ILLUMINANCE (symbol E) - When light falls on a surface, the level of illumination on that surface is

referred to as illuminance. The unit of measurement is lux. (lumens per square metre)

a sound, especially one that is loud or unpleasant or that causes disturbance

A switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or connect the conducting path in an
electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

AV CONSULTANTS- AUIO / VIDEO SETUP

SPEED OF SOUND CAN CHANGE IF THE HUMIDITY IS HIGHER OR THE TEMPERATURE IS LOWER.

LOWER THE FREQUENCY-

PLANE GYPSUM/ PERFORATED GYPSUM.

Lighting science
 Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. 
 Light radiates and can travel unlimited distances through
space. 
 Light rays can however, be reflected, transmitted or absorbed
when they strike an object. 
 The visible spectrum is only a small part of the full
electromagnetic spectrum.

The spectrum of light

 The spectrum of light is seen in a rainbow or from a prism, and

it includes all of the visible colors. 
 We tend to organize color into three primaries (red, green, and
blue) and three secondaries (yellow, cyan, and magenta). 
 When primaries of light are combined, the human eye sees
white light.
Light sources
 Light from natural sources such as the sun is known as white light and is
made up from the different frequency components of the visible
spectrum.
 Man-made sources generally require consumption of resources, such as
fossil fuels, to convert stored energy into light energy. Electric lighting is
superior to flame sources because the combustion of wood, gas, and oil
produces pollution within the space being illuminated.
 Artificial light from sources such as candles, tungsten filaments and gas
discharge lamps, etc., has a different mix of frequency components which
produce a different colour light. 

Colour temperature
 another physical property of a lamp.
 It is measured in Kelvins,not degrees.
 The color temperature of a lamp varies from about 2600 to 2800
Kelvins for an     incandescent lamp, to around 7000 K for a daylight
lamp.
 The color temperature of a lamp tells us what the light from the
lamp looks like.
 A low color temperature – like 2600 K  means that the light from
the lamp appears warm in color meaning it has a red, yellow or
orange tint.
Colour rendering index (CRI)
CRI is a measure of a light source's ability to show object colors

"realistically" or "naturally" compared to a familiar reference source,

either incandescent light or daylight.

For any color temperature, the higher the CRI, the more closely we see

colors correctly.

Examples of artificial sources

1. Edison Lamp
2. Incandescent Lamps
3. Tungsten-halogen lamps
4. Fluorescent Lamps
5. High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps
1. Metal Halide Lamps
2. Sodium Lamps
3. Mercury Vapor Lamps
2. Induction Lamps
 3. Light-Emitting Diodes
4. Neon and Cold Cathode Lamps

Lighting theory
Lighting can be considered in 4 stages, source, flow, illuminance and luminance.

1. SOURCE - the light source has a luminous intensity (symbol I) and is measured in
candela.

2. FLOW - the flow of light, or light flux (symbol φ) which is measured in lumens.

3. ILLUMINANCE (symbol E) - when light falls on a surface, the level of illumination on

that surface is referred to as illuminance. The unit of measurement is lux. (lumens per
square metre)

4. LUMINANCE (symbol L) - The fourth stage of this process is the light leaving the
surface which has been illuminated by the source (reflected light).

Luminous Flux

The amount of light emitted by the lamp. The lamp

output is measured  in a physical quantity called

lumens. (point 2)

Luminous Intensity
The intensity of light flow is measured  in candela

(cd). (point 1)

Relationship between Candela

and Lumen
The Candela. In 1948 an international standard was adopted for light intensity.
The candela (pronounced “candeela”) is approximately equal to one candle power.
It is defined as the luminous intensity of a point source at the centre of a
sphere of 1m radius which produces an illuminance of 1 lux on the inner surface
of the sphere.

The Steradian. This is like a three dimensional radian, sometimes called the unit
solid angle. The steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere
by surface areas equal to r2.

Types of illumination schemes

Proper lighting can have a significant impact on how you feel in a space, and each
space may call for a variety of different lighting requirements. A good lighting
setup combines different kinds of lighting to create a welcoming space where
you can easily work or relax. There are three basic types of lighting you should
layer in a room in order to accomplish this:
1. General or Ambient lighting
2. Accent light or Highlighting
3. Task lighting or lighting at the work plane
Ambient Indoor Lighting
General or ambient lighting is intended to light up a room in its entirety. It
provides a uniform level of illumination throughout the space independently of
other lighting sources. Moreover, its purpose is to ensure safe and easy traffic,
as well as to create an overview of the room. The ambient light ‘bounces’ off the
walls to illuminate as much space as possible. 

Types of fixtures that can provide general ambient indoor lighting:

 Chandelier
 Ceiling mounted fixture
 Wall-mounted fixture
 Traditional recessed fixtures and / or LED downlights
 Track light
 Floor lamp
 Table lamp

Ambient Outdoor Lighting

Outdoor lighting is usually installed in order to ensure visibility and increase
security around a building. It is also recommended to light up the exterior of
the building, entrances and stairs to reduce and perhaps eliminate the risk of
injury that can occur when entering and leaving the building.

Types of fixtures that provide ambient outdoor lighting:

 Spotlight
 Hanging fixture
 Garage and canopy lighting
 Post lantern
 Wall lighting
 Recessed fixture used in overhanging structures
Task Lighting
Task lighting illuminates the tasks a person carries out in a given space such as
reading, cooking, computer work. A brighter light is required in a smaller focal
point of the room for these sorts of tasks.

For a more pleasant illumination, it is often best to avoid harsh lights or lighting
that casts troublesome shadows. It is also practical to install a single switch for
focal lighting, independent from the room’s overall lighting switch.

Types of Fixtures that Provide Task Lighting:

 Directional gimbal recessed fixture or downlight

 Pendant lighting
 Slim line bar and undercabinet
 Tape and extrusion
 Portable or desk lamp

Accent Lighting
Accent lighting is used mainly to focus on a specific point of interest or to
achieve a desired effect. This type of lighting gives the impression of a larger
room. It is more frequently used to highlight an architectural feature, a plant
(in outdoor layout), a sculpture, or a collection of objects.

As a general rule, effective accent lighting requires the installation of three

times more light on the focal point than ambient lighting generally provides.

Types of Fixtures that Provide Accent Lighting:

 Track light
 Slim line bar and undercabinet
 Tape and extrusion
 Directional recessed fixture or downlight
 Wall-mounted fixtures
Part 2

Lumen method of light

calculation
 This method is most suitable for interior lighting design , where a

high proportion of light on the working plane is reflected by internal

surfaces. 

 For external applications or where the reflectance of the surfaces

is unknown or may not be relied upon (emergency lighting

schemes), a utilisation factor for zero reflectance may be used. 

 The lumen method, sometimes called the luminous flux method of

calculation, is normally used to calculate the average illuminance

on working planes, or to calculate the number of luminaires

required to provide a specified average illuminance in rooms.

Maintenance Factor (MF/ LLF)
Maintenance Factor (MF) is the term used to take account of the

reduction in illuminance over the maintenance period due to:

1. Reduced reflectances due to the accumulation of dirt and dust on

room surfaces. 

2. Reduced light output from the luminaire due to the accumulation of dirt

and dust on the luminaire. 

3. Reduced light output due to the Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor.

4. Reduced light output due to lamps failing. Manufacturer data will give

the percentage lamp failures for a specific number of hours operation. 

Utilisation factor (UF/ CU)

         Lumens received on W.P.

UF = ---------------------------------

      Lumens output of luminaires

Utilisation factor takes account of the loss of light due to absorption on

room surfaces. It depends on 3 factors:

1. Type of Luminaire:  A luminaire with a concentrated light output

directed on the working plane will have a higher UF than a luminaire with
a dispersed light output.

2. Room index. This takes account of the length (L) and width (W) of the
room and the height of the luminaires above the working plane.  
3. Reflectances of Room Surfaces. Bright colours with high reflectances
result in a higher UF. A high utilisation factor will mean fewer lamps are
needed resulting in a more efficient energy usage and a lower capital
cost.

Lighting Control
Lighting control systems provide the ultimate in lighting energy cost
control, streamlined facility maintenance and energy efficiency. They
involve communication between the lighting equipment and a central
control system that can be adjusted, automated and monitored
Lighting Controls
1.Motion Sensor/Occupancy Sensor
2.Dimming Control
 (works like a regulator for lamp output)
3.Photosensor for Daylight Harvesting
 (works on lux levels)
4.Time scheduling.

Lighting Control
Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy sensors work off of sound or motion control  they
automatically dim or switch lights off when an area has not
been occupied for a specified amount of time and switch lights
back on when motion is detected. This can result in 35-45
percent energy savings.
Occupancy sensors can detect heat using PIR (passive infrared
radiation) technology,or detect sound using ultrasonic
technology. Newer occupancy sensors are dual mode with both
PIR and ultrasonic technology
Daylight harvesting
This used to be called “day lighting;” it is the use of sunlight to
augment our artificial lighting system.
Effective daylighting uses natural light to offset electrical lighting
loads. When designed and implemented correctly, daylighting
lowers energy consumption and reduces operating and investment
costs

Daylight Dimming
Instead of shutting the lights off when enough daylight triggers the
photosensor, daylight dimming allows lighting to be continuously
adjusted in proportion to the amount of sunlight available.
Integrating Daylighting and Electric lighting
To harvest the energy-saving benefits of daylighting, electric lights must
be switched off or dimmed.
The basic function of a circuit breaker is to stop the flow of current once a fault has occurred.

Circuit brekers are devices that protect circuits from overload current conditions. They do the same
job as fuses. A circuit breaker is one kind of electrical switch which is used to guard an electrical

Thickness

Density

Porosity

Lighting control systems provide the ultimate in lighting energy cost control, streamlined facility

maintenance and energy efficiency. They involve communication between the lighting equipment

and a central control system that can be adjusted, automated and monitored
Lighting Controls

1.Motion Sensor/Occupancy Sensor

2.Dimming Control

(works like a regulator for lamp output)

3.Photosensor for Daylight Harvesting

(works on lux levels)

4.Time scheduling

The deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects is called artificial light

The common defects developed due toreflection of sound are :(1) Reverberation (2) Formation of
echoes (3) Sound foci (4) Dead spots (5) Insufficient loudness (6)External noise

Noise is an unwanted sound which is considered unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hear. It can be
referred to any random fluctuations of data that hinders the perception of a signal.

➢ Reverberation time is a measure of the time required for the sound to "fade away" in an enclosed
area after

the source of the sound has stopped.

➢ When it comes to accurately measuring reverberation time with a meter, the term T60 [5] (an
abbreviation

for Reverberation Time 60dB) is used. T60 provides an objective reverberation time measurement. It
is defined

as the time it takes for the sound pressure level to reduce by 60 dB, measured after the generated
test signal

is abruptly ended
REVERBERATION :Reverberation Time is the time taken for the sound to decay by 60db in an
enclosed space.

Reverberation is caused by the reflections from the room surfaces. Reverberated sound mixes with
the later direct sound. Reverberated sound conveys an atmosphere to the audience.

The optimum reverberation time for a space in which the music is played depends on the type of
music that is to be played in the space. Rooms used for speech typically need a shorter reverberation
time so that speech can be understood more clearly. If the reflected sound from one syllable is still
heard when the next syllable is spoken, it may be difficult to understand what was said

Reverberation is the persistence of sound after the sound source has been stopped. It results from a
large number of reflected waves which can be perceived by the brain as a continuous sound. On the
other hand, an echo occurs when a pulse of sound can be heard twice. It is normally assumed that if
there is a delay of 50ms or more between the first and the second sound reaching the ear, then they
will be perceived by the brain as separate events rather than one extended event.

A reverberation is perceived when the reflected sound wave reaches your ear in less than 0.1 second
after the original sound wave. Since the original sound wave is still held in memory , there is no time
delay between the perception of the reflected sound wave and the original sound wave.

ECHO : In audio signal processing and acoustics, Echo is a reflection of sound that arrives at the
listener with a delay after the direct sound. The delay is proportional to the distance of the reflecting
surface from the source and the listener. The human ear can not distinguish between two successive
sounds if the period between them is less than 0.1 second, Wide and big reflecting surface must be
presented to hear the echo such as the walls, the mountains or the water bodies.

The echo can not be heard if the distance between the sound source and the reflecting surface is
less than 17 metres because the time between hearing the main sound and its echo will be less than
0.1 of a second, and the human ear cannot distinguish between the two successive sounds.

When the distance between hearing the main sound and the reflecting surface is multiples of 17
metres(twice or thrice), the echo is heard in the form of the last two or three phrases of the whole
produced sound

1. Ambient Outdoor Lighting - Outdoor lighting is usually installed in order to ensure visibility
and increase security around a building and is also recommended to light up the exterior of the
building, entrances and stairs to reduce and perhaps eliminate the risk of injury that can occur when
entering and leaving the building. Types of fixtures that provide ambient outdoor lighting are
Spotlight, hanging fixture, Garage and canopy lighting, Post lantern, Wall lighting, and Recessed
fixture used in overhanging structures.

2. Task Lighting - Task lighting illuminates the tasks a person carries out in a given space such as
reading, cooking, computer work. A brighter light is required in a smaller focal point of the room for
these sorts of tasks. For a more pleasant illumination, it is often best to avoid harsh lights or lighting
that casts troublesome shadows. It is also practical to install a single switch for focal lighting,
independent from the room’s overall lighting switch. Types of Fixtures that Provide Task Lighting are
Directional gimbal recessed fixture or downlight, Pendant lighting, Slim line bar and undercabinet,
Tape and extrusion, and portable or desk lamps.
3. Accent Lighting - is used mainly to focus on a specific point of interest or to achieve a desired
effect. This type of lighting gives the impression of a larger room. It is more frequently used to
highlight an architectural feature, a plant (in outdoor layout), a sculpture, or a collection of objects.
As a general rule, effective accent lighting requires the installation of three times lighter on the focal
point than ambient lighting generally provides. Types of Fixtures that Provide Accent Lighting are
Track light, Slim line bar and undercabinet, Tape and extrusion, Directional recessed fixture or
downlight and Wall-mounted fixtures

3 .If the conduits are hidden inside the wall with the help of plastering , it is called concealed conduit
wiring. the electrical wiring system inside the wall , roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic
piping. concealed wiring is most popular , strong and common electrical wiring system. as the pipes
and wiring are completely hidden and we get to see only wall finish. this is visually very good as it
does not show any fitting on the wall, only final switch boards are visible.

If the conduits are hidden inside the wall with the help of plastering , it is called concealed conduit
wiring. the electrical wiring system inside the wall , roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic
piping.

concealed wiring is most popular , strong and common electrical wiring system. as the pipes and
wiring are completely hidden and we get to see only wall finish.

this is visually very good as it does not show any fitting on the wall, only final switch boards are
visible.

Concealed wiring helps to maintain the aesthetic look of wall, as it looks neat and clean and render
surface plain for further decoration.

In this wiring system all the wires are in closed Electrical conduit, therefore fault cannot found easily
and cannot be fixed quickly and easily.

The whole wiring system cannot replace in short period of the time and material of wiring can or
cannot reused at another place.

Weather conditions like rain, steam, humidity, chemical affects and smoke etc cannot affect easily or
effect slowly

Ambient noise also known as background noise is any sound other than the sound being monitored.
It is a form noise pollution or interference. It is an important concept in setting noise levels. It
includes environmental noises - water waves, traffic noises etc and is an important consideration
with the use of ultrasound, for eg, - for medical diagnosis or imaging. Ambient sound is very
important in video and film work and performs a number of functions including, providing audio
continuity between shots, preventing an unnatural silence when no other sound is present and
establishing or reinforcing the mood.