
ZZ 91.5 56 162.2
L5 94.8 6 167.9
1 100.0 6A 173.8
UP
CHANNEL
RECEIVER XMTR
F2 V 1A
18
2
103.5
107.2-
110.9
6B
7
7A
179.9
186:2
1928
'A
Cfc
CONTROL
STATION F2
RECEIVER across the U.S. and Canada. Some
V 10-meter repeaters are operational, and
most use 100-kHz separation. A popular
DOWN F1
arrangement on 6 meters uses 52.525
CHANNEL
XMTR RECEIVER MHz as either the input or output, with
several choices for the other half. Many
(B) stations, however, are moving toward
either a 600-kHz or 1-MHz offset. On 2
meters the standard is 600 kHz. The
Fig. 38 — A remote base is shown at A. A repeater with remote-base
operating capability is 220-MHz band uses 1.6-MHz separation.
shown at B. Control and keying circuits are not shown. Telephone-line control may be substituted
for the radio-control
~ On the 450-MHz band it is 5 MHz. The
channels shown.
choice and usage is a matter for local
agreement.
In some cases where there is overlap-
simplex device. That is, it transmits and The audio interface between the re- ping geographical coverage of repeaters
receives on a single frequency in order to peater receivers and transmitters can, with using the same frequencies, special meth-
communicate with other stations also some equipment, consist of a direct ods for selecting the desired repeater have
operating on that frequency. The operator connection bridging the transmitter mic- been employed. One technique requires
of the remote base listens to his hilltop rophone inputs across the receiver speaker the user to transmit automatically a
receiver and keys his hilltop transmitter outputs. This is not recommended, how- 0.5-second burst of a specific audio tone
over his 220-MHz or higher control chan- ever, because of the degradation of the at the start of each transmission. Different
nels (or telephone line). Fig. 38A shows audio quality in the receiver-output tones are used to select different repeaters.
such a system. Control and keying fea- stages. A cathode follower connected to Standard tone frequencies are 1800, 1950,
tures have^been omitted for clarity. In each receiver's first squelch-controlled 2100, 2250 and 2400 Hz.
some areas of high activity, repeaters have audio amplifier stage provides the best Because of growing congestion among
all but disappeared in favor of remote results. A repeater should maintain a flat same- and adjacent-channel repeaters, an
bases because of the interference to response across its audio passband to increasingly popular access method is a
simplex activity caused by repeaters maintain the repeater intelligibility at the continuous subaudible tone. Popularly
unable to monitor their output frequency same level as direct transmissions. There known as PL (Motorola trademark for
from the transmitter location. should be no noticeable difference be- Private Line), it must be applied to a
tween repeated and direct transmissions. transmitter after the clipper/filter stage
A Complete System The intelligibility of some repeaters has shaped the voice audio. Table 1 lists
Fig. 38B shows a repeater that com- suffers because of improper level settings the EIA-standard frequencies.
bines the best of the simple
features which cause excessive clipping distortion.
repeater and the remote base. Again, The clipper in the repeater transmitter Practical Repeater Circuits
necessary control and keying features should be set for the maximum system Because of their proven reliability,
have not been shown in order to simplify deviation, 5 kHz, usually. Then the commercially made transmitter and re-
the drawing, and make it easier to follow. receiver level driving the transmitter ceiver decks are generally used in repeater
This repeater is compatible with simplex should be set by applying an input signal installations. Units designed for repeater
operation on the output frequency be- of known deviation below the maximum, 1
80
^-450 MHz DELAY SWITCH
/220 MHz
60 / L--^^ fir)0 kHz. -0-12V
TIMER I. _1§2 LJ
20 40 60 80 IE555V F-O O—
VERTICAL SPACING (FEET) -p50/iF '
T '
start]
(A)
(B)
Fig. 40 — (A) COR circuit for repeater use. of time that K1 will stay closed
R2 sets the length
after the input voltage disappears. K1 may be any
relay with a 12-volt coil, although the long-life
reed type is preferred. D1 is a silicon diode. (B) Timer circuit using a Signetics NE555. R1, C1 set
the timer range. C1 should be a low-leakage type capacitor. S1, S2 could have their contacts
paralleled by the receiver COR for automatic START and RESET controlled by an incoming signal.
The ultimate answer to the problem of band are desirable, and with some gear an public telephone network. By ordering a
receiver desensing is to locate the repeater audio-compensation network may be re- Touch-Tone line for the repeater auto-
transmitter a mile or more away from the quired. A typical COR (carrier-operated patch, the same encoders and decoders
receiver. The two can be interconnected relay) circuit is shown in Fig. 40A. This can be used for the phone patch and
by telephone line or uhf link. Another unit may be operated by the grid current repeater control.
noise from degrading the sensitivity of the from being keyed on and off by a rapidly used are given in*Table 2. The tones are
receiver, even though the transmitter and fading signal. Other timers keep each divided into the low group, 697, 770, 852
receiver are operating on a single antenna transmission to lessthan three minutes and 941 Hz; and the high group, 1209,
simultaneously. A commercially made duration (an FCC requirement), turn on 1336, 1477 and 1633 Hz. One tone from
duplexer is very expensive, and con- identification, and control logging func- each group is used for each function. For
fSREEN rWHITE
Tone (Hz) 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477Hz 1633 Hz
RED/GREEN RED
697 1 2 3 F WESTERN AUTOMATIC
770 4 5 6 F ELECTRIC ELECTRIC
852 7 8 9 I
BLACK BLUE
941 * # P BLUE l —-^ORANGE /BLACK ^GREEN
+9 TO 15V "(B)
(A)
'560 R1 If OTOHIGH
560,
TO 50k> a47r-o IMPEDANCE
'\,
O : CARBON INPUT
5juF _^ MIKE OUTPUT/-^
^_TK),NPUT LEVEL
ENCODER
(C) (D)
Fig. 42 — Typical connections for the encoders manufactured by Western- Electric (A) and
Automatic Electric (B). If low-impedartce output is needed to drive a carbon-microphone input; the
circuit at C can be employed for either encoder. Likewise, the circuit at D will provide a high-
impedance output. R1 can be any miniature composition control; the types made for mounting on
circuit boards are ideal.
\
—
! ! !
T
1209 Hz
1336 Hz
I
14 77 Hz
I
(633 Hz
00 43
I ^
—
4 RED/GRN
o RED o
o
510
6%
phone-company pad is given in Fig. 43. UUUL/^JUUL/^jUULTnjUuJ
Individual models will vary slightly, but
the basic circuit used in all models is the 01
2N1372
nnm
same. A single transistor produces two
tones. Two LC circuits are used, one for
the high tone group and one for the low
tones. Some people are bothered by the ORANGE /BLACK
use of a single transistor to generate two
audio frequencies, so the lower tone can
be considered the frequency of oscillation
while the high tone is called a parasitic Fig. 43 —Diagram of a typical Western Electric Touch-Tone generator. T1 and T2 are special
multi-winding transformers manufactured by Sangamo Electric and others. D1-D4, incl. are silicon
oscillation, for purposes of explanation.
varistors.
Simpler encoders than "the one described pressing the keyboard switch, the trans- between digits. It has a low-impedance
here can be built, but they will not provide mitter is automatically keyed. When the audio output which is electronically
its high performance. key switch is released, a delay timer keeps disconnected from the transmitter audio
This encoder features internal voltage the transmitter on long enough for the system when no keyboard switches are
regulation, allowing power to be taken next tone pair to be selected. It's no longer pressed. The encoder may be connected to
13-22 Chapter 13
the mic input of transceivers having either
high- or low-impedance mic inputs —
with negligible loading of the transmitter
audio circuitry. The audio frequencies are
crystal-controlled, meaning there is no
drift.This circuit was originally described Rl 3
issue of QST. R3 3
21
R4 6
T-T
Theory of Operation ENCODED 14
C1 .
KEYBOARD
Fig. a schematic diagram of the en-
44 is C2 13
Ul, a CMOS
IC. High-frequency tones 11
PTT
IF 16-KEY SWITCH NE
used as switches. Q2 forces the audio- 9 IS USED
output impedance high when no keyboard
DC VOLTAGE MEASURED
switches are depressed, preventing the en- WITH RESPECT TO
GROUND USING HIGH-
coder from loading the transmitter mic in- IMPEDANCE METER.
TOP: NO KEYS PRESSED. EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
put. Q4 and Q5 are operated as a Dar-
BOTTOM: ONE OR TWO CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS JiF( I ;
lington pair, keying the transmitter push- KEYS PRESSED. OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR JiJlF);
I
turned on by pulses from pin 7 of Ul or equivalent. sistance and load capacitance are typically
when a keyboard switch is depressed. D2 — 20-volt, 1-watt Zener diode, 1N4747, 540 and 7 pF, respectively. Available from
or equivalent. Data Signal, Inc., 2403 Commerce Ln.,
Ul requires a 5-volt supply for proper Q1, Q2, Q4 —
Silicon hpn transistor, 2N4123 Albany, GA 31707. Price is approximately
operation. This is provided by the or equivalent. $6, plus postage.
470-ohm resistor and 1N4733 Zener Q3 — Silicon pnp transistor, 2N4125, HEP Z1 —
Touch-Tone encoding keyboard. The cir-
S0037 or equivalent. cuit-board layout will accommodate Digitran
diode, Di With the exception of Q4, the
Q5 — Silicon npn transistor, 2N4401, HEP keyboards KL0054 (12-key) or KL0049 (16-
.
remainder of the encoder circuit was also S0015 or equivalent. key). They are available from distributors in
designed to operate from a 5-volt supply. R1 — Circuit-board-mounted trimmer potenti- single lot quantities. For the name of the
The length of time the transmitter re- ometer, 10 kO, linear taper. nearest distributor, contact Bob Privell at
U1 — Integrated-circuit Touch-Tone encoder, Digitran, 855 South Arroyo Pkwy., Pasadena,
mains keyed after a keyboard switch is CA 91105, or call him at 213-449-3110. At the
Motorola MC14410 or equivalent.
released is determined by the value of CI, Y1 — 1-MHz crystal HC-18/U holder. Fre-
in time of this writing, the keyboards cost ap-
connected to the collector of Q3. On the quency tolerance is 0.1 percent; series re- proximately $6 arid $7.50, respectively.
prototype unit, a value of 25 (iF provided
a delay of just under one second. If you
prefer a longer drop-out time, increase the
value of this capacitor. Lowering its value
will decrease drop-out time.
depressed and (2) one or more buttons formance on both a Tempo VHF/One used previously for tone decoding and was
depressed. Connect the 12-V dc supply 2-meter rig and a Kenwood TR-8300 uhf found to work well in this frequency
and measure the voltage at the test points rig- range. Its intended use is as a phase-
shown on the schematic diagram. locked-loop fm stereo decoder. In this
Voltages measured should be in accord- A Scanning Touch-Tone Digit and Word application it locks onto the 19-kHz pilot
ance with those shown. Decoder tone which is present, along with the
If any voltages are incorrect, look for The Touch-Tone encoding system, used audio signal, and turns on an open-
wiring errors. If the collector voltage of extensively in autopatch operations on fm collector output to light a stereo indicator
Q2 is not at least 4 volts with no buttons repeaters across the country, offers a lamp. Its internal oscillator runs at 76
pressed, the problem may be a leaky tran- ready-made source for dual-tone codes, kHz, and an internal frequency divider
sistor at Ql
or Q2. If a scope is available it and advances in microcircuitry design gives the 19 kHz for the pilot tone
may be used to inspect the audio output. have produced a single device that can be detection. A 19-kHz monitor output is
Pressing any one button should produce a used to decode these dual-tone codes for a provided. In the present circuit the
any two buttons
signal, while depressing variety of remotely controlled functions.
oscillator is run at four times the
simultaneously should produce a single However, one device is required to decode Touch-Tone and the stereo
frequencies,
tone. each tone. This section describes how a decoder function (except for the indicator
scanning decoder evolved as an attempt to lamp output) is ignored.. Since the
Installation frequency determining resistor runs to
avoid using seven of these decoder ICs,
The of the installation
electrical portion and how a simple counter circuit can
ground, it is programmed easily for
simply involves running four wires from recognize specific four-digit word se- scanning operation by using four re-
the encoder to the transceiver: +12 V, quences to provide a unique approach to a sistance values and four, open-collector,
ground* push-to-talk (PTT) and audio remote-control decoder. 15-volt NAND 1 gates (7426).
output. Shielded audio cable is recom- There are 16 tone pairs possible —
mended for the audio output; which is Digit Decoding
selecting one from the low group, 697,
connected to the transceiver mic input. 770, 852 and 941 Hz, and one from the The digit decoder is shown in Fig. 47. A
The PTT lead is connected to the hot side high group, 1209, 1336, 1477 and 1633 Hz. 12- volt power supply is required for the
of the mic PTT switch. The + 12-V and Two phase-locked-loop types of tone ^CniOP circuits. The voltage on the
ground leads are self-explanatory. The en- decoders should therefore be sufficient if programming resistance network is some-
coder PTT circuit is designed for rigs with each one sequentially scans the four tones what high for the usual open-collector
an antenna relay coil which is connected of one group. In this way two decoders nand gates, so a 7426 is used. The
to the + 12-V>bus and the PTT switch. with some added scanning circuits take 0.01-and 0.015-fiF capacitors should be
The latter grounds the cold side of the the place of eight. Parts of the scanning mylar or silver mica for temperature
relay coil during transmit. Assure that circuit such as the clock oscillator and stability, and some experimentation with
your rig has this type of PTT circuit and digit decoder would be required in any the resistance values to achieve the correct
that the relay coil draws less than 300 mA. case for word decoding, and the parts' frequencies may be necessary. A fixed
I believe all the popular vhf and uhf fm cost of the present system using primarily resistance of 10 kQ or 12 kfi was used and
ham rigs have this type of PTT circuit. low cost TTL logic is reasonable. One a jumper-wire or selected value of fixed
13-24 Chapter 13
resistance was inserted between all of the Each prefix decoder consists of a dual J-K and ease of use becomes an important
lQOO-phm potentiometers. The circuit flip-flop (U18) two and gates (U20A and factor in choosing codes. Often a single
time constants resulting from the use of B) and two nand gates (U21A and B). digit is better to turn something off
1-fiF ceramic capacitors appear to be the The prefix of first three degits of the four- because quicker and less likely to be
it's
correct value for the present system. The letter word being decoded are selected by forgotten. In any case,all system codes
820-ohm pull-up resistor from the + 5- connecting inputs digit 1 (DG1>, digit 2 must be mutually compatible.
makes the output TTL com-
volt supply (DG2), digit 3 (DG3) and digit 4 (DG4) to
patible; the monitor output is correct for the desired outputs from U12 and U13. Construction
driving TTL devices. Likewise, the other word-decoder inputs The was constructed on double-
unit
The 555 timer U9 and inverting gate DH1, DH2, DH3 and DH4 are connected sided, copper-clad pc board. The tone and
U7D provide a positive clock pulse for all to four outputs from U12 and U13. The digit decoder circuit of Fig. 48 was con-
the 7473 flip-flops which toggle on the first four-letter word such
as the sequence structed on a 6 X 6-inch (152 X 152-mm)
trailing edge of the pulse. When no tone 4639 would turn U22 on, and the second pc board. All of the components are
inputs are received, U3 and U4 count such as 1 * 8 # would turn it off. mounted on the top side of the board and
through four states each and cause the This sequence detection is achieved by are soldered on both sides of the pc board.
open collector gates U5 and U6 to the gating used on the J-K inputs of U18 The value of Rl through R6 in each tone-
conduct in sequence A through D, thereby and U19. Each is a two-stage counter selection line should be selected so that the
sweeping the frequencies of Ul and U2 which will advance in the state sequence potentiometer will tune the circuit to the
upward through the low and high tone — —3—2—
1 only if the correct digit proper tone in the middle of its resistance
groups respectively. When either tunes to input is on in proper sequence. That is, in range. The values shown in the circuit
an incoming tone, it becomes phase order to advance from — DG1 must be 1 diagram of Fig. 48 are typical and can be
locked to it, its output at the test point on, to advance from — 3 DG2 must be 1 used as a starting point for selecting the
goes low, the counter is stopped because on, and to advance from — 2 DG3 must 3 final value. The word decoders are also
its J and K inputs are low and the detector be on. If any are off when they should be constructed on pc board with a double-
remains locked on the incoming fre- on, the state goes directly to zero. When sided layout.' The decoder board is 4 X 4
quency. Also, the monitor output can pass state 2 is reached, U18A is off and U18B inches (102 X 102 mm) with all of the
through gate U7B or U7C and can be is on, and two of the three and J inputs components installed on the top side.
used for exact measurement of incoming of U22 are on. At this point the three-digit Several of these decoder boards can be
tone frequencies. When both tones are so prefix has been received successfully. If stacked and will make the addition of con-
detected, a logic-one condition appears at the fourth digit received corresponds to trol functions a simple task.
the output of NOR
gate U7A and counter DG4, the clock pulse (CLK) will also turn
U8 is permitted -to advance from its on U22 since all its J inputs will then be Alignment
cleared condition. 6n. Similarly, the second four-digit-word Alignment is a matter of setting the
The J-K flip-flops in U8 are wired to sequence will U22. Further
turn off scanned frequencies to the correct values
advance in count through states 0, 1, 3, 2, 2 interfacing between the TTL output of using a frequency counter connected to a
and become stopped in state 2 (U8A off, U22 and a controlled system will depend monitor point. The associated test point is
U8B on) until reset when one or the other upon its nature. A simple relay driver grounded, and with no input to the
tone detector drops out. Its purpose is to using two parallel-connected 15-volt decoder one of the frequencies can be
provide a two-clock-period double check open-collector buffer' inverters (1/3 of a adjusted, depending on which of the four
on the decoder operation and yield a 7416) and a 12-volt, 150-ohm relay is tones in any group happened to be on
single clock pulse (CLK) just before the shown. A small silicon diode connected as when it was stopped manually. It is best to
end of state 3 if the tone signal is so shown helps to avoid transient problems, stop the highest tone first and adjust the
validated. Also, during state 3 (U8A and simplified by using the same prefix de- first potentiometer, along with R9 if
U8B on) the decoder Ul 1 is enabled, and coder for both turn on and turn off; only necessary, to get 941 Hz. Then select the
one of the digit outputs from 12 or U 13 U the fourth digit need be different. One second potentiometer and value of Rl
comes on. must be sure the word decoder is reset until 852 Hz can be tuned. In a like
The decoder makes use of the counter before it will respond properly to a four- manner, adjust all eight frequencies to the
states of U3 and U4 when they are digit word. This is just a matter of being correct values. After several months of
stopped by an incoming two-tone signal. sure that any code such as 4639 is not operation the response became sluggish
Since the tones are scanned from low to preceded by a 4, a 46, or a 463. If in doubt and finally the unit stopped working, but
high and the low group (top to bottom about what the last digit may have been in original performance was restored by
rows on a standard pad) is wired to the the system, an extra random digit other retuning Rl through R6. Satisfactory
two least-significant-digit inputs on Ull, than 4 is generally sufficient. Alternative- operation is obtained with input levels
the output states of Ull would cor- ly, the reset inputs of U18 and U19 can be between 0.1 and 1 volt ac.
respond to the tone button assignments of wired to some completely independent
a standard Touch-Tone pad. In order that source of a reset such as the carrier-input
A Universal Touch-Tone Decoder
the digit outputs are correct for the actual detector. The control unit described here is ex-
assignment on the tone pad, the Ull A few words about the choice of codes. tremely reliable, flexible and immune to
outputs are reordered and the 12 cor- For most Amateur Radio applications, the false signals. Any number of control func-
responding to the commonly used 12- four-digit word provides adequate se- tions can be built into this modular unit.
button pad are inverted to the positive curity. If a great deal of phone patch Starting with a simple,, single-digit, on/off
logic form by U12 and U13. The acticity is present on the channel, the control, it- may be expanded to provide up
four gates U14, U15, U16 and U17 are characters * or § should be used in the to 45 different control functions, in-
optional and are used to obtain the binary code, as these do not appear in phone cluding a three-digit on/off command.
equivalent of the standard digit as- numbers. The four additional characters The application of the decoder system
signment of the Touch-Tone pad. generated only by a 16 button pad can be described here is not limited to repeater
used if four additional inverters are added use. With a little ingenuity one might
Word Decoding to the group in U12 and U13. When a adapt the simpler systems to turn on
The word-decoding circuitry shown in number of four-digit codes are used to house lights or open garage doors. 3 And
Fig.49 consists of two', three-digit prefix operate a remote system of some sort, it there is also a voltage-to-frequency con*
decoders and an output flip-flop U22. becomes difficult to remember them all, verter. More about that later.
Construction
As a start, a single-tone decoder will be
constructed and its operation examined.
Select a frequency pair from Fig. 51 A.
Choose the appropriate resistor value fof
RX from Fig. 5 IB. Mount the compo-
nents on the board with the exception of,
those required for the latch/unlatch cir-
cuitry. Install short wires at TP1, TP2 and
TP3 for attaching test leads. Apply power
to the circuit and connect a frequency
counter to TP1 Use a low-value capacitor
.
13-26 Chapter 13
that pin 8 will go low when the tones are decoder without the latch. Connect the An Expanded System
received and remain low until the base of transistors (Ql, Q2) as shown in Fig. 52.
Ql is ungrounded of taken high. A relay is shown at the output although Next, proceed to construct a complete
To become even more familiar with the either a relay or transistor may be em- system offering up to 45 different control
circuitry, a simple * (on) and # (off) ployed. When the * is received, the relay functions and using a three-digit entry.
decoder will be constructed. Build the * will close and remain closed (latched) until Use of either the * or # sign as the first en-
decoder with the latch function and the # a # signal is received. try for, a control function is recommend-
+5V 1±.
DG1 O-
J +VCC
U18A U18B
U28B
CLK' CLK
7473_
+ 5V
C
U28A 9 7413
DG2 O- DG4
Q
3. V
"T
U22.
DH1 O-
J +VCC J Q
Q
U19A U19B
CLK CLK
+ 5V
13
K Q
GND C
U21D
DH2 0- ?6
820
Fig. 49 — Schematic diagram of the, relay-control pc board. Be sure to select relays that have contact-current capability for use in the desired ap-
plication.
ed, especially if the repeater is equipped "window" will remain open for only two To combine the three digits and
with autopatch. In this manner,
an The * is also used to reset all
seconds. generate one output, a COMBINER
numbers alone cannot initiate a control other decoders. This was done so that if board is used. Each board contains three
function. Personal preference is to use the any of the decoders have been accidently SN74LS10 ICs. Fig. 55 shows the make-
* symbol to initiate the command and the activated, no command function will be up of a single 74LS10 which incorporates
# sign as an "all clear"; this also permits carried out. three triple-input nand gates. Each board
system reset. It will also be necessary to invert all the furnishes nine functions; five boards are
To carry the logic 'required for the lows supplied by the decoders. This opera- used in a 45-function decoding system.
larger system, other circuit boards will be tion is performed by SN74LS00 quad, The last board required is (ap-
needed. All are of the 28-pin plug-in vari- two-input nand gates. The input pins of propriately) the FINAL board, which
ety. A timer is also needed; an NE555 the gates are tied together, thereby contains the latches for the desired func-
serves nicely. The timer, activated by the * creating inverters. The timer and inverter tions and the transistor drivers. Four
decoder, (constructed without a latch) will diagram is shown in Fig. 54. Only one SN74L73 dual J-K nip-flops and either
open a "window" through which the TIMER-INVERTER board is required 2N1711 transistors are mounted on each
other two digits must be passed. This for any system of up to 45 functions. board. Five boards are used in the
13-28 Chapter 13
|
2?
TIME
R,C| U!
TIME
k •IOOO, M- OOO OOO
1
852
1336
1477
697
770
5.6k
5.1k
13k
12k
input NE567 out
OUTPUT
FILTER C
low PASS
OHO FILTER C
H m '
852
941
10k
9.1k
(A)
AAA/ —^A/V-l
5k
: see TP3
TEXT)
f C4
6
TIMER|C|
U2
TIMERlu„
V(X
01
1N914 *
»R9
> 2.7k
"PUT NE567 »»
-O OUTPUT
AUDIO
IE C6 ^
i i 02
1N9I4 *
INPUT
X 2.2^iF/50V
D4
H4-
I
C7
4.7juF/16V
* PARTS FOR LATCH FUNCTION
* # PARTS FOR UNLATCH FUNCTION
Fig. 50 —
The circuit diagram of the Universal Touch-Tone Decoder. A pair of ICs is used to pro-
vide better reliability and immunity to "falsing." If desired, the capacitor at pin 1 of each IC may
be increased to 100 ylr to provide a two-second decoding delay/
Fig. 53 — With a little ingenuity, this simple
version of the decoder can find many uses.
TO DESIRED
CIRCUIT
-0+5V
L-n 45-function system with 5 furtctions left
* DECODER open for possible use later. A single
WITH LATCH
SN74L73 is shown in Fig. 56.
D3 R6
—uAAA
i
o
To power the described circuits, a sup-
shown in Fig. 57 will
+5V ply similar to the one
OUTPUT WILL be needed. The supply chosen should be
04 GO HI6H capable of delivering approximately 750
* DECODER
PI mA to the decoder system and sufficient
+ 5V
TO A SINGLE
INPUT OF ALL 01 2N1711 FINAL
COMBINER '
Ik
~0 OUTPUT
i.
THB. OUT
GATES
-T VW-
U1A
Ul FF1
7^ 2-2^ 555
50V
+ 12 TO +I5V
TR. OHO
T7 OPTIONAL
O
1 INPUT
FROM
O
Ik
WV-
v
1N914
'
TO * COMBINER
DECODER P 00 TIMER
BOARD
PIN 8 (A)
|
O + 5V
2N1711
-O FINAL
14 a OUTPUT
330 TL
L
VW" U "\3 OUTPUT
O ,
•
I 2
U2A
JO —O «FF2
UIA
CLK
11
o —wv- 330 A.
U2B
6
b
OUTPUT
O
INPUT FROM
COMBINER BOARD
O— 74L73 *
10V
X' Fig. 56 —
A diagram of one section of the FINAL board. FF1 and FF2 are both part of the same
IC, a dual J-K flip-flop. Four of these dual flip-flops and.eight of their accompanying output tran-
sistors are mounted on each board. See Fig. 58D and the text concerning the installation of the
optional diode shown in dotted lines.
OUTPUT
o
DI-D4
4, 1N4003 -0+ 19V TO RELAYS
+ 5V TO ALL
CIRCUIT
BOARDS
INVERTER - 74LS00
(B)
C2 —^ 0.2 ,uF
case. This allows everything to be discon- decoder and the third input by the "2"
nected easily for servicing. LEDs are" decoder. This forces the output of U3A
mounted on the front panel of the low. This low toggles the J-K flip-flop
enclosure to provide an indication of the U4A (note that the clear or C input of
status of all of the functions. A Touch- U4A is held high through Rl). The Q out-
Tone pad was also installed on the front put of U4A will go high and remain high.
panel. This pad may be switched into the This causes transistor Ql (the output tran-
system for local checks of the unit. sistor) to conduct. The corresponding
Refer to Fig. 50A. Note that the output LED will glow, indicating that the func-
of the * decoder is used to start the timer tion has been carried out. If desired, a
and reset all the decoders. The output of relay could be used at the output of Ql.
U2 is applied to one input of the three- With this simple system, one must use the
Fig. 55 — There are three 74LS10 ICs on each input gate, U3A. The second input of the same codes (*,1,2) to turn off the func-
COMBINER board although only one is shown. gate is satisfied by the output of the "1" tion. This is not a sound idea since one
13-30 Chapter 13
+ 12 V
+ I2V
(A)
Appendix
'Ferroxcube components can be purchased from Elna
Ferrite Laboratories, Inc., 9 Pine Grove St., Wood-
stock, NY12498.
'Underwood mica capacitors are available from Alpha
Electronic Laboratories, 2302 Oakland Gravel Rd.,
X100 Columbia, MO
65201.
CIRCUIT 'If such operation is intended, one should pay par-
ticular attention to sections 19.34(b), 19.35(c),
(C)
97.61, 97.89 and 97.99 of the Communications Act
of 1934. See The Radio Amateur's License Manual
ARRL,
Fig. 59 — The voltage-to-frequency converter
is shown at A. Both dc and ac voltage amplitudes
'FM and
$4.
Repeaters for the Radio Amateur, first
may be read out on a frequency counter at the output of the IC. The circuits at B and C may be edition, p. 1 19.
used as x 10 and x 100 multipliers at the input to the converter. 'Circuit boards and parts kits are available from
Circuit Board Specialists, P. O. Box 969, Pueblo,
CO 81002. Printed circuit board etching patterns
are available from the ARRL for 50 cents and
an s.a.s.e.
.s* — ta
T C * 1
6 -
£ - I 1 * t
'
} • •
g ,<
i ,
CLrvJ» i
iiliillillilllll
Fig. 60 — Half-size component placement guides for the pc boards. Clockwise from upper left: INVERTER-TIMER, DECODER, V/F CONVERTER, FINAL,
COMBINER. See note 5 of the appendix.
13-32 Chapter 13
Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-33
13-34 Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Specialized Communications
Systems
A. imong
Amateur Radio
the
is
qualities
its
unique
diversity. Virtually
to
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
Large antenna arrays and comparative-
ly sophisticatedequipment may rule out
some forms of space communications for
many amateurs, but the amateur satellite
program puts the excitement of vhf DX
within the reach of every amateur: The
possibilities grow with every new launch!
began in 1961 with the successful
It
transmitted the Morse code letters "HI" satellite, (photo courtesy W4PUJ)
tact. OSCAR 5, constructed by a team at cant Doppler shift near AMSAT Phase 1
Melbourne University, was launched in Ill's apogee, and with the flixibility that
I
1000 2000
I
3000 I
ward for the amateur satellite program: it is NASA has been most generous
satellites,
•3
scheduled to remain on continuously, alter- in providing "secondary payload" launch
nating between two different modes of opportunities to AMSAT
to get its
operation. Though it has recently suffered OSCARs in orbit. NASA has a particular-
from periods of "falsing," occasional, un- ly strong interest in the OSCAR Educa- YOUR MAP/\
RANGE "/^
predictable mode switching, OSCAR 7 is tion Program, designed to bring satellite ANOTHER^ STATION'S
stillproviding long range vhf communica- and space technology into classrooms / RANGE CIRCLE
CONTACT MAY
tions in its sixth year of service. A throughout the world. Using readily START HERE
cooperative international effort, OSCAR available commercial equipment, students
7 was constructed module form by
in are experiencing firsthand the unique
amateurs in West Germany, Canada and aspects of space communications: Dop- Fig. 3 —
Satellite passes through the range of
Australia as well as in the U.S. pler shift, orbital mechanics, Faraday two stations, enabling contact.
The latest in the Phase II (low orbit, rotation, telemetry decoding and much
long life) OSCAR
series of amateur more. (If you are interested in par-
satellites, AMSAT-OSCAR 8, was ticipating in this program locally, contact
launched in March of 1978, joining its OSCAR Education at ARRL head-
predecessors, though at a slightly lower quarters.)
altitude.A joint effort by radio amateurs distance vhf communication for long
in Canada, Japan, the United States and Altitude, Time and Range periods of time.
West Germany, this satellite is intended to The determining factor in the maximum The maximum range of two-way com-
continue support for the OSCAR Educa- theoretical range of satellite communica- munication through the satellite is il-
tion Program 'while providing
another tions the height of the satellite. Fig. 2
is lustrated in Fig. 3. The greater the range
spacecraft for experimentation and can be used to determine the range for the circle overlap for the two stations, the
routine communication. Several weeks' low orbital characteristics of early longer the time that these stations can re-
after launch, the ARRL assumed opera- satellites in which the altitude is assumed main in contact. With low-orbit satellites,
tions responsibility to free AMSAT per- to be constant throughout each orbit. To communication at maximum range may
sonnel for intensive work on the AMSAT determine when you can hear the satellite, last less than one minute between stations
Phase III-A project. The OSCAR 8 draw a circle with a radius equal to the whose range circles overlap only a small
transponders and other on-board systems map range from Fig. 2. For OSCAR 7 this amount; the effective range, therefore, is
appear to be functioning flawlessly; con- is about 2450 miles (4000 km) for its slightly less than twice the radius of your
tinued good health and useful operation is 910-mile (1490-km) high orbit and for range circle. The key here is in mutual ac-
anticipated for years to come. OSCAR 8, orbiting at an altitude of 560 cess of the satellite with the other stations.
Late in 1978 satellite users throughout the miles (910 km), the map range is about As you can see, at times with Phase III
world were pleased to welcome two addi- 2000 miles (3265 km). When a given satellites, you'll be able to communicate
tional low circular orbit satellite entries by satellite passes through your range circle, with stations halfway around the world.
the Soviet Union: Radio 1 and Radio 2. In- it is within range of your location and you The length of time thesatellite is within
tended for educational and communication should be able to hear it. range of your statiqn is determined, as is
use with very low power ground stations, RS With Phase III elliptical-orbit
the the range, by the height of the orbit. As
I and RS 2 are no longer routinely available. satellites, communication range is, of many satellite users can tell you, the
Those who have communicated through course, still determined by altitude, but higher the orbit, the slower the satellite
them are grateful for the work of our fellow the altitude continuously varies between a moves, and the longer the satellite will be
radio amateurs in the Soviet Union and perigee of 915 miles (1500 km) and apogee in range. With the Phase II low, nearly
hope these satellites mark the beginning of of about 22,300 miles (35,900 km). Near circular orbit satellites, the altitude is
continued active involvement. apogee, the satellite illuminates, fully, assumed to be constant. With the Phase
More than a challenging means of com- that half of the earth's surface directly III high elliptical orbit, however, as the
munication for hams, the amateur satellites below. This enables reliable, very long altitude varies, so does the speed of the
14-2 Chapter 14
.
Table 1
These parameters are based on Project OSCAR predictions dated August 1980.
earth is called its period. time. In fact, the number of different sta- one reference point each day, which is
tions using OSCARany one time is
at usually the first time in a given UTC day
The Spacecraft limited only by mutual interference, and that the' satellite passes over the equator in
Present communications satellites are the fact that the output power of the a northerly direction. These data are
functionally integrated systems. Re- satellite (a couple of watts on the low orbit reference orbit EQX (equator crossing)
chargeable batteries, solar cell arrays, satellites and about 50 watts on Phase III) time and longitude. They can be found in
voltage regulators, command decoders, is divided among the users. a variety of places: W1AW bulletins,
For example, OSCAR 8 receives signals sent in Morse encoded numbers at ap- described range circle, you can estimate
between 145.850 and 145.950 MHz on its proximately 20 wpm. Its repetitive format the range of EQX longitudes that will
14-4 Chapter 14
Glossary of Satellite Terminology storage by ground stations for later retrans- longitude (0-360°).
AMSAT — The Radio Amateur Satellite Cor- mission. erp —Effective radiated power system—
poration, a nonprofit organization located in
—
COSMAC 1802 A CMOS, 8 bit micro- power output after transmission-line
Washington, DC; has overseen the OSCAR processor made by RCA. Its low power losses and antenna gain are considered.
program since the launch of OSCAR 5. consumption, high noise immunity, wide ESA — European Space Agency — Agency
temperature tolerance and flexible (to the responsible for the AMSAT Phase lll-A launch.
(AMSAT, P. O. Box 27, Washington, DC
20044.)
programmer) architecture, make it well Experiment Day —
Routinely scheduled days
AOS — Acquisition of signal — The time you suited to use in orbital hardware. The 1802 during which the satellite is closed to
can first hear satellites, usually just after it
was the heart of the on-board Phase lll-A < casual use and reserved for scientific and
rises above the horizon. computer. educational experimentation; a secondary
Apogee — That point in a satellite orbit where Descending Node —
The pBint where the purpose is to allow for battery recharge.
it is above the earth.
farthest satellite crosses the equator traveling Falsing —
Unscheduled, unintentional and
Area Coordinators — Volunteers in the AMSAT from north to the south. undesirable mode switching initiated by
organization who coordinate satellite activity Desense — A problem characteristic of Mode conditions in the spacecraft.
in their regions. Most states have at least J operation in which the strong 2-m uplink Geostationary orbit —An orbit at such an alti-
one; many
countries are also represented. signal overloads a low-noise 70-cm tude (22,300 miles) and in such a direction
Ascending Node —
The point where the preamplifier or converter. (W to E) over the equator that the satellite
satellite crosses the equator travelling Doppler Effect —
An apparent shift in frequen- appears to be fixed above a given point.
from the south to the north. cy caused by satellite movement toward or Groundtraek —
The imaginary line traced on
ASSC —
Amateur Satellite Service Council — away from your location. the surface of the earth by a satellite
A coordinating body comprising equal Down-link — The frequency of signals subsatellite point.
—
representation from Project OSCAR, AMSAT transmitted from the satellite to earth. IHU — Integrated housekeeping unit
and ARRL Earth sensor —A device to be used on the Phase Ill's on-board computer that will
Az-elmount —
Antenna mount that allows AMSAT Phase III satellite that will manage many of the routine in-flight
antenna positioning in both the azimuth enable the computer to determine the tasks automatically.
and elevation planes. spacecraft orientation to the earth. Inclination —
The angle at which the satellite
Azimuth —
Direction (side-to-side in the Eccentricity —
That orbital parameter used to crosses the equator at its ascending node;
horizontal plane) from a given point on describe how much an elliptical orbit also the highest latitude reached in an orbit.
earth; usually specified in degrees (N =0°, deviates from a circle; eccentricity values An orbit crossing directly over the North
E = 90°, S = 180°, = 270°). W vary between and 1: e = for a circle. Pole would have an Inclination of 90°, east
Circular Polarization —
A special case in Elliptical Orbit — Those orbits in which the of the pole less than 90° and west of the
which the electric field component of a satellite path traces an ellipse with the pole greater than 90°.
transmitted radio wave is equal in both the earth at one focus. Increment — The number of degrees longitude
vertical and horizontal planes and effectively Elevation — Direction (up-and-down in the ver- that the satellite appears to move westward
rotates. The sense of polarization, whether tical plane) from a given point on e,arth at the equator with each orbit, caused by the
right-hand circular or left-hand circular, is usually specified in degrees (0° = plane of earth's rotation under the satellite during
determined from behind the antenna, the earth's surface at your location; each orbit. (The earth rotates 360° in a
looking out alond its axis of propagation. and 90° = straight up, perpendicular to 24-hour period.)
Codestore —
A special system that allows the plane of the earth, overhead). Kick Motor —
A one-shot motor on-board the
digital information (Morse Code, e.g.) to EQX — Equator crossing, usually specified in Phase III satellite that will be fired at
time (UTC) of crossing, and degrees west perigee a few weeks after launch to adjust
be placed in on-board electronic memory in
amplifiers in the 100-watt class are now on polarization is the special case where the cularly polarized antennas are a require-
the market or you can build a suitable vertical and horizontal components are ment —
in fact it would be a better idea to
amplifier yourself. The narrow beam- equal; the field effectively rotates. begin with simple antennas and modify
width of high-gain antennas will be much The sense of polarization, whether them to suit your needs after you've had a
less a problem with the Phase III satellite right-hand circularly polarized (clockwise) little experience.
elliptical orbit as the spacecraft moves or left-hand circularly polarized (counter- The 10-meter antennas on OSCARs 7
across the sky at a comparatively slow clockwise), is determined, by convention, and 8 are dipoles that were deployed after
speed ( ± 3 hours at apogee). as though viewed from behind the anten- orbital insertion. With a linearly polarized
na, looking out along the axis of propaga- 10-meter, ground-station antenna, you'll
Satellite Hints and Kinks tion. The important factor for our pur- notice periodic fading as the satellite spins
Satellite communications confronts the poses, however, is that one achieves max- on its axis: maximum signal strength oc-
newcomer with many unfamiliar imum down-link signal strength when the curswhen the antennas are parallel,
phenomena that will challenge his or her circularly polarized antenna has the same minimum when perpendicular. With a
operating techniques. Here are a few ex- sense as the incoming wave. Cross full-wave horizontal loop or a circularly-
planations and "tricks of the trade" to polarization, on the other hand, can result polarized turnstile the effect of this fading
helpmake your satellite work as effective in 30 dB or more attenuation of the signal. will be minimized.
and enjoyable as possible. How does this affect OSCAR opera-
Full Duplex
tion? The 2-meter antennas on OSCARs
Circular Polarization 7, 8 and Phase III satellites are circularly In satellite communications you can
When a travelling
considering polarized. Theoretically, to maximize sta- continuously monitor your transmitted
wavefront of rf energy, we can describe it tion performance, you'll want antennas signal through the satellite, as the down-
in terms of polarization. Radio waves are that are circularly polarized in the same link signal from the satellite is on a dif-
made up of both electric and magnetic sense as those on the spacecraft. A better ferent band from the up-link. You can
fields which are perpendicular to each choice would be an antenna that is switch- thus evaluate both the strength and quali-
other and to the direction of propagation. able between right-hand and left-hand cir- ty of your own signal throughout con-
The classification of polarization is deter- cular polarization. This is because as the tacts. It is through this full-duplex
mined by the plane in which the electric downlink signal from the satellite passes capability that one is able to adjust for
component lies: If the plane of the electric through the ionosphere the polarization Doppler shift (see Doppler Shift below).
component is vertical, the polarization is sense may switch. This effect is commonly To locate yourself in the satellite pass-
planes, polarization elliptical, and circular this chapter. This does not mean that cir- and tune a few kHz either side of the
inclination.
LHCP — Left-hand circular polarization —
Passband The range of frequencies handled Project OSCAR —
California-based group,
,
Mode A — Transponders with 2-meter uplink orbit, usually measured from one EQX to the operating through the satellites while
and 10-meter downlink. next. The higher the altitude, the longer using a maximum of 10 watts erp; output
Mode A/J — Simultaneous operation of the the period. powers of less than 1 watt have proven
Mode A and Mode J transponders on Phase I — The term given to the earliest, short- effective in some cases.
AMSAT-OSCAR 8. lived OSCAR
satellites that were not equipp- Reference orbit —
The orbit beginning with the
Mode B — Transponders with 70-cm uplink and ed with solar cells. When their batteries first ascending node during a given day UTC.
2-meter downlink.
—
were depleted, they ceased operating. RHCP —
Right hand circular polarization —
Mode C Equivalent to Mode B with less Phase II — The term given to low altitude, clockwise.
power output; of no discernable difference long-lived satellites. Equipped With solar RS1 and RS2 —
The first two Soviet Amateur
than Mode B to the user. panels that powered the spacecraft systems Radio satellites.
Mode D —
Battery-recharge mode; and recharged its batteries, these satellites Secondary payload — Usually smaller
transponders off. have been shown to be capable of lasting up packages that essence share the launch
in
Mode J —Transponders with 2-meter uplink to five years. (OSCARs 6, 7 and 8). with the primary payload which is the main
and 70-cm downlink. Phase /// — Extended-range, high-orbit purpose for the launch. OSCAR 8, for exam-
NASA —National Aeronautics and Space satellites, typically in either elliptical orbit, ple, was a secondary payload "hitchhiker" to
Administration —
U.S. Government agency as AMSAT Phase lll-A, or in geostationary the LANDSAT C Earth Resources
that has provided "piggyback" launch oppor- orbit. Technology Satellite primary payload;
tunities for AMSAT OSCARs 5, 6, 7 and 8 in Power budget — A determination of how much secondary payloads, in effect, substitute
recognition of the OSCAR program's power is actually available to operate the for ballast weight.
OSCAR
contributions.
— Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur
on-board satellite systems, taking into Spin modulation —
Periodic amplitude-fade
account such things as solar cell surface and-peak resulting from Phase III 60-rpm
Radio; there have been eight Amateur area, solar cell efficiency and angle toward spin; the effect is a 3-Hz "modulation" of the
Radio satellites named OSCAR at the the sun. A positive power budget means passband.
end of 1980 and two Soviet Amateur Radio
satellites designated RS1 and RS2.
that ample power will be available to power SSC —
Special service channels Frequen- —
the desired systems; a negative power cies in the downlink passband of AMSAT
OSCAR Education Program —
A special pro- budget means that periods of shutdown and Phase III that are designated for
gram that brings live demonstrations of recharge must be periodically scheduled. authorized, scheduled use in such areas as
the OSCAR satellites to classrooms, helping Precession —
An effect that will be education, data exchange, scientific experi-
teach students physics, space science, characteristic of the AMSAT Phase III mentation, bulletins and official traffic.
astronomy and related subjects. Teachers
use ARRL curriculum materials to structure
orbit; the satellite apogee after the SSB —
Subsatellite point That point directly —
firing of the perigee kick motor will occur beneath a satellite on the surface Of the
their courses around the OSCAR satellites. at about 37° N latitude, but will gradually earth at a given instant; usually defined in
OSCARLOCATOR —
A satellite tracking device rise higher to 57° N latitude within a few terms of latitude and longitude.
consisting of a ranging oval and ground-
tracks superimposed on a polar projection
years. Then, gradually, it will move lower Sun sensor —
A device to be used on AMSAT
in latitude until after five years or
Phase III to determine the spacecraft
map.
orientation to the sun.
calculated down-link frequency. Once Mode-A Down Link will overload or "desense" most 435-MHz
you've located your signal in the pass-
low-noise preamplifiers and converters. If
band, you'll know approximately how When first listening to tile OSCAR your transmit and receive antennas are
much to change the transmit frequency to satellites, one istune to the
likely to located close to each other your 2-meter
"hit" a given receive frequency. Simply Mode-A transponder down-link between up-link signal may obliterate the 435-MHz
change your transmit frequency by the 29.4 and 29.5 MHz. This may prove down-link while you are transmitting!
proper amount —
with the transmitter disappointing in that the signal may have The problem is common and the solu-
v
off! Swishing the passband with the key a warbling quality, reminiscent of weak hf tion fortunately, simple. For about $5
is,
down is inconsiderate of the other DX. If this is the case, check the re- you can build an effective 70-cm. cavity
users. mainder of the 10-meter band. At this filter from materials readily available at
point in the sunspot cycle with high solar your neighborhood hardware or plumbing
Doppler Shi}t
activity, you may find the band "wide
Doppler shift is caused by the relative open." This means that the ionosphere is
motion between you and the satellite. As bending terrestrially originated 10-meter
the satellite is moving toward you, the fre- signals back down to earth and long 1
quency of down-link signals will increase distance communication at 28 MHz is suc- IOC Ml.
by a small amount. As the satellite passes cessful. The OSCAR satellites orbit hun-
overhead and begins to move away from dreds of miles above the ionosphere and X
you, there will be a sudden drop in fre- s
so 29-MHz down-link signals are also bent
quency of a few kilohertz, much the same by the ionosphere —
but away from the N
\ //
20(3 Ml.
way as the tone of a car horn or train earth! You'll usually find that the down-
whistle drops as the vehicle moves past link signal degradation is worse at low
you. This Doppler effect will be different elevations where the angle of incidence
for stations located at different distances 100
with the ionosphere is shallow; with the
from the satellite. The result is that signals satellites at high elevations, the angles are
passing through the satellite move slowly much steeper and the probability of a [Ml Mil I I I I 1 1 II 1 1 M
around the calculated down-link frequen- signal penetrating the ionosphere is much 5 10 15 20 25
J
cy. Locating ,your own signal is a little MAXIMUM DOPPLER SHIFT (kHz)
greater.
more difficult than simply computing the
relation between input and output fre- Mode-J Desensing Fig. 5 —
Satellite transmitter frequency versus
quency> as the rather hard-to-predict ef- As most members of Doppler shift for satellite in 200- or
the Mode J Club
1000-statute-mile orbits. For a translator, use
fects of Doppler must be taken into ac- (details in Fig. 6) will tell you, the strong
the difference between uplink and downlink
count. 2-meter up-link signal from your station frequencies as the "frequency."
14-6 Chapter 14
codestore, synthesized-speech telemetry, 1-XHORIZONAL LOOP
magnetometer, particle/radiation detec-
tors, and two experimental beacons on 1.3
and 10.4 GHz. This launch is scheduled
for September 1981. Amateurs of the
Soviet Union are also planning the launch
of their RS 3 and RS 4 satellites. Several
groups in Japan, Canada and the United
States are also experimenting with ter-
restrial transponders, some of which may
someday achieve geostationary orbit.
This filter, placed in the receive 11/U is used to lower the impedance to per wire, aluminum rod, or tubing. The
retailer.
somewhere near 50 ohms. Make sure to reflecting screen is 20-gauge hexagonal
line, has a very-narrow passband and only
0.4 to 0.5 dB of insertion loss. An exam- include the velocity factor for the coaxial chicken wire, 1-inch (25-mm) mesh, sta-
ple of such a filter is shown later in this cable when calculating the length of this pled to a four-foot-square frame made
chapter. transformer. from furring strips. Hardware cloth can
The loop can also be arranged in a be used in place of the chicken wire. Cor-
Spin Modulation triangle or some other polygonal con- ner bracing of the reflector screen will
figuration with deterioration in the help provide mechanical stability. Spar
Spin modulation is a phenomenon that little ^
performance. Use whatever supports are varnish applied to the wooden members
has emerged with the planning of the
available and try to open the loop up as will help extend the life expectancy.
AMSAT Phase III type of satellite. As the
much as possible. Details of this antenna Dimensions for the two dipole antennas
satellite orbits overhead, the on-board
computer pulses an electromagnet which are shown in Fig. 7. and the phasing network are shown in Fig.
10. Spacing between the dipole antennas
works against the earth's magnetic field.
This spins the spacecraft at approximately
A 146-MHz Turnstile Antenna and the reflecting screen affect the anten-
revolution per second, thereby stabiliz- Here is a simple and effective 146-MHz na pattern. This is illustrated in Fig. 9,
1
Aside effect, however, is the antenna suitable for use with Modes A, B choose the pattern that best suits your
ing it.
rapid Hz) periodic fade- and J. The antenna, called a turnstile- needs and construct the antenna accor-
relatively (3
signal reflector array, can be built very inexpen- dingly. Alternative methods of construct-
enhancement of the transmitted
amplitude —
called spin modulation. It is sively and put into operation without the ing turnstile arrays can be found in cur-
important to note that the passband is not need for test equipment. The information rent editions of the ARRL Antenna Book.
electronically modulated in the sense to contained here was extracted from a QST
Circularly Polarized Antennas
which amateurs are accustomed; rather, article by Davidoff which appeared in the
,
communications to continue with little polarization between the ground-station rotators (Alliance U-100 and CDE TR-44)
disturbance.
•
antenna and OSCAR antenna, and nulls and relays (Inline Instruments type 101)
in the ground-station antenna pattern. which are combined in a system that of-
On the Horizon This setup is suited
Fading because of cross polarization can fers total flexibility.
The future holds much promise for be reduced by using a circularly polarized for operation through OSCAR 7 and 8
Amateur Radio ground station antenna. Fading because and also Phase III satellite. As
the
those interested in
A second Phase of radiation pattern nulls can be overcome shown accompanying photographs,
in the
satellite communication.
by (1) using a rotatable, tiltable array, and the whole assembly is built on a heavy-
already being prepared to replace the
III is
ope lost because of launch failure of the continuously tracking the satellite or (2) duty,TV type of tripod so that is may be
using an antenna with a broad null-free roof-mounted. The idea for this system
Ariane L02 mission on May 23, 1980. The
University of Surrey in the U.K. is now pattern. The turnstile reflector array came from Clarke Greene, K1JX.
building an experimental satellite that will solves this problem since it is circularly
System Outline ,
have beacons on 7, 14, 21, 28, 145 and 435 polarized and produces a balloon-like pat-
The antennas displayed in Fig. 11 are
MHz, SSTV cloud-cover camera, tern.
Mechanical Details
The TR-44 rotator is mounted inside
the tripod by means of a rotator plate of
the type commonly used with a top section
of Rohn 25 tower. U-bolts around the
tripod legs secure the plate to the tripod.
PLANE REFLECTOR A length of 1-inch (25-mm) galvanized PHASING LINE
water pipe (used as the mast) extends from
the top of the rotator out through a home-
made aluminum bearing at the peak of the
tripod. Since a relatively small diameter
Fig. 8 —
The turnstile-reflector (TR) array con-
mast is used, several pieces of shim RG-59/U FEED LINE
sists of crossed dipoles above a screen reflec- material are required between it and the
tor. body of the rotator to assure that it will be
aligned in the bearing through 360 degrees
of rotation. This is covered in detail in any Fig. 10 — Dimensions and connections for the
turnstile antenna. The phasing line is 13.3
50' 60' 70'
TR-44, CD-45, Ham-M or Ham-IV inches (338 mm) of RG-59/U coax. A similar
rotator instruction sheet. length of RG-58/U cable is used as a matching
The Alliance U-100 elevation rotator is section between the turnstile and the feed line.
mounted to the 1-inch (25-mm) water-pipe
mast byjneans of an 1/8-inch (3.2-mm)
aluminum plate. TV U-bolt hardware pro-
vides a perfect fit for this mast material.
The cross-arm supports the two
that
2-meter and 70-cm antennas is a piece of
1-1/4-inch (31.8-mm) thick fiberglass rod,
6 feet (1.82 m) in length. Other materials
can be used. However, most cannot match
the strength of fiberglass. This should be a
consideration if you live in an area that is
frequented by ice storms. Although it is
relatively expensive (about $3 per foot),
one piece should last a lifetime.
Electrical Details
Since the antenna systems are identical, Fig. 11 —
A circularly-polarized antenna
system for satellite communications on 144
this description will apply to either.
and 432-MHz. The array is assembled from
A simple way of obtaining a circularly KLM log-periodic yagis.
polarized pattern is to use two Yagi anten-
nas with the elements mounted at right
angles to each other and feed the antennas
90 degrees out of phase. In many cases
this is accomplished by mounting the
horizontal and vertical elementson the
same boom. It is two
also possible to use
separate antennas mounted apart from
10 IS 20
each other as shown in the photograph.
One advantage of this system is that the
weight distribution on each side of the
elevation rotator is equal. As long as the
Fig. 9 —
Elevation patterns for dipoles
mounted over a ground plane. Pattern A is for separation between antennas is small, per-
spacing of 0.25 wavelength, B is for 0.37, and C formance should be as good as when hav-
is for 1.5-wavelength spacing. ing both sets of elements on a single
boom.
In order to obtain circular polariza-
actually two totally separate systems shar- tionone antenna must be fed 90 degrees
ing the same azimuth and elevation posi- out of phase with respect to the other. For
tioning systems. Each system is identical switchable right-hand and left-hand
in the way it performs —
one system for 2 polarization some means must be included
meters and one for 70 cm. This arrange- to shift a 90-degree phasing line in series '
ment is quite handy for Mode B and J with either antenna. Such a scheme is
work since both antenna systems are shown two antennas are
in Fig. 13. Since
tracked together automatically. Individual essentially connected in parallel, the feed
control lines allow independent control of impedance will be half that of either
the polarization sense for each system. antenna alone. The antennas used in this Fig. 12 — The polarization sense of the anten-
This is mandatory, as often a different na is controlled by the coaxial relays and phas-
system have a 50-ohm feed impedance.
ing lines. The 144 and 432-MHz systems are
polarization sense is required for the For this reason both antennas make use of controlled independently.
14-8 Chapter 14
when the velocity factor is taken into con-
sideration, will be extremely short. The
lengths used in this particular system are
shown in Fig. 14. The builder should try
to use the shortest lengths practical, since
the higher the multiple of quarter
wavelengths of line the narrower the SWR
bandwidth will become. The system
described here will cover the entire
2-meter and 70-cm bands. Each phasing
and transformer line was cut for the
center of the satellite band.
has a characteristic impedance of 95 Popularly known as moonbounce, systems. Before amateur involvement the
only other known moon relay circuit was
ohms. This provides a very close match to EME is the second-most popular method
OSCAR. operated by the U.S. Navy between
the 100-ohm impedance of the system. If of space communication after
RG-133/U proves difficult to locate, RG- The concept is straightforward: Stations Washington, DC and Hawaii. Their 400
63/U (125-ohm impedance) may be used which can simultaneously see the moon megawatts of effective radiated power
with a slightly higher mismatch. As can be communicate by reflecting vhf and uhf carried four multiplexed RTTY channels.
seen in the drawing the phasing line is signals off the lunar surface. Unlike The two-way amateur link took place
first .
always in series with the system feed point OSCAR, though, the two stations have a between the Eimac Radio Club, W6HB,
and one of the antennas. As shown, the relatively stable target and maybe and the Rhodendron Swamp VHF
Society, W1BU, on 1296 MHz in July
antenna on the left receives energy 90 separated by virtually 180 degrees of arc
degrees ahead of the one on the right. If on the earth's surface, which translates to 1960. Only a few amateurs heard anything
the relay were switched, just the opposite more than A 1,000 miles (17,600 km). more than their own echoes during the
would be true. There is a trade off, though; Since the next few years. Hams at government and
not necessary to use single moon's mean distance from earth is private institutions began conducting tests
In reality it is
quarter wavelengths of line. For example, 239,000 miles (385,000 km), path losses with other hams by using very large arrays
the 75-6hm impedance transforming lines are huge when compared to "local" vhf such as the 150-foot (45.7-m) steerable
between each antenna and the relay could work. Thus, each station on an EME cir- dish at WA6LET (Stanford University) or
be any odd multiple of one quarter cuit demands the most out of the the 1000-foot (305-m) parabolic surface at
wavelength, such as 3/4, 5/4, 7/4 transmitter, antenna, receiver and KP4BPZ (Arecibo). Amateur-to-amateur
wavelength, etc. The same is true for the operator skills. Even with all those factors contacts did not become established until
95- or 125-ohm phasing line. One must in an optimum state, the signal in the the early 70s, a notable effort being be-
keep track while using different lengths headphones may be barely perceptible tween VE7BBG and WA6HXW.
Activity
for the phasing line. This is especially true above the noise. Nevertheless, for any spread to all —
except South
continents
when figuring out which position of the type of amateur communication over a America. In July 1976, the Mt. Airy VHF
relay will yield left-hand
right- or distance of 500 miles or more at 432 MHz, Club of Philadelphia (Packrats) staged an
polarization. The apt to find
builder is for example, moonbounce comes out the expedition to Barraquilla, Colombia,
that it will be necessary to use one of the winner over terrestrial methods when which allowed K2UYH to become the first
odd multiples of a quarter wavelength various factors are figured on a balance amateur to work all continents on 432
since a single quarter wavelength of line, sheet. MHz.
Specialized Communications Systems 14-9
1
Piece No.
© EME Scheduling
1 Pipe, Copper Cut ends square. The best days to schedule are usually
3" dia. 5" long Drill or punch for
when the moon is at perigee (closest to the
connectors 3-3/4"
from bottom. earth) since the path loss is typically 2 dB
Pipe, Copper less than when the moon is at apogee (far-
Solder to center
3/4" dia. 4" long of 10 thest from the earth). The moon's perigee
Disc, Copper Drill thru center. and apogee dates are listed monthly in Sky
3/4" dia. Solder solid hook and Telescope. If the distances are located
1/16" -
1/8" thick up wire between
on the EME Path Loss Nomograph, Fig.
disc and connector
to space disc
'
16, the nominal EME path loss can be
3/16" Jrom pc 2. determined readily for the most popular
DRILL OR PUNCH *TO FIT
Disc, Copper Drill thru center.
COAX CONNECTOR 3-3/4"
frequencies. The moon follows a sine-
3/4" dia. Solder solid hook FROM BOTTOM wave orbit pattern. Hence, the day-to-day
1/16" - 1/8" thick up wire between
path changes at apogee and perigee are
disc and connector
to space-disc minor. The greatest changes take place at
3/16" from pc 2. the time when the moon is traversing be-
Connector, Coax BNC, SMA or N tween apogee and perigee.
type. Solder to
Also the SD (semi-diameter in minutes
prevent turning.
For large
of arc), listed in Tables 4 through 7, can
connector use be translated into apogee and perigee by
chassis punch use of the EME Path Loss Nomograph.
Connector, Coax BNC, SMA or N An SD of 16.53 is an approximate earth-
type. Solder to
to-moon distance of 225,000 miles (typical
prevent turning.
For large perigee), and an SD of 14.7 is an approxi-
connector use 5) The receiving system should have a mate distance of 252,500 miles (typical
chassis punch. very low noise figure and sharp filters. apogee). However, there are several other
Nut, Brass Don't let these requirements scare you! factors that must be considered for op-
1/4"— 20 hex
Most EME-ers started out as listeners, timum scheduling besides the path loss.
Nut, Brass
1/4"-20 hex
and in the' first, second and third ARRL If perigeeoccurs near the time of a new
P/C Board, Drill hole in center
International EME Competition opera- moon, one to two days will be unusable
double sided. to clear 1/4-20 bolt
more than a
tors with nothing single Yagi, since proximity of the moon to the sun's
Top 4" x 4". Solder 7 and 8 preamplifier and multimode transceiver orbit will cause increased sun-noise •
each side of hole. were hearing the stronger stations. For pickup. Therefore, schedules should be
(Use bolt 11 to
those who are seriously interested in avoided when the moon is within 10° of
hold nuts in place
when soldering.)
assembling a complete station, the Eimac the sun (and farther
if your antenna has a
10 P/C Board, Solder 2 Division of Varian has assembled a com- wide beam or strong side lobes). Lately,
in center.
double sided. prehensive package, on the technical perigee usually occurs near new moon in
Bottom 4" x details. Write to Eimac, 301 Industrial the summer and near full moon in the
Bolt, Brass Insert thru 12 Way, San Carlos, CA
94070. winter. These references to seasons apply
1/4-20 x 3" then thru 7 and
12
8.
A short section about operating tech- only to the northern hemisphere. Hence,
Locking Nut, To hold piece 1
niques is offered as a guide to the begin- it is usually easier to schedule in the
Brass after resonance
1/4-20 Hex adjustment. ner. It should be noted, however, that the daytime in the summer and during the
J from one band to another to
details differ nighttime in the winter. The fall and
some degree. Such differences are slight, spring seasons are a toss-up. The moon's
Fig. 15 — Details of the "Mode J desense filter.'
and should cause no great concern. perigee does shift during its 18- to 19-year
Perhaps as the ranks grow an accepted cycle so this rule will not always apply and
14-10 Chapter 14
. :
of the month for January through June 1981 The 2nd and 4th
Rmt'n wtch hour anale fGHA) and declination (decl.) of the'moon at 0000 UTC for each day
indicates the semi-diameter <SD*f the moon ,n minutes of arc. See
Snl indicat^'hour,? increments
explanation.
for GHA and did., respectively. The 5th column
text for full
*
FEBRUARY MARCH
JANUARY
DAY GHfl HR INL.K DECI. UK NoK S D. DflV GHR HR. I NCR. DECL.
DRV GHfl HR TICK DECL HP INCH. S. D 1
227. 80 14 488 —0 034 15 3 1 246. 38 14. 4*78 -20. 17 -8. 887 15. 3
1 241 28 14. 555 -9 90 -0 143 14. 8 1
214, 53 463 -20
z.~
233 85 14 463 -20. 35 8. 837 15. 5
230 52 14. 535 -13 34 -8 122 14 9 2 14. j-1
-20. 07 056 c %
15. 6 220 96 14 455 -19. 46 8. 084 15. 7
219 37 14 513 -16 28 -8 094 15. 8 3 201. 65 14. 453
452 -18 72 102 A 207 88 14. 453 -17. 45 8. 128 16
4 207 67 14. 490 -18 53 -8. 859 15. 1 4 188, 53 14. 0.
-16. 27 143 16 194 75 14, 456 -14. 37 0. 167 16. 2
5 195. 45 14. 473 -19. 95 -8. 818 15. 3 5 175. 38 14. 458 0.
MAY JUNE
APRIL
DRV GHfl HR. INCR. DECL. HR. INCR S D.
HR. INCR. DECL. HR, INCR. S. D. DRV GHfl HR. INCR. DECL. HR. INCR S. D.
DRV GHfl
sities.Generally, low elevation angles in- been used very effectively at 144 MHz,
must be modified accordingly.
crease antenna-noise pickup and increase but has been more elusive above 420
Low moon declinations and low aiming
tropospheric absorption, especially above MHz. It is hoped that current tests on 144
elevation generally produce poor results
420 MHz, where the galactic noise is very and 432 MHz, using this mode of propa-
and should be avoided if possible. Con-
low. This situation cannot be avoided gation, will yield more predictable results.
versely, high moon declinations and high
when one station is unable to elevate the Usually, signals are stronger in the fall
elevation angles should yield best results.
antenna above the horizon or when there and winter months and weaker in the sum-
Good results are usually obtained when
a great terrestrial distance between sta- mer. Also, signals are generally better at
both stations are using similar elevation is
tions. Ground gain (gain obtained when night than during the day. This may be at-
angles, since then both stations are look-
the antenna is aimed at the horizon) has tributable to decreased ionization or less
ing through comparable electron den-
14-11
Specialized Communications Systems
Table 5
GHA and decl. of the moon at 0000 UTC for each day of the month for July through December 1981. Hourly increments for-GHA and decl. and the moon's
SD are also indicated.
181 04 14 567 36 182 15 8 89 98 14 553 -12, 17 -0 137 14 8 8 75 79 14 495 -20 87-0. 015 15
9 90 65 14 573 -\ 42 -0 177 14 9 9 79 24 34 537 -15 45 -0 111 14 -21
8 9 63 67 14 483 23. 8. 029 15 2
10 80 41 14 571 68 -0 167 14 8 10 63 12 14 5:18 -IS. 10 -0 079 14 -20
9 10 51. 27 14. 477 54 073 15. 4
11 70 12 14 562 -9 68 -0 158 14 8 11 56 54 14 499 -20. 00 -0 042 15 11 38 71 14 476 -18 79 0. 117 15 6
12 59 61 14 547 -13 29 -0 129 14 8 12 44 53 14 485 -21. 00 000 15 1 -15
12 26 3.3 14 478 98 0. 156 15 8
13 48 74 14 529 -16 38 -0 101 14 "8
13 32 IS 14 476 -21 00 045 15 -12
13 13 68 14 481 25 0. 188 16.
14 42 14 509 -18 81 -0 068 14 9 14 19 58 14 474 -1.9 93 083 15 4 -7
14 1 14 14, 482 75 0. 209 16. 2
15 64 14 493 -20 43 -0 828 15 15 6 95 14 478 -17 79 8 130 15 6 1.5 348 72 14. 488 —2. 218 16. ^
16 13 47 14 482 -21 11 015 15 1 16 354 42 14 485 -14 66 165 15 8 IS 336 23 14. 472 2 51 0, 214 16. 3
17 '
3 04 14 478 -20 76 8 059 13 \ 17 342. 06 14 432 -10 63 0. 191 15 3 17 323. 55 14 459 7 S4 0. 196 16. 3
18 34S 52 14 482 -19 101 15 4 18 329 86 14 495 207 16. 18 318. 56 14 443 12. 33 164 16 3
19 336 08 14 489 -16 92 139 15 19 317 73 34. 432 '-111 8 213 16 19 297. 19 14 429 16. 27
1 0. 122 2
28 323 14 498 -13 58 170 .15 20 305 14 483 3 95 203 1 20 283 49 428 19 19
1.6 14. 071 16. 1
21 311 78 1.4 504 -9 50 192 15 8 21 293 14 14 468 8 83 183 16 2
'
21 269 57^ 14. 42:1 28. 98 8. 017 16.
299 86 14 504 -4. 88 205 15 9 22 288 38 14 450 1.3 23 152 IS 2 22 255 67 14. 432 21. 38 -0. 837 15. 9
23 287 96 14 497 0. 05 288 16 23 267. 17 14 432 16 88 1.10 16. 1 23 242. 85 14 453 20. 42 -0. 085 15. 7
24 89 14 483 5 04 0. 199 16. 1 24 253 53 14 419 19 51 059 16 1 24 228 32 14 479 18. 39 -0. 125 15 6
263 47 14 461 9 31 :17S 16 2 25 239 60 14. 417 20. 94 8 005 IS. 25 216. 41 14 505 15 40 -8 155 15. 5
26 250 54 14 437 14 08 8 145 16 26 225 61 14 428 21. 05 -0.049 15 9 26 284 53 14 528 11. 69 -0. 175 15 3
27 237 04 14 415 17 56 100 16 27 211. 88 14 443 13 89 -0 896 15 8 27 393 21 14 547 7. 48 -8. 186 15. 2
28 223 01 14. 483 19 95 046 16 28 198. 65 14.475 17 58 -8 135 15 28 182 33 14. 559 3. 02 -0. 188 15. 1
29 208 67 14 404 21 06 -8 011. 16 29 186 06 14 503 14 34 -0 163' 15. 5 29 171. 74 14. 564 -1 50 -0. 183 14 9
30 194 1.4 420 20. 79 -0. S66 16. 1 30 174. 14 14 528 10. 43 -0 180 15. 4 30 163 29 14 564 90 -0 171 14 9
31 188 45 14 448 19. 22 -0. 112 15 9 31 162 82 14 547 6. 12 -0 187 15. 2
1 130 82 14 558 -18 00 -0, 153 14 8 1 136 90 14 51.3 -28 64 -0 040 14. 8 1 131 29 14 585 -21 16 871 15
2 140 21 1.4 548 -13. 67 -8 129 14 125 14 505 -21 60 -0 008 14 8 2 119 40 3 4 589 -19 46 118 15 1
129 35 14 534 -16. 78 -8, 100 14 7 113 14 500 -21. 68 042 15 107 62 1.4 514 -3.6 82 8 145 15
4 118 18 14 520 -19. 18 -0. 066 14 8 4 101 34 14 499 -20 60 8 083 15. 1 95 96 14 517 -13 175
4 15 5
106 66 14 507 -28. 77 -0, 028 14 9 5 89 32 14 588 -18 68 8 123 15. 3 84 36 14 53 4 -9 1.2 8 133 15 8
6 94 82 14 496 -21. 45 8. 013 15 8 6 77 32 14 503. -15 64 159 15 6 6 72 69 14 503 -4 34 215 16
7 82 72 14 489 -21. 13 056 15. 2 7 65 34 14 498 -11 82 190 15. 8 7 60 76 14 484 8 82 220 16
8 70 46 14 486 -19. 78 0. 099 15 4 8 53 30 14 493 -7 26 8 213 16. 1 a 48 37 14 456 6 10 212 16
9 58 1.2 14 485 -17 39 0. 140 15 6 9 41 88 14 477 -2 16 0. 224 16. 4 35 3.4 424 .11 18 187 16 6
18 45 76 14 485 -14. 03 8. 176 15 9 10 28 52 14 456 3 23 8 222 16. 6 10 21 49 14 391 15 68 146 16
11 33 40 14 482 -9 81 0. 204 16. 1 11 15 46 14 430 8 57 0. 284 16. 7 ii S 89 14 369 19 18 8 089 16
12 20 97 14 476 -4 92 0. 221 16 3 12 1 79 14 404 13 47 0. 168 16. 7 12 74 14 364 21. 8 824 16 6
13 8 39 14. 464 0. 37 224 16 13 347. 48 14 384 17 51 0. 117 16. 7 13 48 14 381 21. 92 -8 040 16 5
14 355 54 14 448 5 75 0. 212 16. 6 14 332 70 14 378 20 33 057 16. 6 14 321 62 14 43 4 20 96 -8 896 16 2
15 342 29 14 429 18. 84 184 IS. 6 15 317 77 14 389 21. 69 -8. 806 16. 4 15 307 56 14 455 18. 66 -0. 138 16 8
16 328. 59 14 412 1.5. 26 8. 142 16. 16 303. 3.1 14. 416 21 55 -0. 863 16. 1 IS 294 47 14 494 15 33 -0 167 3 5
17 114 48 14. 403 18. 67 0. 889 4 17 289. 09 14. 451 20. 04 -0 110 15. 9 17 33 -0 184
16. 282 14 523 11 32 15
18 300. 15 14. 405 20 82 0. 032 16 2 18 275 92 14 488 17. 48 -8. 145 15. 6
18 270 99 14. 552 6 98 -0 191 15 2
19 285. 86 14 419 21. 58 -0. 025 19 263 63 14. 520 13. 93 -0 169 15. 4 -0 191
16. 13 260 24 14. 5S6 32 35
28 271 92 14. 444 20. 98 -8. 876 15. 8 20 252. 12 14 546 9 88 -0. 183 15. 2 20 249 S3 14. 572 -2 26 -8 134 14 9
21 258. 58 14 474 19. 16 -8. 117 15. 6 21 241 22 14. 563 5. 49 -0. 189 15. 1 21 239 56 14 570 -6. 67 -0 371 14. 8
22 245. 97 14. 504 16. 35 -0. 149 15 4 22 238. 72 14 571 0. 97 -0, 187 14. 9 22 229 23 14 5S1 -10. 77 -0 153 14
23 234. 07 14. 538 12. 78 -0. 171 15. 3 23 228. 43 14. 572 53 -0. 180 14. 8 23 218. 69 14 547 -14 43 -0 128 14 7
24 222. 78 14. 550 8. 68 -0. 184 15. 1 24 218 16 14. 5SS -7. 85 -0 166 14. 8, 24 207, 81 14 531 -17. 51 -0 098 14 7
25 211. 97 14 5S2 4. 27 -0. 188 15. 8 25 199. 75 14 555 -11. 84' -0. 146 14. 7 25 196. 55 14. 516 -19. 87 -0 863 14 7
26 281. 46 14. 568 -8. 25 -0. 186 14 9 26 189. 08 14 542 -15 35 -0. 120 14. 7 26 184. 93 14 505 -21 33 -8. 023 14. 8
27 191. 09 14 567 -4. 71 -8. 176. 14 8 27 178. 08 14. 527 -18. 23 -8. 888 14. 7 27 173 04 14 499 -21 35 0. 019 14 9
28 188. 71 14 561 -8. 95 -8. 168 14. 8 28 166. 73 14. 514 -28. 35 -8. 052 14. 7 28 1S1. 02 14. 580 -21 58 061 14 9
29 170 17 14 551 -12. 80 -0. 3 38 14. 7 29 155. 07 14 586 -21. 68 -0 812 14. 8 23 149. 83 14. 507 -20. 84 8. 181 15. 1
38 159, 39 14. 538 -16, 12 -0 111 14. 30 143. 22 14 503 -21. 88 0. 838 14. 3 38 137 19 14 515 -17 62 6. 136 15. 2
31 148. 31 14. 525 -18. 77 -0. 878 14 7 31 125. 56 14. 523 -14. 34 0. 166 15 3
14-12 Chapter 14
Table 6 '
.
GHA and decl. of the sun 0000 UTC for each day of the month
at for January through June 1981. Hourly increments for GHA and decl. are also indicated.
An eclipse of the sun occurs on February 4 and 5.
95 14 996 -21 69 007 12 176. 43 15. 000 -13 79 0. 014 12 177 52 15. 003 -3. 44 0. 016
12 177
000 -13 46 a 014 13 177. 53 15. 083 _3 05 0. 01.6
13 177 85 14, 996 -21. 53 007 13 176 43 15.
14 996 -21 36 088 14 176. 44 15. 000 -13 12 014 14 177 65 15. 003 -2. 65 016
14 177 76
-21 18 80S 15 176. 45 15 001 -12 78 014 IS 177. 72 15. 003 -2. 26 8. 016
\ ^ 177 67 14 996
176. 46 001 -12 43 014 16 177. 80 15. 803 -1. 86 0. 016
16 177 !» 14 997 -20. 99 008 16 15.
80 008 17 176 48 15 001 -12 89 015 1.7 177 87 15. 003 -1. 47 017
17 177 50 14 397 -20.
18 176 50 15 001 -11 74 8 015 18 177 94 15. 003 -1. 07 0. 016
1.8 177 42 14 997 -20 60 009
19 176 52 15 001 -11 38 8 015 19 178 01 15 003 -0 68 0. 816
19 177 .34 14 997 -20 40 009
20 176 54 15. 001 -11 03 015 20 178. 09 IS 003 -0 28 0. 016
20 177 26 14 997 -20 18 009
-10 67 015 21 178 16 15 003 0. 12 0. 016
21 177 19 14 997 -19 97 8 009 21 176 57 15 801
176 60 15 001 -10 30 015 22 178 24 15 883 51 0. 016
22 177 12 14 997 -19 74 010 22
-19 23 176 64 15 001 -9 94 015 23 178 31 15 083 90 016
21 177 85 14 997 51 0. 010
15 002 -9 015 24 178 39 15 003 1 30 0. 016
24 176 99 14 998 -19 28 a 010 24 176 67
002 -9 20 016 25 1.78 46 15 003 1 69 0. 016
25 176 93 14 998 -19 03 010 176 71 15
002 -8 83 016 26 178 54 15 003 2 08 0. 016
26 176 88 14 398 -18 79 011 26 176 75 15
-8 816 27 178 62 15 003 2 48 0. 016
27 176. 82 14 998 -:18 8 an 176 79 15 802 46
-8 08 016 28 178 69 15 003 2 87 0. 016
28 176 77 14. 998 -18.27 0, an 28 176 84 15 002
-18 01 an 23 178. 77 15 003 3 26 016
29 176 73 14 998
30 178 84 15 083 3 65 0. 016
38 176 68 14. 998 -17 74 812
31 178 92 15 883 4 04 0. 016
31 176 64 14. 998 -17 46 8 012
23 13 -a 883
14 999 21 72 006 30 173 14 14 938
30 180 69 15. 001 14 68 013 30 180 66
31 188 62 14 998 21 87 886
EME stations are limited in some way by systems exhibit some pattern skewing
determined best with the help of the charts
and tables discussed in a later section of local obstructions, antenna-mounting which must be accounted for: A simple
calibration method is to peak your anten-
this chapter. Most EME operators deter- constraints, geographical considerations,
mine their local window and translate it and the like. Therefore, the accuracy of na on received sun noise and then align
EME window is very impor- the boresight tube on the sun. The
into GHA (Greenwich hour angle) and each station's
tant for locating common windows and boresight of the antenna is now calibrated
declination. This information is a con-
stant, so once it is determined it is usable setting schedule times. and can be used to aim the antenna at the
by other stations just as one would use A some type is practically
boresight of moon. Readers are cautioned against us-
UTC. Likewise, it helps to know the win- mandatory order to align your antenna
in ing a telescope or other device employing
accurately with the moon. Most antenna lenses as a boresight device! Even the best
dow of the station to be scheduled. Most
Specialized Communications Systems 14-13
Table 7 ,
GHA and decl. of the sun 0000 UTC at for each day of the month for July through December 1981 Hourly increments . for GHA and decl. are also indicated
An eclipse of the sun occurs on July 31.
1 179 09 14. 998 23. 13 -8 083 1 178 43 15. 881 10 -0. 011
18. 1 179. 97 15 003 3. 40 —0 015
2 179 04 14. 998 23 86 -0. 003 2 178 45 15. 001 17. 85 -0 011 2 188 05 —0
15 003 8. 03 815
? 178 99 14. 998 22. 99 -0 003 178. 46 001 17 59 -0. 011
15. 3 180. 13 15. 003 7. 67 —0 015
4 173 94 14. 998 22. 91 -0 084 4 178. 48 001 17. 33 -8 011
15. 4 188. 21 15. 883 30 -0 015
5 178 90 14 998 22 82 -0. 004 5 178 51 15. 881 17. 06 -0. 011 5 180. 29 003 -0
15. 6. 93 015
6 173 86 14. 998 22. 72 -0. 884 6 178. 53 15. 881 16. 79 -0. 011 180. 38 —0
15. 804 6. 56 016
7 178. 81 14. 998 22. 62 -8. 005 178. 56 15. 001 16. 51 -0. 012 7 180. 46 15. 004 6. 19 -0 816
8 178. 77 14. 998 22. 51 -0. 005 8 173. 59 15. 001 16. 23 -0. 012 s 180. 55 15. 904 g 81 -8 016
9 173. 74 14. 998 22. 40 -0. 885
9 178. 62 15. 001 15. 95 -0 012 188. 63 15 004 5. 44 -0 016
ia 178. 70 14. 999 22. 28 -0. 885 10 178. 66 15. 002 15. 66 -0 812 18 180 72 15 004 06 -0 016
n 178. 66 14. 999 22. 15 -0. 886 11 178 70 15. 002 15. 36 -0. 012 11 188. 81 15. 004
5.
4. 68 -0. 016
12 173. 63 14. 999 22. 82 -0. 886 -0
12 178. 74 15. 002 15. 07 813 12 180 90 15. 004 4. 30 -0. 016
13 178. 60 14- 999 21. 88 -8. 006
13 178 78 15. 002 14. 77 -8 813 13 180. 98 15. 804 3. 92 -0. 016
14 178. 57 14. 999 21. 73 -0 006 14 178 33 082 46 -0
15. 14. 013 14 181. 07 15. 804 3. 53 -8. 016
15 178. 54 14. 999 21. 58 -0 007 15 178 87 15. 002 14. 15 -8. 013 15 181. 16 15. 004 3 15 -0. 016
16 178. 52 14. 999 21. 42 -0. 887 -8
16 178. 92 15 002 13. 34 013 16 181. 25 15. 004 2. 77 -0. 016
17 178. 50 14. 999 21. 25 -8. 007 17 178 97 15 082 52 -0. 813
13. 17 181. 34 15. 084 2. 38 -0 016
1.3 178. 48 14. 999 21. 88 -8. 087 18 179 03 15 802 13. 20 -0. 813 18 181. 42 15 004 1. 99 -0. 016
19 178. 46 14. 999 28. 91 -0 888 19 179 88 15 802 12. 88 -8. 814 19 181. 52 15 004 1. 61 -0. 016
28 178 44 14. 999 20 72 -8. 888 20 179 14 15 883 12. 55 -0 814 28 181 61 004 -0. 016
15. 1. 22
21 178 43 15. 000 20. 53 -0. 808 21 179 20 15. 883 12. 22 -0. 014 21. 181. 70 15. 004 0. 83 -0. 016
22 173. 42 15. 000 28. 34 -8. 008 22 179 26 15 883 11. 89 -0 014 22 181. 78 15. 004 0. 44 -0 016
23 178. 41 15. 000 20. 14 -0. 009 23 179 33 15 883 11. 55 -8 814 23 181. 87 15. 004 0. 05 -0. 016
24 178. 40 15. 000 19. 93. -0 889 24 179 39 15 003 '
1 182 55 15. 003 -3. 07 -0 016 1 184. 09 15. 000 -14. 33 -0. 013 1 182. 78 14 996 -21. 76 -8. 806
2 182, 63 15. 003 -3. 45 -0. 016 2 184. 10 15. 000 -14. 65 -0. 0i3 182. 68
2 14 996 -21. 91 -8. 006
3 182. 78 15. 003 -3. 84 -0 016 3 184. 18 15. 000 -14. 97 -0. 013 3 182. 59 14 996 -22. 86 -0. 006
4 182. 78 15. 003 -4. 23 -0 016 4 184. 10 15. 000 -15. 28 -0 013 4 182. 49 14. 996 -22. 28 -0. 006
5 182. 36 15. 003 -4. 61 -0. 016 5 184. 10 15. 000 -15. 59 -0. 013 .5 182. 39 14. 996 -22. 33 -0. 005
6 182. 93 15. 003 -5. 88 -0. 016 6 184. 09 15. 888 -15. 89 -0. 012 6 182. 28 14. 996 -22. 46 -0 005
7 183. 01 15. 003 -5. 38 -0. 016 7 184. 08 14. 999 -16. 19 -0. 012 7 182. 18 14 995 -22. 57 -8. 005
8 183. 08 15. 003 -5 76 -0 816 8 184. 06 14. 999 -16. 48 -0. 012 '
8 182. 07 14, 995 -22. 69 -0 004
9 183. 15 15. 003 -6. 15 -0 016 9 184. 85 14. 999. -16 77 -0 012 9 181. 96 14. 995 -22. 79 -8. 004
18 183 22 15. 083 -6. 53 -0. 016 10 184. 02 14. 999 -17. 86 -0. 012 18 181 85 14. 995 -22. 39 -0 884
11 183. 28 15. 003 -6. 98 -0. 016 11 184. 00 14. 999 -17. 34 -0. 011 11 181. 73 14. 995 -22. 97 -8. 003
12 183. 35 15. 083 -7 28 -0 016 12 183 97 14. 999 -17 61 -0 011 12 131. 62 14. 995 -23. 06 -0. 803
13 183. 41 15. 083 -7 66 -0 016 13 183. 94 14. 999 -17. 88 -0 011 13 181. 50 -23 13
14. 995 -0 003
14 183. 47 15. 002 -8. 03 -0 015 14 183 90 14 998 -18. 15 -8. 011 14 181. 38 14. 995 -23. 19 -0. 002
15 183. 53 15 002 -8. 40 -0 015 15 183. 87 14. 998' -13. 41 -8. 811 15 181. 27 14. 995 -23. 25 -0. 002
16 183. 58 15. 002 -8. 77 • -0. 015 16 183 82 14. 998 -18. 66 -0. 010 16 181. 15 14 995 -23. 38 -0. 002
17 183 64 15. 882 -9. 14 -0. 815 17 133 78 14. 998 -18. 91 -0. 010 17 181. 02 14 935 -22 35 -0 001
18 183. 69 15. 802 -9 50 -0. 015 13 183. 73 14. 998 -19. 15 -0 010 18 188. 90 14. 995 -23. 38 -0. 001
19 183. 73 15. 002 -9 87 -0. 015 19 183 67 14 998 -19. 39 -0. 018 19 -23 41
188 78 14 995 -0 881
28 183. 78 15. 002 -10 23 -0. 015 20 183 62 14. 998 -19. 62 -0 889 28 188 65 14 995 -23 43
.
-8. 800
21 182. 82 15. 802 -10. 59 -0. 015 21 183. 56 14. 997 -19. 85 -0. 809 180 53 14. 995
21 -23. 44 -0. 888
22 •183. 86 15. 002 -18. 94 -0. 015 22 183 49 14. 997 -28. 07 -0. 089 22 180. 41 14. 995 -23. 44 0. 880
23 183. 90 15. 881 -11. 30 -0. 015 23 183 43 14. 997 -20. 28 -8. 009 23 188 28 14. 995 -23. 44 001
24 183. 93 15. 881 -11. 65 -0 014 24 183 36 14 997 -20 49 -0. 808 24 188 16 14. 995 -23. 42 881
25 183. 96 15. 001 -11. 99 -0. 014 25 183. 28 14. 997 -20. 69 -0 008 25 138 03 14 395 -23. 48 881
26 183. 99 15. 001 -12. 34 -0 014 26 183. 21 14. 937 -0
-l20. 88 008 26 179 91 14 995 -23. 38 002
27 184 02 15. 881 -12. 68 -0. 814 27 183. 13 14. 997 -21. 07 -0 008 27 179 78 14 995 -23. 34 0. 802
28 184. 04 IS. 001 -13. 02 -0. 814 28 183. 04 14. 996 -21. 25 -0. 007 28 179 66 14 935 -23 38 0. 002
29 184. 06 15. 001 -13. 35 -0. 014 29 182. 96 14. 996 -21. 43 -0. 007 29 179 54 14. 995 -23. 25 8. 002
?0 134. 07 15. 001 -13. 68 -8. 814 38 182. 87 14. 936 -21. 59 -0. 007 30 179, 42 14 935 -23. 19 0. 883
31 184 08 15. 000 -14. 01 -0. 013
-23 12
31 179 29 14. 995 0. 883
of optical filters will not eliminate the ience. Accuracies of ±2° are usually Locating the Moon
hazard from solar radiation when viewed necessary and can be attained with syn-
directly. A simple piece of tubing of small cros. A
remote readout is particularly im- The moon orbits the earth once in ap-
diameter and two or three feet long can portant for scheduling when the moon is proximately 28 days, a lunar month.
serve the purpose in this instance. A sym- within 45 ° of the sun or when the sky is Because the plane of the moon's orbit is
metrical spot of light cast upon a piece of overcast. Very few of us are not bothered tilted from the earth's equatorial plane,
paper near the back end of the tube will by occasional fog, rain, snow or overcast. the moon swings in a sine-wave pattern
indicate alignment. Aiming the antenna blindly seldom pays both north and south of the equator. The
A remote readout (such as a syncro or off. angle of departure of the moon's position
selsyn) is a highly recommended conven- at a given time from the equatorial plane
14-14 Chapter 14
error, but such error will likely be negligi- the data from Tables 4 through 7 into
is termed declination. Declination angles
of the moon, which are continually chang-
ble for Amateur Radio purposes. Worst- useful information. The and decl. GHA
case conditions exist when apogee or information may be converted into
ing (a few degrees a day), indicate the
perigee occurs near mid-day on the date in azimuth and elevation angles with the
latitude on the earth's surface where the
question. Under such conditions the total mathematical equations and procedure
moon' will be at zenith. 'For this presenta-
angular error in the position of the moon given later in this section. A less tedious
tion, positive declination angles are used
as determined by this procedure may be as (but also perhaps less accurate) method is
when the moon is north of the equator,
much as a sixth of a degree. Because it to use the appropriate chart (or charts)
and negative angles when south.
takes a full year for the earth to orbit the from Figs. 17 through 24.
The longitude on the earth's surface
sun, the similar error for determining the Each chart of Figs. 17 through 24 is
where the moon will be at zenith is related
position of the sun will be no more than a prepared for a fixed-observer latitude on
to the moon's Greenwich Hour Angle, ab-
few hundredths of a degree. the earth's surface. Use Fig. 17 if your
breviated or GHA.
G.H .A. "Hour
Assume that we wish to know the GHA position is on the equator, degrees
angle" is defined as the angle in degrees to
of GHA and decl. of the moon at 1115 UTC on latitude. Use Fig. 18 if your latitude is 10
the west of the meridian. If the
would be June 7, 1981 From Table 4 we see that the
.
degrees, either north or south of the
the moon were zero degrees, it
may be used to interpolate the position of responds to 90° elevation, at zenith.) In-
polating for positions at times other than termediate angles of LHA and decl. may
the sun or moon for any time on a given
0000 UTC, however, it is necessary only to be interpolated on the chart to obtain the
date. Tables 4 and 5 further indicate the
observe algebraic signs listed in the tables
az-el information.
semi-diameter (SD) of the moon in
and to add the values algebraically.
If your latitude is 40 degrees south of
minutes of arc for each day of the year.
If a polar mount 3
is used, information
the equator, Fig. 21 still applies, but all
This data may be used as an aid in deter-
from Tables 4 through 7 may be used the data is "inverted." To enter the chart,
mining path losses, as previously dis-
directly to point the antenna array. The
cussed. firstmultiply the decl. angle by - 1, and
local hour angle (LHA) is simply the LHA
from 360. If the LHA is
subtract the
Using the Tables GHA plus or minus the observer's 320° and the decl. is 10°, we would find
longitude (plus if east long., minus if
The hourly increment (HR. INCR.) in- the az-el information at the intersection of
west). The> LHA
is the angle west of the
the 10 X (-l)or - 10° declination line
formation from Tables 4 through 7 may
observer's meridian at which the celestial - 320 or 40° LHA line. The
be used to make linear interpolations for and the 360
body is located.
elevation angle may be read directly,
the positions of the sun or moon for any
Azimuth and Elevation for the Moon 26.9° in this case. The azimuth angle is
time on a given date. Because the orbital
180° from that indicated in Fig. 21. From
velocity of the moon is not constant, Anantenna system which is positioned
linear interpolations will yield some small the chart we read 225.7°; the actual
in azimuth (compass direction) and eleva-
azimuth is 225.7 ,- 180 = 45.7°.
tion (angle above the horizon) is called an
'The Nautical Almanac for the Year*"', where
*•**
az-el system. For such a system, some ad-
An observer in the southern latitudes
indicates the calendar year for the data. This annual
ditional work will be necessary to convert
may find it more convenient to turn the
publication is printed by the U.S. Government appropriate chart upside, down and relabel
Printing Office, Washington, DC. It is available
from the Superintendent of Documents and from the LHA
and the decl". lines in reverse
many dealers of marine products. order from the way they are printed. The
'Also see Bray and Kerchner, "Antenna Patterns from 'See Michael, "Tracking the Moon — In Simple
the Sun," QST, July 1960. English," QST, July 1960. azimuth scale should also be relabeled so
Fig. 19 — Moon az-el chart for an observer at 20° latitude. Fig. 20 — Moon az-el chart for an observer at 30° latitude.
0° is now at the "top," where 180° is Fig. 21 nor Fig. 22 will provide accurate 40.3° elevation). At any latitude in the
printed. az-el information for your location, but range of these charts, when the celestial
An observer at any latitude may find it data from the two may be interpolated. In body is well above the horizon, linear in-
more convenient to relabel the LHA lines the previous example, where the moon's terpolation should yield az-el information
with actual GHA values. For example, if GHA was 320° and the decl. 10°, we with a total angular error of no more than
your longitude is 100° W., the printed 0° learned that an observer at 40° N. lat. 0.6 degree, assuming the charts are read
LHA line for your location corresponds would aim his antenna at 1 19. 1° azimuth, with 0.2-degree accuracy.
to a GHA of 100°. Values for lines to the 42.9° elevation. From Fig. 22 we see that
right will correspond to Greenwich Hour an observer af 50° N. lat., for the same Azimuth and Elevation for the Sun
Angles of 90°, 80°, 70°, and so on, while position of the moon, would position his Visualize two observers on opposite
those to the left will correspond to 110°, antenna at 126.4° azimuth, 37.4° eleva- sides of the earth who are pointing their
120°, Relabeling the chart in this
etc. tion. A linear interpolation of these values antennas at the moon. Imaginary lines
manner will eliminate the need to convert for 45° N. lat. yields 122.8° azimuth and representing the boresights of the two
GHA to LHA
information for each az-el 40.2° elevation. This result is reasonably antennas will converge at the moon at an
determination. close to the values obtained by angle of approximately 2°. Now assume
Suppose your latitude is 45° N. Neither mathematical means (123.0° azimuth and these observers aim their antennas at some
14-16 Chapter 14
Fig. 23 — Moon az-el chart for an observer at 60° latitude. Fig. 24 — Moon az-el chart for an observer at 70" latitude.
distant star. The boresight lines now may Suppose our latitude is 40°, the LHA of mathematical means follows a procedure
be considered to be parallel, each observer the sun is 320°, and the sun's declination similar to calculating great-circle bearing
having raised his antenna in elevation by is 10°. Fig 21 indicates an antenna and distance for two points on the earth's
approximately 1°. The reason for the azimuth of 119.1° and an elevation of surface. Equations for az-el calculations
necessary change in elevation is that the 42.9", if the moon were at this LHA and are:
earth's diameter in comparison to its decl. The azimuth angle, 119.1°, is also
sin E = (sin lat.) (sin decl.)
distance from the moon is significant. The correct for the sun. To
obtain the cor-
+ (cos lat) (cos decl.)
same not true for distant stars, or for rected elevation angle for the sun we enter
(cos [long. -
is
GHA])
the sun. Table 8 with the indicated elevation,
(Eq. 1)
Figs. 17through 24, although prepared 42.9°, and determine the corrected eleva-
for the moon, may be used for the sun if a tion angle, 43.6°. Some interpolation may „ (sin E)'—- K
,
tan F = - (Eq. 2)
small correction in elevation angle is be necessary when using Table 8. cos E
made. Table 8 lists corrected elevation
angles for positioning an antenna system
Az-El Data by Mathematical Means sin decl. - sin lat. sin E
cos C =
on the sun. Determining az-el information by cos lat. cos E (Eq. 3)
70.32
elevation angle may be determined from Oh a weak cw EME signal, libration
s75 75.25 Eq. 1 alone. In the above example, this fading gives the impression of a randomly
80 80.16 angle is 38.2°. keyed signal. In fact on very slow cw
85 85.08 The mathematical procedure is the telegraphy the effect is as though the key-
90 90.00
same for any location on the earth's sur- ing is being done at a much faster speed.
face. Rememberto use negative values for On very weak signals only the peaks of
southerly latitudes and negative values for libration fading are heard in the form of
easterly longitudes. If solving Eq. 1 or 2 occasional short bursts or "pings."
yields a negative value for E or F, this in- Fig. 25 shows samples of a typical EME
dicates the celestial below the body is echo signal at 1296 MHz. These record-
where
horizon. EME contacts and antenna ings, made at W2NFA, show the wild
E = elevation angle for the sun
boresighting work are difficult under such fading characteristics with sufficient S/N
lat. = your latitude (negative if south)
conditions. ratio to record the deep fades. Circular
long. = your longitude (negative if
The valuefor K as given above, ,
polarization was used to eliminate Fara-
.east)
0.01657, based on an average earth-
is day fading; thus these recordings are of
GHA = Greenwich Hour Angle of the
moon distance of 239,000 miles (384,630 libration fading only. The recording
celestial body
km). The actual earth-moon distance bandwidth was limited to about 40 Hz to
=
.
From this, E is 38.2 degrees. the Hewlett-Packard 25 and similar however, the amount of useful informa-
calculators, and in BASIC language for
4
Solving Eq. 2 for F, we proceed. (The tion which can be copied will be near zero.
value for sin E has already been deter- the Radio Shack TRS-80 Level II com- The enthusiastic newcomer to EME com-
mined in Eq. 1.)
puter. Be sure to include a stamped
5
munications will be stymied by this effect
envelope with your request (or an IRC for since he knows that he can hear the signal
0.6179 - 0.01657 strong enough on peaks to copy but can't
tan F = addresses outside the U.S.), and don't
cos (38.2°) forget to mention which program listing make any sense out of what he tries to
you desire. copy.
0.6014
= 0.7649 What causes libratios fading? Very
0.7862 Libration Fading of EME Signals simply, multipath scattering of the radio
One of the most troublesome aspects of waves from the very large (2000-mile
From this, F, the moon's elevation angle,
diameter) and rough moon surface com-
is 37.4°.
'For the HP-25 program, send a return business- bined with the relative motion between
.We continue by solving Eq. 3 for C. size envelope with postage and 50 cents for handling
earth and moon called Iterations.
(The values for sin E and cos E have (or IRCs for foreign addresses) to ARRL Hq.,
Dept. TD-EME, 225 Main St., Newington, CT 06111 To understand assume
these effects,
previously been determined.)
'For the TRS-80 program send a return business-size first and moon are sta-
that the earth
,
cos C = envelope with postage and 50 cents for handling tionary (no libration) and that a plane
sin (10°) - [sin (50°) X (or IRCs for foreign addresses) to ARRL Hq.,
0.6179] wave front arrives at the moon from your
Dept. TD-MOONTRAK, 225 Main St., Newington,
cos (50°) X 0.7862 CT06111. earth-bound station as shown in Fig. 26A.
14-18 Chapter 14
Fig. 25 — Chart recording of moon echoes received at W2NFA on July 26, 1973, at 1630 UTC. Antenna gain 44 dB; transmitting power 400 watts and
system temperature 400 K.
The reflected wave shown in Fig. 26B the moon from moment to moment. Since (not depth of fade) is coincident with
consists of many scattered contributions the lunar surface is very irregular, the minimum total libration. Calculation of
from the rough moon surface. It is reflected wave be equally irregular,
will minimum total libration is at best tedious
perhaps easier to visualize the process as if changing in amplitude and phase from and can only be done successfully by
the scatttering were from many small in- moment to moment. The resultant con- means of a digital computer. It is a prob-
dividual flat mirrors on the moon which tinuous summation of the varying lem in extrapolation of rates of change in
reflect small portions (amplitudes) of the multipath signals at your antenna feed coordinate motion and in small dif-
incident wave energy in different direc- point produces the effect called libration ferences of large numbers.
tions (paths) and with different path fading of the moon-reflected signal.
lengths (phase). Those paths directed The term libration is used to describe EME Operating Techniques
toward the moon arrive at your antenna small perturbations in the movement of Most EME signals tend to be near the
and appear as a collection of small wave celestial bodies. Earth libration consists threshold of a condition
readability,
fronts (field vectors) of various mainly of its diurnal rotation; moon libra- caused by a combination of path loss,
amplitudes and phases. The vector sum- tion consists mainly of its 28-day rotation Faraday rotation and libration fading.
mation of all these coherent (same fre- which appears as a very slight rocking mo- This weakness and unpredictability of the
quency) returned waves (and there is a tion with respect to an observer on earth. signal has led to the development of
near-infinite array of them) takes place at This rocking motion can be visualized as techniques for exchange of EME informa-
the feed point of your antenna (the col- follows: Place a marker on the surface of tion that differs from those used for nor-
lecting point in the antenna system). The the moon at the center of the moon disc, mal vhf work —
the usual RST reporting
level of the final summation as measured which is the point closest to the observer, would be jumbled and meaningless for
by a receiver can, of course, have any as shown in Fig. 27. Then over a period of many EME contacts. Dahs are often
value from zero to some maximum. time we will observe that this marker chopped into of dits would
pieces, a string
Remember now that we assumed the earth wanders around within a small area. All be incomplete, and complicated words
and moon were stationary, which means this means is that the surface of the moon would make no sense at all.
that the final summation of these as seen from the earth is not quite fixed Unfortunately, there is no universal
multipath signal returns from the moon but changes slightly as different areas of agreement as to procedures for all the
will be one fixed value. The condition Of the periphery are exposed because of this bands, although there is similarity. Two-
relative motion between earth and moon rocking motion. Moon libration is very meter operators generally use the
~
being zero is a rare event which will be slow (on the order of 10 7 radians per "T M
O R" system, while those on 432
discussed later in this section. second) and can be determined with some MHz use a similar system but applied at
Consider now that the earth and moon difficulty from published moon ephemeris somewhat different levels of readability.
are moving relative to each other (as they tables. The meanings, and typical use, of each
are in nature), so that the incident radio Although the libration motions are very part of the. sequence are given in Tables 9
wave "sees" a slightly different surface of small and slow, the large surface area of through 12.
the moon, having nearly an infinite
number of scattering points (small area),
means that even these slight geometric / MOON \
movements can alter the total summation EARTHEN MARKER-^/ „ \
'
/ ROUGH 5 / ROUGH
INCOMING! SMOON i Smoon of the returned multipath echo by a
PLANE f _». / SURFACE £ *-/> SURFACE
significant amount. Since the librations of OBSERVER
WAVE . > v REFLECTED/ <
7S WAVE
c
the earth and moon are calculable, it is AREA OF WANDERING
I * OF MARKER
(A)
S only logical to ask if there ever occurs a
(B )
time when the total libration is zero or
near zero? The answer is yes, and it has
Fig. 27 — The moon apppears to "wander" in
Fig. 26 — How the rough surface of the moon its about the earth. Thus, a fixed marker
orbit
reflects a plane wave as one having many field been observed and experimentally verified on the moon's surface will appear to move
vectors. on radar echoes that minimum fading rate about in a circular area. «
Table 10 listening 2-1/2 minutes later. Thus a tion with other than cw. There have been
Signal Reports Used on 432-MHz EME schedule starting at 0030 would be an some ssb contacts and echoes of RTTY
"odd" period, although operators on 432 and fm signals have been heard, but no
T — Portions of calls copied
M — Complete calls copied MHz seldom label them as such. It is con- two-way communication by these latter
— Good signal — solid copy (possibly venient for the operators to simply start modes has been accomplished to date. In
enough for ssb work) with the eastern-most station calling on general, only the stations with large
R — Calls and reports copied the hour or half hour, unless arranged more dif-
parabolic reflectors try these
SK — End of contact
otherwise. ficult means of EME work. Such installa-
Of course there is much room for tions are often "borrowed" from some
change in these arrangements, but they do research program for the amateur
Table 11 serve as vital guidelines for schedules. As endeavors. »
144-MHz Procedure — 2-Minute Sequence signals become stronger, the rules can be
relaxed to a degree, and after many con- Frequencies
Period 1-1/2 minutes 30 seconds
1 Calls(W6XXX de tacts, stations can often ignore them com- Most amateur EME work is conducted
W1XXX) pletely, if the signals are strong enough. within a few kHz of some convenient spot
2 W1XXX de W6XXX TTTT Calls are often extremely difficult to frequency. 144 MHz there is some
On
3 W6XXX de W1XXX \ OOOO hear in their entirety. A vital dit or dah room to move
about, but most operation
4 RO RO RO RO de W1XXX k
can be missing, which can render a com- is very near the low edge, consistent with
5 R R R R R de W6XXX k
6 QRZ? EME de W1XXX k plex call unreadable. To copy both calls the ability of the station to stay within the
completely requires much patience and a band. The situation is further confused by
good ear. Both calls must be copied, the requirement that Technician licensees
because even though most work is by must stay above 145 MHz. There are some
Table 12 timed schedules, there can be last-minute EME enthusiasts among the Technician
432-MHz Procedure — 2-1/2-Mlnute Sequence substitutions because of equipment trou- class licensees, and those amateurs with
ble at one station, unexpected travel, plan large enough antennas can work both por-
Period 2 minutes 30 seconds
changes or the like, which make it im- tions of the band. The antenna problem is
1 VE7BBG de K2UYH
2 K2UYH de VE7BBG possible for the scheduled station to ap- mentioned because most high-gain anten-
3 VE7BBG de K2UYH TTT pear. Thus, rather than have one station nas will not maintain their performance
4 K2UYH de VE7BBG M M M spend the entire period listening, only to over such a wide portion of the band.
5 RM RM RM RM de K2UYH k
find that no one was there, a system of Operation on 432 -MHz is generally
6 RRflRR de VE7BBG SK
standby stations is becoming more within 1 or 2 kilohertz of that frequency,
popular. This is good, because nothing with a few stations going as far afield as
will demoralize a newcomer faster than 431.997 or 432.003 for general schedules.
At the moment, there is no widespread several one-sided schedules. It is not unknown for a pair of stations to
system in use for bands other than 144 An exchange of signal a useful
reports is move up 10 or 15 kHz for a contact, while
and 432 MHz. There are so few par- and required bit of information: useful others are on the nominal ".000" spot.
ticipants on 50 and 220 MHz that because it helps in evaluating your station There has been a movement afoot recently >
presumably they will have no difficulty in performance and the prevailing condi^ to reach a gentleman's agreement to avoid
arranging techniques by correspondence tions at the time, required because it is a any short-range, local, or non-DX opera-
prior to scheduies for EME tests. The "non-prearranged" exchange, thereby re- tion between 432.0 and 432.025 MHz a —
amount of operation on 1296 MHz is low, quiring that you copy what was sent as concept that most EME enthusiasts
but on the increase. Perhaps an operating part of the contact. Obviously there are heartily approve of.
technique can evolve that will be accept- other things that could be included in an For operation on 1296 MHz, most sta-
able to those on any band. The important "exchange of unknown information," tions are within a very few kilohertz of
consideration is that an, exchange of infor- and when conditions permit stronger that spot frequency. Many devices, tubes
mation takes place. This information signals, many operators do include names, and transistors, would work much better
should include three basic parts: calls of elaborate on the signal reports, arrange at thelow end of the 1215-MHz band, but
both stations, signal reports, and confir- next schedule times, and so on. Unfor- the 1296.0 spot became popular because it
mation that previous information was tunately, such exchanges are rare. was convenient to triple from an existing
received. Confirmation is essential for comple- 432-MHz exciter.
'
In the schedule sequence for both 144 tion of the exchange. There is no way that Of course, it is obvious that as the
and 432 MHz, the period starts, on
initial you can be sure that the other operator number of stations on EME increases, the
the hour, but because of the difference in copied what you sent until you hear him frequency spread must become greater.
sequence lengths for "the two bands, say so. That final R or "roger" means that Since the moon is in convenient locations
schedules starting on the half hour will he has copied your information, and your only a few days out of the month, and
_ not be the same. On two meters, there are two-way contact is complete. only a certain number of stations can be
15 sequence periods to the half hour, Sending speed is usually in the 5- to scheduled for EME during a given even-
which would make the period 0030 to 10-wpm although it can be ad-
range, ing, the answer will be in the use of
0032 an "even" sequence. This could justed according to conditions and simultaneous schedules, spaced a few
make a difference, depending on which operator skill. Characters sent too slowly kilohertz apart^The time may not be too
operator was assigned an "odd" or tend to become chopped up and confus- far away — QRMhas already been
14-20 Chapter 14
experienced on each of our three most A moderately sized Yagi array has the use 160-element or larger systems. As with
active EME frequencies. advantage that it is relatively easy to con- Yagi and quagi antennas, the collinear
struct and can be positioned in azimuth cannot be easily adjusted for polarity
EME Net Information and elevation with commercially available cljanges. From a constructional stand-
An EME net meets on weekends at 1600 equipment. Matching and phasing lines point there may be little difference in
and 1700 UTC for the purpose of arrang- present no particular problems. The main complexity and material costs between the
ing schedules and exchanging pertinent in- disadvantage of a Yagi array is that the collinear and Yagi arrays.
formation. The frequency of operation is polarization plane of the antenna cannot The parabolic dish is another antenna
14.345 MHz. be conveniently changed. One way around that is used extensively for EME work.
this would be to use cross-polarized, Yagis Unlike the other antennas described, the
Antenna Requirements and a relay switching system to select the major problems associated with dish
The tremendous path loss incurred over desired polarization. This represents a antennas are mechanical ones. Dishes 20
an EME circuit places stringent re- considerable increase in system cost and feet in diameter are required for successful
quirements on the station performance. complexity. Polarization shift at 144 MHz EME operation on 432 MHz. Structures
Low-noise receiving equipment, maxi- is slow and the added complexity of
fairly of and wind/ice loading place a
this size
mum legal power and large antenna arrays the cross-polarized antenna system may severe strain on the mounting/positioning
are required for successful EME opera- not be worth the effort. At 432 MHz, systems. Extremely rugged mounts are re-
tion. Although it may
be possible to copy where the shift is at a somewhat faster quired for large dish antennas, especially
some of the better-equipped stations while rate, an adjustable polarization system of- when used in windy locations. Several
using a single high-gain Yagi antenna, it is fers a definite advantage over a fixed one. aspects of the parabolic dish antennas
doubtful whether such an antenna could A photograph of the Yagi antenna make the extra mechanical problems
provide reliable two-way communication. system used at K1ZZ is shown in Fig. 28. worth the effort. For example, the dish
Antenna gain of at least 20 dB is required The system consists of four, 2-meter antenna is inherently broadband and may
for reasonable success. Generally speak- Cushcraft Boomer antennas mounted on be used on several different bands by
ing, more antenna gain will yield the most a 70-foot, Rohn 25 tower. A CDE Ham- simply changing the feed. The graph at
noticeable improvement in station perfor- III rotator is used for positioning the Fig. 29 relates antenna gain, frequency
mance, as the increased gain will aid both antenna in azimuth and a TET KR-500 and size. As can be seen, an antenna that
the received and transmitted signals. rotator is used for elevation control. The is suitable for 432 MHz work is also
Several types of antennas have become gain of this array is approximately 20 dB, usable for each of the higher amateur
popular among EME enthusiasts. Perhaps taking into account phasing line losses. bands. Additional gain is available as the
the most popular antenna for 144-MHz Quagi antennas (made from both quad frequency of operation is increased.
work is an array of either four or eight and Yagi elements) are also popular for Another advantage of this antenna is in
long-boom (14- to 15-dB gain) Yagis. The EME work. Slightly more gain per unit the feed system. The polarization of the
four- Yagi array would provide approxi- boom length is possible as compared to feed, and therefore the polarization of the
mately 20-dB gain, and the eight-antenna the conventional Yagi. Additional infor- antenna, can be adjusted with little dif-
system would show an approximate 3 dB mation on the quagi is presented in the should be a relatively easy mat-
ficulty. It
increase over the four-antenna array. At VHF and UHF Antennas chapter of this ter to devise a system whereby the feed
432 MHz, eight or 16 long-boom Yagis are book. could be rotated remotely from the shack.
used. Yagi antennas are available com- The collinear is another popular type of Changes in polarization of the signal
mercially or can be constructed from antenna for EME work. A 40-eiement col- could be compensated for at the operating
readily available materials. Information linear array has approximately the same position! As polarization changes can ac-
on maximum-gain Yagi antennas is frontal area as an array of four Yagis. The count for as much as 30 dB of signal at-
presented in the VHF and UHF Antennas collinear array would produce approxi- tenuation, the rotatable feed could make
chapter of this volume. The dimensions mately 1 to 2 dB less gain. Of course the the difference between working a station
presented are based on figures developed depth dimension of the collinear array is and not. A photograph of the parabolic
by the National Bureau of Standards for considerably less than for the long-boom dish antenna used at K2UYH is shown in
Yagi design. At least one manufacturer Yagis. An •80-element collinear would be Fig. 30. More information on parabolic
has used the NBS design information for marginal for EME communications, pro- dish antennas is available in the ARRL
their latest series of high-performance viding approximately 19-dB gain. Many Antenna Book.
antennas. operators choosing this type of antenna Antennas suitable for EME work are by
the signals to be copied on EME are bare- mode, Kl connects the antenna to the ANT
under 2 dB, as the cosmic noise will then transmitter connection and the preamplifier.
be the limiting factor in the system. Noise If independent control of K2
is provided
figures of this level are relatively easy to for, the preamplifier can be switched be-
achieve, even with inexpensive devices tween the 50-ohm termination* and the
that are available. antenna during receive. This feature is
As low a
noise figure as can be attained especially useful when making sun-noise
willbe usable at 432 MHz. Noise figures measurements to check system perfor-
on the order of 0.5 dB are possible with mance. For this measurement the antenna is
GaAS FETs. As most GaAS FETs are directed toward the sun and the preamplifier
.currently still quite expensive and is alternately switched between the 50-ohm
(B)
somewhat fragile, many builders choose load and the antenna. The dB difference can
the more rugged bipolar, which offers a be recorded and used as a reference when
noise figure just under 1 dB. checking system improvements. The com- Fig. 31 — Two systems for switching a
Since the loss in the transmission line plete circuit for this relay' system is preamplifier in and out of the receive line. At
presented later in this chapter. A, a single length of cable is used for both the
that connects the antenna to the
transmit and receive line. At B is a slightly
preamplifier adds directly to the system As the preamplifier is mounted ahead more sophisticated system that uses two
noise figure, most serious EME operators of the transmission line to the receiver, a separated transmission lines. See text for
mount a preamplifier at the top of the cable of mediocre performance can be details.
tower or directly at the antenna. If an ex- used. The loss of the cable, as long as it is
ceptionally good grade of transmission within reason, will npt add appreciably to
line is available, it is possible to obtain the system noise figure. Information con- operators may wish to consider similar
almost as good results with the tained in the VHF/UHF Receiving systems for terrestrial work, as a tower-
preamplifier located in the shack. Two chapter of this book explains how to mounted preamplifier usually means a
relay/preamplifier systems
switching calculate system noise figures. Foam-type noticeable reduction in system noise
suitable for remote mounting are outlined RG-8 cable is acceptable for runs up to figure. The thoughts behind this system
in Fig. 31. The system at makes use of A 100 feet at 144 MHz. are outlined in the previous section, en-
two relays and a single transmission line It is important to get as much transmit- titled Receiver Requirements.
for both transmit and receive. The ter power as possible to the antenna. For
preamplifier is simply switched "in" for this reason Hardline, Heliax or similar The Circuit
receive and "out" for transmit. low-loss cable is specified for the transmit The relay switching system is separated
line. into two parts. One section is mounted at
the tower, and the other, the control cir-
Transmitter Requirements cuitry and power supply, is mounted at
In many EME installations the antenna the station.A length of four-conductor,
gain is not much above the minimum re- TV-rotator cable can be used to connect
quired for communications. It is highly the two units. The package that is
likely that the maximum legal limit of mounted at the tower consists of two rf
power will be required for successful EME coaxial relays and a preamplifier. The
work on up through 432 MHz. Since schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 33. As
many contacts may require long, slow can be seen, Kl is used to switch the
sending, the transmitter/amplifier should
have adequate cooling. Also, an amplifier
with some power to spare rather than an
amplifier running "flat out" is desirable.
This is especially important should ssb
communication be attempted. An
amplifier run all out on ssb will likely pro-
duce large amounts of odd-order IMD
products that fall within the band. While
the splatter produced will not affect your
communications, it will certainly affect
that of others close in frequency!
Fig. 30 — A newcomer to EME stands in awe described here is intended primarily for is located in the statipn. A length of four-
of the K2UYH 28-foot dish. EME applications. Serious vhf and uhf conductor wire connects the two units.
14-22 Chapter 14
PRE -
AMP
TX
TX LINE
RX LINE
VOLTAGE
TO PRE-
AMPLIFIER
/-T7
rT7
I- 12 VOLTS O
TO PREAMPLIFIER
Fig. 33 — Schematic diagram of the preamplifier switching system. The diagram is divided into two parts; the top portion is for the circuitry at the
antenna and the bottom is that for use in the station.
DS1 7— Neon indicator light with built-in
dropping resistor. Resistor built'into a PL-259 connector. 115-Vac secondary, 15 VA. Stancor P-6411
K1, K2 — Rf-coaxial relays suitable for the fre- 51 — Toggle, spst. or equiv.
quency range to be used. 52 — Toggle, spdt. TB1-TB3, incl. —
Terminal block, screw
R1 — Termination, 50-ohms, noninductive. T1 — Isolation transformer, 115-Vac primary, connection, four terminals.
antenna between the transmit line and a relay coils. S2 controls the action of K2, watertight enclosure. The item shown at
line which connects with K2. K2 switches which is either connected in parallel with the bottom center of the enclosure is a
the preamplifier to either the antenna or Kl in the antenna position, or activated commercial preamplifier. Power for the
to a50-ohm termination. Two relays pro- separately for the termination position. preamplifier (12 V dc) is fed through the
vide more than adequate isolation be- A pilot light, fuse and on/off switch are fourth wire of the four-wire cable that
tween the preamplifier and the transmit provided in this design. connects the two modules (tower and sta-
line. Additionally, K2 can be
switched tion) together. When all components are
between the antenna and the termination Construction properly mounted, the chassis is sealed
independently of Kl. This allows for sun- The items to be mounted at the tower with silicone rubber (RTV). A terminal
noise measurements when the system is in are enclosed in an ordinary chassisand block provides for connection to the four-
the receive mode. bottom plate assembly. A photograph, conductor cable. Two O.Ol-^F capacitors
The portion of the system mounted at shown in Fig. 34, indicates the general are mounted across the relay coils at ter-
the stationis essentially a power supply layout. Short lead lengths are used minal block TB3.
and control circuitry. A line isolation throughout. Bulkhead uhf feedthrough The station circuitry is mounted in a
transformer is used to power the 11 7- volt connectors are used to ensure an rf- and small aluminum cabinet. A neon in-
Speciallzed Communications Systems 14-23
sources on condition that they will be used and tape perforator are required for this
purely for amateur purposes and will not process. A a device that
reperforator is
generating a coded set of electrical im- begins operating, forms the proper pulse in the construction of each character is
pulses when a typewriter key correspond- sequence, and then comes to rest again called an asynchronous or start-stop serial
ing to the desired letter or symbol is before the next key is depressed to form code. Other codes also in commercial use
pressed, and (2) converting a received set of the succeeding character. The receiving include synchronous serial codes, in which
such impulses into the corresponding mechanism operates in similar fashion, start and stop pulses are not attached to
printed character. The message to be sent being set into operation by the first pulse the data pulses for each character, and
istyped out in much the same way that it of the sequence from the transmitter. parallel data codes, in which each data
would be written on a typewriter, but the Thus, although the actual transmission pulse is assigned a separate wire to and
printing is done at the distant receiving speed cannot exceed about 60 wpm (or from the terminal device. Such codes are
point. The teletypewriter at the sending whatever maximum speed the machine is found in common use with computer and
point may also print the same material. geared for), it can be considerably slower, line-printer devices. FCC regulations cur-
(
The machines used for
teleprinter depending on the typing speed of the amateurs to use either the
rently authorize
RTTY are far too complex mechanically operator. Baudot or the ASCII serial asynchronous
for home construction," and if purchased It is also possible to transmit by using TTY codes.
new would be highly expensive. However, perforated tape. This has the advantage
used teletypewriters in good mechanical that the complete message may be typed
The Baudot TTY Code
condition are available at quite reasonable out in advance of actual transmission, at One of the first data codes used with
prices. These are machines retired from any convenient speed; when transmitted, mechanical printing machines uses a total
commercial service but capable of entirely however, it is sent at the machine's nor- of five data pulses to represent the
satisfactory operation in amateur work. mal maximum speed. A special tape alphabet, numerals and symbols. This
They may be obtained from several reader, called a transmitter-distributor, code is commonly called the Baudot or
14-24 Chapter 14
2
Table 13
REST CHARACTER NO.1 CHARACTER NO.
CONDITION The Baudot Data Code
oil NtimhGr
Bit lyuiiiutii U.S. CCITT l\
01110 C
01111 K ( (
Murray telegraph code, after the work Keyboards on Baudot machines such as 10000 T 5 5
»
done by these two pioneers. Although the Teletype Corp. models 15 and 28 dif- 10001 Z
10010 L )
\
)
commonly called the Baudot code in the fer from standard typewriter keyboards,
10011 W 2 2
United States, a similar code is usually having only three rows of keys with the 10100 H #
called the Murray code in other parts of related letter and number/symbol on each 10101 Y 6 g
the world and is formally defined as the keytop —
Q and 1, K and (, and so on). 10110
10111
P
Q 1
V
1
International Telegraphic Alphabet No. 2 The typist soon discovers this difference! 11000 O 9 9
Baudot Code in part 97.69 of the FCC Newer electronic terminals such as the 11001 B ? ?
Rules and Regulations. This standard HAL DS2000 and D§3100 have standard 11010 G & &
11011 FIGS FIGS FIGS
defines the codes for letters, numerals and keyboard arrangements and automatically
11100 M
the slant or fraction bar but allows varia- insert ltrs or figs characters as they are
11101 X / /
tions in the choice of code combinations needed. The Baudot code itself is 11110 V
for punctuation. U.S. amateurs have restricted to upper-case letters only since 11111 LTRS Ltrs LTRS
generally adopted a version of the so- insufficient codes are available to repre- Note: FIGS-H (101*0) may also be used for
called "Military Standard" code arrange- sent lower-case letters.
MOTOR STOP function. "1" = mark = hole in
punched tape
ment for punctuation, largely because of The Baudot code has seen extensive
the ready availability of military surplus commercial use throughout the world and
machines in the post- 1945 years. is still actively utilized for international
Amateurs in other countries (particularly wire, press and weather communications. U.S. and CCITT No. 2 alphabet. Notice
in Europe) have standardized on the Inter- Because of the ready availability of that the waveform drawing of Fig. 35
national Consultive Committee for Baudot mechanical equipment, this code shows the current waveform, with mark
Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT) No. 2 will continue to be quite popular among represented by the upper deflection. Also,
code arrangement, which is similar to the radio amateurs. Nevertheless, the lack of the bits in Fig. 35 are arranged in a left-to-
U.S. standard but has minor symbol and code space for control, extended punctua- right order, as would be observed on an
code-arrangement differences. tion or lower-case letters is a severe limita- oscilloscope. The bits in Table 13,
Since each of the five data pulses can be tion of the five-unit Baudot code. These however, are arranged in descending
in either a mark or space condition (two limitations are particularly inconvenient order (b5 to bl), conforming to the stan-
possible states per pulse), a total of in computer-terminal applications, even dard binary representation. Thus the let-
2x2x2x2x2 = 25 = 32 different though various serial and parallel data- ter D shown in Fig. 35 would be written as
code combinations are possible. Since it is coding schemes have been used with com- the binary character 01001.
necessary to provide transmission of all 26 puters. Fig. 35 shows a time diagram of
letters, 10 numerals and punctuation, the typical Baudot characters, and Table 13
ASCII
32 code combinations are not sufficient. shows the Baudot data code for both the In 1968, the American National Stan-
This problem is solved by using the codes
twice; once in the letters (LTRS) case and
again in the figures (FIGS) case. Two i
CHARACTER
NO. 2
special characters, ltrs and figs, are CHARACTER NO. 1
6 1 1 '
1 1
model 43 or the HAL DS3100 ASR, have
5 1 1 1 1 user-selectable upper/lower case or upper-
4327
•
case-only (CAPSLK) transmit/receive
NUL features.
0000 DLE SPC @ P \ P
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q The optional eighth data bit may be set
0010 STX DC2 2 B R b r
to four conditions: (1) always mark, (2)
00011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T
always space, (3) odd parity, or (4) even
d t
0101 'ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u parity. All four choices are in common
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f
•
V usage. Simple non error-detecting ter-
0111 BEL ETB '
7 G w g w minals usually set the eighth bit to be
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h X
1001 HT EM \
g Y always a mark or space (usually space).
)
) I
y
1010 LF SUB *
J z j z Parity is sometimes used with computer
1011 VT ESC + j K [ k {
and data interconnections where error-
1100 FF FS < L
CR -
I
/ detection is desired. When used, the parity
1101 GS = M ] m }
bit is controlled so as to set the total
1110 SO RS > N n
1111 SI US / ? O DEL number of mark data ASCIIbits in the
character to be always even or odd (even
ACK = acknowledge FF = form feed (home)
or odd parity). For example, if odd parity
BEL = signal bell FS = file separator
BS = backspace GS = group separator is used with the ASCII character c (first
(«-)
CAN = cancel HT = horizontal tab <-) seven bits =
1Q0 0011), the eighth parity
CR = carriage return LF = line feed (i ) bit will bespace to give an odd
set to
DC1 = device control 1 NAK = not acknowledge
number (3) of data bits (0100 0011). Con-
DC2 = device control 2 NUL = null
DC3 = device control 3 RS = record separator versely, the odd-parity eight-bit code for
DC4 = device control 4 SI = shift in the letter B would be 1100 0010. (Logic
DEL = (delete) so -
= shift out convention has it that lowest order bits are
DLE = data link escape SOH = start of heading placed to the right; thus the bit order in
ENQ = enquiry (WRU) SPC = space
EM = end of medium STX = start of text the binary representation is 8765 4321.)
EOT = end of trans. SUB = substitute Upon reception, the receiving terminal
ESC = escape SYN = synchronous idle simply counts the number of mark pulses
ETB = end of block US = unit separator in each ASCII 8-bit character. If an odd
ETX = end of text VT = vertical tab ( )
number is counted, it is assumed that no
Note: "1" = mark = hole in punched tape
errors occurred. Notice, however, that
even if a bit error is detected, there is in-
sufficient data to determine which bit was
dards Institute (ANSI) adopted the to space (0), as indicated. wrong, and therefore no error correction
American National Standard Code for In- As can be seen from the code table, is provided by the parity check itself.
formation Interchange (ASCII), ANSI many more punctuation symbols are in- Also, if there are two bit errors in the
Standard X3. 4-1968. This code uses seven cluded in ASCII than in Baudot. ASCII same ASCII character, the parity count
data pulses to specify the letter, number, also includes a large number of control will still be odd, and no error indication is
symbol or control operation desired. An characters designed for print control of given even though two errors occurred.
eighth data pulse, called the parity bit, is the terminal itself, formatting of data to Thus, parity checking will not give com-
provided for optional error checking. As the computer, and control of other hard- plete error detection and does not provide
with the Baudot code, the ASCII standard ware devices by the terminal. Although for error correction. Some applications
as approved for U.S. amateur use is asyn- these control functions are defined by the require more sophisticated error detection
chronous and serial with both start and ANSI definition, variations in the use of and correction schemes. Even parity
stop pulses. the control characters abound in the dif- works in a similar manner, except that the
Whereas the five-unit Baudot code was fering commercial applications. eighth bit is chosen to make the total
arranged by Murray so that the most fre- The keyboards of both mechanical and number of mark pulses even rather than
quently used letters are represented by the electronic ASCII -terminals are arranged odd. The U.S. amateur regulations do not
least number of mark holes punched in similar to the "standard" typewriter specify a requirement for use of the eighth
paper tape, ASCII has been arranged to keyboard, thus minimizing any retraining data bit; it may be set to mark, space, odd
optimize computer applications. The code required when an operator moves from a or even parity, depending upon the
has been particularly designed for rapid typewriter to a terminal. The "extra" preference of the operator and the
collation of alphanumeric lists, one data ASCII keys are arranged around the capability of his equipment. Relatively
bit, difference between upper- and lower- periphery of the standard keyset if they simple terminals do not provide parity op-
case letters, and isolation of all control are provided at the terminal keyboard. tions; more sophisticated equipment such
operations from printing operations. A A common abbreviation of the full as the DS3100 ASR do.
time diagram of a typical ASCII character 128-character ASCII code restricts the
is shown in Fig. 36. Table 14 shows the alphabetic letters to upper-case only, Speeds and Baud Rates
ASCII data code. As noted for the often called caps-lock or caplk. In The transmission rate of Baudot TTY
Baudot-waveform drawing, Fig. 36 shows general, these terminals transmit the signals is usually specified in words per
the loop current with mark represented by upper-case ASCII code for a letter minute, much like that used for telegraph
the upward deflection. Also the bits in whether the shift key is used or not; they codes. Actually, the speed is given in the
Table 14 are arranged in binary number may or may not be capable of transmitting approximate number of five-letter-plus-
order (b7 to bl). Thus, the letter s in Fig. all of the control codes. These terminals space combinations transmitted in a con-
36 would be written as the binary number usually print (or display) the upper-case tinuous sequence of start-stop characters
0101 0011, with the eighth (parity) bit set letter when either the upper- or lower-case in a one-minute interval. Convenient
14-26 Chapter 14
'
Table 16
Table 15
ASCII Data Rates
Baudot Data Rates and Speeds
Bdud Data Pulse Stop PulSG
RstG //nc]
I"'"/ CPS WPM
Baud Qata Pulse Olvp rt/JaS Onm mnn 110 9,091 9.091 11.0 110
(ms) WPM Name 9.091 18.182 10.0 100
Rate fms)
150 6:667 6.667 15.0 150
45.45 22.0 22.0 65.00 Western 30.0 300
300 3.333 '
3.333 .
50.00 20.0 30.0 66.67 European; 2400 0.4167 0.4167 240 2400
50 baud 4800 0.2083 0.2083 480 4800
56.92 17.57 25.00 76.68 "75 speed" 9600 0.1041 0.1041 960 9600
26.36 75.89 57 baud 19200 0.0520 0.0520 1920 19200
17.57
74.20 13.47 19.18 100.00 "100 speed" CPS = characters per second
13.47 20.21 98.98 74 baud START + 8 (DATA) + STOP
100.0 10.00 15.00 133.33 100 baud
WPM = words per minute
CPS x 60
choices of gear ratios and motor-shaft rate. A limited amount of amateur use of nected, text typed on one keyboard is
speeds have resulted in the use of 74 baud ("100 speed") has been noted on reproduced on both printers. Connection
noninteger wpm rates. Common usage, the high-frequency bands'. Most commer- of the keyboard directly to its associated
however, has rounded the exact speeds to cial RTTY transmissions on high frequen- printer is called a local loop and results in
easily remembered numbers. Thus, "60 cies use 50, 57 and 74 baud, with little what is called half duplex (HDX), giving
speed" Baudot is actually sent at 61.33 45-baud activity. local copy of transmitted text, termed
wpm and "75 speed" is really 76.67 wpm. ASCII data rates are commonly local echo.
A major problem occurs with the use of specified as a baud rate, although a Selector magnets have been designed
words per minute as a TTY speed character-per-second (cps) or words-per- for mark loop currents of 60 or 20 mA dc,
specification because of the varying length minute (wpm) rate may also be given. The with 60 mA
being by far the most com-
of stop pulses in use. For example, "60 lowest standard ASCII data rate in com- mon for older machines such as the
speed" Baudot TTY has 22-ms-long start mon usage is 110 baud. ASCII characters Teletype Corp. model 15 or 28. Newer
and data pulses and a 31-ms stop pulse; sent at 110 baud are usually sent with a Baudot machines and most ASCII
the Western Union "65 speed" also has 2-unit-wide stop pulse, although the machines and terminals use electronic in-
22-ms start and data pulses, but the stop 1-unit stop pulse may also be found in terface circuits that accept a wide range of
pulse is also 22-ms long; electronic ter- some applications. Above 110 baud, it is loop currents (10 to 120 mA for the HAL
minals commonly use 22-ms start and data common make the stop pulse one unit
to DS3100, for example); a 20-mA loop cur-
pulses and 33-ms stop pulses (1.5 times the pulse in length. The standard ASCII data rent is quite commonly used with ASCII
data-pulse width). All of these three codes rates commonly used with asynchronous terminals.
are compatible and may be received on the serial transmission are shown in Table 13. Since the dc resistance of the machine
same printer or terminal since the stop- The ASCII data rates up to 300 baud selector magnets is rather low (100 to 300
pulse length is a minimum time. The com- are authorized for U.S. amateur use on ohms, typically), it would at first seem
mon factor between these codes is the frequencies between 3.500 and 21.250 that a low-voltage loop supply could be
22-ms length of the data, or unit pulse. MHz. Data rates up baud are per-
to 1200 Used. However, the inductance of the
Therefore, a new data-rate specification mitted between 28 and 225 MHz; up to magnet is usually quite high (on the order
has been adopted, the baud rate, which is 19,600 baud may be used above 420 MHz. of 4 henrys for a model 15), causing a
the reciprocal of the data- or unit- or The 1 10-baud rate is by far the most prac- delay in the current rise time. This, in
select-pulse width: tical for 3.5 to 21.5 MHz
again use, magnet response
turn, delays the selector
because of the ready availability of equip- to a mark pulse, distorting the signal. This
Baud rate = 1/t, where t = length of
ment as well as the increased susceptibility distortion can be severe enough to cause
unit pulse.
of the higher data rates to noise, static, in- misprinting of received text, particularly if
Using this definition, all three of the terference and so Vhf fm amateur
forth. other forms of distortion are present (such
above codes have a data rate of 45.45 activity finds 110 and 300 baud useful for as caused by variations in the radio
baud, commonly abbreviated to "45 terminal-to-terminalcommunications, signal). The
effect of this inductive distor-
baud." and 300 and 1200 baud for computer- tion reduced considerably if the L/R
is
As noted above, the length of the stop related activities such as exchanging pro- ratio (L is solenoid inductance and R is
pulse varies between codes, being from grams and the like. total loop resistance) is reduced by in-
1.0 to 2.0 times as long as the unit (or creasing R. Increasing R requires that the
and
data) pulse; multipliers of 1.0, 1.42,
Loop Circuits dc voltage be increased to maintain the re-
1.5 are commonly used with the Baudot As discussed earlier, the printing quired 60-mA loop current. In general,
codes. Standard Baudot data rates and mechanisms use solenoids or selector the higher the loop voltage and loop
speeds are shown in Table 12. magnets to sense the presence (mark) or resistance used, the lower the distortion.
U.S. amateurs are authorized to use all absence (space) of the loop current. The In practice, loop power-supply voltages
of the Baudot data rates shown in Table letters typed on the sending keyboard are between 100 and 300 Vdc are common;
12, with the exception of 100 baud. This encoded with proper mark and space 130- and 260-volt supplies were often used
rate has seen limited commercial use in pulses by mechanically driven keyboard with model 15, 19 and 28 Teletype
Europe. The 45-baud data rate is by far contacts. Since the keyboards and selector machines. Modern TTY systems use a
the most popular worldwide amateur data magnets of both machines are series con- 150- to 200- volt loop power supply and a
14-28 Chapter 14
camera equipment with color film is a TV set and
thusiast. It fits nicely inside
popular in this work because it affords presents no problem if one wishes to
on-the-spot processing. Color reproduc- mount it on the antenna.
tion by this technique can be quite good. The TVC-1, sensitive and selective, per-
More advanced experiments in color forms exceptionally well, yet it is an exam-
SSTVreception are being contemplated ple of simplicity. Performance is en-
by storing frame data in digital memory hanced by a commercially manufactured,
and by applying picture information to a double-balanced mixer and a voltage-
standard color TV set, along with encoded controlled oscillator that is tuned by a
red-green-blue data, via an rf modulator. 10-kfl potentiorrieter. The latter feature
.
sending of three separate frames of the proved rather disappointing. Others have set for viewing the picture and hearing the
same picture with a red, a green, and a geared up homemade devices that failed sound. No modification of the TV set is
blue filter successively placed in front of to live up to expectations. What is the required. Therefore the TV receiver may
the camera lens for each of the three alternative? be used in the normal manner for home
frames. At the receiving end of the circuit, P. C. Electronics, which produces the entertainment without any incon-
corresponding filters are used and each units one needs for an ATV station, has veniences.
frame is photographed on color film. resolved the matter of providing a means As manufactured, the converter module,
After a tricolor exposure is made, the for obtaining excellent reception. The is supplied pretuned and ready to connect
photograph is developed and printed in TVC-1 converter, available in ready-made to the ATV system. The TVC-1 should be
the normal manner. The use of "instant" form, is tailor-made for the 439-MHz en- installed in a shielded chassis or enclosure.
REMOTE
TUNE
100
25V
f1
-RFC
VIDEO
VIDEO OUT
CAMERAC ID
TVID-1
45 MHz
OUT
Fig. 40 —
Block diagram of the ATV transceiver. Principal units of the circuit are the VHF Engineering TX-432 transmitter. Motorola MHW-710
amplifier, P. C. Electronics TVC-1 converter, VM-3 video modulator, FM-A5 audio subcarrier unit and video i-d generator. Output of the
converter is
connected to a standard TV set. The IC is a type 7812 12-V dc regulator.
To
adjust the converter, tune the televi-
lt'
sion set to either channel 2 or 3 (whichever REMOVE JUMPER
AND C28
isnot used locally). Fine-tune the selected _mnn_
channel to minimize any signals from a
commercial TV station. Then connect the 1"' Ji-
ATV antenna and swing the converter r-hr
across the band to locate a nearby ATV
station. After the station has been found
by tuning with the 10-kfl potentiometer,
C43
fine adjustments are made with CI. When
MIKE
the latter is properly set, tuning will be INPUT
good for10 MHz. For installations
±
where the converter is mounted on the AT LINE
INPUT
antenna, the 10-kfi frequency control on
the VCO may be replaced by the remote
Fig. 41 — Two minor changes are all that need be made to modify the TX-432
tuning circuit shown in Fig. 43. Use of this transmitter for ATV.
C28 and the jumper connecting it with RFC3 are removed. The line input at the lower right of the
arrangement allows the tuning ad- diagram is not used.
-0-H2 TO 14V DC
t . IQCyuF T
I5V -p -OTO L7
3200
DC BIAS.
/ 10V DC WITHOUT
VIDEO
ADJUST
V CONNECT TO
TX-432
6
Jo GND
7
4.5-MHz
INPUT
AMIDON AMIDON *
BEAD BEAD 2N3055
El B
1*i F 25V
SHORT LEADS 100
-MOOiuF
25V
-1 1/2W
JilOiuF
FROM 25V
TX423B
POWER MODULE
MOTOROLA OUT
MHW 710-1 * • RG58
M2V
TO VM«-30 1
AND FM--A5 I
-± 2.2<jF
25V
* USE HEAT SINK
Fig. 42 -
The VM-3 solid-state video modulator. The wide-bandwidth capability of the modulator enables it
to resolve 64 character-per-line signals
from TV typewriters and microcomputers. The 3-dB-down point is typically 8 MHz, more
than enough for color and sound plus greater resolution
than broadcast. The upper portion of the drawing illustrates the modulator circuit. The lower
portion covers the power source and the mHW-7-10-1
P consists of ,w0 25 v ct 'ilament transformers with primaries in series and secondaries paralleled.
"
14-30 Chapter 14
justments to be made from the operating the Motorola HEP line are better suited broadcast-quality sound to accompany
position. Shielded cable is recommended for the purpose. video pictures.
for the connection between the VCO and This subcarrier module is designed for
<"
Fast-Scan Modulator feeding the VM-3 video modulator direct-
the remote 10-kQ potentiometer.
The VM-3 fast-scan modulator, ly or it may be connected to any 75-ohm
Transmitting Equipment another P.C. Electronics unit, was video coax line with the addition of a
Basic units for transmission of ATV in- developed to be used mainly for supplying 4.5-MHz trap. The trap, as shown in Fig.
clude a video modulator, a sound-subcar- video to the TX-432B exciter. Because of 5, isnecessary for isolating the capacity of
rier device, a transmitter and a power the wide bandwidth of the VM-3, it has the long coaxial line from the FM-A5 out-
amplifier. The VHF Engineering TX-432 the capability of resolving 64-character put. That capacity would act as a bypass
and Motorola MHW-710 rf-module TV typewriterand microcomputer to the 4.5-MHz signal without the trap.
power amplifier serve as the rf strip. Both graphics. The 3-dB point is typically 8 Output from the FM-A5 is adjustable
have been adequately described in other MHz which is more than enough for color to match the camera video level. Nominal
articles which appeared in 73 for August, and sound plus greater resolution than subcarrier level is 0.5 to 1.0 V peak-to-
1976 and in AS Magazine for March found in broadcast TV. Another feature is peak. In some cases there may be other
1977. The circuits, in articles by Bruce a separate input for 4.5-MHz subcarrier band-pass attenuation in the transmitter
Brown, WB4YTU, are presented here for for sound transmission. An ATV operator and modulator that could require more
convenience of the readers. will appreciate this advantage. Fig. 44 il- adjustment.
Video modification of the VHF lustrates the connections to be made for Under operating conditions, the
Engineering TX-432 strip is simple. One adding the modulator to the installation. oscillator should be adjusted to within 10
capacitor, C28, and the 12-V 'dc bus The VM-3 is sold for about $20. kHz. The receiving station should be
jumper to the pad connecting C28, C29 tuned to the high-frequency side of a
The
Subcarrier System for Sound signal for best sound with picture. The
and LI 1 , are disconnected. strip is
supplied with + 12 V for all stages except One of the better subcarrier systems transmitter should also be peaked to the
the Lll is the final-stage rf choke
final. available is also produced by P. C. Elec- high side.
which is connected to the B + line and is tronics. The FM-A5 utilizes a stable' Frequency response of the FM-A5 is
the feed point for the video/audio signals. 4.5-MHz oscillator that is fm modulated rolled off just short of 300 Hz and just
C28, an electrolytic capacitor oh the by a Varicap diode driven from an IC above 3000 Hz for best voice communica-
TX-432 pc board, is not used. C29 is a audio amplifier. The unit has sufficient tion. Deviation is fixed at the 25-kHz
small disc capacitor that is retained for rf gain to fully modulate the transmitter to broadcast standard. P. C. Electronics has
decoupling. 25-kHz deviation even with an inexpen- priced this subcarrier generator in the $25
When tuning the TX-432 for operation sive microphone placed at a distance of 25 class.
below 444 MHz, one may find substitu- feet or more. Provision is made for
tion of Arco no. 402 compression microphone sensitivity and subcarrier rf
The MHW-710 Module
Arco
capacitors for the no. 400s desirable. level control to customize the operation To an energy boost,
give the transceiver
Improved heat dissipation may be according to the operator's liking. the rf amplifier a Motorola
uses
achieved by replacing the thin metal heat Moreover, the FM-A5 incorporates a soft MHW-710 rf module. As mentioned
sinks furnished with the TX-432. The limiter to prevent overdeviation. Distor- earlier, only a few parts (as indicated in
solid-aluminum TO-5 heat sinks sold in tion is extremely low, providing the drawing) are needed to complete the
Lt 7-*
SOJt
1220
WV O+12V -0+12V
OUTPUT TO
TV CH. 2 OR 3
REMOTE
TUNING
Fig.43 —
The circuit of the TVC-1 converter consists of a low-noise, high-gain, rf amplifier, a doubly balanced mixer and a Varicap-tuned VCO.
Remote tuning of the converter permits it to be mounted on the antenna if desired. For remote operation, the remote tuning circuit replaces the
10-kO potentiometer shown below the oscillator transistor, Q2. C2 and C3 are Arco 400, 1-10 pF, capacitors. L2 consists of 1 1/2 turns no. 22 wire, :
1/4-inch diameter, tapped 3/8 inch from the lower end. L3 is a hairpin loop, 1/2 inch across the bottom and 5/8 inch high. It is made with no. 22 bus
wire.
BUFFER
DYNAMIC MIC
^200 OHMS
t ±25kHi DEV
470 LEVEL
ADJ.
MODULATOR
i I—)H '
X
Fig. 44 — This ATV sound-subcarrier generator module. permits both voice and video to be transmitted. The trap shown in the diagram is necessary
to isolate the capacitance of the long coaxial cable from the FM-A5 output. The capacitance would act as a bypass to the 4.5-MHz signals without
the trap. U1 is either a Motorola MC1458CP1 or Raytheon RC4558DN operational amplifier.
14-32 Chapter 14
cedures are quite similar to those used on
ssb.
As with RTTY, the station transmitter
must be tuned for 100-percent duty cycle,
since the SSTV emission isa constant
tone.Only the frequency is changing.
For more information about amateur
TV, see Amateur Television Magazine
(Box 1347, Bloomington, IN 47401). - ENERGY
NARROW-BAND VOICE
MODULATION
The December 1977 issue of QSP
heralded anew and unique system for
conserving communications bandwidth.
This technique, now implemented and in
the production stage, works at baseband
(audio) rather than at intermediate or
radio frequencies (i-f or rf). Thus it is ap-
plicable to virtually all types of analog and Fig.45 —A spectrogram or voice print of the utterance "digital communication." The vertical axis
digital transmission systems. The system represents frequency (80-8000 Hz), and the horizontal axis "represents time 0-1.5 s).
includes the newly developed frequency
compandor' and the well-known, but not
extensively used, amplitude compandor.' show peaks at distinct points. As speech is sound, the frequency range must extend
Use of both devices within the same base- produced, changes occur in the aural cavi- to approximately 4000 Hz, but this is not
band system offers significant im- ty shape, thus changing the spectral loca- usually required for intelligibility since
provements in adjacent-channel rejection tion of these peaks. contextural clues provide sufficient
and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Fig. 45 shows a spectrogram, or voice evidence for the listener to "hear" an
The transceive baseband system print, of the utterance "digital com- "s."
munication." The vertical axis represents Evidence from theory and that gained
operates on the audio waveform just after
the microphone but before the speaker. frequency (80-8000 Hz), and the horizon- through practice (amateur communica-
tal axis represents time (0-1.5 s). Darkness
tions) indicate a bandwidth of 300 to 2500
The frequency compandor filters the
essential partsof speech and down con- of the bands indicates amplitude or voice Hz is adequate for good quality speech.
verts this information electronically on strength. The fine structure of amplitude
Audio Bandwidth Reduction
transmission, thus providing a significant peaks that are very close together in the
and the Frequency Compandor
reduction in transmitted bandwidth. A horizontal dimension is a measurement of
narrower bandwidth signal causes less in- vocal-cord vibration (fundamental fre- Xo explain the approach taken consider
terference to others operating in the same quency). the spectrogram in Fig. 45. Notice that
band. It also allows the use of a sharper Notice the rather strong amplitude con- there are natural gaps between the first
and narrower receive filter, which greatly centrations below 4000 Hz. These are the and second, and second and third for-
reduces adjacent-channel interference. spectral peaks referred to above and are mants. There is little energy present in
called formants. The first three formants these gaps.
What Is Speech? are shown in Fig. 45 at the beginning of After extensive listening tests and con-
One can better understand how the fre- the utterance. Proper processing of these sideration of various filtering and mixing
quency compandor works by considering three formants is a major concern of combinations it was found that the first
the composition of speech. Acoustically, bandwidth conservation in speech. formant is not as essential to intelligibility
human speech consists predominantly of Unvoiced sounds occur when there is no as the second and third. Furthemore, the
two types of sounds —
voiced and unvoic- vocal -track excitation. Sounds such as gap between the first and second formants
ed. clicks, hisses and popping are caused by is wider then between the second and third
Voiced sounds originate by passing air the speaker using his tongue, lips and and it is more constant with time, As a
from the speaker's lungs through the teeth. These sounds, or evidence of their result the system shown in Fig. 46 was
larynx (voice box), a passage in the human occurrence by formant extensions into or developed.
throat with the opening obstructed by from a voiced sound, are very important To understand how the system works
vocal cords." As air is passed by these to the intelligibility of speech. Spectral- note that two bands of speech are preserv-
cords, they vibrate, causing puffs of air to amplitude distributions of unvoiced ed, the first from dc to 600 Hz (most com-
escape into the aural cavity, which con- sounds are generally above 1500 Hz and munications transceivers limit the low end
sists of the throat, nasal cavity and ,
are "noise-like," in that very little to 350 Hz) and second from f to 2500 Hz;
,
mouth. Studies indicate that the acoustic periodic structure is present (see Fig. 45). f[ corresponds to the low end of the se-
waveform produced by the vocal cords Briefly, speech is the continuous pro- cond formant and is variable depending
has many harmonics of the fundamental duction of voiced and unvoiced sounds, on the transmission and reception low-
vibration. Because of the irregular shape with appropriate pauses to add clarity and pass filter (LPF) cutoff frequency fT In .
of the aural cavity, the spectral-amplitude distinctness. Measurements performed on equation form
distribution of the harmonics tends to voices from different speakers indicate
ft = 3100 - fT
that the first formants
three lie
Harris, R. W. and Gorski, J. C, "A New Era predominantly below 1500 Hz. Speech For example, the two filter options pro-
in Voice Communications," QST, December 1977.
consisting of these three formants is' of vided by the first commercial system will
'A frequency compandor compresses signal band-
width on transmission and expands signal band- good quality, both from an intelligibility be fT = 1600 Hz and fT = 2100 Hz. Both
width on reception. the transmission and reception filters have
l0
An amplitude compandor compresses signal am- and "listenability" standpoint. Sufficient
plitude on transmission and expands signal am- information as to the existence of some a 1.3 shape factor. Thus the narrow
plitude on reception. unvoiced sounds appears to lie in this system with a transmission bandwidth of
"Flanagan, L., Speech Analysis Synthesis
J. and
Perception, 2nd Ed., Springer-Verlag, 1972. range. For example, to produce an "s" 1600 Hz is designed to preserve speech
COHERENT CW SUMMING
AMP.
— 2500-Hz
L.
While spectrum management has
P. F.
word "syn- 1.5 to Z:0 times the keying rate. In con- When the receiver is properly tuned, the
thesizer" was missing! ventional (Morse) radiotelegraphy, the in- filter input signal frequency is 1 kHz.
Technology made giant leaps in the next telligence is ultimately received as an Since this frequency is "zero beat" with
45 years. In September 1975 QST, Ray- audio tone. Even a 15-Hz bandwidth filter the reference (LO) signal, the mixer out-
mond Petit, W7GHM, described the ex- centered on, say, 500 Hz, would require a put is a dc voltage proportional to the
periments of some radio amateurs with a Q of 33, causing intolerable ringing. cosine of the phase angle between the in-
mode he called "coherent cw." Petit did The ringing problem can be overcome put and reference signals. When the
not acknowledge Terman's paper, so we with time-domain processing at both ends signals are phase-cointident the mixer
must conclude that he rediscovered the of the communications path. The produces a maximum positive voltage.
wheel. In any case, ccw is an idea whose transmitter is stabilized to within 1 Hz of The mixer output voltage swings negative
time has come. Adrian Weiss, W0RSP, the proper frequency by phase-locking to when the input and reference signals are
disclosed some of the technical details of a reference standard. Precisely timed key- 180° out of phase. A 90° relationship
the ccw system in June and July 1977 CQ. ing pulses are derived from the same results in zero output voltage. The actual
The presentation contains some errors, reference standard. A similar reference hardware uses square waves for mixer LO
but the astute reader will be able to standard stabilizes the receiver frequency injection, so the phase detection transfer
recognize the significant principles. and synchronizes the audio output filter. characteristic is linear rather than
14-34 Chapter 14
t
— — WWVB 60KHZ
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
STANDARD STANDARD
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
STABILIZER STABILIZER
KEYING
SYNC
-o^o- sr
SIGNAL. INPUT T
1 OUTPUT
MODULATOR
,
COM-
90'
IkHZ O SAMPLE AND HOLD BINER
J
-o~--o-
"X"
I
> *
U 100 MS
-•j |«-1MS
—
|
SA MPLE
j j
|
—|^
-I
(kHz |*"IMS
RESET
REFERENCE GENERATOR R ESET ..
|
— |^ J~L
-100 MS »|
A3 O-i
Ol
Q O
©
DECAQE ©@®© ©©©©(DO
DECADE
COUNTER/
DECODER COUNTER/DECODER
Fig. 48 — Block diagram of a ccw receiving filter. The operation is outlined in the text.
sinusoidal, but the minimum and maxi- domly with respect to the reference, even locked to the same standard frequency
This from
variation results
mum voltages occur at the same points, though the reference generators at each transmission.
The phase of the input signal varies ran- end of the communications link may be changing propagation conditions. Phase
the filter. Note the symmetry of the skirts. once the filter has been synchronized, it
Unlike analog filters composed of linear usually won't need adjustment for several
circuit elements, the sampling filter does hours. Fig. 50 depicts a typical ccw sta-
not exhibit arithmetic -selectivity. The tion. The early experimenters built their
spurious responses on either side of the stationsaround simple QRP equipment to
main passband resemble the infinite rejec- dramatize the communications advan- Fig. 50 — This
is the first complete amateur
tion notches characteristic of an elliptic tages offered by the mode and to em- station to be built for coherent cw operation.
filter and are called aliases. The frequency phasize the accessibility of the necessary Assembled by Andy McCaskey, WA7ZVC, it
consists of a modified Ten-Tec PM-2
response is quasi-periodic because signals technology. The simple gear requires
transceiver and homemade modules which pro-
that are not zero-beat with the reference some add-on circuitry to allow oscillator vide for the control and processing of signals
frequency produce a difference frequency stabilization. The more modern synthe- as required for coherent-cw operation.
14-36 Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Interference
with Other Services
Frequency Interference (RFI) It is clear, therefore, that almost all RFI matic diagrams showing the recommended
^^adio
problems experienced with home-enter- placement of bypass capacitors and other
has probably been with us since the first
tainment devices result from basic design components to reduce rf susceptibility.
amateur stations came on the air some 70
deficiencies in this equipment. The few One large American manufacturer of hi-fi
years ago. Fed by the technology that
developed during and following II, WW small components or filters which would equipment has in some cases supplied the
prevent RFI are often left out of otherwise necessary components free of charge,
the problem has become an increasing
well-designed products as manufacturers although no consistent policy has been
source of irritation between radio opera-
attempt to reduce costs, and hence, to evident and the consumer must still pay to
tors and their neighbors. Home-entertain-
reduce the prices of their products. have a serviceman install the components.
ment electronics devices now abound,
While these are encouraging develop-
with most families owning at least one — Consumer Protection
The Solution ments, it appears likely that meaningful
television receiver, an a-m or fm radio,
Given the present unacceptable situa- and widespread corrective action by
and any one of several audio devices (such
an intercom, an tion, what can we as amateurs do to help equipment designers will require both
as a phonograph,
electronic organ). the consumer resolve the RFI problem? pressure from consumers and establish-
electronic guitar, or an
innate perversity of these One step which should certainly be taken ment of suitable government standards.
Given the
is to advise our friends and neighbors to Voluntary after-the-fact measures on
objects to intercept radio signals, it should
inquire, before they make a purchase of the part of manufacturers simply are not
surprise no one to learn that RFI is one of
an electronic device, whether the product enough. It is a foregone conclusion that as
the most difficult problems amateurs face
has been certified for operation in the pre- long as the inclusion of additional
in their day-to-day operations.
sence of a radio transmitter. Manufac- components for susceptibility reduction
How Serious is the RFI Problem? turers must be made to recognize that RFI increases a manufacturer's cost, however
FCC received protection of their home-entertainment slightly, there will be reluctance to take
In one year alone, the
equipment has become essential. Further, steps to improve equipment designs by the
150,000 RFI complaints, up more than 200
where interference is being experienced, manufacturers themselves. What appears
percent from the number of complaints
the consumer should be encouraged to to be necessary, therefore, is federal
received in 1970. Of these, the great
majority involved interference to home- contact the manufacturer of his equipment legislation giving the FCC the authority to
and to request that the manufacturer fur- regulate the manufacture of home-enter-
entertainment equipment. Most important,
nish the components or services necessary tainment devices and thus protect the con-
nearly all of these would never have come
to eliminate RFI. sumer.
to the Commission's attention if the manu-
facturers had corrected design deficiencies Up Us
What Are Manufacturers Doing Today? It's to
in their home-entertainment products at
Many responsible manufacturers have a If requests to manufacturers of home-
the time of manufacture. It is of interest to
policy of supplying filters for eliminating entertainment equipment for those com-
note that more than 60 percent of the
television interference when such cases are ponents and installation services neces-
interference cases reported were related to
brought to their attention. A list of those sary to relieve RFI problems are to be suc-
television interference (TVI).
manufacturers, and a more thorough cessful, each of us, when faced with an
In the case of television interference,
experience shows that 90 percent of treatment of the RFI problem, can be RFI problem, must make known our
FCC
obtained by writing the ARRL. If a given position to the manufacturers involved.
the problems experienced can only be
manufacturer is not listed, it is still While a respectful request for assistance
cured at the television receiver/Further,
possible that he can be persuaded to will bring more cooperation than a blunt
when it comes to audio equipment, the the
supply a this can be determined by demand, do not hesitate to let,
only cure for RFI is to treat the audio
filter;
writing either directly to him or to the manufacturers know that they have a
device experiencing the interference. There
Electronic Industries Association (EI A).
1
responsibility to the consumer for cor-
is nothing an amateur can do to his
trans-
With respect to audio devices, some recting the. design deficiencies that are
mitter which will stop a neighbor's phono-
manufacturers will supply modified sche- causing the problem. Before casting the
graph from acting as a short-wave re-
first stone, however, make sure you're not
ceiver. It should be emphasized that
sitting in a glass house. Certainly, if your
phonographs and hi-fi units are not
'Electronic Industries Association, 2001 Eye Street, own television receiver experiences no
designed to be receivers, but simply audio
N.W., Washington, DC 20006. Attention: Director
interference while you are on the air, it is
devices. of Consumer Affairs.
those deficiencies which lead to the no one takes kindly to hearing his
interception of radio signals. But in the possessions derided. If you discuss your
TV
interest of good neighborhood relations, interference problems on the air, do it in a 5
15-2 Chapter 15
PICTURE SOUND
CARRIER CARRIER 0.25 MHz
a 1
SEVERE
2 3
MODERATE
Fig. 2 — Location of picture and sound carriers in a monochrome television channel, showing
the
within the channel is varied
relative intensity of interference as the location of the interfering signal
without changing its strength. The three regions are not actually sharply defined as shown in this
drawing, but merge into one another gradually. Fig. 3 — "Cross-hatching," caused by the beat
between the picture carrier and an interfering
signal inside the TV channel.
look about as shown in Fig. 4. They result
frequency that puts a harmonic near the
in the intensity of the
picture carrier requires about 40 dB more from the variations
harmonic suppression in order to avoid interfering signal when modulated. Under
interference, as compared with an opera- most circumstances modulation bars will
ting frequency that puts the harmonic not occur if the amateur transmitter is fre-
near the upper edge of the channel. quency- or phase-modulated. With these
For a region of 100 kHz or so either types of modulation the cross-hatching
will "wiggle" from side to side with the
side of the sound carrier there is another
"severe" region where a spurious radia- modulation.
tion will interfere with reception of the Except in the more severe cases, there is
sound program and this region also seldom any effect on the sound reception
when interference shows in the picture,
should be avoided. In general, a signal of
intensity equal to that of the picture unless the frequency is quite close to the
carrier will not cause noticeable inter- sound carrier. In the\ latter event the
sound may be interfered with even though
ference if its frequency is in the "mild"
region shown in Fig. 2, but the same the picture is clean.
intensity in the "severe" region will utterly Reference to Fig. 1 will show whether Rg. 4 —
"Sound bars" or "modulation bars"
destroy the picture. or not harmonics of the frequency in use accompanying amplitude modulation of an
will fall in any television channels that can interfering signal. In this case the interfering carrier
is strong enough to destroy the picture, but in
mild
Interference Patterns be received in the locality. It should be visible through the horizontal
cases the picture is
The visible effects of interference vary kept in mind that not only harmonics of bars.Sound bars may accompany modulation even
with the type and intensity of the the final frequency may interfere, but also though the unmodulated carrier gives, no visible
interference. Complete "blackout," where harmonics of any frequencies that may be cross-hatching.
very radiation can take place. desirable to use as few stages as possible in
and very fine if the beat frequency is
— Preventing harmonics from being fed building up to the final output power level
high toward the upper end of the 3)
and to use tubes that require a minimum
channel. Typical cross-hatching is shown into the antenna.
impossible to build a transmitter of driving power.
in Fig. 3. If the frequency falls in the mild It is
region in Fig. 2, the cross-hatching may be that will not generate some harmonics, but
Circuit Design and Layout
so fine as to be visible only on close it is obviously advantageous to reduce
their strength, through circuit design and Harmonic of considerable
currents
inspection of the picture, in which case it
choice of operating conditions, by as large amplitude flow in both the grid and plate
may simply cause the apparent brightness
a factor as possible before attempting to circuits of rf power amplifiers, but they
of the screen to change when the
prevent them from being radiated. Har- will do relatively little harm if they can be
transmitter carrier is thrown on and off.
monic radiation from the transmitter itself effectively bypassed to the tube cathode.
Whether or not cross-hatching is visible,
or from its associated wiring obviously Fig. 5 shows the paths followed by
an amplitude-modulated transmitter may
cause interference just as readily as harmonic currents in an amplifier circuit;
cause "sound bars" in the picture. These will
the plate tuning capacitor. C3 and C4 are the grid fringe area (on his own set) generously
and plate blocking or bypass capacitors, above should be used to move it well out agreed to be the "patient" in the tests. A
respectively. of the TV range. The grid-dip meter also large screened enclosure was transported
should be used to check for vhf reso- to his location. It could contain the TV set
nances in the tank coils, because coils along with a smaller version of the screen
made for 14 MHz and below usually will enclosure (Fig. 6) for the transmitter.
show such resonances. In making the Other equipment included a gasolirte-
check, disconnect the coil entirely from powered generator that could power
the transmitter and move the grid-dip either the TV set or transmitter. There is
meter coil alongwhile exploring for a
it always the possibility that feedback of rf
dip in the 54- 88-MHz band. If a
to energy through the power line (or
resonance falls in a TV channel that is in "conducted interference") is a factor in a
LINE UHF
FILTER BULKHEAD use in the locality, changing the number of TVI problem. By running the equipment
[r=!i FEEDTHRU
U K © O
KEY MIC
turns will move it to a less-troublesome on separate power systems, some idea of
frequency. the importance of this type of coupling
would be ascertained.
Operating Conditions Various low-pass filters, high-pass fil-
Grid bias and grid current have an ters, and power harnesses made up the
rest of the equipment list. Checks on
important effect on the harmonic content
Fig. 6 —Construction details of the rf enclosure.
of the rf currents in both the grid and various TV channels indicated the most
Forthe model shown, thin aluminum sheet metal
serious problem resulted from third-
was used to form a box 1 2 X 28 x 20 inches plate circuits. In general, harmonic output
(HWD)(304 X711 x 508 mm). Small holes were increases as the grid bias and grid current
harmonic energy on channel 3 during
drilled for ventilation and a fan m ight be 15-meter operation. Tests were performed
are increased, but this is not necessarily
advisable if temperature rise is considered a with the rig inside and out of its shielded
problem. Fe,ed-through connectors can be of the
true of a particular harmonic. The third
and higher harmonics, especially, will go enclosure, the TV set inside and out of the
builder's choice but ac conduits and control
larger enclosure, and with either the TV
leads should be filtered. For key and mic leads, through fluctuations in amplitude as the
bypass with 0.001 -»F disk-ceramic capacitors set or transmitter on independent power.
grid currentis increased, and sometimes a
and install a small ferrite bead (if available). A rather high value of grid current will
commercially manufactured Ikie filter was used,
although a homemade one of the "brute force" minimize one harmonic as compared with Test Results
type would also be suitable. a low value. This characteristic can be Previous checks in the lab revealed that
Although dimensions and material are not used to advantage where a particular almost all currently manufactured ama-
critical, the cabinet should be deep enough io
harmonic is causing interference, remem- teur transmitters and transceivers emit
form as much of an overlap as possible between
the front of the equipment panel and the front of bering that the operating conditions that harmonics in the. form of "chassis
the cabinet. It is important that all leads be run minimize one harmonic may greatly radiation" to varying degrees. It should be
through the rear of the cabinet. increase another. For equal operating pointed out that no outstanding "saints"
15-4 Chapter 15
measures will be equally ineffective under
were found in this area but mostly only test that indicated appreciable reduc-
tion of TVI was the one with the transmit ter allcircumstances. However, the claims of
"sinners." Once this energy escapes from the
can be conducted to placed inside of its shielded enclosure. In all some manufacturers are open to question.
transmitter cabinet, it
there was no improvement or Items such as power supplies that
the antenna or back through the power other tests,
the change was so slight as to be inconclu- eliminate TVI, and similar nostrums have
line via a single-conductor waveguide type
Some residual interference still re- come to our Consequently,
attention.
of mode. This mode is very similar to the sive.
mained with the rig enclosed in the shield. common sense order in judging
is in
propagation of rf energy over a two-
This was likely caused by rectification in whether or not a particular device will
dimensional conducting surface in the.
the external environment. One unexpected prove effective in eliminating interference
form of a ground wave. But the important
was that no noticeable difference or how it should be employed.
thing to keep in mind is that devices such result
as filters, traps and grounds are ineffective was observed with the door of the enclo-
Suppression Practices
since the energy flows around the
rf sure opened or closed. In fact, with the
As the test results reported in the
suppression network. The only effective door partially closed and touching the
shield at only a few points the TVI became previous section reveal, complete elimi-
measure is adequate shielding.
worse! nation of TVI is often not a simple pro-
As might be expected, the field tests
cess. It seldom happens that a single mea-
verified the importance of this aspect. The
Conclusions sure such as installing a high-pass filter at
The transmitter power for these tests the TV set will cure the problem. Rather,
was approximately 180 watts. Consider- a number of methods must be applied
able work has yet to be performed to simultaneously. The principal factor in
determine the important factors at higher any TVI situation is the ratio of TV signal
levels. However, there is hope for the ham strength to interference level. This in-
experiencing TVI because of chassis cludes interference of all types such as
radiation. With the door open, it is ignition noise, random or thermal noise ,
believed that the enclosure acts as a (which isn't really interference but sets the
waveguide below cutoff and still offers minimum signal that permits "snow-free"
some measure of suppression while per- reception), and unwanted signals that fall
mitting access to the controls. In discuss- within the TV
channel. signal-to- A
ing the tests with other amateurs experi- interference ratio greater than approxi-
encing TVI, reports from the field were mately 35 to 40 dB is required for good
Fig. 7— Lab simulation of TVI tests discussed in
favorable when similar measures were picture quality.
the text. A dummy load placed next to the "rabbit In this regard, an area frequently
tried.
ears" served as the transmitting antenna. overlooked in TVI difficulties is the
Some further experimentation along
these lines is in order. For instance, TV-set antenna. A poor antenna with
former shielding theory advocated the use little gain in the direction of the TV
and with power fed through a commercially practical purposes it is useless in sup-
manufactured line filter, there was no differ- pressing vhf energy. This is because even
ence in TVI with the rig or TV set on inde- short lengths of wire have considerable
pendent power. Rf signal energy from the reactance at vhf. For instance, suppose a
TV antenna was fed into the shield enclo- length of wire by itself has an inductance
sure through a commercially manufactured of l wH. At 550 kHz, the reactance
would
high-pass filter. Little change was noted be about 3.46 ohms. On the other hand,
when these measures were eliminated and the same wire would have a reactance of
Fig. 9 —The interference was either reduced the set operated on the same power service over 300 ohms at 56 MHz, which is the
considerably (as shown in this photo) or as the transmitter, without a high-pass fil- frequency range of TV channel 2. (Ac-
eliminated completely, depending upon TV impedance of a wire becomes a
ter and outside of the shield. tually, the
signal strength, with all the leads exiting from the
It should not be concluded that such more complicated entity to define at vhf.
rear of the cabinet.
the boundaries of the shield diminish. on its smallest dimension, it will provide a Fig. 11 —Winding the cable on a ferrite toroid
Consequently, the use of a double shield very effective barrier. Large pieces of is a highly effective shield current suppressor
sheet metal are expensive, so the baffle in some cases. Reversing the winding as pic-
(as used in the tests) is one way of tured allows more turns with less shunt
reducing can be made from a sheet of cardboard or
residual radiation from the capacitance. RG-8X is used in this model, but
primary shielding surface. Masonite covered with aluminum foil. RG-58 will suffice for moderate power applica-
In order to obtain maximum ef- The ideal placement of any of these tions. The most important property of the cable
fectiveness of a particular shielding mea- chokes will vary with the standing wave is complete shielding — avoid "bargain" cable
having less than 95-percent braid coverage.
sure, no breaks or points of entry should pattern on the coax shield, but in general
be permitted. Small holes for ventilation they should be close to the transmitter.
purposes usually do not degrade shielding Like all RFI remedies, the effectiveness of
effectiveness.But even here, a honeycomb these devices varies widely with each in-
type of ductis often employed when
terference situation. Therefore, one
maximum isolation is required. (A par- should not expect miracles.
allel bundle of small tubing has very high
15-6 Chapter 15
citors arc highly recommended for con- practical will generally be better from an
ducting leads in and out of circuits where RFI and TVI standpoint than antennas
the radiation of harmonic energy is pos- closer to the ground.
sible. In addition, the rfc illustrated in Fig.
14 could either consist of a small coil FCC Rules Concerning RFI
wound over a composition resistor as Part 97.73 of the U.S. amateur regula-
shown or could be a
it ferrite bead on a tions specifies the amateur's responsibility
straight piece of wire. for signal purity:
(a)Except for a transmitter or transceiver
Decoupling from the AC Line built before April 15, 1977 or first marketed
Direct feedback of rf energy into the ac before January 1, 1978, the mean power of any
power service is usually not a problem spurious emission or radiation from an
with modern transmitting equipment. amateur transmitter, transceiver, or external
However, currents induced on the anten- radio frequency power amplifier being
operated with a carrier frequency below 30
na feed line may flow on the transmitter
chassis and back into the ac line. A rig
MHz shall be at least 40 decibels below the
mean power of the fundamental without ex-
"hot" with rf or even the presence of
ceeding the power of 50 milliwatts. For equip-
"broadcast harmonics" while receiving ment of mean power less than five watts, the
may mean a problem of this sort. In the attenuation shall be at least 30 decibels.
case where an antenna is being used that (b) Except for a transmitter or transceiver
requires a ground (such as an end-fed built before April 15, 1977 or first marketed
wire), never use any part of the ac before January 1, 1978, the mean power of any
conduits, water systems, or other con- spurious emission or radiation from an
ductors in a building. It is always amateur transmitter, transceiver, or external
radio frequency power amplifier being
advisable to have a separate ground
operated with a carrier frequency above 30
system for the antenna itself.
MHz but below the mean power of the fun-
It is also good practice to use an
damental. For a transmitter having a mean
antenna-matching network with no direct power of 25 watts or less, the mean power of
connection between the transmitter and any spurious radiation supplied to the antenna
Fig. 13 — Stray lead inductance of a capacitor
antenna feed line. Any matching network transmission line shall be at least 40 decibels
can degrade filter performance.
that uses mutual-magnetic coupling ex- below the mean power of the fundamental
clusively will fulfill this requirement. without exceeding the power of 25 microwatts,
Antenna pattern is another factor to but need not be reduced below the power of 10
microwatts.
consider and if possible, a type should be
(c) Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section
used that directs the minimum possible
notwithstanding, all spurious emissions or
signal into other dwellings. For instance,
radiation from an amateur transmitter,
ground-mounted antennas have
vertical power
transceiver, or external radio frequency
considerable low-angle radiation while a amplifier shall be reduced or eliminated in ac-
dipole directs energy at angles below the cordance with good engineering practice.
horizontal plane. A vertical ground plane (d) If any spurious radiation, including
or beam mounted on as high a tower as chassis or power line radiation, causes harmful
40
Fig. 14 — Additional lead filtering for har-
monics or other spurious frequencies in the
SPURIOUS ATTENUATION <30MHz
high vhf TV band (174-216 MHz).
C1 — 0.001-/jF disc ceramic X = POWER WATTS)
(
3 4 3 6 789 3 4 5 6 7 89
-
•
X >25 WATTS 60dB
— i
0.01
fig. 16 — This graph illustrates to what level spurious-output energy must be reduced for equipment designed to operate in the 30- to 235-MHz range.
interference to the reception of another radio model was built and the response is shown
station, the licensee may be required to take in- Fig. 13. As can be seen, the filter came 0.2646.UH 0.402996jiH 0.189S6||H
steps to eliminate •
the interference in ac-
quite close to the design goals. Unfortu-
cordance with good engineering practice.
nately, as with most of the designs in this
NOTE: For the purposes of this section, a
spurious emission or radiation means any emis-
section, alignment of the more compli-
radiation from a transmitter,
cated filters requires some sort of sweep- 0.20096jiH
sion or
transceiver, or external radio frequency power generator setup. This is the only practical
amplifier which is outside of the authorized way of "tweaking" a filter to the desired f2-59 .7 MHz f<> 41 2 MHz
Amateur Radio Service frequency band being response. While building a sweep setup is
not beyond the talents of an advanced ex-
used.
The numerical limits cited in 97.73 are perimenter, the lack of one is an obstacle 1"""X
interpreted graphically in Figs. 15 and 16.
in the home construction of filters.
The judicious use of filters, along with absorbs harmonic energy. A high-pass
suppression measures such as section consisting of LI, L2, CI and C2 is
other
shielding, has provided solutions to terminated in a 50-ohm "idler load" and
this combination performs the latter
interference problems in widely varying
function. The advantages of this tech-
applications. As a consequence, con-
siderable attention has been given to the nique are that degradation of filter
rejection caused by antenna mismatch at
subject over the years that has resulted in
some very esoteric designs. Perhaps the the harmonic frequency are not as severe
most modern approach is the optimiza- (with a filter of this type) and the
most important ones are the so-called not a necessity, this filter can be built and horizontal scale is 10 MHz/div.
Chebyshev and elliptic-function filters. using conventional fixed capacitors. Cop-
(Butterworth filters are often considered per-clad Teflon board may not be readily
a special case of Chebyshev types with a available in small quantities from many accurate grid-dip oscillator, an SWR
ripple factor of zero.) supply houses. Regular fiberglass-insulated bridge, a reactance chart or the ARRL
Elliptic-function filters might be con- board is low power. One
satisfactory for Lightning Calculator (for L, C and f). a
sidered optimum in the" sense that they such has been used with an SB- 100
filter 50-ohm dummy load, and a transmitter.
provide the sharpest rolloff between the transceiver running 100 watts. Although Once the value of a given capacitor has
passband and stopband. Computed values the Q of the fiberglass capacitors will be been calculated, the next step is to ,
for a low-pass filter with a 0. 1-dB ripple in lower than -that of Teflon-dielectric capa- determine the capacitance per square inch
the passband and a cutoff frequency of citors, this should not greatly affect the of the double-clad circuit board you have.
30.6 MHz are shown in Fig. 12. The filter type of filter described here. This is done by connecting one end of a
issupposed to provide an attenuation of Test equipment needed to build this coil of known inductance to one side of
35 dB above 40 MHz. An experimental filter at home includes a reasonably the circuit board, and the other coil lead
15-8 Chapter 15
.
one side of the circuit board gives the The following factors affect the power (1000 watts is 60 dBm).
capacitance per square inch. Once this tolerable harmonic levels: TA —
Transmitter harmonic attenuation,
figure is determined, capacitors of almost TP — Transmitter power output dBm. in can be estimated from specifications
any value can be laid out with a ruler! TA — Transmitter harmonic attenuation. given for commercial transmitters.
High voltages can be developed across GT — Gain of the transmitting antenna Gx — Conservative estimate dB.
capacitors in a series-tuned circuit, so the at the harmonic frequency, G R — Estimate relative bearing from the
copper material should be trimmed back Gr — Gain of the TV receiving antenna at TV antenna to the amateur antenna,
at least 1/8 inch (3-mm) from all edges of the interfering frequency, and use Table 1
a board, except those that will be soldered S A — Attenuation (path loss) from the SA — Estimate distance between the an-
to ground, to prevent arcing. This should transmitting antenna to the receiving tennas, and use Table 2 for path loss
kept smooth and sharp corners should be TV receiver needed to preclude visual or over 50 miles, use Class B.
avoided. audio interference. SR —
Signal/interference ratio required
If the filter box is made
of double-clad The relationship between these factors, can be as high as 40 dB, with an
fiberglass board, both sides should be when expressed in dB, is operating frequency whose harmonic is
bonded together with copper stripped HR = (T P + T A + GT + G R + S A )
within 1 MHz
of the picture carrier
from another piece of board. Stripped frequency, or as low as 20 dB, if the
- Ss + SR
copper foil may be cleaned with a razor harmonic is more than 2 MHz from
blade before soldering. To remove copper where H R is the further transmitter har- both picture and sound carriers. 35
foil from a board, use a straight edge and monic reduction required (in dB). dB is a suggested reasonable value.
a sharp scribe to score the thin copper foil. The first step in determining H R is to Let us assume a station operating on 15
When the copper foil has been cut, use a find the harmonic relationship between meters with 1-kW PEP output. The third
razor blade to lift a corner. Careful the bands you use and the frequencies of harmonic (in channel 3) is down 40 dB.
heating with a soldering iron will reduce the weaker TV signals in your area. The The antenna is a triband beam pointed at
the effort required to separate the copper harmonics of the hf amateur bands that the TV antenna, with a separation of 40
from the board. This technique of fall in the lower vhf TV channels are given Fringe-area reception
meters (130 feet).
bonding two pieces of board or two sides in Fig. 1. Then, for each combination of applies. The numbers are:
of a piece of board can also be used to amateur band and TV channel concerned,
interconnect two capacitors when con- determine HR ,
Using the following infor- T P = +60
struction in one plane would require too mation: T A = -50
much area. Stray inductance must be TP — Peak transmitter power output in GT =
minimized and sufficient clearance must dB above 1 mW. 25 watts is 44 dBm. G R = -10
Interference with other Services 15-9
SA = -40 The tuning capacitor is a double-spaced
Ss = -56 variable (Hammarlund HF-30-X) mount-
SR = +35 ed 1-1/2 inches (38-mm) from the right
end of the chassis. Input and output
H R = + 60) +( (-50) + (0) + ( + 10) coupling loops are of no. 10 or 12 wire, 10
+ (-40) + (-56) + ( + 35) = +71 inches (254-mm) long. Spacing away from
the line is adjusted to about 1 /4 inch (6-
The dB of addi-
indicated need for 71
mm).
tional attenuation
confirms our
The 144-MHz model is housed in a
hypothetical situation as a particularly
bad one: fringe-area reception with a
2-1/4 X 2-1/2 X 12-inch (57 X 64 X 305-
mm) Minibox (Bud CU-2114-A).
signal very close to the TV receiver noise
level.
One end of the tubing is slotted
Assuming good engineering design for 1/4-inch (6-mm) deep with a hacksaw.
minimum harmonic generation and ade- This slot takes a brass angle bracket
quate shielding to prevent radiation of 1-1/2-inches (38-mm) wide, 1/4-inch (6-
harmonic power that is always present in mm) high, with a 1/2-inch (13-mm)
any transmitter, the way to reduce har- mounting lip. This 1 /4-inch (6-mm) lip is
soldered into the tubing slot, and the
monic radiation further is to use a low-
bracket is then bolted to the end of the
pass filter. A good filter will offer at least
box, so as to be centered on the end plate.
50 dB of additional attenuation, when
used with a well-designed transmitter The tuning capacitor (Hammarlund
working into a proper load. This should HF-15-X) is mounted 1-1/4 inches (32-
Fig. 20 — Equivalent circuits for the strip-line
be enough to solve most harmonic-TVI filters. At A, the circuit for the 6- and 2-meter mm) from the other end of the box, in
problems. With a situation like the above filters are shown. L2 and L3 are the input and such a position that the inner conductor
output links. Theseare bilateral, per-
filters can be soldered to the two stator bars.
worst-case conditions, relocation of the
mitting interchanging of the input and output
amateur antenna or, in some instances, The two coaxial fittings (SO-239) are
terminals. At B, the representative circuit for
raising it well above the plane of residen- the 220- and 432-MHz filters. These filters are 11/16 inch (17-mm) in from each side of
tial TV antennas, may help. Operation at also bilateral. the box, 3-1/2 inches (89-mm) from the
left end. The coupling loops are no. 12.
reduced transmitter power levels should
wire, bent so that each is parallel to the
be tried, though this does not always
result in lowered harmonic-power radia-
center line of the inner conductor, and
tion.The reverse may be true, depending about 1/8 inch (3-mm) from its surface.
on transmitter operating conditions. Their cold ends are soldered to the brass
mounting bracket.
Filters For VHF Transmitters
The 220-MHz filter uses the same size
box as the 144-MHz model. The inner
High rejection of unwanted frequencies conductor is 1/16-inch (2-mm) brass or
is possible with the tuned-line filters of copper, 5/8-inch (16-mm) wide, just long
Fig. Examples are shown for each
20. Fig. 21 — Interior of the 50-MHz strip-line filter. enough to fold over at each end for
band from 50 through 450 MHz. Con- Inner conductor of aluminum strip is bent into bolting to the box. It is positioned so that
struction is relatively simple, and the cost U shape, inside a standard 17-inCh
to fit
there will be 1/8 inch (3-mm) clearance
(432-mm) chassis.
is low. Standard boxes are used for ease of
between it and the rotor plates of the
duplication.
tuning capacitor. The latter is a Ham-
The of Fig. 21 is selective enough
filter
marlund HF-15-X, mounted slightly off-
to pass 50-MHz
energy and attenuate the center in the box, so that its stator plates
seventh harmonic of an 8-MHz oscillator
connect to the exact mid-point of the line.
that falls in TV channel 2. With an
The 5/16-inch (8-mm) mounting hole in
insertion loss at 50 MHz of about 1 dB, it
the case 5-1/2 inches (140-mm) from
is
can provide up to 40 dB of attenuation to one end. The SO-239 coaxial fittings are 1
energy at 57 MHz in the same line.
inch (25-mm) in from opposite sides of the
The uses a folded line in order to
filter box, 2 inches (51-mm) from the ends.
Fig. 22— The 1 44-MHz filter has an inner
keep it within the confines of a standard conductorof 1/2-ihch (13-mm) coppertubing 10 Their coupling links are no. 14 wire, 1/8
chassis. The case is a 6 X 17 X inches (254-mm) long, grounded to the left end inch (3-mm) from the inner conductor of
of the case and supported at the right end by the
3-inch (152 X 432 X 76-mm) chassis (Bud the line.
tuning capacitor.
AC-433) with a cover plate that fastens in The 420-MHz filter is similar in design,
place with self-tapping screws. An alu- using a 1-5/8 X 2 X 10-inch (41 X 51 X
minum partition down the middle of the 254-mm) Minibox (Bud CU-2113-A). A
assembly is 14 inches (356-mm) long, and half-wave line is used, with disc tuning at
the full height of the chassis, 3 inches (76- the center. The discs are 1/16-inch
mm). (2-mm) brass, 1-1/4-inch (32-mm) dia-
The inner conductor of the line is 32 meter. The fixed one is centered on the
inches (813-mm) long arid 13/16-inch inner conductor, the other mounted on a
(21 -mm) wide, of 1/16-inch (2-mm) brass, no. 6 brass lead-screw. This passes
copper or aluminum. This was made from through a threaded bushing, which can be
two pieces of aluminum spliced together' Fig. 23 — A half -wave strip line is used in the taken from the end of a discarded
to provide the 32-inch (813-mm) length. 220-M Hz filter. It is grounded at both ends and slug-tuned form. An advantage of these is
Splicing seemed to have no ill effect on the tuned at the center. that usually a tension device is included. If
circuit Q. The sides of the "U" are 2-7/8 there none, use a lock nut.
is
inches (73-mm) apart, with the partition up with sections of hard wood or bakelite Type N
coaxial connectors were used
at the center. The
supported on
line is rod, to give the required 1-1/2-inch (38- on the 420-MHz model. They are 5/8 inch
ceramic standoffs. These were shimmed mm) height. (16-mm) in from each side of the box, and
15-10 Chapter 15
i-3/8 inches (35-mra) in from the ends. described previously and apply the recom- be enclosed in the shielding about the rf
Their coupling links of no. 14 wire are mended remedies until the interference circuits. Poor joints anywhere in .the
1/16 inch (2-mm) from the inner conduc- disappears. antenna system are especially bad, and
tor. 5) When
the transmitter is completely rectification also may take place in the
clean on the dummy antenna, connect it contacts of antenna changeover relays.
to the regular antenna and check for Another common cause is overloading the
Adjustment and Use
interference on the TV receiver. If the front end of the communications receiver
you want the filter to work on both
If
interference is not bad, a Transmatch or when used with a separate antenna
it is
transmitting and receiving, connect the (which will radiate the harmonics genera-
matching circuit installed as previously
filter between antenna line and SWR tube) for break-in.
described should clear it up. Alternatively, ted in the first
indicator. With this arrangement you Rectification of this sort will not only
a low-pass filter may be used. If neither
need merely adjust the filter for minimum Transmatch nor makes any cause harmonic interference but also is
the filter
reflected power reading on the
- SWR difference in the interference, the evidence frequently responsible for cross-modulation
bridge. This should be zero, or close to it,
can be detected in greater or less
is strong that the interference, at least in effects. It
ifthe antenna is well-matched. The bridge part, is being caused by receiver over- degree in most locations, but fortunately
should be used, as there is no way to loading because of the strong fundamen- the harmonics thus generated are not
adjust the filter properly without it. If you TV antenna usually of high amplitude. However, they
tal-frequency field about the
insist on trying, adjust for best reception
and receiver. A Transmatch and/or filter, can cause considerable interference in the
of signals on frequencies close to the ones installed as described above, will in- immediate vicinity in fringe areas, es-
you expect to transmit on. This works variably make a difference in the intensity when operation is in the 28-MHz
pecially
only if the antenna is well matched.
of the interference if the interference is band. The amplitude decreases rapidly
When the filter is properly adjusted
caused by transmitter harmonics alone. with the order of the harmonic, the second
(with the SWR bridge) you may find that 6) If there is still interference after and third being the worst. It is ordinarily
reception can be improved by retuning the Transmatch and/or filter, found that even in cases where destructive
installing the
filter. Don't do it if you want the filter to
and the evidence shows that it is probably interference results from 28-MHz opera-
work best on the job it was intended to do: caused by a harmonic, more attenuation is tion the interference is comparatively mild
The rejection of unwanted energy, trans-
needed. A more elaborate filter may be from 14 MHz,- and is negligible at still
mitting or receiving. If you want to im- However, well at this stage lower frequencies.
necessary. it is
prove reception with the filter in the cir- to assume that part of the interference Nothing can be done at either the
cuit,work on the receiver input circuit. To may be caused by receiver overloading. transmitter or receiver when rectification
get maximum power out of the transmit- Take steps to alleviate such a condition occurs. The remedy is to find the source
ter and into the line, adjust the transmitter
before trying highly elaborate filters and and eliminate the poor contact either by
output coupling, not the filter. If the effect traps on the transmitter. separating the conductors or bonding
of the filter on reception bothers you, them together. A crystal wavemeter
connect it in the line from the antenna (tuned to the fundamental frequency) is
Harmonics by Rectification
relay to the transmitter only.
useful for hunting the source by showing
Even though the, transmitter is com-
from harmonic output it is still which conductors are carrying rf and,
Summary pletely free
comparatively, how much.
possible for interference to occur because
The methods of harmonic elimination Interference of this kind is frequently
of harmonics generated outside the trans-
outlined here have been proved beyond intermittent the rectification ef-
since
mitter. These result from rectification of
doubt to be effective even under highly ficiency will vary with vibration, weather
fundamental-frequency currents induced
unfavorable conditions. It must be em- and so on. The possibility of corroded
in conductors in the vicinity of the
phasized once more, however, that the
transmitting antenna. Rectification can
contacts in the TV receiving antenna
problem must be solved one step at a time, should not be overlooked, especially if it
take place at any point where two
and the procedure must be in logical has been up a year or more.
conductors are in poor electrical contact,
order. It cannot be done properly without
a condition that frequently exists in
two items of simple equipment: A grid-dip TV Receiver Deficiencies
plumbing, downspouting, BX cables cross-
meter and wavemeter covering the TV
ing each other, and numerous other When a television receiver is quite close
bands, and a dummy antenna.
places in the ordinary residence. It also to the transmitter, the intense rf signal
To summarize: from the transmitter's fundamental may
can occur at any exposed vacuum tubes in
1) Take a critical look at the transmitter
the station, in power supplies, speech overload one or more of the receiver
on the basis of the design considerations circuits to produce spurious responses
equipment, or other items which may not
outlined under "Reducing Harmonic
Generation."
2) Check all circuits, particularly those
connected with the final amplifier, with
the grid-dip meter to determine whether
there are any resonances in the TV bands.
If so, rearrange the circuits so the
resonances are moved out of the critical
T RSWITCH
frequency region. /OR RELAY
3) Connect the transmitter to the TRANSMITTER
dummy antenna and check with the TRANSMATCH
wavemeter for the presence of harmonics t=CC FILTER
on leads and around the transmitter
enclosure. Seal off theweak spots in the
shielding and filter the leads until the
wavemeter shows no indication at any
harmonic frequency. Fig. 24 — The proper method of installing a low-pass
filter between the transm itter and a Transmatch.
If the antenna fed through coax, the Transmatch can be eliminated, but the transmitter and filter
is
4) At this stage, check for interference
must be completely shielded. If a TR switch is used, it should be installed between the transmitter and
with a TV receiver. If there is interference, low-pass filter. TR switches can generate harmonics themselves, so the low-pass filter should follow
determine the cause by the methods the TR switch.