EE-215: Electronic Devices and Circuits

CHAPTER 3

Semiconductors

School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

National University of Sciences and Technology
Introduction 135 3.5 The pn Junction with an Applied
Voltage 155
3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 136
3.2 Doped Semiconductors 139
Usman Khan, PhD Effects in the pn Junction
3.6 Capacitive 164

3.3 Current Flow in Semiconductors 142 Summary 168

Semiconductors
Periodic Table
Intrinsic Semiconductors
CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids

Table 1.1 | A portion of the periodic table Table 1.2 | A list of some semiconductor
materials
III IV V
Elemental semiconductors
5 6
B C Si Silicon
Boron Carbon Ge Germanium
13 14 15 Compound semiconductors
Al Si P
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus AlP Aluminum phosphide
31 32 33 AlAs Aluminum arsenide
Ga Ge As GaP Gallium phosphide
Gallium Germanium Arsenic GaAs Gallium arsenide
49 51 InP Indium phosphide
In Sb
Indium Antimony

which the more common semiconductors are found and Table 1.2 lists a few of the
semiconductor materials. (Semiconductors can also be formed from combinations of
group II and group VI elements, but in general these will not be considered in this text.)
The elemental materials, those that are composed of single species of atoms, are
silicon and germanium. Silicon is by far the most common semiconductor used in
Ref.: Semiconductor
integrated Physics
circuits and will and Devices:
be emphasized to aBasic
greatPrinciples
extent. by Donald A. Neamen
Intrinsic Semiconductors
CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids

Table 1.1 | A portion of the periodic table Table 1.2 | A list of some semiconductor
materials
III IV V
Elemental semiconductors
5 6
B C Si Silicon
Boron Carbon Ge Germanium
13 14 15 Compound semiconductors
Al Si P
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus AlP Aluminum phosphide
31 32 33 AlAs Aluminum arsenide
Ga Ge As GaP Gallium phosphide
Gallium Germanium Arsenic GaAs Gallium arsenide
49 51 InP Indium phosphide
In Sb
Indium Antimony

which the more common semiconductors are found and Table 1.2 lists a few of the
semiconductor materials. (Semiconductors can also be formed from combinations of
group II and group VI elements, but in general these will not be considered in this text.)
The elemental materials, those that are composed of single species of atoms, are
silicon and germanium. Silicon is by far the most common semiconductor used in
Ref.: Semiconductor
integrated Physics
circuits and will and Devices:
be emphasized to aBasic
greatPrinciples
extent. by Donald A. Neamen
Intrinsic Semiconductors
CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids
CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids

Table 1.1 | A portion of the periodic table Table 1.2 | A list of some semiconductor
Table 1.1 | A portion of the periodic table Table 1.2 |materials
A list of some semiconductor
III IV V materials
III IV V Elemental semiconductors
5 6 Elemental semiconductors
5 B 6 C Si Silicon
B
Boron CarbonC Si
Ge Silicon
Germanium
Boron
13 Carbon
14 15 Ge Germanium
Compound semiconductors
13 Al 14 Si 15 P Compound semiconductors
Aluminum
Al Silicon
Si Phosphorus
P AlP Aluminum phosphide
Aluminum
31 Silicon
32 Phosphorus
33 AlP
AlAs Aluminumarsenide
Aluminum phosphide
31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As AlAs
GaP Aluminum
Gallium arsenide
phosphide
Gallium
Ga Germanium
Ge Arsenic
As GaP
GaAs Galliumarsenide
Gallium phosphide
Gallium
49 Germanium Arsenic
51 GaAs
InP Gallium
Indium arsenide
phosphide
49 In 51 Sb InP Indium phosphide
Indium
In Antimony
Sb
Indium Antimony

which the more common semiconductors are found and Table 1.2 lists a few of the
semiconductor
which the morematerials.
common (Semiconductors
semiconductors are can found
also beandformed
Tablefrom
1.2 combinations
lists a few of ofthe
group II and group
semiconductor VI elements,
materials. but in general
(Semiconductors these
can alsowill
be not be considered
formed in this text.)of
from combinations
groupThe elemental
II and materials,
group VI elements,those that
but in are composed
general these willofnot
single species of in
be considered atoms, are
this text.)
silicon
Theand germanium.
elemental Silicon
materials, is by
those thatfarare
thecomposed
most common semiconductor
of single used in
species of atoms, are
Ref.: Semiconductor Physics and Devices: Basic Principles
integrated circuits and will be emphasized to a great extent. by Donald A. Neamen
Cu atom, metal
 r0 Interatomic distance
Silicon atom, semiconductor
Figure 3.3 | Schematic showing the splitting of three en
into allowed bands of energies.

4 N states
0 electrons

n!2 E g

Electron energy
8 electrons
4 N states
Six allowed levels
4 N electrons
at same energy
"14
Two allowed levels
at same energy
sp
n!1
2 electrons n!3 a0
(a) (b)

Figure 3.4 | (a) Schematic of an isolated silicon atom. (b) The splitting of the 3s and 3p states o
allowed and forbidden energy bands.
(From Shockley [6].)
 r0 Interatomic distance
Silicon atom, semiconductor
Figure 3.3 | Schematic showing the splitting of three en
into allowed bands of energies.

4 N states
0 electrons

n!2 E g

Electron energy
8 electrons
4 N states
Six allowed levels
4 N electrons
at same energy
"14
Two allowed levels
at same energy
sp
n!1
2 electrons n!3 a0
(a) (b)

Figure 3.4 | (a) Schematic of an isolated silicon atom. (b) The splitting of the 3s and 3p states o
allowed and forbidden energy bands.
(From Shockley [6].)
Silicon crystal
3D Silicon (cubic) crystal
Silicon crystal
Silicon crystal
 Silicon crystal 3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 127

Valence Covalent
electrons bonds

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Silicon atoms
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

Figure 3.1 Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal. The circles represent the inner core of
silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
valence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,
all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
valence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

Silicon crystal, at room temperature

all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

Figure 3.2 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
ken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

Thermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
concentrations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
(cm3). The free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
in the process some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
results in the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
valence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

Thermal Generation and Electron-hole Pair

all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

Figure 3.2 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
ken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

Thermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
concentrations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
(cm3). The free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
in the process some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
results in the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
valence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

Recombination
all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

Figure 3.2 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
ken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

Thermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
concentrations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
(cm3). The free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
in the process some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
results in the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
valence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

Concentration
all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

Figure 3.2 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
ken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

Thermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
concentrations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
(cm3). The free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
in the process some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
results in the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four
rons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K,

Concentration
intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.

Valence Free
electrons electron

! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Broken
covalent ! Hole
bond ! " !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !
Covalent Silicon atoms
bond
! ! !

! "4 ! ! "4 ! ! "4 !

! ! !

At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each bro-
es rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

al generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence equal
ons, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers per unit volume
free electrons and holes move randomly through the silicon crystal structure, and
ess some electrons may fill some of the holes. This process, called recombination,
the disappearance of free electrons and holes. The recombination rate is
 D and
A P P E N D I X D Unit of Energy—The Electron Volt

x!_ eEt
2
(D.3)
2m0
Unit of Energy—The where we have assumed that v ! 0 at t ! 0.
Assume that at t ! t0 the electron reaches the positive plate of the capacitor so
Electron Volt that x ! d. Then
eEt2
d ! _0 (D.4a)
2m0
or _____

!
2m0 d
T he electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy that is used constantly in the study of
semiconductor physics and devices. This short discussion may help in “getting
a feel” for the electron-volt.
t0 ! _
eE
The velocity of the electron when it reaches the positive
_____
(D.4b)
plate of the capacitor is
eEt
Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with an applied voltage as shown in
Figure D.1. Assume that an electron is released at x ! 0 at time t ! 0. We may write
v(t0) ! _ 0
m0 ! ! 2eE d
_
m0 (D.5)
The kinetic energy of the electron at this time is
d x ! eE
2
F ! m0a ! m0 _
dt2
(D.1) T!_ 1 m v(t )2 ! _
2 0 0
1m _
2 0 m0" #
2eE d ! eEd (D.6)
where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge and E is the magnitude of the electric The electric field is
field as shown. Upon integrating, the velocity and distance versus time are given by V
E!_ (D.7)
d
eEt
v!_ (D.2) so that the energy is
m0
T!e·V (D.8)
If an electron is accelerated through a potential of 1 V, then the energy is
"V!
T ! e · V ! (1.6 " 10#19)(1) ! 1.6 " 10#19 joule (J) (D.9)
The electron-volt (eV) unit of energy is defined as
joule
E-field Electron-volt ! _ e (D.10)

Then, the electron that is accelerated through a potential of 1 V will have an energy
of

1.6 " 10#19 (eV)

T ! 1.6 " 10#19 J ! __ (D.11)
x#0 x#d
1.6 " 10#19

Figure D.1 | Parallel-plate or 1 eV.

capacitor. We may note that the magnitude of the potential (1 V) and the magnitude of the
electron energy (1 eV) are the same. However, it is important to keep in mind that the
unit associated with each number is different.

Ref.: Semiconductor Physics and Devices: Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen