Licence By Post © copyright MATERIALS ss Licence By Post ‘The apie i is book ca et finger. Not suitable for srall chives. Care when handling. ITES., B1 6.3b ISSUE 111AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study /training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer’s handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.CONTENTS Materials Mixing resins Inspection of GRP structures General repair considerations CFCs Repairs - CFCs NDT inspection of composites PAGE Ve Onabe RSHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written to level 2 for the A line mechanic and the BI engineer. It is not applicable to the B2 engineer. The information in this book is fairly straight forward to study. You should be capable of thorough inspection of composite structures and to that end should have a good understanding of the materials and how they are built up. Whilst most firms have composite repair specialists (or import them in when needed) it falls to you the licensed engineer to know what is going on on your aircraft. So a good knowledge of composite repair methods is essential.COMPOSITE STRUCTURES Much structure in modern aircraft is manufactured in reinforced plastics, honeycomb sandwich, carbon fibre etc. It would appear that the trend is towards more composites both in components, ducting, structural members, flooring, fairings, control surfaces, rotor blades, props, furnishings etc. ‘The materials used in the construction of a particular component depend on the parameters that the component has to meet. Such things as shape, strength, stiffness, toughness, heat resistance, chemical resistance, electrical Properties, these are taken into consideration when selecting a material. That means that the repair materials selected must be the same or have the same properties. Repairs to composite structures are generally more difficult than to metal structures. Or course you must follow the information as laid down in the Repair Manual, but the materials and workshop facilities must be available, and you must have the skill - which usually requires a specialist course. MATERIALS Fibres (a) Glass fibre cloth supplied untreated or ‘prepreg’, in a variety of grades and weaves usually to British Standards B.S. 3369 or U.S. Mil Standard MIL-C-9084.eg: * Plain weave - The simplest of them all - similar to most common fabrics - look at your handkerchief. * Unidirectional - Most of the yarns go in the same direction - sometimes called Weflless weave.UNIDIRECTIONAL WEAVE (b) Carbon fibre - made up as sheet in various thicknesses - untreated or prepreg. High strength. (c) Aramid fibre - when use as a reinforcing for paper is generally called Nomex. Also called Kevlar. ‘These fibres may be made up into solid material with one cloth laid one upon the other. The plies may be laid on the bias (at 90°) to each other, of they may be laid straight to each other. They-are then bended together using special resins and adhesives, and pressure - usually in the form of a vacuum bag or chamber. Prior to being bonded together to form a component many materials are kept in cold storage. It is most important to ensure that the maximum storage temperatures are not exceeded and once removed from the freezer the *acclimatisation" periods are adhered to. Resins Polyester or epoxy resins used for bonding laminates, composites, and as an adhesive for bonding metal to metal, metal to wood, metal to polymer etc.The choose of resin is very important as the incorrect resin can have an adverse affect on the material and/or not be strong enough and/or react with other compounds e.g. fuel and break down, and/or fail due to heat or age. It is also very important when using resins to maintain strict cleanliness during all stages of the mixing and bonding process. Any dirt or moisture will seriously adversely affect the strength of the repair. Resins are supplied as liquids, and also in the form of thin film. Additives Most bonding processes make us of a two part mix adhesive - a resin and an activator/hardener. Other additives may also be added to improve such things as flame retardation. ALWAYS follow the instructions supplied by the manufacturer of the resins, and remember once mixed the adhesive will have a “pot life" - in other words it will start to harden and must be used within a set Period - again, check the instructions. Core Materials In many sandwich structures a core material (usually of low density) is bonded between two sheets of material (usually of high tensile strength). The outer sheets maybe: * Aluminium alloy * Fibre composite - glass - carbon ‘The core material maybe: “Glass fibre honeycomb —* Micro balloons/resin mix * Expanded nitrile ebonite * Expanded composites * Aluminium honeycomb It is most important when carrying out a repair to follow the repair manual instructions. This usually specifies that the same type of core is fitted to that has been removed during the repair process. Remember on radomes dielectric covers the repair should be "radar transparent”. The repair should also follow, as far as possible, the original contour and shape of the original component.GLASS-CLOTH PATCHS OUTER SKIN HONEYCOMB CORE Max. length of crack - 4" Min. distance between repairs - 10" Min. distance between crack & skin edge - 2.5" TYPICAL REPAIR TO CRACKED SKIN Preparation and Mixing of Resins In general always: (a) Wear protective clothing, including goggles. (b) Work in a well ventilated area. (c) Mix the chemicals in accordance with the manufactures instructions. (d) Wash the area thoroughly if chemicals come in contact with the skin. (¢) Irrigate the eyes immediately with water, if the chemicals come into contact with the eyes - and seek medical advice.Mixing ‘The ingredients should be stored (normal maximum time 12 months) at temperatures less than 10° C and be allowed to come to room temperature before mixing. All materials, working areas, tools, and utensils must be keep thoroughly clean and dry. ‘The resin and additives should be carefully measured into a glass container in the correct proportions as specified in the manufacturers instructions. These Proportions may be specified as percentages by weight. ‘The catalyst should be thoroughly mixed with the resin before adding the accelerator and any additional material such as fillers etc. Repairs to be at least 10" apart and dimensions A and B Will be a maximum of 2.5" to’ 7" depending on type of repair eg. round or square. Pot Life Once mixed the resin begins to cure and may have a pot life of between a few minutes and several hours before it begins to gel. Always ensure the resin is used well within its pot life time.Curing Most resins will cure at room temperature within a few hours, but may take several days to cure completely. It may be necessary to use heat to cure the resin, so check the Repair Manual for details. Heating may be carried by the use of lamps, electric heaters, or ovens. Temperature control may be by a thermostat, or by marking the part with a special pencil that changes colour at a specific temperature. Film Adhesives Some adhesives are supplied in film form, and the amount required is simply cut from a large sheet. They are generally easier to apply than liquid or powder adhesives, but once the protective backing is removed it is most important that the adhesive film is not touched as this will severely affect its adhesive properties. SKIN SECTION Repairs to be at least 20" apart and 5" from panel edge. Dimensions A&B are a max. of 1" to 5" depending on weather the repair is round or square. YPICAL REPA\ {E_BOTH SKINS AND CORE ARE DAMAGED INSPECTION OF G.R.P. STRUCTURE Damage may be difficult to detect as the structure may spring back into shape after an impact. So careful inspection is required to check for any signs of external scuff marks or marks on the paint work.During the inspection checks should be carried out both on the inside and the outside of the structure for: * Cracks. * Crazing. * Splitting - particularly inside. * Signs of bowing inwards - and damage to internal systems/structure. * Delamination. ‘Try tapping with a coin or using Ultra Sonic N. D. T. testing (using qualified personnel). * Water ingress. May show as:a stain but you can use a moisture meter or X-ray equipment (using qualified personnel). Moisture may be removed by the application of heat, and in some cases a small hole may be drilled (and repaired later) to allow the water to drain away. Check the security of the panel to the aircraft, and check the surrounding structure for damage due to transmitted shock. Check any lightning conductor strips for security of attachment, damage, and carry out a bonding check - if bonding is suspect. GLASSCLOTH, 4 LAYERS 0.003" EACH (CURED LAMINATE) 28 onute 172 REPAIR PLATE LAND MIN. 0.5" EXAMPLE OF CORE REPAIR 3" DIA, MAX Where unspecified al materials and dimensions are similar to EXAMPLE OF SMALL CORE REPAIR (1.5" DIA. MAX.Electrical discharge damage in radomes may be difficult to detect. One method that may be employed is to pressurise the radome (off the aircraft) to 3 P.S.l., then apply uncured resin to the outside and check for bubbles. Once the damage has been located, check the repair manual for the repair limits - some areas are not repairable - and carry out the repair i.a.w. the repair manual. Many firms send personnel on specialist courses for this type of work. GENERAL REPAIR CONSIDERATIONS. 1, Ascertain the exact extent of the damage and classify the repair using the repair manual (negligible - repairable - replacement etc.). 2. Support of jury rig the structure if necessary. 3. Check the effect of the repair on radar transparency - if applicable. 4. Mix and use the resins in a warm dry atmosphere (min. 20° C). 5. Remove resins from store and allow to attain room temperature for at least 24 hours. 6. Remove paint from the area by sanding, then clean with acetone or M.E.K. and allow to dry. 7. Lay up the repair using cloth and resins in accordance with the repair manual. 8. Apply pressure to the repair using weights, clamps, or more likely vacuum bags. 9. Use a mould - for more complex shapes - made from wood or other similar material. 10. Use a parting agent on the mould to prevent the resins from adhering to the mould. 11, Remove all traces of parting agent from the repair. 12. Inspect the repair, repaint, and carry out functional check to check for radar transparency. CARBON FIBRE COMPOSITES (C.F.C.s) ‘There is an increasing use of C.F.C.s in the construction of aircraft. The advantages of this material over conventional metals are many and include: * Good strength/weight ratio. * Resistance to impact damage - often difficult to detect if it has sustained di . * Non-corrodable. * Easily moulded to complex shapes. * Unlike some materials it is not affected by hydraulic and other fluids. * Does not suffer from cracking, and has very good fatigue strength.Like G.R.P. it is made up of layers of fibre, but carbon and not glass. It may be pre-preg (already pre-impregnated with resin), or may be carbon fibre material requiring a bonding agent between the layers. Once the layers are made up the resin is allowed to cure - usually using heat and pressure (vacuum bags). All C.F.C. materials should be stored in a cool dark place. Pre-preg material should be stored at temperatures below freezing (about -18° C). All materials should be allowed to reach room temperature before being worked on. This usually means keeping at room temperature for a period of 24 hours. Materials (a) Resins and other chemicals. Stored at -18°C usually has a shelf life of 12 months - refer to manufacturers literature. {b) C.F.C, and Kevlar material stored in a dark room in their original containers. Kevlar is affected by u.v. light. (c) C.F.C, prepreg is stored at -18° C and again may have a shelf life of 12 months. May have a life of one month out of cold store. ‘Types of Structure 1. Sandwich Construction Not unlike the sandwich construction of G.R.P. It is designed to have a light, reasonably weak centre with strong outer fibres. The outer fibres being in tension or compression, with the centre being in shear. Many combinations of composite (metal and non metal) can be used. The following drawing is a typical example. The sandwich is usually made up of a honeycomb centre vith multiple plies of composite pre-,reg cloths laid at different angles to each other and cured under pressure in an autoclave. PRE-PREG CLOTH Detail showing additional reinforcing at points of core reduction HONEYCOMB CORE X TYPICAL SANDWICH STRUCTURE2. Monolithic Structure. Structural components such as sheet skin, angles, ribs, frames, top hat sections etc. are made from monolithic material in a similar way to the build up of the outer layers of the sandwich structure. The drawing below shows an A310 spoiler made from glass fibre reinforced plastic (G.F.R.P. - skin panels and ribs. With the fittings being made from metal. MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE 3. Mixed Structure The next drawing shows the construction of an A320 flap. It is a mixed structure with some monolithic and some sandwich components. SANOWICH STRUCTURE MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE ‘SANDWICH STRUCTURE EXAMPLE OF MIXED STRUCTURE, -10-Damage Like G.R.P. damage that does occur may be difficult to detect. It is therefore important that if damage is suspected then a thorough investigation is carried out over the whole area. ‘The damage is usually associated with impact and the inspection procedure is similar to that which is used with G.R.P. Area of Impact Spread of delamination damage — Broken inner layers IMPACT "SPREAD" ON C.F.C. SKIN ‘As we have said, the inspection is similar to that carried out to G.R.P. structure. X-rays may be used to check for internal damage/delamination on sandwich structures, and ultra-sonics may be used on monolithic structures. When using ultra-sonics a couplant must be used between the probe and the part being tested. (If you remember we use oil or grease on metals), For C.F.C.s we can use a rubber tyred wheel or water. ‘Thermal Pules Thermography may be used. This process involves the use of a high intensity thermal pules and the rate of diffusion is measured. An image of the thermal pattern is then displayed on a screen and a change in the pattern will indicate a defect. Modern T.P.T. systems will involve the use of computers for storage and analysis of data. Repair. The repair process is similar to that which is employed with G.R.P. structures. -1l-Equipment. ‘The equipment will vary depending on the type and level of the repair being carried out, but the following is a typical list of the equipment required: * AC.F.C. bay with everything kept scrupulously clean. * Repair heaters - electrical heater mats thermostatically controlled. * Vacuum pressure bags - to put the repair under pressure when curing. * Temperature probes - to monitor the temperature of the repair when curing. * Cold storage equipment. * Various tools including diamond coated saw blades and diamond tipped drill bits. * Breathing equipment and a dust extraction plant. C.F.C. particles and dust are dangerous if breathed in. Fumes from the chemicals are toxic. Repair Methods. ‘These will be laid down in Chapter 51 of the repair manual and may involve the use of infill, metal patching, G.R.P. lay-up, C.F.C. lay-up, core replacement etc. Damage (and the repair) can be divided into three main groups: * Negligible damage. May be repaired just for cosmetic reasons. * Structural damage. Has to be repaired to maintain the integrity of the structure. May be a standard repair in the manual, or may require the approval of the aircraft manufacturer. * Replacement damage. Severe damage that requires the replacement of the component. When assessing the damage always inspect an area much larger than the ‘obvious’ damage. Or course, all these types of damage are laid down in the repair manual, as are the repair schemes. In general the repair materials should be the same as the original component unless specified otherwise. General Repair Procedure 1. Clean and dry the repair area. 2, Remove the paint - by sanding - in the area taking care not to damage the fibres. -12-ao pen Remove ail traces of dust. . Remove the damage. Check that all the damage has been removed. Scarf the edges as specified in the manual. The scafed edge may have a taper of 20:1. The core is removed by the use of a router. Check the repair limitations in the repair manual. The fibre layers are laid up by hand, and usually involves the use of pre- preg material. This may be laid up at 0°, 45°, and 90°. Use might be made of ‘in-fill, an insert, blind rivets, bolts, metal patches. Allow to ‘cold cure’ - use a vacuum bag, or heat in an autoclave. Inspect the repair and repaint if necessary. COMPOSITE DOUBLER BLIND RIVETS SKIN REPAIR USING DOUBLER Complete tay-up betore not bonded cure SKIN REPAIR - HOT CURE USING PRE-PREG ese‘Two basic methods of repair: (a) ‘Cold Cure’. Using room temperature (20° C min) or heater blankets. Curing can take up to 7 days, but with heater blankets using temperatures of about 80° C the time can be reduced to less than an hour - depending on materials, type of repair, etc. (b) ‘Hot Cure’. This process uses an autoclave with temperatures up to 180° C and curing times as short as 45 mins, again depending on materials and type of repair. py Completed wet layup betore cure SKIN REPAIR USING COLD CURE WET LAY-UP Repairs to Sandwich Structure. ‘The damaged core is usually removed and the void filled with a mixture (of adhesive and thickening agent), or a core plug of honeycomb is bonded into position. The skin is then repaired in the same manner as already described. COMPOSITE DOUBLER _— COMPOSITE DO ADHESIVE voi FILLER ——— SS EeSSaaaa-a___—_Ea_a_aSa=_—== ]SSSSSSSS=a====== COLD CURE REPAIR USING DOUBLER AND VOID FILLER -14-Delamination and Debonding Delamination occurs when two or more plies become separated from each other - often due to impact. ‘They may be repaired by layering or by injecting adhesive through the rivet holes (drilled i.a.w. the repair drawing), and riveted up using blind rivets. ‘COMPOSITE DOUBLER: ADHESIVE HONEYCOMB PLUG HOT BONDING USING A HONEYCOMB INSERT Debonding occurs when the honeycomb core separates from the outer skin. Repair can be carried out by injecting adhesive into the honeycomb through holes drilled in the skin. Pressure should be applied to the skin to ensure a good bond between the skin and the core material. BLIND RIVETS. DELAMINATION ADHESIVE INJECTED THROUGH RIVET HOLES DELAMINATION REPAIR Metal Patching The metal patch may be bolted or bonded into position. Metal patching does not attempt to restore the structure to its original strength or contour but is a quick method of repairing small cracks or limited damage to non primary structure. -15-HYPODERMIC oo vnine DEBONDING REPAIR Poncus panting Fi SLEEDER CLOTH PLIEE NONPOROUS PARTING FILM. S1U1608 AUSOER SHEET GRAPHITE REPAIR PLIES vacuum Bag HEAT BLANKET AA TEMPERATURE KEVLAR PLY Prone ‘Towenatune roe LI " chara ADHERIVE oa WONEYCoME CORE REPAIR PLUG TYPICAL REPAIR TAKEN FROM AN SRM OF A HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE USING “COLD CURE” WITH A HEATER BLANKET, VACUUM BAG AND TEMP PROBES Remember ALWAYS refer to the repair manual for the exact method of repair. -16-OL€V BHL NO SULISOdNOO 40 Asn pyaseTd peoroguyer e1qts SseTD = duad pyaseTd peorozuyex exqy3 woqTeD = aysd (zepaoy) oFaseTd peozozuyer eaqys prweIY = dudVVoid Filler - Honeycomb Section When repairing honeycomb section where the honeycomb is removed the void must be filled with a core plug or filler compound. The type of filler will depend on the size of the void. In general small diameter voids are filled using: * An adhesive and thickener. * Arresin and micro balloons. The micro balloons are small phenolic resin hollow spheres that help to produce a low density (light weight) filler. * Foam etc. For larger holes a core plug is manufactured from the same material as the original honeycomb and cemented into position with a resin mix/resin micro balloons mix. The minimum size of hole where a manufactured plug must be fitted is stated in the repair manual e, *A320/310_ .. above 2" in diameter * Boeing 737 above 0.5" in diameter *DC9 .... above 2" in diameter As always - for details of a repair refer to the aircraft repair manual Electrical Bonding Some composite structures are bonded to allow for an electrical path. Aluminium foil may be used and metal discharge strips. Aramid (Kevlar) has an aluminium foil ply. EXTERNAL DOUBLER ‘SAME THICKNESS SEALANT AS SKIN + 02mm, ADHESIVE ADHESIVE + THICKENER EXAMPLE OF A REPAIR TO DAMAGE NOT MORE THAN 2" DIA ON THE A320 -18-TRA REPATE PLY om eS army RESIN RDC 3 To uppoe {ACE OF AEMACERENT Cone Abe SUNT ton To APPLTeATTON (OF REPAnL PLIES DETERRING MaMER OF PLIES, OATENTATIo, AMD OUTGTNAL MATERIAL Fon sraciric Comouant STRUCTURE TDENTEFTEATION. mun ny CEAnE BEURETEN AS REPLACERENT CORE PLUED REPLACERENT CORE PLUG } ‘hae MATERIAL AS OTEINALD Tape sano ot STEP sanb AEH PLY NOTES 1 For extemal skin taper sanding is recommended. Taper sand areas that are in the airflow. 2 Apply resin mix around replacement core plug or around original core. REPAIR TO DAMAGE ON A 737 GREATER THAN 0.5" IN DIAMETER TO ONE SKIN AND THE HONEYCOMB CORE Pus rer.on a APPLICATION OF PLICATION OF En 3500 MO PHENOLIC MICROBALLOONS MIXTURE. XEA 9390 AND PHENOLIC ICROGALLOONS HENTURE outer PAMEL { SSE sue we {LEFT HEFT PANEL { sen TYPICAL PLUG TYPE REPAIR USED ON SOME AIRCRAFT FOR DAMAGE GREATER THAN 1" DIAMETER -19-——- oop on Ad AE a, cv rarer eta woocecut cone 0.125 / or cone ru. wae ‘sane PERIMENT Damicen cone RESIN RT ot 3 LEANED AT NOTES 11 Do not taper sand or step sand any plies. Orient cover plies in the same direction as the original outer plies. 2.If the original surface ply is aramid or glass fibre prepare and apply two plies of BMS 9-3 type H2 glass ‘fabric. Ifthe original surface ply is graphite type fibre (carbon fibre) or fabric apply on or two plies Of carbon fibre BMS 9-8 type 1 class 2 style 3K-70-P material wth orientation as per the original surface ply. REPAIR TO DAMAGE 0.5" OR LESS TO ONE SKIN AND HONEYCOMB CORE - 737 coven my _—— os 4-289, Tre 0, Ciiss $50; Guve { on 2 ‘Amin foi PLY amesive FILA orm erate Py on PLES eran mts onesie FUN DETAILS OF A REPAIR TO MAINTAIN AN ELECTRICAL PATH ACROSS A FOIL COVERED SURFACE - 737 -20-INSPECTION OF COMPOSITES To some extent composites can be more difficult to inspect for flaws than metal structures. When subject to impact damage they can “spring back” and show little or no sign of impact. Certain NDT techniques will not work with composites — eddy current - magnetic particle etc, and whilst x-ray interpretation of negatives on metals can be difficult the results of composite x-rays can be more so. Defects in composites include: Bulges Splitting De-lamination De-bonding Moisture ingress Cracks UV (ultra violet) degradation Erosion Lightning strike damage Fire damage Bulges may be a sign of de-lamination or de-bonding and may be accompanied by water ingress. Splitting is usually a sign of impact damage. De-bonding is the failure of the bond joint between 2 composite parts or between a composite part and a metal part. May be the result of impact damage or more likely, poor quality of initial bonding process. De-lamination is similar to de-bonding but occurs between the layers of a built-up material. Moisture ingress can result from impact damage or from a poorly made joint. Once in, the water can increase the damage area particularly if subject to freezing conditions. Where cracks occur they are likely to run inline with the weft or warp plies of the material. The likely-hood of a crack occurring is considerably reduced by constructing composites of a weft/warp material or laying consecutive weftless plies at right angles to each other. -21-UV radiation will degrade some composite fibres more than others, but at any rate UV absorbing additives should be used on all outer surfaces of composite build-ups. Erosion will occur on all leading edge surfaces (main-planes, tail-planes, fins, propellers, rotor-blades etc) irrespective of the material they are made of. It is caused by small particles in the air such as dust, insects, rain etc. Lightning strikes show up as surface damage to the material ~ not too unlike impact damage - usually with signs of burning. ‘The resins will not usually withstand high temperatures and when burning will give off inflammable gases and thick smoke. When burned-off will leave the fibre yarns behind. Visual Inspection ‘The area should be inspected in a good light for those defects listed above. The structure should be inspected both sides as splitting may occur on the inside of a panel where the only evidence of damage on the outside is a scuff mark. Additionally if damage is suspected the edges of the panel/area should be inspected for signs of transmitted shock. The transmitted shock may show up as damage to an adjacent panel/area or to damage and looseness of attaching bolts, screws etc. It is important to note that if the panel/area has suffered impact damage it could have moved in sufficient to damage systems/services within the aircraft = so check these as well. Coin Tapping Where de-lamination is suspected a small metal object can be used to tap the area and check for a change in the sound. A coin about 1” (25mm) in diameter is ideal. Tap lightly at the side of the area where de-lamination is suspected and continue tapping while moving across the area. Any de-lamination will be indicated by a change in the sound. ‘A tool called a Woodpecker can be used. This electronic tapping device has a small tapping head that can be moved over the area and the sounds observed as before. Two small feet allow the tool to be rested against the surface to be tested giving the tapping head the correct distance from the surface for best results. -22-The tool can be connected to a CRT screen where the feedback signal can be displayed. Moisture Meter ‘A moisture meter may be used for checking for signs of moisture ingress. The pencil size probe is held against the suspected surface and moisture is indicated either on a dial or an LED display. Infra-red Thermography This has been developed by Airbus Industries for detecting water ingress in composite-sandwich structures. Infra-red thermography is based on the principle that an object emits electro- magnetic radiation the intensity of which is related to its temperature. When a structure is heated and allowed to cool ~ water contaminated areas cool more slowly than “dry” areas and these areas can be detected using an infra-red camera. (The specific heat of water is 5 times higher than composite materials). ‘The infra-red camera converts the thermal radiation into an electronic signal, which is displayed on a video screen. WATER INGRESS AREAS CRT SCREEN DISPLAY Method. 1, Clean and dry the area to be inspected (both sides). 2. Heat the area using a special electric blanket. The electric blanket is temperature and time controlled so that it heats up slowly, taking at least 15 minutes to reach 60°C. The temperature is held at this value for a further 5 minutes.3. ‘The blanket is removed and the airframe allowed to cool. As it cools the slower cooling “wet areas” show up on an infra-red scanning camera. 4. One engineer operates the scanning camera while another views the output on a video monitor. Wet/damp areas are indicated in colour as shown in the drawing above. 5. ‘When a wet area is shown the viewing operator tells the camera operator. The camera is held still and the area on the panel is marked for investigation /repair. Note A typical system is the Agema Infra-red Systems Thermovision 210 which will detect a difference of 0.1°C at 30°C to an area down to about 10mm x 10mm contaminated with 10% water - and located on the opposite side of the skin. Ultra-Sonic Testing 2 Used mainly for detecting below-surface voids but also for surface flaws at a point some distance from the place of accessibility. High frequency sound waves, when transmitted through solid material, are reflected by any discontinuity such as a void or a flaw. This reflection is converted into a signal on a cathode ray tube (CRT) which can be interpreted by a trained operator. ‘These sound waves are above the audible frequency of the human ear, and can be transmitted in three different form: a) Longitudinal - in the same direction as the motion of the sound. b) Transverse _- perpendicular to the motion of the sound. c) Surface - transverse waves along the surface of the material. The pitch of the sound is controlled by its frequency, and its speed through the material by the characteristics of the material. Each probe comprises a quartz crystal and sound damping material. When the crystal is fed with an ac supply, it vibrates at the frequency of the received input. These vibrations are passed into the material in a direction related to the shape of the probe ‘The receiver crystal is vibrated by the received sound waves and generates an ac supply which is fed into the vertical axis of the CRT. The result is a line on the CRT with a number of vertical “blips”. ‘To prevent any signal coming from the air gap between the probe and the surface a copulant such as oil is used. -24-ULTRA SONIC TESTING On material without any flaws, there will be a vertical to represent the top surface and another the bottom surface; the distance between them related to thickness of material (distance travelled by the sound waves). A void within the material will reflect the sound waves earlier and erect a smaller vertical on the CRT between the first and second verticals at a position related to its distance from the surface. -25 -FILM IN LIGHT PROOF ENVELOPE USING AN X-RAY MACHINE Radiography A.user unfriendly system that produces X-ray pictures to be analysed. Using either X or Gamma rays which can pass through almost all materials and which are extremely dangerous to humans (as well as animals). This system is similar to photography. X-RAY EQUIPMENT - 26 -X Rays Generated in an electron tube needing 250,000 Volts. Gives a better picture quality than gamma rays. The electron tube relatively large giving limited access. Gamma Rays Self-generated by radioactive isotopes, each isotope being about the size of a button. Access into small spaces is easier ~ into shafts, etc. Poorer picture quality than with X rays, In general the process is as follows: (a) Set up equipment with X-ray tube on one side of the part to be checked, and the (sealed) negative on the other side. (b) Place test piece in front of negative (this provides a density comparitor on the negative so that comparisons can be made between it and the rest of the image}. (co) Check exposure times and distance of tube from part (distance measuring rod supplied). (@) Clear hangar, place warning signs around aircraft. (e) From remote control panel switch on tube and monitor area. () After exposure remove equipment/signs. Allow maintenance personnel back on aircraft. (@) Develop negative and analyse results. ‘The process requires a high level of expertise, and the equipment is dangerous to use. Operators require a regular medical check-up and wear a personal radiation dosimeter. ALWAYS STAY OUT OF WARNED OR ROPED OFF AREAS. QUESTION: If a defect was found using any of the above methods, what action would you take? (10 mins) ANSWER: If the crack or a void is in a component then it will normally require replacement, but check the manual first - some cracks might just be allowed if they run in a certain direction, and/or are ina certain area and/or are below a certain length. If a crack or void is in a structural member it may be classed as negligible (check the repair manual - the same parameters may apply as above) and stop drill the ends of the crack. If the defect is outside the negligible limits then the area must be repaired in accordance with the SRM, or the part replaced. If porosity is found then check the repair manual, but in general the component is replaced, or the area is repaired. -27-dd QUESTION: What does “stop drill” the end of the crack mean and why is it ANSWER: carried out? (5 mins) The exact end of the crack is located (often very difficult) and a small drill is used (say 3.3mm) to drill a hole right through the material. This has the effect of reducing the stress concentration at the crack end to a lower concentration on the wall of the hole, so (hopefully) stopping the crack from propagating. ALWAYS inspect the crack at a later date to see that is has not developed further. QUESTION: If an NDT team was to carry out an inspection on your aircraft, ANSWER: what would be their relationship to you as a licenced engineer? (6 mins) ‘They would be requested by you or the senior engineer of the company to carry out the NDT test. Their findings would be recorded and signed for using their own documentation and they would report back to you (or the senior engineer). They would hand over their recorded findings and you would clear the defect in the log-book (if no defect was found or after rectification carried out) making reference to the NDT report. QUESTION: What parts of the aircraft would you carry out an NDT test on and ANSWER: NOTE: when? (5 mins) ‘Those parts/components that the CAA/aircraft manufacturer or your company tells you to or a part that you are highly suspicious of. Airworthiness Directives /Service Bulletins will be sent from the CAA/manufacturer to all operators of your aircraft to carry out a particular check. The instructions will normally indicate a time limit, and if it says “before next flight” it effectively grounds the aircraft. In some cases a report has to be sent back to the CAA/manufacturer of the findings. The student is advised to read the following Airworthiness Notices: 94 - NDT Testing - Qualifications. 95 - UV and Magnetic Particle Testing.