EE-215: Electronic Devices and Circuits

CHAPTER 3

Semiconductors

School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

National University of Sciences and Technology
Introduction 135 3.5 The pn Junction with an Applied
Voltage 155
3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 136
3.2 Doped Semiconductors 139
Usman Khan, PhD Effects in the pn Junction
3.6 Capacitive 164

3.3 Current Flow in Semiconductors 142 Summary 168

silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
valence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

Intrinsic Si conducting at room T?

all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

Figure 3.2 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
ken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

Thermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
concentrations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
(cm3). The free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
in the process some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
results in the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
oms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
lectrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

Intrinsic Si conducting at room T?

are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

3.2 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

ermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
rations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
The free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
rocess some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
in the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
oms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
lectrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

A useful expression
are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

3.2 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

ermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
rations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
The free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
rocess some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
in the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
Doping Semiconductors
 n-type Doping
3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 127

Valence Covalent
electrons bonds

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Silicon atoms
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

igure 3.1 Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal. The circles represent the inner core of
licon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
alence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,
l bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
3.3 shows a silicon crystal doped with phosphorus impurity. The dopant (phos-
ms replace some of the silicon atoms in the crystal structure. Since the phosphorus
n-type Doping
e electrons in its outer shell, four of these electrons form covalent bonds with the

Valence Covalent
electrons bonds

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! ! Free electron donated
by impurity atom
!
! ! ! Pentavalent impurity
atom (donor)
! "4 ! ! "5 ! ! "4 !
! ! !
Silicon atoms
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element. Each dopant atom donates a free electron
ed a donor. The doped semiconductor becomes n type.
3.3 shows a silicon crystal doped with phosphorus impurity. The dopant (phos-
ms replace some of the silicon atoms in the crystal structure. Since the phosphorus
n-type Doping:- carrier concentration
e electrons in its outer shell, four of these electrons form covalent bonds with the

Valence Covalent
electrons bonds

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! ! Free electron donated
by impurity atom
!
! ! ! Pentavalent impurity
atom (donor)
! "4 ! ! "5 ! ! "4 !
! ! !
Silicon atoms
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element. Each dopant atom donates a free electron
ed a donor. The doped semiconductor becomes n type.
3.3 shows a silicon crystal doped with phosphorus impurity. The dopant (phos-
ms replace some of the silicon atoms in the crystal structure. Since the phosphorus
n-type Doping:- carrier concentration
e electrons in its outer shell, four of these electrons form covalent bonds with the

Valence Covalent
electrons bonds

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! ! Free electron donated
by impurity atom
!
! ! ! Pentavalent impurity
atom (donor)
! "4 ! ! "5 ! ! "4 !
! ! !
Silicon atoms
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element. Each dopant atom donates a free electron
ed a donor. The doped semiconductor becomes n type.
 p-type Doping
3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 127

Valence Covalent
electrons bonds

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Silicon atoms
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

igure 3.1 Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal. The circles represent the inner core of
licon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
alence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,
l bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
charge carriers in n-type silicon.

p-type Doping
To obtain p-type silicon in which holes are the majority charge carriers, a trivalent impu-
rity such as boron is used. Figure 3.4 shows a silicon crystal doped with boron. Note that the
boron atoms replace some of the silicon atoms in the silicon crystal structure. Since each

Covalent
Valence
bonds
electrons
Silicon atom
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Trivalent impurity
atom (acceptor)
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "3 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Electron accepted from
this atom, thus creating
! ! "
a hole
! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !
! ! !

Figure 3.4 A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity. Each dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and
the semiconductor becomes p type.
charge carriers in n-type silicon.

p-type Doping:- carrier concentration

To obtain p-type silicon in which holes are the majority charge carriers, a trivalent impu-
rity such as boron is used. Figure 3.4 shows a silicon crystal doped with boron. Note that the
boron atoms replace some of the silicon atoms in the silicon crystal structure. Since each

Covalent
Valence
bonds
electrons
Silicon atom
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Trivalent impurity
atom (acceptor)
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "3 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Electron accepted from
this atom, thus creating
! ! "
a hole
! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !
! ! !

Figure 3.4 A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity. Each dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and
the semiconductor becomes p type.
charge carriers in n-type silicon.

p-type Doping:- carrier concentration

To obtain p-type silicon in which holes are the majority charge carriers, a trivalent impu-
rity such as boron is used. Figure 3.4 shows a silicon crystal doped with boron. Note that the
boron atoms replace some of the silicon atoms in the silicon crystal structure. Since each

Covalent
Valence
bonds
electrons
Silicon atom
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Trivalent impurity
atom (acceptor)
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "3 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Electron accepted from
this atom, thus creating
! ! "
a hole
! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !
! ! !

Figure 3.4 A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity. Each dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and
the semiconductor becomes p type.
charge carriers in n-type silicon.

p-type Doping
To obtain p-type silicon in which holes are the majority charge carriers, a trivalent impu-
rity such as boron is used. Figure 3.4 shows a silicon crystal doped with boron. Note that the
boron atoms replace some of the silicon atoms in the silicon crystal structure. Since each

Covalent
Valence
bonds
electrons
Silicon atom
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Trivalent impurity
atom (acceptor)
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "3 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Electron accepted from
this atom, thus creating
! ! "
a hole
! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !
! ! !

Figure 3.4 A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity. Each dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and
the semiconductor becomes p type.
Current Flow in Semiconductors
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

Current Flow in Semiconductors

where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

Current Flow in Semiconductors

where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

1. Drift Current
where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

1. Drift Current
where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

1. Drift Current
where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

1. Drift Current
where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

1. Drift Current
where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

1. Drift Current
where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
 vn-drift = –µn E (3.9)

Current Flow in Semiconductors

where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n
is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.
where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E. Here
µ n is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350 cm2/V.s. Note that µ n

Current Flow in Semiconductors

is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with much greater ease through the sil-
icon crystal than do holes.

! Holes
" Electrons
x Figure 3.5 An electric field E established in a
bar of silicon causes the holes to drift in the direc-
tion of E and the free electrons to drift in the oppo-
site direction. Both the hole and electron drift
V currents are in the direction of E.