MATERIALS ; CORROSION Licence By Post “The saps in ia book can catch | finger. Not suituble for smal tlre, Care when handling Licence By Post © copyright ALL 6.1 to 6.4 ISSUE 222AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis. LBP 140 Narbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 1QA UK Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871 Fax: (+ 44) 01296 330697 Email: infodlicencebypost.com Website: licencebypost.comJAR module 6 amendments February 2002 Some areas the CAA ask questions on would appear to be more related to Maintenance Practices module 7 than Materials and Hardware module 6, but the following additions should be noted and read in conjunction with the text in the appropriate book: Riveting terms: Land. The distance from the centre of the rivet to the edge of the metal. Pitch. The distance between the centres of adjacent rivets in the same row. Spacing. The distance between the centrelines of adjacent rows of rivets. Clearance. The difference between the diameter of the hole and the diameter of the rivet. Allowance. The amount of shank left protruding to form the head ofa solid rivet. Blind rivet. A special rivet that is formed from one side of the metal only. Grip range. The range of thicknesses of metal that a particular size of blind rivet is capable of joining. Markings on early AN UNF bolts: X = Cadmium plated steel Close tolerance - = Corrosion resistant steel Al Alloy Coil springs (tension or compression) are usually checked visually for damage and corrosion and by measuring the unloaded length (this should be stated in the overhaul manual). When laid flat on a surface it should lay straight. To check its springiness it is placed vertically and masses are used to see that it obeys Hooke’s Law - for one unit of mass attached (m) its change in length should be %, for 2 units of mass (2m) the change in length should be 2x and so on. Do not exceed the maximum mass stated otherwise the elastic limit of the metal might be exceeded and the spring permanently deformed. Fibres are stronger along the fibre. That is, a tear or crack in the material /composite structure will propagate more readily along the lay of the fibres than across them. a)Control cables are attached to steel end fittings by swaging (usually) which are connected to a turnbuckle /quadrant /lever by a shear pin. This high tensile or stainless steel shear pin, designed to resist shear should be secured as per the AMM — eg a split pinned nut. Some cable swaged ends are screwed ends which screw directly into a turnbuckle type end fitting, or slot into a pulley wheel to be locked in by a split pin or similar. Wet arc tracking. An earlier AWN highlighted the problem of wet arc tracking. This problem is associated with electrical cable insulation damage and fluid contamination. The AWN cited a case in which the insulation was penetrated during the identification stamping process (putting on the cable ident code iaw the wiring diagram). The stamping process was the hot stamping process and if too much heat/pressure is applied it will penetrate the insulation. Conducting elements on electrical cables are sometimes plated to improve their ant-corrosive properties. The plating on copper conductors will normally determine the maximum continuous working temperature, eg 135°C Tin plating 200°C Silver plating 260°C Nickel plating/cladding Needle bearings are designed for radial loads only. All roller bearings will carry greater radial loads than balll bearings due to their greater contact area of the rolling surface. Ball bearings are better at taking axial loads. For drilling hard metals such as titanium alloys and stainless steels use slower speeds and feeds than when drilling Al alloys. When drilling stainless steel keep feeds constant as any continuous rubbing or idling will cause work hardening. Drill point angles are: General work 118° Stainless steel, hard steels, titanium alloys 135° Hard plastics 90° (2)Micro Structure of Steels D E 900 lA 8 c 700 TEMP | DEGC | 0 0.87 18 % CARBON IRON/CARBON EQUALIBRIUM DIAGRAM FERRITE, BELOW 0.87% C PEARLITE AT 0.87% C ALL PEARLITE CEMENTITE ABOVE 0.87% C When viewed under the microscope the micro structure of plain carbon steel looks similar to the views shown above. The ferrite is pure iron and cementite is iron carbide. Pearlite gets its name from its pearl like appearance (under the microscope) and is made up of fine plates of cementite and ferrite. When heated to just above the Lower Critical Point (ABC on the Iron Carbon Equilibrium graph) about 700°C, the pearlite changes to austenite. The ferrite and cementite does not change. When heated to higher than the Upper Critical Point (line DBE on the graph) the metal goes into what is called Solid Solution where the whole structure becomes austenite. (3)When dealing with the mixing of resins for composites or adhesives the catalyst/accelerator is added and mixed into the resin to start the chemical reaction process. Once mixed it will have a “pot life” which will be shortened if the ambient temperature is high. Once the composite is “laid up” a curing time is required which will be shorter if heat is applied. Some resins are cold cured and do not require the application of heat whilst others must be heated to allow the bonding process to reach its full strength.When dealing with the mixing of resins for composites or adhesives the catalyst/accelerator is added and mixed into the resin to start the chemical reaction process. Once mixed it will have a “pot life” which will be shortened if the ambient temperature is high. Once the composite is “laid up” a curing time is required which will be shorter if heat is applied. Some resins are cold cured and do not require the application of heat whilst others must be heated to allow the bonding process to reach its full strength. A Hardy Spicer coupling is commonly found in the torque shaft transmission system of front engined rear wheel drive vehicles. It uses four plain bearings as part of a centre cross piece to allow limited angular movement between two rotating shafts. (4)CONTENTS Definitions Ferrous metals Alloy steels Non ferrous metals Aluminium alloys Identification of metals Practical tests Heat treatments - plain carbon steels Case hardening Heat treatments - alloy steels Heat treatment ~ aluminium alloys Plastics Fibre reinforced composites Destructive testing of composites Soldering Brazing Welding Adhesives Destructive testing of metals Surface finish Sealants, bonding agents & compounds CorrosionHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Materials is not the most exciting of subjects, but it is the “stuff” of which engineering is made of. So it is reasonable to assume that you should have some knowledge of properties of materials, identification, working, heat treatments etc. You should read through the whole book once to get a “flavour” of what is all about. Some subjects will require a second read, or even a third, and it is difficult to be precise as to what to study most. There are listings of various sealants and compounds at the rear of this book. You should read them through and understand what you are reading, but there is no need to try and commit the lists to memory. You should, of course, know the general precautions when dealing with these substances and the general method of their use. The book is written with the B1 engineer in mind, but is does cover the A and B2 syllabus as well. If you are an A or B2 person you are advised to check on the JAR66 as to what sections of this book to study.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With thanks to: Aeroskills, Aerospace House, 2a Tudor Road, Harrow, Middlesex, HA3 5PE UK. email: aeroskills@dircon.co.uk for their assistance in the compilation of information regarding fibre reinforced composites.MATERIALS - GENERAL It has to be said that it is not a very exciting subject but it is the "stuff" which engineering is made of. As such, one should have a good working knowledge of structural materials. The book does not pretend to be a comprehensive coverage of the subject - it would run on to several volumes if it was - but it should provide the basis for a good understanding of the subject. Before we go any further - a question. QUESTION: Define the following terms as applied to materials: You will need to understand them as reference is made to them from time to time in the text. * Stress * Density * Fatigue * Toughness * Brittleness * Hardness * Softness * Ductility * Malleability * Resistivity (p) Try writing the answers down and take no more than about 30 minutes. Read on for the answers. Stress. This is force per unit area. In the SI system it is the Pascal (Pa) and is defined as a Newton per square meter N/m2, In the imperial system it is pounds per square inch (psi). The higher the stress levels a material can take the better. Density. This is the amount of "substance" in a material. It is defined as "mass per unit volume" ie, Density = kgs/m?. Dense material such as lead is said (incorrectly) to be heavy. A kg of lead is no heavier than a kg of feathers. As an example aluminium has a density of 2700 kg/m: and steel is 7900 kg/m®. For aircraft the less dense a material is the better - provided is retains those desired properties such as high strength etc.Fatigue. This name is given to materials that suffer because of cyclic stressing. Fatigue therefore is associated with cyclic stress. (See Materials Testing). All materials should be resistant to fatigue. Fatigue is serious and has been the cause of aircraft accidents in the past. Normally the stress level that causes fatigue failure is well below that required to cause the part to fail under normal tensile stress. Toughness. This is the ability of a material to absorb an impact load. Rubber is tongh - ordinary glass is not. Toughness is a good quality, without it metals would fracture at the slightest knock. Brittleness. The opposite to toughness. Hardness. The ability to resist scratching and indentation. Glass is hard, wood is not. Bearings and piston rings for example should be hard so as to resist wear. Softness. The opposite to hardness. When two surfaces are in rubbing contact with each other, such as some bearings then one is usually made softer than the other so it will wear first - usually the easier one to replace. Ductility. The ability of a material to be permanently deformed by the application of a tensile load. Wire is drawn into shape by being pulled through a sens of dies and is said to be ductile (Drawn - Dies - Ductile). Malleability. The ability of a metal to be permanently deformed by the action of a compressive load - hammering for example. Rivets are malleable as they are formed by compression. Resistivity. This gives the resistance of a body in terms of its dimensions. It is called () rho. The resistance of an object can be found from the equation R= pl A Where p is in ohm metres, L is length in metres and A is area in m2, Copper has a resistivity of 1.7 whereas steel has a resistivity of 15. Copper is a better conductor than steel. METALS This part of the book is divided into the following sections: * Metals and their properties. * Identification of metals. * Testing of metals. * Heat treatments. -2-Metals can be divided into two main groups - ferrous and non ferrous. Metals Ferrous Non Ferrous Ferrous (Fe) Metals These metals have an iron base and include alll the plain carbon steels, alloy steels, cast irons and wrought iron. A plain carbon steel is a steel which contains only iron (Fe) and carbon (C) between about 0.15 and 1.4% C. Wrought Low Carbon High Carbon Cast Iron Steel Steel Iron 0 0.02 0.15 14 45 L L L 1 L % Carbon % CARBON IN STEELS é& IRONS Fe metals can be divided into 3 main groups - irons, plain carbon steels and alloy steels. Fe Metals Irons Plain carbon Alloy steels steels The following pages contain tables relating to properties and uses of metals used on aircraft. Some metals are almost never found on aircraft - such as cast iron - but they have been included because they are found in aircraft related engineering.‘TABLE 1 - FERROUS METALS MATERIAL PROPERTIES USES Cast iron. Brittle, weak, casts well, resists Machine beds, frames Up to 4.5% C crushing. Good anti-friction and details. General properties, self lubricating. castings, bearings. Good vibration damping Pistons. Piston rings. qualities. Density 7700 kg/m. Wrought iron Ductile, malleable, soft, easily Cores of dynamos, 0.02% C magnetised, easily welded. lifting chains, crane Density 7800 kg/m3. hooks. Mild steel Ductile, less malleable. Bolts and nuts. (low carbon) Stronger and harder than General workshop 0.15 to 0.3% C wrought iron. Easily forged, machined components. welded, machined or stamped Girders, forgings, car to shape. Density 7800 kg/m. body panels. p = 150hmm. Medium. Higher strength than mild steel _Leaf springs, wire ropes carbon steel and responds readily to heat general tools, axles, 0.3 t0.0.5%C _ treatments to increase its crankshafts. Used in toughness and hardness. high strength areas - fuselage joints, bolts, hinge pins etc. High carbon ‘More expensive than medium Cutting tools. Coil steel carbon steel. Tougher and springs. 0.5% to 1.4% C harder. Alloy steels By adding other elements the Chromium increases (See table properties of plain carbon steel hardness - ball "Alloy Steels") can be altered. bearings. Nickel increases strength and toughness also resistance to fatigue. Tungsten helps the steel to retain its hardness at high temperatures.Alloy Steels The main difficulty when studying alloy steels is that there is such a wide range of alloys that learning them, or even a small part of them, would be difficult. For this reason I have included a table of the more commonly used elements used in steels to produce particular properties. TABLE 2 - ALLOY STEELS ELEMENT % QUALITIES USES NICKEL (Ni) 3-5 _ Increased hardness Case hardened parts. without loss of ductility. Easily worked. 27 Non-magnetic almost non-corrodible 36 Non-magnetic. Has a Precision instruments. low co-efficient of “Invar" steel. linear expansion. CHROMIUM (Cr) 3 Great hardness. Ball and roller bearings. 12-17 Nearly non-corrodible. MANGANESE (Mn) 1.5 __ Greater strength thanWelds easily - acts as 5% nickel and harder a purifier. than 3% chromium. 12 Very tough. Parts exposed to "wear and tear". TUNGSTEN (W) Upto Veryhard up to690°C. 14% tungsten is used 20 in high speed steel drills. Work at higher speeds and temperatures. COBALT (Co) 12 With tungsten. Used in drills etc working at temperatures higher than 600°C 35 Easily magnetised. Permanent magnets. VANADIUM (V) 20 Increase strength Chrome-vanadium without loss of ductility. steels for valves and other springs.TABLE 2 - CONTINUED MOLYBDENUM (Mo) 2-4 Similar effect to tungsten NICKEL & 1-2 Stainless steel Magnetic CHROMIUM 18-8 Stainless steel None magnetic 3-5 Great strength toughness For gears, crankshafts and engine and airframe parts. INVAR Contains 36% Ni, and Precision instruments 64 Fe. Has a low and gauging systems. co-efficient of linear expansion (0.9). (Mild steel has a co-efficient of 15.0). STAINLESS STEEL Almost zero rate of Structures - where heat corrosion. Typically resistance is required. contains 18% Cr & 8% Ni, Pipelines. though other grades of “non corrodible steel” are available. AUSTENITIC STEELS & There are several Same uses as above. IRONS. austenitic steels but most are based on 18:8 stainless steel. Besides the qualities of stainless steel they are non magnetic. VALVE STEELS For aero engines, usually Valves contain 13%Ni, 13% chromium and 3% tungsten. Good resistance to scaling at dull red heat temperatures.TABLE 2 - CONTINUED HIGH SPEED STEELS Typically contain 18% tungsten, 4% chromium. and 1% vanadium. Will work at higher temps. than high carbon steel without affecting the temper. Drills. Hacksaw blades. PERMANENT MAGNET STEELS May contain up to 35% Cobalt. Various trade names are available eg Columax contains 8% Al, 14% Ni, 23% Co and 3% Cu. HIGH PERMEABILITY Soft iron was used STEELS but metals such as (Those that can be Permalloy (78% Ni) and magnetised and Mumetal (75% Ni) are de-magnetised easily) now more common. Permanent Magnets ‘Transformer cores. TABLE 3 - NON-FERROUS METALS. MATERIAL PROPERTIES USES, TITANIUM ALLOYS Good physical properties and corrosion resistance. Density 4500 kg/m?. p = 2.6ohmm. Tensile strength up to 1300Mpa. Works at temp. up to 480°C. High strength/weight ratio. Used to replace steel with a saving in weight. Used for compressor and fan blades in turbine engines. Fire proof bulkheads. Heat shields. NICKEL Hard, ductile, Corrosion resistant Withstands high temps. Anti corrosion treatment.TABLE 3 - CONTINUED NICKEL ALLOYS Good strength/weight ratio. Turbine blades and hot Corrosion resistant at high end fittings. temperatures. Monel tensile strength up to 1170Mpa. Some alloys contain 80% Ni 20%Cr. MAGNESIUM Soft. Poor corrosion Bombs and flares. resistant. Light alloys. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS Casts well. Prone to Aircraft wheels, and corrosion. Alloyed to give _ airframe structures. it strength as pure magnesium is weak and soft. Density 1800 kg/m? Will burn in under some conditions, particularly when in powder or swarfe form. COPPER Tough, ductile, malleable. Tubing. Electrical High thermal and conductors. Used as electrical conductivity. a base for brass and resistant to corrosion bronze. Solders well. Density 8900 kg/m3 p = 1.70hmm Weak - about 200 to 400Mpa. Different coppers classified by CDA (Copper Development Association). BRASS Contains copper, zinc, tin, Lightly stressed manganese, lead, nickel, __castings, pipe fittings, aluminium, and silicon. tubing, filter elements, Good wearing, anti-friction _ bushes, electrical and corrosion resistant. contacts. Density 8500 kg/m?. Some brasses have a tensile strength up to 1000MpaTABLE 3 - CONTINUED BRONZE Copper, tin, nickel and Bearing bushes Lead alloy. Similar properties to brass. PHOSPHOR Copper, tin and Bearing bushes. BRONZE phosphorous. Stronger and good in compression. TUNGUM Contains copper, zinc, Pipe lines. aluminium, nickel, silicon. _ Radiator matrix. Resistance to fatigue and Not in common use. corrosion. Strong and ductile. LEAD Soft, weak, ductile. Counter balance and Density 11300 kg/m? mass balance weights. Alloyed to make solder. TIN Soft, ductile corrosion Used for tin plating. resistant. Alloyed to lead to make solder. SOLDER Tin and lead. Low melting _ Soft soldering. point. Density 9000 kg/ms. ZINC Soft. Good corrosion Protection of steel resistance. Density parts. 7100 kg/m’. ZINC ALLOYS Low cost low melting Inexpensive commercial point castings. small parts. DEPLETED Hard. Mass balance weights. URANIUM Density 19,000 kg/m3 GOLD Soft. Used for plating some Density 19,300 kg/m3 electrical contactors. p = 2.40ohmm Good corrosion resistance. MONEL METAL Contains 70% Ni, and 30% Some structural uses Cu. Resistant to corrosion. and tucker pop rivets.TABLE 3 - CONTINUED CADMIUM Corrosion resistant. Anti corrosive plating. ELEKTRON Magnesium, Aluminium Wheels 11.%, Zinc 3.5%, Manganese Crankcases 2.5%. Requires heat treatment. May be cast or wrought. ALUMINIUM See table 4 Wheels, castings & its alloys Aircraft structure Super Alloys - also non-ferrous This class of metals is mainly based on nickel and cobalt (Inconal for example) with strengths up to 1450Mpa. They are expensive, difficult to form and machine but meet the needs for strength and operating conditions Aluminium Alloys ~ non-ferrous These are supplied in the wrought or cast form and may be heat treatable or non heat treatable. The British Standards cover: BS 1470 to 75 - Wrought BS 1490 - Cast BSL Series - Aircraft DTD Specifications. - Aircraft (DTD = Directorate of Technical Development). Code system for wrought alloys is based on the main alloying element: CODE MAIN ALLOYING ELEMENT aoc None ~ pure aluminium roc Copper 3xcx Manganese 4x0 Silicone Sx Magnesium 6xxx Magnesium & silicon TXXX Zinc Bxxx Other -10-For example, 2017 is Duralumin and a suffix after the forth digit would indicate condition, eg: O = Annealed T = Quenched & aged H = Cold rolled 7 series alloys have a strength approaching that of steel and are widely used on aircraft. Aluminium-lithium alloys are now being developed that have a 10% lower density (lighter) and are up to 20% stronger than existing Al alloys. (this would make a weight saving on the construction of a Boeing 747 for example of about 14,000 Ibs (6400kg). Examples of cast Al alloy codings: lixx 30xx 50x Some Al alloys will increase their strength with time after heat treatment (age hardening), others require precipitation heat treatment to bring on the process and some alloys will not age harden at all. (Refer to the section on Heat ‘Treatments in this book). Al alloys generally have the following properties: * Good strength/weight ratio. * Fatigue limited (see the section in this book "Testing of Metals"). * Notch sensitive (a small scratch is liable to develop into a crack). * Less corrosion resistant than aluminium. * Less malleable and ductile than aluminium. * Good thermal and electrical conductivity (p = 5). * Up to 8 times stronger than aluminium with little or no increase in weight. (Density = 2800 kg/mS. The density of aluminium = 2700 kg/m). PieTABLE 4 ALUMINIUM & ITS ALLOYS MATERIAL PROPERTIES USES ALUMINIUM Soft, malleable, corrosion resistant. Used in light alloys as High electrical and thermal a base material, and conductivity. Little strength. used for cladding. Used Density 2700 kg/m3. (Compare —_as a conductor. mild steel at 7800 kg/m’). DURALUMIN _Nearly as strong as mild steel. Structural parts. (Wrought) Density about 1/3 that of steel. Sheets, rivets, tubes. Must be heat-treated. "Age Hardens". Aluminium. Copper 4.5% Magnesium 0.7% Manganese 0.7% Silicon 0.7% ALCLAD Dural Sheet with coating of (Wrought) aluminium. As above. Corrosion resistant. Heat treatment as above. ALPAX Aluminium. Silicon 13.0% Intricate castings. (Cast) Iron 0.6% Manganese 0.5% A/C and engine Zinc 0.1% parts. Good for casting. Strong. Low thermal expansion. Fair corrosion resistance. " ALLOY Aluminium Copper 4.5% Pistons and cylinder (Cast) Nickel 2.3% Magnesium 1.7% heads. Resistant to corrosion and fatigue. Must be heat treated. ~ "Age hardens". Withstands relative high temperatures. HIDUMINIUM Copper 2.5% Nickel 1.5% A/C structural parts. Magnesium 1.2% Iron 1.5% Pistons and cylinder Silicon 1.0% heads. Strong as mild steel. Requires heat treatment and low temp. heat treatment to age harden. -12-TABLE 4 - CONTINUED 2000 SERIES Damage tolerant. Used in critical Al ALLOYS structural areas. 7000 SERIES —_ Main alloying element - zinc. Used in strength critical areas. LITHIUM Improved strength/weight Several types being BASED ratio. produced for newer Al ALLOYS aircraft to replace both the 2000 and 7000 series. Chemical Abbreviations These are used extensively within the industry and while you need not remember them specifically you should have some knowledge of the more commonly used terms eg: Al - Aluminium © - Carbon Cd - Cadmium Co - Cobalt Cr - Chromium Cu - Copper Fe - — Iron Mg - Magnesium Mn - Manganese Mo - Molybdenum N - Nitrogen Ni - Nickel 0 - Oxygen Pb - Lead Sorin Ti - Titanium Vo = Vanadium W - ‘Tungsten Zn - Zinc -13-IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS ON METALS The CAA specifies that materials used in the manufacture of aircraft parts shall comply with at least one of the following specifications: * British Standard Aerospace Series (BSAS) Specifications. * DTD Specifications. * Specifications approved by the CAA. * Specifications prepared by an organisation approved by the CAA. BSAS and DTD specifications make provision for the material to be marked by the inspector as well as other markings to ensure full identification. Marking Methods Materials during manufacture should be marked as soon as possible during their production run with one or more of the following methods: (a) Metal stamp marking (not usually titanium). (b) Markings produced by a die or mould used in the shaping of the metal. (©) Marking by rubber stamp, roller, or printing machine. The marking should not be easily removed and should not damage the metal. Stamp marking should not be used on:- * Stressed parts where the stamp might cause stress concentration. * Thin section metals. * Metals of hard surface finish/special surface finish. * Parts or materials machined to close tolerances. Standard Colour Scheme A widely used system for the identification of metals is the standard colour scheme. The scheme is additional to any identification requirements specified in the various specifications. If the colour scheme has not been applied by the manufacturer then it should be applied by the operator before the metal is placed in bonded store. An alternative method to colour coding is overall marking. The metal - usually in sheet form - is printed all over with the material specification eg, BSL 72 (L72). The metal must, of course, be printable and the metal must not be affected by the print. -14-The colours may be applied as a band or bands across the corner of sheet meta! bearing the identification stamp. On some sheet metals the bands may be painted near one edge of the metal and at right angles to it. Strip material will have the bands painted on one end, or in some cases on both ends. Some sheet metals have a coloured disc 3" (76mm) diameter painted on them with additional colours added as concentric rings 1.5" (38mm) wide. For material in coil form the colours will be marked at intervals. Protective Film Treatments Most metals are required to have an additional protective film treatment applied as soon as possible after production. This may be a clear film, but if it is coloured, such as red lanolin resin, then an additional band of black paint is added to the colour scheme and the protective film is added up to the black band. Some metals which differ only in surface condition or intended usage but are the same basic material are given the same colour code. Metals with the same specification but with different heat treatment conditions or properties have different colour codes. When the specification number of a material is changed eg, from a DTD number to a BS number, then the colour code will not be changed unless there is a significant change in the material itself. Colours Current colours used are: black, blue, brown, green, red, white, yellow (and violet for aluminium rivets) Heat Treated Material Material that is released in a heat treated state other than that stated in the specification must be marked in red with the appropriate term to denote the condition. (See Heat Treatment Symbols - the book "Drawing" in this series). The Approved Certificate must also be annotated. PriseExamples of the terms used. (a) AS ROLLED (b) ANNEALED - material in its softest condition. () NOTAGED - material solution treated and requires precipitation treatment. (See heat treatments). The Identification Marking ‘The marking should contain the following information: * The specification number. * The inspection stamp (where necessary). ‘The manufacturer. Batch number (and cast number where appropriate). Test report. General 1. Always use material specification as laid down in the aircraft maintenance/repair manual. If the correct material is not available check the alternative spares list, and if that does not help contact the aircraft manufacturer. 2. Always positively identify the material from the colour coding/ specification numbers. If in the stores also check specification with the Approved Certificate/JAA Form ! and/or other documents from the manufacturers. 3. If the material has to be cut (sheet or strip) and used in smaller pieces then always cut from the side/end furthest from the identification. This does not apply to “all over marking’ material. 4. If in doubt about the identification of a piece of metal then it is not to be used on aircraft. 5. The following two tables are practical workshop tests for the identification of metals and are NOT to be used for the identification of metals to be used on aircraft. erPRACTICAL TESTS Practical tests are used in the workshop and are not to be used for reliable identification purposes. TABLE 5 - PRACTICAL TESTS FE METALS NOTE WHEN = BEHAVIOUR APPEARANCE ‘TYPES OF METAL DROPPEDON WHEN oF SPARK ANVIL CHIPPED FRACTURE FROM A GRINDING WHEEL Grey No ring Chipseasily Dark grey Dull Cast crystals of red Iron uniform size non- bursting. Wrought Low pitch Easily chipped. Course Bright Iron ring. Chips bend. fibrous grain. _ yellow non- bursting. Low Medium Bright silvery Bright Carbon pitch ring. as above large crystals —_yellow few Steel carbon bursts. High High pitch Harder to chip Pale grey, fine Bright Carbon ring. than low carbon crystals. yellow, all Steel steel, but chips bursting. bend. Tungsten Very high Will not chip. _ Silky blue grey Red non- Steel pitch ring. fine crystals. bursting following the wheel. Austenitic Steels Non magnetic Stainless Steel Copper is not deposited when copper sulphate solution is applied. deTABLE 6 - PRACTICAL TESTS NON FE METALS METAL TEST Aluminium White in colour, light and non-magnetic. Soft and bends easily. Caustic soda turns the surface white. Alclad More springy than aluminium. Caustic soda turns the surface white and the edge black. Duralumin The same properties as Alclad except that the application of caustic soda turns the surface black. Magnesium Alloy White in colour, lighter than aluminium and non magnetic. Fillings ignite in a flame. Copper sulphate causes effervescence and the surface to turn black. Solder White in colour, heavy and soft. Non-magnetic and melts with a soldering iron. Will mark on paper and crackles when bent. Titanium Lighter than steel. White sparks when held against a grinding wheel. BLANK eeeHEAT TREATMENTS Metals may have their properties changed by alloying. Alloying can give a metal: * Better anti-corrosive properties. * Better strength and fatigue resistant properties. * Better machineability, casting and heat treatable properti ‘The heat treatment of a metal normally involves heating the metal to a specific temperature and then cooling at a specific rate. Heat treatments can produce the following properties: * Increase strength. * Increase hardness. * Increase softness. * Increase toughness. * Increase "springiness’. Some heat treatments can affect the anti-corrosive properties of a metal though they are not normally heat treated for this reason. HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEELS QUESTION: What does "plain carbon" mean? (2 mins) ANSWER: A steel containing Fe and C only. When steel is heated its temperature increases steadily until it is momentarily checked at the "critical" or "arrest" point. At this point the metal absorbs heat and changes occur in the structure of the metal, without temperature rise. After this period has passed the temperature continues to rise as before. If steels having different carbon contents are heated in this way and the arrest" points plotted on a graph, and if all these points are joined an Iron/Carbon Equilibrium Diagram is produced (as shown below). Line ABE represents the lower arrest points and is usually called the Lower Critical Point (LCP), and line DEC represents the higher arrest points and is usually called the Upper Critical Point (UCP). Most of the heat treatments that we carry out on plain carbon steels relate to the temperatures on the iron/carbon equilibrium diagram. -19-88 8 8 mt | | | | | | | % CARBON Fig. 1 IRON/CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM Hardening Produces a hard brittle steel. Heat to just above the UCP for steel up to 0.87% C, and just above the LCP for steels with a higher carbon content. Quench in water. Slower quenching produces a tougher (and not so hard) steel. ‘Tempering Relieves the brittleness in a hardened steel. Reheat a hardened steel to between 200 to 300°C and cool or quench. (The cooling rate is not critical). Some steels are heated to 600°C which produces a high strength steel, tough and with good ductility. In general the higher the temperature the less the hardness and the greater the toughness. Examples: * Some structural steels 600°C (Tough). * Springs 300°C. * Drills, taps and dies 240°C. (Hard) Annealing This will refine the structure of the steel and convert it to its softest possible state. -20-Heat to the same temperature as for hardening but cool as slowly as possible by leaving the part in the ashes or furnace and allowing the furnace to cool naturally. Normalising This process allows the structure to be refined back to its normal condition after working. When the metal is cold worked internal stresses are set up which make it weak and brittle, to relieve this condition normalising is carried out. The steel is heated to its annealing temperature and allowed to cool naturally in still free air. On low carbon steel Low Temperature Normalising may be carried out using a temperature about 500°C. Refining Prolonged heating above the UCP can cause the grain structure to coarsen (the grains to get bigger and the structure more brittle), so refining will reduce the size of the crystalline structure, reduce the brittleness and increase the toughness. This process is usually carried out on steels that have been case hardened. Heat to about 900°C and quench. Repeat the process 2 or 3 times but with a lower temperature each time. CASE HARDENING Applied to low carbon steels to produce a hard wearing “outer skin" whilst still retaining a tough inner core. ‘The process is normally carried out in the following sequence: 1. Carburising (eg introducing extra carbon into the "outer skin" of the metal). 2. Annealing - slow cooling from the carburising temperature. 3. Refining (as described above). 4. Hardening. 5. Tempering - as necessary. -21-Methods of Carburising Open Hearth - Heat the part to a cherry red and dip in a box of carburising compound (Kasenite). Repeated 3 or 4 times to give a "case" of about 0.005 in (0.13mm) thick. Box Process - The parts are packed in Kasenite in a sealed metal box and heated up to 900°C. Four hours at this temperature produces a case thickness of 0,040 in (1.02mm). Cyanide Hardening - The part is placed in molten sodium cyanide at 920°C to produce a case of about 0.010in (0.25mm). Nitriding - Used on certain alloy steels containing aluminium and chromium called Nitriding Steels. The parts are heated to 500°C in a box through which is passed ammonia gas - this produces a case thickness of 0.030 in (0.76mm) after 90 hours. The low temperature and the fact that there is no quenching required means that there is less likelihood of distortion. HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOY STEELS There is such a wide range of alloy steels that it is difficult, and impossible in a single book, to describe all the heat treatments that may be carried out. The following table attempts to give some idea as to the range of alloy steels and the Hardening and Tempering heat treatments. TABI E 7 - HEAT TREATMENTS OF ALLOY STEELS METAL APPROXIMATE HARDENING COOLING TEMPERING COMPOSITION TEMP. (°C). (ec). 1.5% Mn Manganese 0.4%C 840 OIL 650 Steel 0.5% Mo Austenitic 14% Mn Manganese 1% C 1000 WATER Steel Pearlitic 5% Ni 860 OIL, 600 Nickel 0.4% C Steet -22-TABLE 7 - CONTINUED Pearlitic Chromium 1.4% Cr 810 OIL 150 Steel (En 31) 1% C Low Alloy Nickel 5% Ni Chrome 1.5% Cr 850 OIL 600 Steel 0.35% C Stainless 13% Cr 950 ow 600 Steel 0.4% C Stainless 18% Cr Steel (S80) 2% Ni 950 OL 650 0.1% C Stainless 18% Cr 950-1075 OIL 100-750 Steel (18/8) 8% Ni Stainless steels are tempered at 100 to 750°C High Speed 18% W Steel 4% Cr 1320 OIL 550 1% V 0.6% C ‘Again, the heat treatment is carried out using an Equilibrium Diagram which is more complex than the Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram. NOTE. Nickel-chrome steels are prone to a defect known as "temper brittleness" when being tempered through the range 250°C to 400°C. The problem - which is not fully understood - causes a marked reduction in the toughness of the metal and, to make things more difficult, can only be revealed by destructive testing of test pieces after the heat treatment process. BoseHEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS The heat treatments that can be carried out to Al alloys are as follows: (2) Solution Treatment - Initially makes the metal soft but allows the process of age hardening to occur. (v) Precipitation Treatment - Only carried out after solution treatment and accelerates the process of hardening. (c) Annealing - Makes the metal soft for working. ‘The process of heat treatment requires the metal to be heated for a specified time at a specified temperature then cooling or quenching in a specific way. IMPORTANT NOT ALL ALUMINIUM ALLOYS CAN BE HEAT TREATED AND THOSE THAT CAN MUST BE HEATED TO SPECIFIC TEMPERATURES WITHIN SPECIFIC TOLERANCES. TO HEAT TREAT A PARTICULAR ALUMINIUM ALLOY REFERENCE MUST ALWAYS BE MADE TO THE APPROPRIATE SPECIFICATION/PROCESS DOCUMENTS. Example: To heat treat L72 refer to British Standards BSL72. It will specify treatments, temperatures and cooling methods. An example of heat treatment might be Solution Heat Treat to 495°C + 5°C. Note the temperatures here are quite specific, with most ferrous metals, temperatures may be approximate to 30° or so. Solution Treatment NOTE. The term has nothing to do with putting the metal into a salt bath or any other type of solution - other than for cooling/ quenching. The metal may be heat treated in a salt bath but it is more convenient to use an electric oven. This will soften the metal for a short period only and will allow the metal to age harden - with an increase in strength. The metal is heated to a specific temperature usually within the range 460°C to 540°C for a period of time then quenched in cold or boiling water. Rivets so treated must be formed within 2 hours of treatment. They will attain their design strength in 2 to 4 days (see graph). Metals can be lightly fabricated /bent within this period. e246PRECIPITATION TREATED NATURAL AGE HARDENING STRENGTH TIME Fig. 2 GRAPH OF STRENGTH AGAINST TIME Precipitation Treatment This process, where specified, will greatly accelerate the age hardening of the metal. The metal may attain its design strength within 2 to 20 hours. After precipitation the strength of the metal is greater than if it is allowed to age harden naturally. (See figure 2). Precipitation heat treatment temperatures are low, usually within the range 100°C to 200°C and soaking times may be up to 20 hours. Cooling may be by quenching in cold water or cooling in still air. Annealing This permanently softens the metal for working (unless heat treated further). In many cases it also makes the metal more prone to corrosion. In general the metal is heated to a specific temperature within the range 360°C to 420°C and after the soaking time allowed to cool in still air. Refrigeration To slow down the process of age hardening the metal may be refrigerated immediately after solution treatment. For example rivets previously solution treated can be kept in a cold storage cabinet next to where the work is being carried out. Rivets removed from the cabinet must be used within 2 hours. -25-Storage time will depend on temperature eg, minus 20°C - storage time up to 150 hours. It is common in the industry to use a domestic freezer. Doing it this way means that when doing a big repair a large quantity of rivets can be heat treated in the heat treatment shop, which may be the other side of the airfield. The rivets can then be put in the freezer close to where the work is being carried out and used, 2 hours worth, at a time. QUESTION: If a rivet has to be heat treated, can you work out (from what has been said) what sort of heat treatment would be carried out? (10 mins). ANSWER: Lets analyse the WRONG answers first. We cannot heat treat rivets that have already been formed. Made up parts, riveted plates etc, MUST NOT be heat treated because they will warp due to contraction /expansion. This means we cannot anneal the rivet (it makes it PERMANENTLY soft - and that's no good). If we precipitated the rivet it would make it too hard to form. So the ONLY TREATMENT we can carry out - IF ALLOWED BY ‘THE SPECIFICATION - is SOLUTION TREATMENT. And the rivet must be used within 2 hours - or put in a refrigerator straight away. It must be used within 2 hours of removal from the refrigerator. Soaking Times This is the time the part is kept in the over/salt bath at the specified temperature. In general the larger the part the longer the soaking time - but DO NOT OVERSOAK. Times, for example are: 26 SWG sheet 10 mins rivets 15 mins 16 SWG _ sheet 25 mins arise sQuenching Always quench or cool in accordance with the specification. The quenching methods listed below start with the fastest method first. Brine (salt water) Cold water (not warmer than 20°C). Hot water. Oil. Still air, Warm oven. PAFONE Most cooling/ quenching for aluminium alloys is 2 or 5. Methods of Heating 1. Thermostatically controlled electrically heated ovens. 2. Air heated furnaces. 3. Salt baths. Limitations on Heat Treatments Clad aluminium alloy sheet should not be heat treated more than 3 times. Riveted up, bolted and joined sections should not be heat treated. Only heat treat Al alloys where it is laid down in the specification for that metal. Cleaning It is most important that parts treated in a salt bath should be thoroughly cleaned after treatment - and thoroughly clean prior to putting in a salt bath (a dirty part can cause a violent reaction with the molten salts). The salts are highly corrosive. Also parts quenched in brine must be thoroughly washed and dried as it is also corrosive. Rivets These are usually placed in a wire basket for treatment. If any treatment is allowed for a specific rivet it will be solution treatment. -27-Identification Of Heat Treated Conditions Immediately after the material has been heat-treated, it should be marked with the appropriate symbol denoting the treatment to which it has been subjected. Rivets should be put in a bag and labelled. ‘There are two identification systems in general use in the UK ie, that recommended in British Standards 1470 to 1477 and that recommended by in SP4089. Identification System Recommended in British Standards 1470 - 1477. ° M oD WP wD Material in the annealed condition. Material in the "as-manufactured” condition, e.g. as rolled, as extruded, straight and/or drawn to size, or as forged, without subsequent heat treatment of any kind. Material which has been annealed and lightly drawn (at present applicable only to rivet, bolt and screw stock). Material which has been solution-treated and requires no precipitation treatment. Material which has been solution-treated and will respond effectively to precipitation treatment. Material which has been solution-treated and precipitation- treated. Material which has been drawn after solution treatment (at present only applicable to wire). Material which has been precipitation-treated only. - 28 -NON METALLIC MATERIALS In this section we deal with the following materials: * Cloth * Wood * Plastics * Rubber * Fibre reinforced composites Fibre reinforced composites are covered to a greater depth than the other materials. Cloth, wood, plastics, and rubber are mentioned briefly because they have their uses in the aircraft industry. CLOTH Used in aircraft construction for the covering of some light aircraft and for furnishings. Fabric used for aircraft covering may be: * Unbleached Irish linen * Madapollam * Polyester Unbleached Irish linen and Madapollam are tautened by doping while polyester is tautened by the application of heat. Cloth used for the covering of aircraft seats and berths must conform to current fire and smoke blocking regulations. woop Used extensively in older aircraft for all parts of the structure and in the manufacture of propellers. Still used in some composite constructions. Used on some comparatively modern aircraft eg, the fuselage of the de Haviland jet fighter - the Vampire. Its strength and density can vary considerably depending on the type of wood selected and, of course, it can rot and be attacked by insects, fungus etc. It is easily worked and repaired. -29-TABLE 8 - WOOD COMPARED TO AL ALLOY MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) LONGITUDINAL TENSILE STRENGTH (GPa) Wood (Spruce) 600 0.05 Al Alloy 2700 70 PLASTICS Strictly speaking plastics should be called polymers. Polymers can be man made or natural. Natural polymers include rubber (from trees) and shellac (the excrement from an ant). Man made polymers can be divided into two main groups - Thermoplastics and Thermosetting Plastics. Thermoplastics ‘These soften on heating and harden on cooling, and the process is capable of repetition. Examples include Perspex (polymethyl methacrylate) and Nylon. ‘Thermosetting Plastic ‘These become plastic on initial heating but become permanently set on cooling. It can no longer be softened by further heating. A good example is Bakelite (phenol formaldehyde), Formica, Ebonite and Epoxy resins. ‘The term thermosetting also includes those polymers which set by the addition of a curing agent and do not necessarily need heating eg, epoxides. Various fillers can be added, for example: * Asbestos - resistance to high temperatures. * Carbon - improves conductivity. -30- ~Colour Various pigments and dyes can be added to plastics in the production stage to give an “all through’ colour. Rubber A naturally occurring thermosetting plastic obtained from the sap of trees. Natural rubber is normally vulcanised with sulphur to produce a tough elastic material. Used in anti vibration mountings; drive belts; shock absorbers (simple bungee cord types) and of course tyres. It can be made electrically conductive by adding carbon. FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES ‘These are increasingly being used in the aircraft industry for structures and components (Airbus have already tested a complete airliner size wing in carbon fibre). In this section we will deal with the materials and all general aspects of composites and should more information be required, particularly on structures, the reader is directed to the book in this series "Aircraft Structures". Various fibres are 11sed as reinforcing elements within a resin. They include the following: Glass Fibre ‘These are continuous glass filaments 6 to 15m in diam. (0.000,006 to 0.000,015m) {This is called micrometre or sometimes, incorrectly, mu-metres. Mu is the Greek letter pi}. ‘The fibres are usually coated with a lubricant to improve handling and may have other coatings to improve bonding ete. The fibres are supplied in different forms: A glass; C glass etc. E glass is currently the most popular. ea ieAramid Fibre Supplied as Kevlar (Du Pont). Kevlar 29 used for cordage and ropes. Kevlar 49 supplied for plastics reinforcement. Carbon Fibre There are some 12 manufacturers world-wide making over 40 different carbon fibres. The fibre is manufactured as a tow and the finer tows have up to 12,000 filaments in each tow. Carbon fibres are strong in tension and are often coated to improve handling and bond strength. Hybrid Fibres Hybrid fibres can be made up in many different forms and can include: (a) Two or more different types of fibres layered together within a resin matrix. (b) A mixture of two or more different types of fibre ply within a resin mix. The following table shows the comparisons of density and strength of different materials used on aircraft TABLE 9 - COMPARISON TABLE, STRENGTH & DENSITY MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m) LONGITUDINAL TENSILE STRENGTH (GPa) ~ Wood (example) 800 0.05 Al Alloy 2700 70 Aramid Fibre 1380 40 Glass Fibre E 2000 40 VHM Carbon 1690 300 Fibre* * VHM = Very High Modulus ‘The next table gives more details of the properties of fibres. -32-TABLE 10 - MATERIAL E Glass Carbon Aramid PROPERTIES OF FIBRES SPECIFIC FATIGUE RELATIVE CHARPY TENSILE FAILURE cost IMPACT STRENGTH STRESS@ TEST (GPa) 106 CYCLES (kg/m2 (MPa) 0.54 260 1 160 1.0 860 40 315 0.83 980 20 55 Although aramid fibres have outstanding fatigue strength, aramid reinforced composites DON'T. This is because of the bond fracture between the resin and the fibre. This is causing trouble in service because of the moisture absorption by the microcracks. Now try the following questions to see if you have understood the information in the tables. QUESTION: ANSWER: QUESTION: ANSWER: What does GPa mean? (5 mins) Pa means Pascal and is the unit of stress and pressure. It is small (nearly 7000 to 1 PSI). G means giga ie, 109, or in other words 1,000,000,000. GPa is spoken as Giga Pascal. What do you understand by the term "Fatigue failure stress @ 106 cycles"? (15 mins) Fatigue is the cyclic stressing of a part and if the stress level is low enough (for some materials) the part will never fail. For most materials if the stress level is raised then failure occurs sooner. In the table above the part is put through 106 cycles (1,000,000). If the applied stress is low enough failure does not occur. If the stress level is raised so that the test specimen fails at exactly 1 million cycles then we have a comparison of the materials resistance to fatigue failure. You can see from the table that while aramid fibre is not as strong as carbon fibre it is significantly better when it comes to fatigue resistance (as a fibre only). -33-RESINS. The fibres (like string) are very good in tension but poor (very poor) in compression. To make them more rigid and able to withstand bending and compressive loads they are bonded together using resin. Various resins are available and a few are described below. Unsaturated Polyester Resins Used with glass reinforced plastics (GRP). They have good strength and chemical resistance. They tend to shrink on curing and do not like temperatures above 150°C. Vinyl Ester Resins ‘These are similar to the unsaturated polyester resins above. Phenolic Resins Used for aircraft interiors because of their low smoke emission properties. Epoxy Resins These are a thermosetting resin. They are versatile, have a low shrinkage rate with high strength and good chemical resistance. They are used widely in engineering and are usually supplied as a two part mix. Hardening occurs through the reaction of curing agents, hardeners, catalysts or activators. ‘Some epoxy/hardener combinations will cure at ambient temperatures - while others will require heat to cure (refer to the manufacturers literature). Remember that once mixed (resin and hardener) the mixture will start to cure and must be used within a specific time as stated by the adhesive manufacturer (pot life). Polyamide Resins These are suitable for use up to 300°C and are available in films, varnishes, powders, laminate resins etc. -34-TABLE 11 - PROPERTIES OF SOME RESINS. RESIN TENSILE TEMP. WATER SOLVENT STRENGTH LIMIT RESISTANCE RESISTANCE (MPa) (°C) Unsaturated up to 90 180 GOOD FAIR Polyester Epoxy 105 220 GooD coop Vinyl Ester 85 180 GOOD FAIR Polyamide 120 400 LOW - LOW DENSITY CORES With all structures subject to bending it is the outer layers of the structure that take most of the stress (compressive and tensile). SHEAR STRESS (ON THE MIDDLE) Fig. 3 BENDING The centre portion of the beam (figure 2) takes very little stress (except for shear) and in a uniform monolithic structure it is almost so much "dead weight’. The drawing shows a beam but the principle applies to all structures whether it is a main spar of an aircraft, the skin of the airframe, a helicopter rotor blade. In each case the outer fibres of the metal take alll the tensile and compressive stress with the centre taking very little. Many composite structures are therefore designed having a low strength, low density core to reduce the weight of the overall structure, with most of the stress being taken by the outer fibres. The core may be made of honeycomb, foam, or some other low density material while the outer fibres are made of metal, fibre composites etc. aseThe core then is of low density, designed mainly to resist shear and compressive loads and include the following: Balsa Wood Not used much these days but was used as a core on several aircraft including the de Havilland Mosquito. (Plywood balsa wood/plywood sandwich fuselage skin) Honeycomb Used extensively as core material in aircraft floors, structures, control surfaces, helicopter blades etc. Can be made of aluminium or composites Foam (Polyvinyl chloride) PVC is used as the core of some composite structures. TABLE 12 - CORE MATERIALS MATERIAL DENSITY COMPRESSIVE SHEAR kg/m STRENGTH (MPa) STRENGTH (MPa) Balsa Wood 96 5.2 1.3 Nomex Honeycomb 64 2.9 17 Aluminium Honeycomb 118 76 5.2 Foam (PVC) 100 14 Ll Note: Nomex is made from aramid fibres bonded with phenolic resins. MANUFACTURE OF COMPOSITES Several methods are used to manufacture composite components and this section is included for interest only. There is no need to commit this to memory, although some of the general principles are used when repairing composite aircraft structures. Compression Moulding Usually uses prepreg fibres in sheet, tape or woven form. Individual plies of pre preg are laid one on top of the other to produce the required thickness. This "preform" is then laid in the bottom half of a mould. ‘The top half is then closed and secured and heat is applied. -36-The heat and pressure allows the resin in the pre preg to flow and bonds the plies into a single structure to the exact shape of the mould. On cooling the mould is opened and the item removed. Trimming and finishing is then carried out. Vacuum Bag/ Autoclave Moulding The most common method is to use a prepreg lay up similar to that used for compression moulding. Once the lay up is completed a vacuum bag is placed over the complete assembly and evacuated of air. Thus atmospheric pressure produces the necessary force to push the plies together. For components/structure repairs where a bag cannot be placed over the complete assembly a plastic sheet is used - with a suitable valve attached - which is sealed with special adhesive tape around the edges. Heat may be obtained by: (a) Placing the assembly in an oven (autoclave) at 300°C and 1.4 MPa pressure (about 200 psi). (b) Using a heater blanket. (c) Using heaters within the mould. To allow the resin to flow an absorbent membrane is placed between the vacuum bag and the lay up material. Temperature sensing bulbs are usually placed inside the vacuum bag close to the laid up material to automatically control the temperature of the heater elements. Mandrel Wrapping This involves wrapping a mandrel with layers of pre preg material. After heating and curing as above the mandrel is removed. Used in the production of tubes and hollow sections. Pultrusion This is a continuous process for the production of rod, tubes and long sections. The fibre (glass, Kevlar or carbon) is drawn from a spool through: FIRST a resin impregnation tank, THEN through a pre forming die, THEN through a curing die (heated), TO emerge as a continuous section to be cut to length as required. -37-Filament Winding Separate filaments are accurately wound onto a mandrel of the appropriate shape after first being impregnated with resin (or pre preg is used). The complete assembly is heated to cure the resin and the mandrel is collapsed / dismantled and removed. In some cases the mandrel may be left in place and form an integral part of the component. Used in the manufacture of pressure vessels. Adhesive Bonding Used in the process of metal to metal joining; metal to composite joining; composite to composite joining and honeycomb joining. To manufacture a cored composite structure the two "skins" are manufactured either by compression moulding or auto-clave moulding. The two "skins" are then bonded either side of the core by using resin adhesives. The structure is heated in a pressurised auto-clave. ‘The resins may be a two part mix resin (epoxy) or it may be supplied in film form. This process, in general, produces a structure that is stronger than if it was manufactured in one single process. DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (of composites) This section deals with testing of composites. Many of the tests are similar to those used on metals, but many composites can prove very difficult to test and get valid results. For non destructive testing (ND1) refer to the book Non Destructive Testing in this series. For simple workshop tests on composites refer to the section in this book on Adhesive Bonding. For destructive testing on metals refer to the section in this book on The Testing of Metals. So - testing of ANY material/joining process can be divided into: (1) Visual examination (a form of NDT). (2) NDT methods. (3) Destructive methods - workshop. (4) Destructive methods - laboratory or manufacturer. -38-Items 1, 2, and 3 above are already dealt with and there is a separate section to come on item 4 (metals) - but .. 7 The laboratory destructive testing of composites has produced its own problems because their properties do not lend themselves readily to the "standard" methods of destructive testing used on metals. Some of the tests are similar, though the results may not be as good or as definitive as one would like. Where the tests are similar reference will be made to the section in this book on The Testing of Metals. When evaluating the results of tests of composites it is important that care is. taken because the results can vary considerably. This variation can be caused by: * Minor variations in the batch being tested. * Fine variations in the preparation of the test specimen. * Small variations in the actual test method. Any results obtained therefore, must be viewed with a critical mind. Testing is carried out to British Standards (BSI) and to standards set by the American Society of Testing of Materials. Safety Considerable energy can be stored up in a test piece during the test. This energy can be released in explosive form and can be very dangerous. ALL testing must be carried out behind safety screens/shatter proof guards, and by qualified staff. Flexural Test This measures centre point deflection as a function of load. FORCE TEST PIECE ZA Fig. 4 THREE POINT FLEXURAL TEST -39-‘TesTpIECE Fig. 5 FOUR POINT FLEXURAL TEST Tensile Test This is carried out in a similar way to tensile testing of metals ie, the test piece is "stretched" in a tensile testing machine and its extension /breaking point is measured against the load applied. Test pieces have to be thin because of their high tensile strengths and it is often very difficult to satisfactorily attach the test specimen to the machine due to its plasticity. Compressive Test ‘The test piece is placed in a similar machine to above but the machine is selected to "squash" the test piece. Like all compressive test pieces it has to be of a reasonable diameter to prevent buckling. If it buckles the test is invalid. ‘Again, this test has its problems as failure often occurs due to "transverse delamination" - not what we are testing for. Shear Test Usually applied to tubes and round sections. Again, this is difficult to test for, but the usual test is as follows: * Clamp the test piece at one end to a torque measuring device. * Freely support the free end. + Rotate the free end slowly (about half a radian per minute - about 1 revolution in 12 minutes). * Note the torque transmitted at the fixed end at certain time intervals. + The relationship between the indicated torque at the fixed end and the rotated amount at the free end is an indication of the amount of shear stress in the test piece. -40-FIXED END ROTATED END Fig. 6 SHEAR TEST Impact Testing The following tests are used but none have proved totally satisfactory. (a) Izod pendulum test. (b) Charpy pendulum test. (c) Drop weight test. (@) Ballistic impact test. (€)__ Slow bend test. For details of (a) and (b) refer to the section on The Testing of Metals. The other tests have been listed for reference only. DEGRADATION OF COMPOSITES Unlike metals, composites do not corrode but they do have their problems. Galvanic Corrosion Galvanic corrosion can occur to Al alloys and cadmium plated steel if attached to CFC (Carbon Fibre Composite). The pd (potential difference - voltage) can be as high as 1 volt. Special jointing compounds are effective in reducing the problem as in the use of epoxy paint treatment. Surface Oxidation This is not an important factor with composites though surface changes can occur when combined with uv light and rain. -41-