ose as ELEMENTS OF MINERAL EXPLORATION PUBLISHED BY THE CONTROLLER, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, MINISTRY OF STEEL & MINES, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, NAGPUR, AND PRINTED AT THE [BM PRESS, NAGPUR, 1980 Price : (Inland) Re. 40.00; (Foreign) £ 4.67 or § 4.40Project Formulation and generat guidance Soript review Compilation Gonoral Surveying Editing end production Drawing Script typing Credits DN, BHAKGAYA, Controller Dr SC SINGHAL Controtter of Blines (Up to 1.3 1978) 5. K CHOUDRURI Regional Controlice of Mines Wp wo 146.1978) ALR HARWALKAR Suptdg Mining Engineer (Division in-charge-up 10 25.1, 1980) 5, BALAGOPAL Controller of Mines (From 25.1.1980) D.N. BHARGAVA, Controller H. ANANTHA RAMIAH, Suptdg. Mining Geologust N. L. CHATTERJEE, Regional Controller of Mines (Up co 281.1978) B. GEORGE Senior Mining Geougist HV. SATYAN Asstt. Mining Geclogist V.B. ACHARYA Jr, Technical Asi tant (Geol.) V. P. MAHORE Jr. Pechnical Assistant \ Min.) 6.8. KUMAR Deputy Controller of Mines 8. P. BARDE Senior Technical Assistant (Survey) P.M. RAO Senior Editor R. NAMASIVAYAM Asstt. Director ( Pub.) M.M, SAWANG: Publication Officer ©. P. KAITH Head Draftsman M.S. TALATA Draftsman Or. IT G. 8. MULCHANDANE & J.U. PARATE Stenographers (S.0.)on Preface In the course of the adminiatration of Mineral Conservation and Development Rules with a view to ensuring the conservation of mineral resources and the systematic develorment of mineral deposits, the Bureau has noticed a general neglect of the geological assessment of mineral resources in the mining lease areas covered by small mines. Considering the limited capacity of the owmers of such mines to obtain expertise, the need was felt to provide guidance to young geologists to enable them to take up the prepare- tion of geological maps and the assessment of mineral resources. It was with this end in view that it was decided to bring out this volume "Elements of Mineral Exploration” which provides detailed information and practical guidance to geolegists who do not have prior experience in mineral exploration. This then is the origin of this bulletin, the pinth in the series of bulletins brought out by the Indian Bureau of Mines so fay, 2. The subjects dealt with in this bulletin inelude geological mapping, pitting, trenching, drilling by core rilis and non-core drills for exploration, sampling. mineralogical and chemical analysis, exploratory mining, gee. which together constitute detailed exploration. Inter— Aisctplinary subjects like geo-chemistry, geo-botany, and geo-physics are dealt with in a cursory manner only to the extent of introducing these subjects to the reader. Subjects juke Petrology, mineralogy, and ore genesis have also been Gealt with insofar es their importance to mineral exploretion js concerned. A special feature is a discussion on the fede of occurrence of various mineral deposits in India and the manner in which the related schemes of exploration have fo be designed to meet the specific needs of a given type of deposit. A fairly detailed account has been given oF the application of statistical techniques. Computetion and Sekegorisation of reserves and exploration in working mines sre among the salient features of this publication, 3. in contrast to the general neglect of systematic exploration in small mines, @ number of government, gent. government and private organisations are engaged in the GuPloration of mineral deposits in free-nold areas ag also 42 fhe mining-lease-areas covered by lerge mechanised mincse it 4s hoped that this publication would else be useful tothe young geologists working in these organisations.4a. Our thanks are due to the publishing houses, individuals, and organisattons who have consented 1c our repreiucing extracts from their publicat‘ons. Thanks are also due to Shri Kedar Narajen, Chief Geoicgist, Mineral Exploration Corporstion Limited, Nagpur for going through the draft of the publication ana msking valuable suggestions 5. The following officers of the Indian Bureau cf Mines participated in the preparation of this bulletin - Dr. S.C.Singhal, Controller of Mines, Sarvashri A.R.Herwelkar, Superintending Mining Engineer,N-L.Chatteriee, and 8.k.Choudhuri, Regicnal Centrollers of Mines, "Anantha Ramiah, Superintending Mining Geologist. G.S-Kurar, Deputy Controiler of Mines, and 8.ueorge, Senior Mining Geologist. Special mention may be made of the contribution of Shri B.George who was mainly responsible for the preparation of the menuscripts. D. N. BHARGAVA Nagpur aia CONTROLIER 19 Septemrer 19901.0 INTRODUCTION Contents MINERALS, ROCKS, GEOLCGICAL STRUCTURES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE IN MINERAL EXPLORATION 2.1 CRUST OF THE EARTH ... peal 2 Mineral and Rock Forming Minerale... aa 2.1.2 Mineralogical Characteristics 2.1.3 Importance of Mineralogical Characteristics ie 2.1.4 Formation of Rocks and Mineral Deposits bea 2.1.5 Some Modern Concepts in Oregenesis ... vet 2.1.6 Geological Structures... 2.2 REFERENCES a sea ORGANISATION AND METHODS ... a 3.1 ORGANISATION aa bee 3.1.1 Selection of Minerals for Exploration ... aoc 3.1.2 Acquisition of Mineral Rights 31.3 Recruitment and Organisation of Personnel... ee 341.4 Procurement of Equipment 3.15 Transport s+ eae 3.2 METHODS ... a aac 3.2.1 Methods of Choosing Target Areas ae a 3.2.2 Criteria for Accepting or Rejecting Target Areas ... 3.2.3 Methods cf Prospecting and Exploration s+. aoe 3.3 REFERENCES... aed ale Page No. a2 13 38 44 72 ” ” 78 80 34 ag 89 95 97 isa4.0 (a) SURVEY IN EXPLORATION ce a 4.1 AIMS AND OBJECTS OF SURVEYING ... 4.2 METHODS OF SURVEYING... 4.2.1 Triangulation see 4.2.2 Traversing ... sre 4.2.3 levelling... 4.2.4 Contouring . arr 4.2.5 Tacheometry ..- ct 4.2.6 Plane Tebling ce 4.2.7 Chain or Linear Surveying 4.2.8 Traversing with Compass. +s 43° UNDERGROUND SURVEYS .., ive 4.4 ACCURACY OF VARIOUS TYRES OF SURVEYING METHODS + ae 4.5 BQUIFMENT AND PERSONNEL REQUIREMENT 4.5 NORMS FOR VARIOUS SURVEYING 9¢BS 4.7 REFERENCES... a ari EVALUATION or 5.1 INTERPRETATION OF DATA aeeees Ssl.1 | Structure Contour Plans. 5.1.2 Isopach (Isochore) map... 5.1.3 Isograd Plans te Sa. Assay Plans ... 5.1.3 Ore Distribution Plans .., 5.1.6 Cross-sections one 5.1.7 Longitudinal Vertical Projection ... a 5.1.8 Isometric Projection 5.1.9 Slice Plan... atl 7 1st 183 aa 185 197 189 191 192 192 193 193 193 199 194 194 194 ase 198(vero) 5.2. COMPUTATION AND CIASSTFICATION OF RESERVES AND GRADES ... a 200 3.2.1 Methota of Reserve Computation — 261 5.2.2 Criterla tor the Choice of & Peserve Computation Method 223 5.2.3 Classification of Reserves 223 5.2.4 Methods of Grade Computation 228 5.2.5 Precision of Grade Computation 232 5.2 REFERENCES 44 aoe a 234 STATISTICAL METHODS IN MINERAL EXPLORATION 235 6.1 DEFINITIONS eon ee 235 6. 6.1.1 Universe os. oer 235 8.1.2 Fopulation ++ ale 235 6.1.3 Frequency Distribution +++ 235 6.1.4 Normal Distribution and : Skewness aoe 236 6.1.5 Arithmetic Mean nay 236 6.1.6 Geometric Mean ext 236 6.1.7 vartance ... wee 238 6.1.8 Median Scr ae 238 6.1.9 Mode ach oe 238 6.1.10 Standard Deviation sea 238 6.1.11 Coeféicfent of variability 238 6.1.12 Standard Error of the Mean 238 6.1-13 Confidence Interval ace 239 6.1.16 Regression ... or 29 6-1.15 Correlation .., cel 239 6.1.16 Random Date ... 5.1.17 Trend ees 239 240 240 6.1.18 Density Contrast(av) 8.2.1 Computing the Mean Grade ef Ore ea . 242 6.2.2 Determination of the Precision of Grade Estimate ve 242 6.2.3 Determining tne Number of Samples for Srecific Precision Levels of Estimate and Computing the Number of Exploratory Cpenings Jn Mineral Exploration ... aie 244 6.2.4 Calculation of the Distance between two Exploratory Openings (Boreholes/Pits, etc.) 247 62.5 Calculating the Number of Exploratory Openings... 248, 6.2.6 Calculation of Sample Volume 249 6.2.7 Regression and Correlation 250 6.2.8 Use of Lognormal Distributions 253 6.3 GEOSTATISTICAL METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS ‘i aA 255 6.3.1 The Vartogram : 255 6.3.2 The De “t{sian Model 259 6.3.3 Extension Geovariance ... 260 6.3.4 The Transitive Model 262 6.3.5 Krigging and its Application in Grade Estimation... 264 6.4 REFERENCES... ae aco 268 GEOLOGY OF THE MINERAL BELTS CF INDIA ... 270 7el A BROAD OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF INDIA 279 7.2 TECTONO-METALLOGENIC UNITS 7 a 212 7.2.1 Shield Areas... a 27 7.2.2 The Himalayan Mobile Belts 209 7.2.3. The Platform Areas _ 290 7.2.4 Areas of Secondary NMineralisatton cory 29012.0 iv} 7.3 OTHER MINERALISED FORMATIONS ae 7.4 REFERENCES... eee oo EXPLORATION FOR VARIOUS MINERAL DEPOSITS .., 8.1 FIELD GUIDES. aa a 8,2 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. ee 8,3 IMPORTANT MINERAL DEPOSITS AND ‘THEIR EXPLORATION ae ieee 8.3.1 Mineral Deposits Associated with Igneous Ultrabaaic and and Basic Rocks ee 8.3.2 Mineral Deposits Associated with Igneous Intermediate Racks 8.3.3 Mineral Deposits Associated with Igneous Acidic Rocks +. 8.3.4 Mineral Deposits Associated with Sedimentary Evaporite Rocks a oa 8.3.5 Mineral Deposits Associated with Metamorphic Rocks Arr 8.3.6 Mineral Deposits Associated with Residual Formations... 6.3.7 Mineral Deposits Associated with Placer Formations ae 8.3.8 Miscellaneous Mineraz Depyaits an oe 8.4 REFERENCES... EXPLORATION IN PRODUCING MINES oa 9.1 VERIFICATION AND CORRECTION OF. EARLIER EXPLORATIGN SATA Bae 9.141 Underground Mines oH 9.1.2 Opencast Mines... arr 9.1.3 Reinterpretation of Date... 9.2 CONTROL OF MINING OFERATION baa 9.2.1 Grade Control ... a 9.2.2 Waste Generation ae 9.2.3 Geotechnical Investigation Gn°Sfen Ht adowage a 96: REFERENCES... | ees 295 295 295 303 304 32 332 339 345 358 368 366 368 376 376 376 379 381 383 383 387 388 390ity APPENDICES: ‘ Page No. APFENDIX 1.1 LIST OF SELECTED REFERENCES ON DIFFERENT ASFECTS OF MINERAL EXPLORATION... a see 391 APIENDIX 2.1 CHARACTERISTICS FOR IDENTIFYING IMPORTANT ROCK FORMING MINERALS ... 404 APPENDIX 2.2 ATOMIC WEIGHTS wee ee se. 407 APPENDIX 3,1A SALIENT FEATURES OF M.M.R.D. ACT, MCR. & MCD. le ses 410 APFENDIX 3.1B RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF MINING LEASE HOLDERS AND PROS FECTING A-ICENCE HOLDERS oe see 413 APPENDIX 3.2 LIST OF OFFICES OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 2 eee 425 APIENDIX 3.3 ADDRESSES OF SURVEY OF INDIA REGIONAL OFFICES IN INDIA se 428 APFENDIX 3.4 LIST OF OFFICES OF THE INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES - : 430 APPENDIX 3.5 ADDRESSES OF STATE DEPARTMENTS OF GEOLOGY, PARTICULARS OF MINERALS WITH FUTURE POTENTIALITY, TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR EXPLORATION,ETC. IN DIFFERENT STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES i see 431 APPENDIX 3,6 LIST OF 1.S.1. PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO MINERALS oe ee 433 - APPENDIX 3.7 LIST OF VARIOUS CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS TO BE DETERMINED BY CONVENTIONAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS His vee 497 APFENDIX 4.1 ORE FORMING AND OTHER ECCNOMIC MINERALS tee a 438Chapter ! 1.0 Introduc Since ancient times, many metals like iron, copper, lead, zinc, mercury, gold and silver have been known to man+ kind, As these metals occur mostly in the ore form,and have to be extracted from tha ores, it is natural to assume that since the very early days of civilisation, man has been aware of the existence of ore concentrations (mineral deposits) in certain places. Although the extraction of metals and their uses are widely mentioned in ancient literature, there are very few references to any organised attempts being made to locate them. However, it is reasonable to assume that the ancient people had devised some means of locating metallic ore deposits. Minerals and mineral-based industries play a vital role in the economy of all nations. This is true in the case of India also. India produces nearly 50 major minerals annually, and is endowed with a wide variety of mineral depo- sits, Of these, the most important metallic mineral deposits are iron ore, manganese ore, chromite, copper, lead, zinc, dauxite, and tungsten. Precious minerals consist of diamonds, emeralds, and gold. Other minerals like magnesite, fluorite parytes, asbestos, limestone, dolomite, tale, kyanite, silli- manite, graphite, and clay which are important to the industry are also available in substantial quantities. Although India has been in the field of mineral industry for long, it is only after Independence that the demand for metals and ores started growing rapidly. With this, the need for discovering new deposits has also started increasing giving a fillip to the science of exploration geology. In the earlier days, mineral exploration was done by individuals, known in che western countries as prospec- tors. Mineral discoveries Gepended upon the skill, diligence ané persistence of these individuals. Though prospectors are active in countries like the U.S.A. and Canada, the days of the individual prospector are limited. Discoveries of new @eposits are getting scarcer as unexplored areas are becoming smaller all the time. The prospector is getting replaced by specialised agencies and organisations. The prospector's simple tools are also getting progressively replaced by sophisticated exploration tools. Mineral exploration has become a commercial activity demanding the use of many2 specialised skills, Mineral exploration all over the world has been spearheaded by earth scientists in general and geologists in particular, In India, organised mineral exploration was initiated by the Geological Survey of India sometime after its inception in 185]. At present, there are many large and small organisations involved in mineral exploration throughout the country. Since the success of all these activities depends largely on geological skill, every organisation is attempting to impart the best possible training to its geologists involved in mineral explora— tion. The Indian Bureau of Mines, which is responsible for the conservation of minerals in India, has been trying to disseminate stich of the information and knowledge it has in this and various other fields to the public through monographs, bulletins, etc. The present volume is one such with the object of serving as a guide and source of reference for the mining and exploration geologists. Coal, oil, and atomic minerals have been excluded from the purview of this bulletin. Among other minerals, only those which are currently under exploration and exploitation have been discussed. This volume comprises 9 chapters including "Introduction". Each one of these chapters deals with different aspects of mineral exploration presented in such a way that the reader could recapitulate the fundamentals before going into the more advanced aspects of the science of exploration geology. Thus, Chapter 2 mainly deals with rocks, minerals, and geological structures and the role played by them in exploration. A note on some modern concepts in ore genesis has also been added. Formation of rocks and the mineral deposits associated with them have been discussed in this chapter. In Chapter 3,the organisa~ tion and methods of exploration ere dealt with. The legal aspects involved in exploration, recruitment of personnel and other aspects like procurement of equipments, transport, etc. have been covered under "organisation". Methods of choosing target areas, different types of exploration, special methods, three dimensional sampling by drilling, pitting, trenching and exploratory mining have been described under "methods". Chapter 4 describes surveying as it is applicable to mineral exploration, This comprises sections on methods of surveying including triangulation and travers ing, levelling, tacheometry, plane tabling, etc. Underground surveying methods have also been described. A section on the norms for various surveying jobs has been added. Evaluationof the exploration work conducted from time to time forms the subject of Chanter 5. The aspects discussed in this chapter are, interpretation of data and computation and classification of reserves. The important methods of computa- tion of reserves that are available presently like the analogous block method, geological block method, anc the cross-section method have been discussed, followed by sub- sections on bulk density; reserves and grade. Chapter 6 is devoted to statistical methods in mineral exploration, vherein have been given the definitions of the terms commonly used in statistics, Geomathematical methods for computing the grade, number of samples at a required precision level, etc. have been described in this chapter. Chapter 7 descri- bes in brief the Geology.of India. The section dealing with tectono-metallogenic units covers shield areas, the Himalayan mobile belts and areas of secondary mineralisation. Other mineralised formations have also been discussed in this chapter. Various field guides, and the important mineral deposits and their exploration form the subject for Chapter 8. Mineral deposits associated with ultra-basic and basic rocks, igneous intermediate rocks, igneous acidic rocks, sedimentary evaporite rocks, metamorphic rocks and products of residual weathering have been described separately.Field guides for the recognition of various mineral deposits have been summarised, In addition, guides to exploration of individual minerals have also been given in this chapter. Chapter 9 deals with exploration in producing mines, ‘This comprises a section on verification and correlation of earlier explora~ tion data. The control of mining operations has also been described. Almost all the subjects which have a direct bearing on mineral exploration find a place in this volume. No scientific or technical publication could claim to be all-comprehensive and this volume is no exception. In order to expose fully the reader to the various subjects dealt with, a list of references has been appended; this could be used when specific information on some specialised topic is required (Appendix 1.1).Chapter 2 2.0 Minerals, Rocks, Geological Structures and their Importance in Mineral Exploration 2.1 Crust of the earth The crust of the earth, about 30-70 km thickforms the outer layer o7 the planet in which all rocks and minerals are found. Feneath the crustal layer is the zone known as the Mohorovicic dfscontinuity, which -s followed by heavy rocks to < thickness of 3,000 km, This is followed by 2,000 km thick outer core of iron and nickel in a hot plastic condition, which in turn is followed down to the centre by an inner core of 1,200 km thickness+. ‘The earth's surface of which the crust {s a part is divided into the following components?: (1) Lithosphere, which 1s the solid rock portion of the earth constituting the continents and extending beneath the ocean floor, (44) hydrosphere, which includes oceans, lakes, ane “ other water bodies, and (441) etmosphere, or the blan’-r of air which covers the crust. ‘he distribution of minerals in the earth's crust? is shows in Table 2.1. Table 2.1; Distribution of minerals in earth's crust Mineral Percentage of incidence Felspar 0 Quartz 2 Pyroxene, amphibole, and | 1s olivine i Mica 8 magnetite 3 Titenite and ilmenite 1 others 3 Total.Of the 104 known elementa, only 8 ara known to be Present in quantities exceeding one sercent. The outer sin which is about 16 km deep is made up of Ue elements— oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, calcium, sodium, potesatum, magnesium, titentum, phosphorus, hydrogen, carbon, and manganese. These elements constitute 99.5 percent of the cristal rock materfal. Elements like platinum, gold, silver, copper, leas, zine tin, nickel, and others constitute the remaining C.5 percent. The hydrosphere which conprises oceans, lakes, rivers, and other water hodies, contains mlemanta and compounds in a dissolved form. The composition of water froa various bodies4 is shown in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 : Compo: (Dissolved matter only) ion of various water hadies. Element/ Water of lakes, compound rivers, ete. 03 35.15 0.41 (es HCO3) S04 _ 12.4 7.68 el 5.68 55.048 NO3 0.90 - ca 20.39 1.15 Mg 3.41 3.69 Na 5.79 30.62 x 2.12 1.10 Siog 11.67 - Total ., 97,25 In all, ‘the crust contains some 1,600 mineral species. Of these, 50 are rock-forming minerals of which 29 are most common. The remaining (1,330) come from ore minerals>. Im order to understand the mode of occurrence of economic mineral deposits, it is necessary to know about the various types of minerals and rocks, particularly their field occurrences, and methods of identification.6 2.1.1 Mineral and rock forming +.»erals Amineral is defined as an inorganic substance occurring in nature, though not necessarily of inorganic origin, which has (i) a definite chemical composition, or more commonly a characteristic range of chemical composition, and (4i) distinctive physical properties or molecular struc- ture. With a few exceptions, such as opal (amorphous) and mercury (liquid), minerals are crystalline solias>. Although genesis is the major criterion for classifying rocks, a given rock derives its name, uniqueness of character and distinctiveness by virtue of its mineral content. In order to study the rocks, an understanding of minerals is absolutely necessary. It is not always possible to be conversant with all the known minerals. The best one can hope for is to be able to identify some 100 important minerals in the area of his interest. However, guide books are available to help in identifying the minerals, in the field. Although meant basically for mineral and ore collec- tors, these books can also be used by prospectors. 2.1.2 Mineralogical characteristics There are certain common criteria for identifying minerals in the field®. They are : (i) colour, (ii) streak, (444) luster, (iv) hardness, (v) habit, (vi) fusibility, (vii) cleavage and fracture, (viii) tenacity, and (ix) crystal system. (4) Colour : The colour of a mineral is usually described in comparison with certain well-known objects of similar colour, e.g. ruby-red, leaf-green, etc. 7 A few characteristic mineral colours’ are summarised in Table 2.3. Table 2.3: Characteristic mineral colours Colour Mineral or element Silver-white, tin-white Native silver, antimony, arsenopyrite Steel-gray Platinum, manganite ,chalcocite Conta.7 Table 2.3: Characteristic nuneral colours (Concld.) Colour Mineral or element Blue-gray Lead-gray Iron-black Black Copper-red Bronze-red Bronze-yellow Brass-yellow Gold-yellow White with greenish tinge Blue Green Yellow Red Brown Molybdenite, galena Galena, stibnite Graphite, magnetite, hematite Timenite, columbite, wolframite, mica, some amphiboles Native copper Bornite, niccolite Pyrrhotite, pentlandite Pyrrhotite, pentlandite Chalcopyrite, millerite, pyrite Amphibole, pyroxene Avurite, lapis-lazuli, sapphire, kyanite, beryl, amethyst, fluorite, calamine Serpentine, malachite, spodumene, jadeite, talc, garnet: Sulphur, orpiment, topaz, barite, sphalerite, siderite, goethite Ruby (corundug). garnet ,cuprite, cinnabar, zircon, zincite, realgar, rhodochrosite Staurolite, rutile, tourmaline, quartz(ii) Streak mineral and is 8 Streak is the colour of the powiered not influenced oy impurities, It is identified by cubbing the mineral against a streak plate-a piece of white chert or rubbed pouder®. any surface which can show the colour of the In the case of soft or powdery fo Ss of minerals, the smear of powder on a piece of white paper will help its identification. The streak of certain important elements and minerals is given® in Table 2.4, Tabie 2.4: Streaks of some important minerals Streak colour Element/iineral Golden yellow Silvery white Copper=rea Grayish white Black Greenish black Brownish black Grayish black Gray Brown Gold Silver Copper Platinum Pyrolusite, argentite, graphite (shining black), tetrahedrite, ilmenite, magnetite, columbite Chalcopyrite, millerite, pyrite Niccolite, pyrite, marcasite, wolframite Chalcocite, bornite, galena, pyrrhotite,covellite (shining), stibnite. cobaltite, marcasite, arsenopyrite Antimony, graphite (shining gray) Sphalerite, tetrahedrite (dark) rutile (pale), (Conté.)Table 2.4: Streaks of some important minerals (Concld.) Streak colour Element/Mineral Brownish red Cuprite (shining), hematite, manganite Brownish yellow Goethite Rea Cinnabar, pyrargynite (dark), henatite orange-red Realgar Orange-yellow Crocoite Yellow Orpiment (pale), vanadinite Green Malachite (pale), vivianite (very pale) Blue Azurite, Lazurite Purple Vivianite (idi) Luster : Luster is a measure of the reflectivity of the mineral surface and varies in degree and cuality. Luster is described as dull, feeble, brilliant, ané splendent. Other terms-used to describe luster are adamantine, resinous, jcaxly vitreous, silky, metallic ,etc., which are self-explanatory® (iv) Hardness. Hardness is the resistance to abrasion and is expressed on the Moh's scale given in Table 2.5.10 Table 2.5 : Hardness ch Mineral Hardness on Moh's scale Tale 1 Gypsum 2 Calcite 3 Fluorite 4 Apatite 5 Felspar 6 Quartz 1 Topaz 8 Corundum 8 Diamond 10 The following rough scale can also be used effectively in the field: 2 - 2.5 can be scratched by fingernail 3- 3.5 ~do- copper coin 5.5 ~do- glass, knife blade 6 ~do- amblygonite 6.5 ~do- vesuvianite 7 -do- file (v) Habit 1 Habit defines the size and shape of the crystal, and the structure and form taken by the aggre- gates. Crystals may be referred to as tabular (mica). Erismatic (quartz), or acicular (kyanite), depending on the vatio of length to thickness. Aggregates may be radiating (etibnite), fibrous (asbestos), bladed (mica), columnar (quartz), granular (hematite), etc, Minerals without apy crystal form but showing circular outlines are describes ae ccticform, Other terms in use are botryoidal (iron ore), reniform, ete.©n (vi) Fusibility : This measures the ability of the minerals to melt. A scale showing the ease of the melting of various minerals is given in Table 2.6. Table 2.6: Scale of fusibility Mineral Melting point, *C Stibnite 525 Natrolite (chalcopyrite) 965 Aimandite garnet 1,200 Orthoclase 1,200 Actinolite 1,296 Bronzite 1,380 Quartz 1,600 (vii) Cleavage and fracture : When a mineral is broken, it splite along a crystal plane or an irregular surface. When the fracture occurs along a crystal plane, it is called cleavage and is described as indistinct, poor, good, perfect or eminent, When the breaking is not along a regular plane, it is described as a fracture, Fracture is described as uneven, hackly, eplintery, fibrous, earthy or conchoidal®. Some common types of fractures? shown by the most typical minerals are given in Table 2.7. Table 2.7 : Types of mineral fractures Fracture Mineral Conchoidal Obsedian, flint, chalcocite, sphalerite, quartz, halite Subconchoidal Rutile, stibnite, argentite, cordierite, staurolite Even Galena Uneven Cinnabar, millerite, chaleopyrite Hackly Native iron12 (viii) Tenacity Tenacity measures the ease with which a mineral breaks and is described below® for some minerals Tenacity Mineral Brittle Calcite Sectile Gypsum Malleable Native gold and silver Flexible Tale The criteria described above have to be studied for recognising the individual minerals. A combination of serveral criteria is necessary to identify a minera. There are, however, some ores and minerals which can be lentified by a single criterion, A chart showing the characteristics of some important mineral is given in Appendix-2.1. 2.1.3 Importance of mineralogical characteristics aw Grain size : The classification of any material according to the size of occurrence or the size to which they need to be crushed or pulverised is very important and, therefore, the sizes have to be described with precision. The particle sizes of some of the naturally occurring material are given in Table 2.8. Table 2.8 : Size ranges of naturally occurring materials Main Secondary Diameter Example classification classification in mm Gravel Boulder 256 Conglomerate -do- Cobble 256 to | 64 ~do- -do~ Pebble 64to 4 -do- -do- Granule 4to 2 ~do- Sand Very coarse 2to 1 Sandstone ~do- Coarse lito 0.5 ~do- (Contd)13 Table 2.8 : Size ranges of naturally occurring materials (Concld.) Main Secondary Diameter in mm Example classification classification Sand Medium 0.5 to 0.25 Sandstone ~do- Fine 0.25 to 0.125 ~do~ ~do- very fine 0.125 to 0.062 ~do- silt -- 0.062 to 0.005 siltstone clay - <0.005 Shale In the case of pulverised material, there are standard sieve sizes as per the British Standard or the A.S.T.M. Standard or the Indian Standard. All of these specifications in terns of mesh sizes are not always common in all. Therefore, it is essential to know in inches or in millimetres the exact specifications and standard tables!°for the same (see Table 2.9). The grain sizes are of great significance in the beneficiation tests, Normally, the microscopic size varies from.0.001 to -0.25 mm whereas the megascopic sizes range from +0.25 to 100 mm or 150 mm which could be identified by a magnifying lens. The effect of grain size has a great bearing on the method of beneficiation, According to Pehwald, the best results under various methods are expected at the follow- ing grain sizes!}. Method of beneficiation Best result at grain size, in mm (1) Heavy media up to specific gravity of the medium (water, salt bath, etc.) being 5.2 2.0 to 10 (2) Heavy media solutions 10.0 to 80.0 (3) digging 1.0 to 25.0 (4) Tabling 0.1 to 2.5 (5) Humphrey spiral 0.1 to 1.0 (6) cyclone 0.5 to 3.04 see ° £80" roe" ‘00 om ° 900" ‘900° or teuoror 7620) casey ce ° sot ox00%, ove on ° 20" st00" out ost ® 1900" ost an ° 6100" et oor ° sco" co a ° 000" on « ° erro" zs is 5 setot ” se 5 usto" ee ‘ sexo" = is ‘ sus a o ‘ sco" fw y « sco" x 1 © nesot i © oso" a a © sso" o : € oreot ° * © eso" ‘ i: « cor ° ° . cxct* s . + Ke tee" coe" t he et sowed ter errs oo tones ten ware etme w2ai0g 3an591, JO cnmmas wk uosedwoy : 67—198L45 Method of beneficiation Best result at grain AEE of beneficiation Feo ecult at grain Size, in m (7) Magnetic concentration 0.075 to 75.0 (8) Electrostatic separation 9.10 to 2.5 (9) Froth flotation 0.02 to 0.25 The above table emphasises the importance of the grain size of the mineral te which the ore has to be ground for making it suitable for beneficiation by various methods. (i3) Mineralogical identification +: Mineralogical identification is of great importance not only in the initial stages of prospecting and exploration but more so in the intricate process of mineral beneficiation whenever euch beneficiation is called for. For example, in the case of asbestos, there are several varieties, the most important being chrysotile. Tne other varieties are the metbers of amphibole group. Though all are fibrous silicates, non- cunbustible, acid resistant and non-conducting. chrysotile is of utmost importance for comercial purpcses. Similarly, the general term bauxite may cover both manchydrate and tri- hydrate ore minerals either as boehmite and diaspore or gibsite. The mineralogy of bauxite and the loss on ignition as per the chemical composition are stated to be related. An exploration geologist has to pay special attention to the ore mineralogy of bauxite as it is of great significance in the production of alumina. Similarly, in the case of chromites, though they are spinele with the general composition of FeCr204, some axe rich in iron and in some others magnesium replaces iron. A combination of exact chemical and mineralogi- cal analysis will indicate whether chromite can give a grade with the desired Cr/Fe ratio. In the case of iron ores,it is well-known that the tolerance of Fe0 which is the index of magnetite content (Fe304) in the otherwise hematite (Fe203) ose is very important and the presence of hydroxide minerals such as limonite and goethite is mimm considered deleterious. It is a different matter with magnetite ores susceptible for gravity. Magnetic separation can be worked on magnetite iron ores, Similarly, if there are deposits of mainly limonite and goethite ores, it will be possible to work them as direct pelletising ores by simply driving out the L.0.3. and enriching the ores.16 Similarly, it is important to know whether the zine otes are of gahnite (aluminate) or sphalerite (sulphide) , lead ores are of galena (sulphide) or cerussite (cari titanium ores are of rutile or ilmenite minerals, etc. te). The intricacies of mineralogy play ¢ very important vole and the above types of instances in respect of all tne ore minerals have to be borne in mind. In fact, the ore mineralogy applied to ore beneficiation is a vast discipliaz by itself, and a basic knowledge will be of help te exploration geologists. (iii) Molecular composition of ore mineva_s exploration geologist should be conversant with the molecular Proportion of the chemical elements in the minerals he is handling, For cxample, hematite analyses theoretically up to 70 percent Fe, whereas magnetite analyses 72.4 percent Fe. In base metals, chalcopyrite analyses 34.5 percent Cu and cuprite 88,8 percent Cu. These factors also indicate that. in the physical processes of beneficiation, in no case there be a concentrate giving assay values more than the maxima theoretical aseay in pure ore minerei. Such practical facto£s in respect of im: to an exploration geol n Another aspr x proportion and their application is to work out ble combination of protoxides, dioxides or sesquioxides, etc., depending upon the analytical results available. For example, if FeO is avail- able, its equivalent of magnetite mineral in the ore may have to be worked out, Similarly, depnding upon the amount of sulphur and zinc shown in the chemical analysis cf zine ore, it is necessary to work out how much of sulpimr is available for zinc to constitute zinc sulphide and the remaining zinc, if any,will have to be set-off against oxide or carbonate ore minerals as the case may be... Similarly, the L.0.1. mav be an index of whether the bauxite ore has more of monohydrate or trihydrate minerals. The construction of the molecular composition based on assay values (taking the help of the atomic weights of elements) in order to understand the mineralogical composition should prove a worthwhile exercise for any explo- ration geologist. Atomic weights of most elements ave given Anpendix-2.2. One should also know the factors for converting chemical composition into mineralogical values by the application of factors established on molecular propor tions, for example +Po xX (2,292 z Fe X 1,429 : Mn X= = 1,207 3 FeO x 3,22 : (iv) Specific aravity of minerals : The specific gravity of a mineral is cne of the important criteria for its identification, The applied aspects of specific gravity in exploration geology and in the proper evaluation of tonnage, beneficiation possibilities, etc. are also of Sreat importance. The tn sttu bulk density (true specific gravity) is the sum total of the weighted average specific gravities of all the minerals present, weighted by the proportion in which the different minerals are present. Therefore, except while dealing with a monomineral deposit (without any gangue or associated minerals, which is rare} in all other cases the bulk density has to be determined. Besides, the word bulk density connotes specific gravity corrected for porosity voids, joints, etc. The specific gravity method is iong and ‘The best practical approach is to determine how much a specific volume of the material weighs and the: Getermine the volume to weight ratio directly. Fox example, if an accurately meaeured one cu.m. of ore tn situ is taken out and weighs 3 tonnes, the bulk density of the material would be 3. To determine the specific gravity cf dense and non-porous rocks like igneous and metamorphic rocks, a Walker's Steelyard balance is used. In other cases such as bauxite, sandstone, etc. which are porous, the specific gravity is determined by applying wax cn the specimen and using 2 steelyard balance. However, a pycnometer is used for determining the true specific gravity of porous material. In mulii-metal ores having highly variable specific gravity of ore minerals such as chalcopyrite and galena (4,2 ané 7.5}, it would be very essential to find out the propor tion of the minerals present in the ore and then apply the respective specific gravities for the two ore minerals and a common specific gravity for all the gangue minerals so that the bulk density for the ore as a whole can represent a weighted average. Unless duly weighted to the proportion of minerals of varying specific gravities, the tonnage factor adopted will not be accurate.1B It will be useful to have ready-made tables (e.g. Table 2.10) so that an idea of what tonnage factor is to be considered for ores of different specific gravities coula be ascertained. Table 2.10 shows the tonnage factor te be considered for various specific gravities at one percent base metal assay. This table can be conveniently used for varying percentages of assay or a corbination of assays. Table 2.10 : Tonnage factors for various specific gravi Specific gravity Tonnes of ore —kg. of base metal per cu.m. in cu.m, 2.5 2.5 25 3.0 3.0 30 3.5 3.5 35 4.0 4.0 40 4.5 4.5 45 5.0. 5.0 50 5.5 5.5 55 6.0 6.0 60 6.5 6.5 65 7.0 7.0 70 1.5 75 75 2.1.4 Formation of rocks and mineral deposits In the lithosphere, there are three major processes which are responsible for the formation of rocks and mineral deposits. They are (i) magmatism, (ii) sedimentation, and (iii) metamorphism. These three processes give rise to three major groups of rocks)? respectively, viz. (1) igneous rocks, (2) sedimentary rocks, and (3) metamorphic rocks.19 Since most of the mineral deposits ace associated genetically with these three types of rocks, a study and understanding of these rocks is indispensable in any explo- ration effort. () Ignegus rocks : All igneous rocks have fonmed from molten magma. Varying conditions of genesis, coupled with varying chemical and mineralogical composition of the magmas have been instrumental in producing various types of rocks. Igneous rocks heve been classified on the basis of chemical composition,crystallization,mineral composition, genesis, etc, and are somewhat specialised in content. The classification shown in Table 2.11 based on texture, mineral content, and chemical composition of individual rocks is ideally suited for the needs of exploration geologists? >. Methods of studying and recording igneous rocks inthe field In studying igneous rocks, it is important to follow a set routine, so that their identification becomes easy, particularly in the field. Brceadly, igneous rocks may be either (a) intrusive,or (b) extrusive. (a) Intrusive igneous rocks : The following sequence of observations, with the accompanying terminology may be used in studying and reporting intrusive igneous rocks]4, (4) Dimensions - Shape and structural relation~ ‘ ship to adjacent rocks. (ii) ‘Contacts = Sharp, t:ansitional, shape (plane, undulating, grooved, irregular with dimensions of irregularities), structure (jointing, faulting, breccia- tion) ) Extrusive igneous xocks : In studying and report+ ing extrusive igneous rocks, the following sequence may be employed + (i) Dimensions - Width, length, thickness. (ii) Shape or variation in dimensions. (iii) Relation to overlying or underlying adjacent formations. (iv) Contacts, top and bottom (described pre- existing surface, textural differences, etc.), fault, overlap, attitude, alteration effects. (v) Type of = Pyroclastic or flow (viscous accumulation liguid breccia flow) rework- ing by wind or water. By sequential recording of data under the headings @iscussed above and systematic correlation and analysis, full or partial identification of most of the igneous rocks is possible. Where precise determinations are required, studies of thin sections will have to be undertaken. It should, however, be well understood that an exploration geologist's interest in igneous rocks is not purely petrological. Since various economic minerals are associated with igneous rocks, the primary aim should be to locate minerals which forn economic deposits. Oriteria for recognition of igneous rocks in the field : Table 2.J classifies the igneous rocks rather broadly. There are several other rocks with intermediary compositions. Identification of rocks in the field is very important. Some of the criteria which help in identifying the major rock units in the field are given below : f- 259 ihm 5-1572 (a) Granite 1 Minerals - felspar, ouartz, with minor minerals like biotite, hornblende, magnetite, etc. Minerals are easily seen with the naked eye. Minerals may be inter- grown. The rock is light in colour and weight’5, Granite is generally hard and tough)6, Common economic mineral deposits are cassiterite, wolframite, etc. (b} Peqmatite t Minerals - felspar, quartz, musccvite. Very coarse grains. Minerals show intergrowth texture. Pegma- tites are light in colour as well as weight/®, They occur in a vein-like pattern, The economic mineral deposits associated with pegmatites are mica. ouartz. felspar, tourmaline, beryl, etc. (c) Granite porphyry : This rock has a granite ground mass, but has phenocrysts of felspar, quartz, ete.)7 (a) Monzonite : Minerals - felepar, biotite, horn= blende and pyroxene. The minerals are mutually intergrown and are visible to the naked eye. The rock is light coloured and light in weight!6, The economic mineral deposits associa- ted with granite porphyry and monzonite are cozper, lead, zine, gold, etc.3 fe) Syenite :! Minerals - felspar, biotite and horn- blende. They are visible to the naked eye, and are intergrown. The rock is light in colour and weight’®. Sometimes they form porphyries with phenocrysts of felspars. When syenite contains nepheline mineral , it is called nepheline-syenite. Corundum deposits show genetic relationship with nepneline-syenite. (#) Diorite : Minerals - amphiboles, biotite or pyroxenes, plagioclase, felspars. This rock is gray or dull green in colour??. (g) Gabbro Minerals - felspar,pyroxene, hornblende, and olivine. Mutually intergrown minerals aze visible to the naked eye. In colour, the rock is dark and of heavy weight!6, Gabbro and anorthosite show economic concentrations of titani- feroue magnetite, magnetite and ilmenite’. (nh) Pexidotite 1 Minerals composed of olivine, pyroxene and hornblende, and are visible to the naked eye and exhibit mutual intergrowth. The rock is usually dark in colour and heavy in weight)6, Pexidotites occur as intrusives’7, Diamonds occur in kimberlite, a variety of peridotite. Other deposits are of platinum and chromite.23 G) Basalt: Minerals composed of pyroxene and olivine and are not visible to the naked eye. The rock is dark gray to black in colour and cannot be split, into layers. It occurs as lava flows, dykes and sille’’. Mineral deposits associated with igneous processes? During the course of emplacement of magma, various minor and accessory constituents start getting progressively concentra- ted till a stage is reached when the end product is rich in some constituent which under favourable conditions gives rise to economic mineral deposits. These favourable conditions are generated by three processes : (a) magmatic concentration (b) contact metasomatism (c) hydrothermal process (a) Magmatic concentration : Magmatic concentration occurs as a result of simple crystallisation, or concentra- tion by differentiation of intrusive igneous rocks. Deposits of this type are typically associated with intermediate and deep-seated intrusive igneous rocks, Two stages of magmatic concentration have been recognised, viz (4) early magmatic and (ii) late magmatic?. (4) Barly magmatic Here, the important processes are dissemination, segregation and injection. Dissemination is simple crystallisation without any concentration, Diamond- bearing kimberlites are formed by this process. Segregation is the process of crystallisation,differentiation,and accumula tion. Chromité and corundum deposits are formed this way>. (44) Late magmatie_: Here, the important processes are residual liquid segregation, residual liguid injection, immiscible liquid segregation, and immiscible liquid injec- tion, Residual liquid segregation is a process of crystalli- sation,differentiation, and residual magma accumulation, Platinum and certain types of ixon ores are formed this way. Residual liquid injection is a process of filter pressing and injection, Mica pegmatites and some types of magnetitic and titaniferous magnetitic iron ores are formed this way. Smmiscible liquid is separated and accumulated. Immiscible Jiguia injection is basically a process of injection. Chromite land magnesite deposits are formed thie way:24 (>) Contact metasomatism : During the consolidation of a magma, high temperature gases emanate from it, These gases usually contain certain mineral matter in gaseous form. When these cases travel through various rocks which are already existinc,metamorphism and metasomatism (high temperature Feplacement) take place. Certain rocks are particularly amen- able to these chemical reactions and such favourable rocks become a preferred target for the accumulation of economic mineral deposits. The effect of this reaction is to crush and chemically transform the already existing minerals into new forms. By this process of contact metasomatism, limestone and dolomite become marble, carbonaceous matter becomes graphite and sandstone becomes quartzite? All magmas do not give rise to conditions of con- tact metasomatism. It is exclusively associated with intrusive magmas, which give rise to intrusive bodies like stocks and batholiths, Rocks which give rise to contact metasomatism have generally a granular ground mass which indicate a slow cool~ ing of the magma?, Rocks which are most susceptible to contact meta- somatism are pure limestones, dolomites and also limestones with imparities like silica. alumina, iron, manganese, etc. Any rock structure like cleavage. bedding plane, joints, fracture systems, etc. accelerate the invading process?. Mineral deposits associated with contact metasoma- tism are relatively small in size, irregular in shape, and the most difficult to locate in the field. Since deposits of this type occur near intrusive bodies of granular ground mass, and mostly in impure calcareous rocks, these two criteria can be used in locating them. The most typical field evidence for locating contact metasomatic deposits ure chilled borders, evidence of dolomitisation, effects of baking, hardening, partial or full recrystallisation near contacts. Economic mineral deposits are formed when the contact metasomatism takes place due to intrusions of quaztz monzonite, monzonite, granodiorite, diorite, etc. ‘The common deposits which result are iron,copper, zinc, lead, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, emery, garnets, and corundur,23 {e) Hydrothermal Process : The end product of the emplacement of magma is a fluid which generally carries metals in solution. These liquids get injected into the country rocks which offer the maximum pore spaces and other openings like fracture and fault planes, By the processes of cavity filling and replacement, various mineral deposits of economic importance are formed. Various stages of mineralisation are recognised in the hydrothermal process. The three stages most commonly recognised are (i) hypothermal, (ii) mescthermal, ard (iii) epithermal. These stages have been recognised on the basis of certain distinct temperature and pre, sure conditions avcomsanying the formation of minerals. Hyérothermal deposits are formed under certain optimal ~onditions such as (i) the availability of mineralis- ing solutions capable of dissolving and transporting mineral matter, (ii) the availability of openings in the rocks through which the solutions may be channelised, (iii) the availability of sites for the deposition of mineral content, (iv) chemical xeactions promoting the formation of deposits, and (v) suffi= , ciently concentrated mineral matter tc form a workable deposit”. The processes give rise to the following types of deposits?: (i) fissure veins, (ii) shear zone deposits, (iii) stock works, (iv) saddle reefs, (v) ladder veins, (vi) pitches and flats, (vii) breccia fillings, (viii) solution cavity fillings, (ix) pore space fillings, and (x) vesicular fillings. In hydrothermal deposits also, there are no distinct ore to rock associations which could help recognize the deposits in the field. However, the combination of shear zones and intrusive igneous ore bodies nearby provides good enough indications for ore search. Typical field guides for locating hydrothermal mineralisation are alteration haloes, serecitisation, argillic alteration, silicification and eezpertinisation which are readily visible on the ground. (44) Sedimentary rocks : The sedimentary or detrital rocks are those formed by the deposition of solid materials carried in suspension by the agencies of transport}?. A number of different sedimentary rock units can be recognised. Weathering of rocks produces soluble ard insoluble components, The soluble products, like calcium, magnesium, etc. are carried away in solution. The solids are transported by water, wind, etc. Deposition of the soluble components26 takes place when the carrying sclutione reach the point eof chemical saturation usually in bodies of water unich are relatively calm. The process of precipitasion may be gugmented by the presence of bacteria, Depceits ef fron and mangenese @re thought to have resulted by thie procens. However, the most conmon deposits are cocke lix= 1incstone and dolomite, The solids wear dow to amall sizes. When the trensporting medium loses ita natural velocity, deposition takes place. The resulting rocka may be sandstone, shale, siltetone, etc. Mineral deposits of economic value are found in some of these rock types, but without any known ganetic 2ink. However, placer deposits are byproducts of the process of sedimentation. Table 2.12 shows one classification of sedimentary rocks!3, Yor more precise classification, the reader may refer to standard books on the subject. Table 2.12 : Classification of sedimentary rocks Rock type Inorganic Organte (2) Talus Coarse fragmentary (2) Lime made from material resulting shells - ¢oquina, from weathering chalk, coral rock, etc. (2) Breceia The above cemented (2) Silica from the shella of plants dfatomaceous earth, etc. (3) Soil Unsorted material (3) Carbon from plant resulting from rock Peat, lignite, weathering coal, etc. (4) Gravel Coarse fragments (4) Hydrocarbons from rounded by the action animals - petroleum of water and wind asphalt, amber, etc. 2 ( from (5) Conglo- The same material (8) Phosphates merste cemented animals - Guano, Phosphate rocks, ste. {Contd.)27 Table 2.42: Classification of sedimentary rocks (Concld.) Rock type tnorgante Organic (6) sana Finer material deposited by water or wind (7) sandstone The same material cemented (8) clay ‘The finest material mostly kaolin, deposited by water (9) toons The finest material deposited by wind (10) shale ‘The same material cemented (21) Mara Fine particles of lime, Pure or impure (12) Limestone The same material cement (43) TH Unsorted material left by glacial ice (44) THliite ‘The sme material cemented Methods of studying and recording sedimentary rocks in the field + In studying and reporting seiimaucary rocks in the field, the following sequence and terminology may be adopted!# ; (®) Extemal form of the rock unit 1 lenticuler Persistent, very regular in thickness, ets. dimensions, relation to overlying or underlying units. Colour 1 Colour of the unit as a wholer wet er dry colour of individual particles,28 (e) Bedding : (i) How menifest, sharp by parting, by diffe- rence in texture, colour, etc. transi- ticnal, shaly. (ii) Shape of bedding surface, plane, undulat- ing, ripple marks,etc. irregular, if not plane; record details of form and dimen- sions of features. -ii) Thickness of beds : comparative thickness, different orders, Relation of thicknesses, rhythmic, -random,ete. If variable, relation between thickness and composition, bedding, ete. (iv) Attitude and direction of bedding surface t horizontal, inclined, curved. Relation to each other; parallel, intersecting, tangential: angles between different attitudes and directions, dips, strikes, dimensions, relation of size, composition, shape, etc. to attitude and direction; relation of composition to different types of bedding. (v) Markings of bedding surface : mud cracks, rain prints, bubble impressions, ice crystal impressions, trails, footprints, etc. (vi) Disturbances of bedding : edgewise or intra formational conglomerates, folding or crumbling of individual beds before consoli- dation. . criteria for recognizing sedimentary rocks in the field : The more common sedimentary rocks are (a) sandstone, (ib) limestone, (c) shale,and (d) conglomerate. They are identified in the field as follows + (a) Sandstone : Mineral-quartz/6, cemented together by silica, lime or iron oxide!?, Coarse sandstone grades into conglomerate whereas fine sandstone grades into sandy shale!?, Sandstones may show fossil ripple marxs!7, (b) Limestone : Mineral - calcite; individual grains are invisible to the naked eye, stony appearance, BEferves~ cence given in the acid test’.29 (c) Shale : Mineral ~ clay: individual grains are invisible to the naked eye. Stony appearance, can be split into layers, (a) Conalomerate 1 Minerale - quartz, felepars and various other rock and mineral Pieces} individual minerals can be easily identified with the naked eye. The grains have normally varied sizes and shapes. Sand fillings or some ocher matrix can be seen between the grains!6, There are various intermediary varieties and other sedimentary rocks. Mineral deposits associated with sediment: fugcssses : ‘Two major ore forming processes are involved in this, They are (a) sedimentation and (b) evaporation. Besides, the processes, of sedimentation are manifest in the formation of placer and certain residual deposits. These will not, however, be considered here. 3) Sedimentation : Sedimentation invoives various Processes, First, the raw materials are gathered from jatiovs sources by water. They, | are transported te ‘the site of accumulation,usually a basin, where the materiale are laid down. Compaction, diagenesis and chemical altera- tion follow, giving rise to mineral deposits3, All rocks contain elements like iron, copper, manganese, etc. in varying proportions and in combination with other compounds. These elements are released from their parent rock during weathering. Sclutions charged with carbonic acid, humic or ether organic acide react on the rocks and dissolve various elements. Certain minerals like clay which are not chemically active. are carried away in suspension. The water contain- ing Such solutions and ‘suspensions remain stable so long as there is no change in their physical and chemical environ- ment. As soon as there are some changes in the above condi- tions, the dissolved elements precipitate and are deposited on the floor of the basin, ‘here are also bodies of water “which are fed by mineralising solutions like fumeroles, hot springs, etc, A stage is reached when the dissolved minerals Precipitate to form deposits. {b) Evaporation : By a process of rapid evaporation alse, the dissolved material can accumulate to form deposit: Such deposition is typical in arid and desert terrains30 Important mineral deposits formed by sedimentation include iron ore, manganese ore, copper ore, uranium ore,etc. and also industrial minerals like limestone, phosphorite, gypsum, salt, and clay. (iii) Metamorphic rocks : Metamorphic rocks are those formed by the mineralogical and structural adjustment of solid rocks to new physical or chemical conditions, which shave been imposed at depths below the surface zones of weather- ing and concentration and which differ from the conditions undex which the rocks in question originated. They can be classified cn the basis of the following features (a) mineraq~ logical composition, (b) structure and texture, (c) chemical composition, and (d) field occurrence. Four major metamorphic processes are recognised. ‘These are: (a) cataclastic metamorphism, {b} thermal metamorphism, {c) dynamothermal metamorphism, and (a) platonic metamorphise4. (a) Cacaclastic metamorphism : In cataclastic meta— morphisn, the minerais are crushed and granulated through the development of smal) amounts of stress and low temperatures, The typical features produced by this process are’ crush- preccias, micro-breccias, mylonites,flow cleavage, fracture cleavage, strain-siip cleavage, etc., which help in recognie~ dng the ykeuomenon in the field. (3) emai metamerpkism : This ie a phenomenon connected with the intrusion of large-scale igneous rock bodies. Metamorphic changes take place due to the heat of intrusion and tend to produce zones of alteration around the intrusives*, which is an excellent criterion for recognising this process. ‘the typical rocks produced by this process are hornfels. calc-silicate hornfels, quartz-hornfels, crystalline limestone, marble, serpentinous rocks, etc. Mineral deposits of economic value are asbestos, limestone, marble and graphite?. {c) Dynamothermal metamorphism : In thie process, Dynanothermal _metamorphe = the rocks are re-crystallised and ions formed by directed pressure and heat. The rock produceé are phyllite, mica schist, quartz schist, and gneisses". Economic minezal depo- sits are soapstone, talc, sillimanite, kyanite and andalusite3h (a) Plutonic metamorphism : Changes take place tr rocks due to the combined effect of great heat and uni pressure, a typical condition of great depths. ‘Typical jucts are gramulites, leptites, leptynites and gneisses4 em Methods of studying and recording metamorphic rocks in the field: ‘The following seguence and terminology jay be used in the study of metamorphic rocks in the field)4, (a) Type of + Cataclastic, thermal, dynamo~ metamorphism thermal or plutonic (b) Form and field Shape, lenticularity, regularity name cf the rock of thickness and shape, dimen- unit sions, etc. (ec) Structural rela- : tion to adjacent formations (a) Contacts : (4) How manifest + sharp transitional. intrus: (44) Shape of contacts : plane, undulating, grooved, irregular, record of dimensions (iii) Strike and dip (iv) Disturbances of contacts t intraformational conglo- merates, breceiation, jointing, faulting, alteration (e} Colour : Colour of the mass as a whole: wet or dry, colour of individual parts on particle, inclusions (£) Composition : List of identifiable minerals and proportion of each; compo- sitional banding, inclusions, lateral or vertical variations (g) Texture and (1) Degree of crystallisation structure and granularity, porphyro- blasts, relic phenocrysts or pebbles\n) field fab (>) fe) (a) fe} (i) Hardness 32 {ii) Foliation, gneissic, achistose, slaty,banded, lenticular (414) Contortions of composi- tional bands or foliation (iv) Relic textures and struc- tures, ripple marks, spherulites, flow lines (v! Lateral or vertical variations in texture and structure Friability, flakiness, cases of parting due to foliation Erosion and weathering products. Criteria for recognizing metamorphic rocks in the 1 Some criteria which help identify a few of the metamorphic rocks in the field are given below : Hornfels Slates Phyllites Nonschistose rock of equidimen- sional grains. Occur typically in contact aureoles Partially-fused hornfelsic rocks occurring as zenoliths in basalts, diabases, etc. Fine-grainea rocks with perfect planar schistosity but lacking in segregation banding Similar to slates, but grains are coarser. New mica and chlo- rite impart a lustrous sheen to schistosity Strongly schistose, commonly lineated metamorphic rocks in which the grains are coarse enough to allow microscopic identification of the component minerals(ft) (g) (nh) (ay (3) (k) q) ia tn) Gneisses Mylonites Gataclasites Phyllonites rtzi te: Marbles Amphibol ates Serpentinites and svapstones 3B Coarse-grained irregularly banded rocks with discontinuous rather poorly defined schisto- sity. They are products of high grade regional metamorphism Even grained metamorphic rocks, poor in mica and rich in quartz, felspar, pyroxenes and garnet which iack a prismatic or tabular habit Fine-grained, flinty-looking, strongly coherent, banded or streaked rocks resulting from extreme granulation of coarse- grained rocks without any special chemical composition These are rocks formed by ruptu- ral deformation, Cataclasites may grade into mylonites These rocks resemble phyllites, but are formed by mechanical degradation of initially coarser rocks Metamorphic rocks composed of recrystallized quartz. Quartvites are generally produced by regional metamorphism of sandstones Marbles are produced by the regional metamorphism of calcare ous sediments. The rock is composed of calcite or dolomits Metamorphic rocks composed of hornblende or plagicelase Composed of serpentinous mineral, talc, chlorite, etc. and formed by metasomatism of eer idotites!34 Metamorphic processes and the resulting mineral deposits % The process of metamorphism may alter an old deposit and produce a new one or may act on any rock and produce deposit, provided the original minerals are conducive to such a transformation. ‘he source rocks undergo recrystal- Lisation or recombination or both. The major deposits produ- ced by metamorphism are asbestos, graphite, talc, soapstone, sillimanite, kyanite, garnet, etc. Most mineral deposits which are formed by metamor- phism are in the form of whole rocks like marble or in lenti- ovlar, linear concentrations like soapstone, asbestos, etc. These deposits can form from any favourable source rock and hence go not generally show any rock to ore deposit association ox give any clear field evidence for their location, Other ore forming processes and the resulting i. Apart from those discussed above, there are two other processes which have given rise to importent mineral deposits. These are (1) Mechanical and residual concentration, and (2) Oxidation and supergene enrichment. al_and residual concentration t Due to the continuous action of weathering agents, rocks are desinte- grated mechanically and decomposed chemically. Unstable mine- xals like felspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, etc., are chemically altered, and the compounds are dissolved and transported by water and wind. Stable minerals like quartz, gold, etc. are not transformed chemically but are, nevertheless, prized out of their enclosing matrix. Due to the continuing action of transporting agents like running water and wind, these parti- cles get worn down to very small sizes and are transported to great distances. Deep and continuous weathering offers very large quantities of products both in the form of mechanical fragments and in the dissolved chemical form. The net result of the action of weathering and transportation is the creation of two types of mineral deposits known as (4) residual concentrations, and (ii) mechanical concentrations (placer formation). (i) Residual concentration + When due to weathering and transportation, various rock constituents are removed, the residues which have not suffered any transportation accumula~ te till they attain sufficient concentration, purity anda5 size to form a mineral deposit. Naturally, certain pre- conditions are necessary for their formation, i.e. a rock containing valuable minerals, favoursble climate, conditions of chemical decay and a mode of selective transportation where only the undesirable constituents arc washed off. Mineral deposits which have formed by this process include iron ore, manganese, bauxite, clay, nickel, phosphate, barytes, tin, ochre, etc.3. ieee) chanical concentration + Mechanical concen- tration ts basically 4 physical separation of the lighter constituents from hewier constituents accomplished by runn- ing water or moving air, Such a concentration takes place in two stages, (z. weathering and separation of stable minerals from their matrix and their concentration, The minerals involved in this process may come from the already existing mineral deposits or from rocks which contain some valuable mineral constituents in a very disseminated form. The resulting deposits are known as placer deposits which may be of four tyres, viz. (a) eluvial placers, (b) stream or allwial placers, (c) beach placers, and (d) eolian placers3. (a) Eluvia)_placers Eluvial placers are formed on hill slopes. Material released from outcrops upslope is roughly sorted, the heavier staying close to the outcrop and the lighter moving downhill. Some field guides to locate such deposits are : areas of breaks in the slope, hillside talus, scree accumlaticns, etc. Important deposits of tin, gold, iron and manganese are formed by this way. (>) Alluvial placers (stream placers) : Minerals and rocks released during weathering are transported down-stream by rivers and streams. During floods, the material is carried rapidly downstream, Whenever there is a fall in the velocity of water, the heavy minerals settle down, A suffi- cient concentration of one mineral ultimately gives rise to an important mineral deposit. Such deposits are formed in meander bends and near natural obstructions in the stream course. Placer deposits of gold and diamond are formed in this way. Some field guides to locate such deposits are: meander bends, stream junctions, alluvial fans, cones, accumulation near poinis cf a sudden drop in velocity, etc. (ec) Beach placer : By the action of wave and shore action, placers are formed along seashores. Sorting of heavy and light minerals takes place due to wave action. Deposits formed this way include gold, ilmenite, magnetite, monarite, diamonds, etc.>. Some field guides are: unusual colouration in a beach sand, sparkle and scintillation effects in reflected sunlight, etc.36 Zelian placers : These are formed in arid regions. released during weathering is carried away by and sorted during transportation. When the wind current meets with an obstruction, the heavy minerals settle down, Economic deposits: of gypsum found in Rajasthan desert are formed in this way. Ox: : Mineral deposits ge exposed to the atmospheric action as a result of weathering. Surface water oxidises the outcrops yielding solvents which in turn dissolve other ores. This process takes place up to the top of the water table. If the solutions penetrate the water table, their metallic content gets precipitated and rich secondary ores develop, Both oxidation and enrich- ment have produced big deposits of base metals. Important products produced by the oxidation of primary ore deposits are listed in Table 2.13. Table 2,13 : Important products of the o1 jation of ore deposits Metal original Oxidized product composition Iron Sulphides Hematite, limonite sulphate Carbonates Limonite, ferric hydroxide Oxide Hydrous ferric oxide Copper Sulphides Carbonates, oxides, native copper, silicate zine Sulphides Carbonate, silicate Lead Sulphide Sulphate, carbonate Tin Oxide or sulphide Oxide Aluminium Silicate Oxide, silicate Guides to locate these ores are: presence of gossans, cappings, zone of leaching, limonitic caps, etc.buried mineral deposits. 37 Gossans have a high diagnostic value for the of gossans are listed below : fa) (>) (ec) (a) Naty @ of gossan Form and size Collapsed gossan, voids in gossan (4) Abundant: (ii) Shape (iii) No void Colour of limonite (4) Seal brown, maroon, orange, etc. (ii) Yellow, brick red (441) Deep brown/brick red, yellowish (iv) Chocolate (v) Deep maroon (wi) (vii) Tan to brown orange Type of box work (i) Coarse, cellular with blebs masses, coarse and angular walls (44) Fine, cellular, thin, small, friable walls specs, blebs (iii) Coarse, cellular, siliceous, thin, rigid angular walls Some of the diagnostic features Nature of deposit Generally the outcrop faithfully outlines the shape of orebody Sulphides If square, galena, rites in protore Ne important deposit likely Copper Pyrite Chalcopyrite Bornite Chaleocite Sphalerite Galena Chalcopyrite Bornite-chalcopyrite Sphalerite38 Nature of gossan (iv) Cellular spongy (v) Fine celiular, shrivelled (vi) Triangular, crusted, curved (vii) Porous (viii) Pitchlike limonite, no cells (ix) Limonite crusts (x) Cleavage (xi) Diamond mesh (xii) Pyramidal (xiii) Foliated Nature of deposit Sphalerite Sphalerite Bornite Chalcocite, covellite, bornite Chalcopyrite, bornite Chalcocite Galena Galena Galena Molybdenite Similarly the very process of oxidation sometimes gives rise to secondary enrichment which accounts for rich sulphide deposits below the zone of oxidation. Criteria for the recognition of such enrichments are listed below: (i) Presence of - vertical zoning (ii) Presence of - gossans and capping (iii) Mineralogy - Oxide - top followed by supergene sulphide enrich- ment and primary - protore as described above Sooty chalcocite, covellite, native silver, native gold, marcasite, etc, for sulphides and goethite, hematite for iron ore, pyrolusite and psilomelane for manganese 2.1.5 Some modern concepts in oregenesis ‘The processes discussed until now have been well accepted the world over for a fairly long time. However ,39 concepts in oregenesis have been changing pericdically. Emphasis has been shifting sometimes in favour of the epi- genetic theory and sometimes in favour of the syngenetic theory. Various such periods are recognisable. The early theories seem to have been propounded by the Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Indians and Chinese. They did not lay emphasis uniformly on one concept or the other. Basically, there are two trends of thought in ore-genesis!9, One {s the epigenetic theory which supports the notion that ore bodies were formed subsequent to the formation of the host rocks. This theory also postulates a genetic conception between intrusive igneous bodies and the nearby mineral deposits. As against this, there is another concept which supports the notion thet orebodies are syngene- tle, {,e. the orabodies were forme’ along with the host rocks!," However, neither of these two theories is entirely acceptable az newer theories support the view that many depo- sits are neither wholly syngenetic nor epigenetic. A definite trend in favour of one of the other theories started with the ‘congregationists' (13C0-1500 AD) who believed that everything is congenetic. Then came the epigeneticists with Agricola (1494-1555) propounding the notion that fire is the cause of all mineralisation and that all mineralisation is epigenetic. Then came the neocongrega- tionists led by Verner (1749-1807) who believed that water is the main agent of oregenesis but all oregenetic processes are syngenetic. Then, Von Lotta and Von Groddeck (1830-1890), who followed, tried to have a balanced view of things and emphasized observations, and geometric classification of various deposits. This was followed by the school of 'Posepeny’ Lindgren and Niggli who thought that fire and water were the main oregenetic agents but most oregenetic processes were epigenetic. ‘The present tendency is to accept syngenesis as well as epigenesis as valid in their ocontexts but lays Stress on the observational, geometric and geochemical nature of the deposit, for placing it in one group or the other. Broadly, the general view is that all congruent deposits are Syngenecic and all non-congruent deposits are epigenetic20. undoubtelly, there are a large number of proven cases which support the syngenetic as well as the epigenetic Concepts. The occurrence of diamonds within ultrabasics is Sn example of the syngenetic concept. Similar clear-cut examples can be cited for the epigenetic concept also, such 2 deposits formed within fault planes and other structural40 features. However, between these two-clear-cut instances, there are a large number of cases which cannot be fitted’ to either one or the other theories without contradicting field evidences. The large number of base-metal, gold, and other deposits in India and the world over belonging particularly to the Precanbrians, present problems which preclude their being demarcated either as distinctly syngenetic or clearly epigenetic according to the presently accepted criteria. The obvious conclusion is that few mineral deposits have any exclusive host rock association which is constant. Although these problems are essentially oregenetic, some knowledge of the various theories is of tremendous significance to xploration geologists. Present oregenetic concepts do not view the Process of mineralisation as an isolated incident in the earth's history as some of the earlier theories do, but as @ part and parcel of the major processes responsible for the formation of rocks ani their tectonic evolution. Many authorities have pointed out that there exists a close relationship between mineral provinces and the major belts of weakness’ and deformation in the earth's crust2l. It is pointed out that the boundary between the Archaeans and the Cambrians form such a belt of weakness in all shield areas of the world, and this belt is noted for the occurrence of iron ore, gold and some base metal deposits. This pheno- menon is true in the case of the Indian shield area also. The Indian iron ore (Iron Ore Series), the Singhbhum copper occurrence, the gold mineralisation of Kolar-Hutti belt, and the base metal mineralisation of the Aravalli-Delhi Sequence, are all associated with this Archaean-Cambrian belts Of weakness, containing greenstone schists and typical geosynclinal formations like greywackes22.23, Such zones are seats of ancient volcanic activity as evidenced by the various volcanic formations like lava flows included in the rock sequences. There would appear to be some connection between such volcanic activity and the dispersion of various mineral ore matter?!. Many of the base metal, gold, iron ore and manganese ore deposits of India are located in areas of past volcanic activity and their association with volcanic-sedimentary rocks may not be purely coincidental. This association is exemplified by the pattern of gold mineralisation in the Ramgiri area of the Kolar-Ramgiri- Hutti belt. In the Ramgiri area it has been proved that the original source of gold was the andesitic lava flows formed presumably in @ geosynclinal sequence. During metamorphism induced by intrusive granites, fluids were given out which reconstituted the gold'minerals from andesitic lavas and were then emplaced in the quartz bodies which form the host rock for mineralisation?4,41 The orogenetic development is essentially confined to the geosynclinal areas. A typical orogeny starts with basic and ultrabasic volcanic activity with the development of large areas of serpentinisation at the bottom of geo- synclinal troughs. The trough is progressively filled up with sediments and the geosynclines sink into the crust. The lower part of the geosyncline is now subjected to meta- somatism, migmatisation and granitisation. Granites owing to their lower specific gravity rise within the geosynclines in the form of large plutons, Andesitic magmas rise to the surface in another cycle of volcanism which ultimately stabilises the last phase of orogeny*5, As explained earlier in the case of gold minerali- sation, mineral deposits tend to form initially within the volcanic rocks or near them in sediments originating from volcanic derivatives. The rise in temperature during the later part of orogeny which is marked by large-scale intru- sion, can cause extensive metamorphism of geosynclinal rocks. This metamorphism produces ore fluids within the rocks which cause ore migration, reconcentration and also metamorphism of ore deposits. This re-mobilisation often causes wall- xock alterations, metasomatism and replacement which are compellingly similar to the characteristics of genuine hydrothermal processes. Mineral deposits resulting from voleanic-geosynclinal association are called volcanic sedi- mentary-exhalative deposits or simply exhalative sedimentary deposits?!, It is thus evident that genuine hydrothermal depo- sits and some volcanogenic sedimentary exhalative deposits sometimes offer similar field evidences and it is necessary that there should be some criterie to distinguish them. It is doubtful whether all the exhalative sedi- mentary deposits can be considered syngenetic. But they show two typical characteristics which suggest that they should on the whole be considered as syngonctic. Firstly, these deposits show clear lithological affiliations. Ina particular zone, a deposit will be confined to one suite or facies of rocks only. Secondly, these deposits are invariably congruent with their host rock. This congruence in particular is very suggestive of syngenesis®°, If this analogy is acceptable, then the following set of criteria will be useful in recognising exhalative sedimentary deposits +42 (4) the syngenetic deposits are developed within definite stratigraphic zones, (44) interbanding of ores of contrasting composition and host rock will be common particularly when clearly sedimentary host rocks are present, (444) cross-cutting veins will be absent or very rare, (iv) ore minerals vary with variation in sedimentary facies when the host rock is a sedimentary unit, (v) metamorphism of the ore and the host rocks are isofacial, and (vi) wallerock alteration may be absent?6, Mineral deposits formed by the exhalative sedi- mentary process in typical geosynclinal environments can be grouped into five classes roughly representing the stages of development of the geosynclinal series. These are t @) early orogenic deposits, (44) synorogenic deposits, (441) Late orogenic deposits, (iv) final orogenic deposits, and (v) post orogenic deposits. (i) Early orogenic deposits + These deposits are typically seen in association with spilitic lavas and show extensive serpentinisation. Due to their subsequent burial in deep piles of sediments, they generally occur in a strongly metamorphosed condition. The mineralized horizon may occur under a suite of pillow lava rocks, indicating post mineral sub-aqueous volcanic activity. The ore bodies are massive pyrite type with minor amounts of As, Zn, Pb and Ni, The minerals represented in such deposits are generally fine-grained pyrite, accompanied by chalcopyrite, sphalerite and hematite. Typical host rocks may be spilitic pillow lavas, chert beds or mudstones?5, (4i) Synorogenic deposits % Deposits of this type eceur in association with typically high metamorphic rocks. The degree of metamorphism generally reflects the intensity of orogeny. Typical deposits show disseminated to massive sulphides with pyrrhotites as the principal mineral43 constituent. Chalcopyrite, cubanite, magnetite, etc. may occur as subordinate minerals. Interbedding of the host xock with sulphides may be common?5, (iii) Late orogenic deposits : In the late orogenic stage, the voleanicity becomes once again acidic with rhyolitic lavas and acidic tuffs predominating, The deposits of this stage tend to have very large dimensions unlike the earlier two types which generally tend to be rich in grade but small in dimension, ‘The common deposit is the massive sulphide type with pyrites as the predominant ore20, The associated sediments generally show a very low grade of metamorphism?” . (iv) Final orogenic deposits : The three types of deposits described so far have all some common genetic features; deep geosynclinal association, greywacke sediments and pyrite or pyrrhotite forming the major ore mineral. The final orogenic phase is conspicuously free of any major volcanic activity. At this stage, the sulphide mineral may be still pyritie but different mineral assemblages both with fairly abundant Fe, Zn, Pb, Ba, etc. are also seen. The lithologic setting is distinctly calcareous or dolomitic. Biogenic agencies are thought to play a significant role in the mineralisation, Black carbonaceous rocks are present in the sequence*5, The Sargipalle sulphide deposit bears close resemblance to the conditions described above. The host xock is a calcsilicate-quartzitic rock. Mineralisation is within a sequence of the Iron-Ore Series with grantitic intrusive rocks nearby, The mineralisation is predominantly of lead. The mineral sequence shows galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, tennantite, tetrahedrite, silver?®, etc. (v) Post orogenic deposits : These deposits occur after the major orogenic phase and the connection between these deposits and volcanism is very marginal. In fact, most of these deposits show more evidences of fumerolic and bio- chemical actions, The typical environments for these deposits are enclosed coastal basins of lagoon type. The minerals are generally arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena and barytes (As, Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ba®®),a4 The lead-zinc deposits of Zawar might have had their origin in a setting similar to the one described above. However, they have been deformed so much that their original environment is no longer clearly discernibie?!, such deposits may have been remobilized in their original setting during the evolution of the geosyncline”. A discussion of oregenesis in which volcanism plays such an important role would not be complete without some reference to certain deposits in which volcanic action is practially direct. Pipe-like orebodies, for example, show direct evidence of volcanism. In this type of orebodies, diamond bearing pipes and carbonatite bodies are very important®®, A carbonatite body is an intrusive calcareous rock which generally shows the presence of radioactive elements. ‘The mineral deposits under discussion so far may occur in their pristine condition in which case they are easily recog- nisable. They may also occur as deformed bodies or remobilized bodies in which case their genetic association is not easily understood. As mentioned earlier the Zawar lead-zine deposits may belong to the remobilized class of post orogenic deposits. Shearing and fracturing have probably so transformed the ore that it can no longer be correlated with its original genetic setting. The copper-uranium mineralisation in Singhbhum has also been cited as a case of deformed ore body. It is suggested that the general geological setting is geosynclinal and where alteration is less,some relic sedimentary features are recognisable within the volcanic ash beds and sediments occurring close to the orebody*!, 2.1.6 Geological structures It has been discussed earlier that mineral depo- sits are formed under complex geological environments. Although the formation of a deposit is largely controlled by the ore forming processes, it is the geological structure which helps in Yocalising mineral deposits. These structures may be regional or purely local?, Our knowledge of the structure of earth's crust is derived from the continents. ‘The continents themselves offer two regions which have a separate tectonic and structural history: the mobile belts and the cratons. The mobile belts are those characterised by igneous activity and earthquakes. They, also, are areas of rapid sediment accumulation giving rise to geosynclines and geanticlines,When a mobile belt is characterised by geo aynclines and geanticlines they are called orogens which are the loci of mountain building activity and are structurally45 very complex, Compared with the mobile belts, the cratons are static and stable?8. From the point of view of ore- genesis, the structurally complex mobile belts of the geolo- gical past are very important. It is here that most of the mankind were formed, Therefore, a study of the most elemen= tary to the most complex type of geological structures ia a part and parcel of exploration geology. Broadly, structures may be of two types : (1) rock structures, and (2) geological structures. (1) Rock structures : The rock structures may be categorised into three types {A) structures of igneous rocks, (B) structures of sedimentary rocks, and (c) structures of metamorphic rocks. (a) Structures of igneous rocks : two types of rock structures are recognised in igneous rocks; (a) structures due to flow, and (b) structures due to fracture23, (a) Structure due to flow : Two types of structures may be identified under this, viz. (i) linear flow structure, and (ii) platy flow structure, Ww Linear flow structure : The parallel orientation of needle shaped inclusiens constitutes linear flow structures28, (ii) Platy flow structure : The parallelism of the flat surfaces of tabular; or platy inclusions like phenocrysts, xenoliths and schlieren (flow iayer) constitutes platy flow structure. It may lie in the plane of foliation but may form an angle with it?8, (pb) Structures due to fracture : Under this come joints, sheets, faults, etc. (4) Columnar jointing : The rock is divided into hexagonal columns formed at right angles to the cooling surface.46 (41) Joints: Joints which lie perpendicular to the flow lines are termed cross joints (Q joints) and are tension joints formed due to the upwelling of the liquid magma in the centre of the intrusion; ‘S’ joints are steeply dipping joints which strike parallel to the flow lines28. (441) Sheeting 1 They consist of gently curved joints which divide Fock into flat lenses parallel to the topo- graphic surfaces. When they are closely spaced, they are called mural jointings28, (iv) Rift, grain and haravay : Rift is a direction of the most ready parting. Grain is another direction of ready parting lying at right angles to the rift. Haraway eae third direction of parting which may be most diffi- cule28, (v) Faults : Normal and thrust faults of purely local significance are seen on the border of large intrusives. The extent of ship along the planes is usually very small. A number of such faults may be arranged én echlon. Flat lying normal faults are also not uncommon. Besides these, broad regional structures like ring dykes, cone sheets, etc. are also recognisable in the case of igneous rocks28. (a) Structures of sedimentary rocks : A very large number of structures are recognisable in sedimentary rocks. Some of them are described below : (a) Bedding or stratification planes : Sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers. ‘The plana which separates the various layers is called bedding or stratification plane?®. (») Graded bedding : Beds show some gradation in size from bottom to top. The coarser grains are at the bottom and the finer ones are at the top, This textural arrangement in sedimentary bed is known as graded bedding?8. (c) Initial dip + Initial dip is different from the dip exhibited in an exposure, Initial dip is the slope of the stratification plane during sedimentation. It is common for sediments formed in basins to exhibit this dip?8. (a) Discordant bedding + Normally bedding planes and beds are parallel to each other. When this parallelism is47 test, the bedding planes become discordant. Terms like current bedding, cross bedding, false bedding, etc., are also applied to discordant bedding28, (e) Ripple marks : Ripple marks are those ridge like prominences seen on sediments. These are created by the movement of air or water over unconsolidated sediments?8, (2) Rain, Drip and Hail Impressions : These are ampressions formed on loose sediments by rain and hails, Gripping from trees or plants, The upper surface of these is concave which can help in recognising the orientation of beds. (g) Mud cracks % Mud cracks are formed by the exposure of soft mud to sun's rays. They have wide mouths and tapering bottoms which help in vecognising the top and bottom of beds. Various other structures are also noticeable in sedimentary rocks, Since they are of no direct use in studying the strata sequence (top and bottom of beds parti- cularly), they are not being discussed. The structures described above can be directly used for establishing the top and bottom of sedimentary formations. (ce) Structures of Metamorphic rocks : No distinct structures which are exclusive to metamorphic rocks can be recognised unless features like schistosity and gneissosity are considered. Although they are primary to metamorphic rocks, they are modifications of existing structures of the original rocks, Interpretation of rock structures is very important in studying major and minor geological structures. In certain types of geotechnical studies connected with open pit design and stability of slopes also, the rock structures are important. (2) Geological Structures : Some definitions of the the commonly used terms are given below : (4) Dip and Strike The dip is the maximum angle of inclination made by any plane to the horizontal and is expressed in degrees, The compass bearing of the dip defines its direction. The strike of a plane is a horizontal line along the direction of the bed and is at right angles to the dip. The strike of a plane is expressed by its compass bearing”?48 Dip and strike may be of any planar feature like bedding or stratification, foliation plane, cleavage, joint, fault plane, fold axis, etc, The linearity of the above features is the strike of the feature (Fig.2.1). (ii) Blunge : Plunge is the angle made by the projec- tion of a planar feature with the horizontal plane30, Expre= ssions like plunge of the fold axis, plunge of foliations, etc., are of common usage. When a planar features like a fold axis plunges in two directions, it is called a double plunge. There may be double plunges towards each other or away from each other. ‘The important geological structures described in the following pages are (A) folds, (B) faults, and (C) unconformities. (A) Folds + Some definitions + Folds are undulations or waves in the rocks of the earth. They are best displayed by stratified rocks, mainly sedimentary rocks?°, A fold is defined by the following terminology ~ limbs, axis, crest and trough as shown in Fig.2.2 and 2.3 When the dip of the limbs is away from the axis, the struc- ture is called an anticline. When the dip of the limbs is towards the axis, the structure is called a syncline. Various types of folds are recognised depending upon the attitude of the axial plane, and the disposition of the limbs, The major folds are described below? Symmetrical fold : Axial plane is vertical?0, Asymmetrical fold : Axial plane is inclined30 with the two limbs dipping at different angles. Isoclinal fold : The limbs of the fold dip in the same direction. There may be three cases of isoclinal folds. (a) _ Vertical isoclinal folds +: Axial plane is vertical? (b) Inclined isoclinal folds + Axial plane is inclined30.DIP AND STRIKI AXIAL PLANE AXIAL PLANE FIG:23 SYNCLINEf° uumben’, mal 1 Axial plane ie horizon- tars? heyron folge +: Folds with sharp crests and troughs?0, Zan fold + Both limbs are completely overturned. anticlines show limbs dipping towarde the axis and synclines vice yersa30, Mors i cline 1 Flat bed assuming locally steep aps 30, Structural terrace 1 Dipping strate assume horizontality locally30, Qpen fold : Folding is mild so that the limbs preserve their original thickness30_ Elesed fold : Folding intense enough to cause Plastic flow so that limbe have thinned out locaily30. Drag fold Drag folds are minor folds formod an an incompetent bed between two competent beds. They ara formed due to the sliding motion of two competent beds30, Anticlinorium : An anticline which has been xe-Zelded along the same axial direction, Synclinorium : A syncline which has been refolded along the same axial direction, Cxoss-fold : A second fold which folds the main fold sxis. Overturned fold : ‘he axis is horizonta. as in Kecumbent fold. But the beds have been completely turned upsice down, Study of folds in the field + In order to study folds systematicaily to enable easy interpretation, the following sequence of observation and terminology is recommen- dea: tad Axes ~ Location, plunge, smoothly rounded or sharp, straight ox curved, thickening or thinning along axes.51 (>) Strike and dip of axial planes, fracture systems. (c) Planks (Limbs), width, variations in strike and dip, smooth or irregular, thickening or thinning of beds, fracture system, evidence of slippage along bedding planes. (a) Dating - Evidence of more than one period of movement. (e) Topographic expression, drainage pattern, etc.14 Criteria for recognition of folded strata Recognition of folding is not always easy. Only in rare cases all the limbs will be directly observable for this. Systematic study alone can help in identifying complex folds. There are however a few keys which help in recognis- ing folds. (i) Repetition of beds : One bed may be seen in a traverse repeated at several places. By plotting and inter~ pretation and eliminating the possibility of faults, the fold can be reconstructed. (ii) Topography : In certain types of terrain, folds are easily inferred by topography, This is particularly true in the case of aerial photography3. Folds can also be studied by geophysical methods and drilling. In areas where folding has been simple, the study and recognition of fold is not difficult. In a terrain of complex folds, particularly where beds are overturned, it is difficult to correlate the strata, It is also difficult to determine the chronological sequence of beds. Some criteria for recognising the top and bottom of beds are essential. A few criteria commonly used are discussed below. When beds are overturned, primary features are made use of in recognising the top and bottom. Such criteria are cross bedding, ripple marks, graded bedding, mud cracks, etc., in the case of sedimentary strata. In case of igneous rocks, the vesicular tops and flow structures can be made use of, The correct orientation of these minor features has to be fixed by field observations. In the case of mud cracks, the tapering end is the bottom. In ripple marks, the crests are at the top. In cross bedding, the laminae are parallel to the bedding at the bottom, but form sharp angles at the top.32 In graded bedding the coarser grains are always at the bottom. By carefully studying these features and correlating them the top and bottom of bede can be fixed. (iii) Drag folds and their relation to the main folds t Drag folds are minor folds in incompetent strata and are formed essentially as a result of the major folding movement of the area. Naturally, they show characteristics which are in harmony with the major folds. Drag fold axes will be parallel to the main fold axes and they will show the same plunge as the main folds. Where major fold_axes are difficult to locate, drag folds help in studying them30, (iv) Zleavage and its relation to the folds % Cleavage (rock cleavage as distinct from mineral cleavage) is the ability of the rocks to break along parallel surfaces,of secondary origin30, Type of cleavage ¢ Four types of cleavage are recognised. They are (a) flow cleavage, (b) fracture cleavage, (c) shear cleavage, and (d) bedding cleavage. Of these, only flow cleavage is genetically related to folds. (a) Flow cleavage : Flow cleavage, also known as slaty cleavage or axial plane cleavage, is formed due to parallel orientation of platy minerals. Flow cleavages are formed parallel to the fold axis and can be used in the study and interpretation of major folds°°. Cleavage in non-plunging folds 1% Fig.24 shows the exposure of a bed involved in folding. The bed shows cleavages. The cleavages dip,at a sharper angle than the bed but in the same direction. In this case, the anticiinal axis is towards the right of the figure. Fig2.5 shows the exposure of a folded bed which is vertical. The cleavages are dipping to the west. The syncli- nal axis is towards the right. Fig2.6 shows the exposure of a folded bed in which the bedding plane dips steeper than the cleavage. The syrcli~ axis is towards the right cf the figure. Plunging folds : Fig.2.7 shows a vertical bed in a plunging fold with cleavages. The trace of the cleavage in33 ANTICLINAL _@xts, SYNCUINAL AXIS ANTIGLINAL AXIS FIG: 2:5 = SYNCLINAL ARIS ANTICLINAL AXIS FIG: 2-6 CLEAVAGE IN NONPLUNGING FOLD AND THEIR INTERPRETATION54 its horizontal section is also projected. The synclinal axis is towards east and the plunge is towards north30, Fig.2.8shows a folded bed with cleavages, both in their vertical and horizontal disposition. The synclinal axis is to the right and the plunge is towards south20, Both the cases are extreme, being vertical. The same principle applies to beds with gentler dips. Cleavage can also be used to locate the crest of anticlines or the trough of synclines, where they intersect bedding planes. This is a special case when the cleavage develops parallel to bedding in isoclinal folds. (v) ddneation - its relationship to fold : Lineation or linear parallelism or linear structure is due to some directional property in the rock. This may be by the linear arrangement of some secondary mineral or elongated pebbles etc. in structural interpretation, lineataons can be used in exactly the same way as the cleavages as explained earlier, as both have the same genetic relationship with major folds, Where it ie possible, it is advisable to use lineation and cleavage together to obtain the best results30. (vi) Cross folds ~ its relations to main fold +: In certain areas, two or more generations of folding can be xecognised, The mutual interference of the two produces many complex structures; particularly when the axial systers of the fclds are not parallel3!, such folds are rather joosely referred to as cross folds. The structures which such folding can produce are the following: (a) Anticline crossing anticline In this case. an already existing anticline is refolded by a cross fold and the resulting structure is shown in Pig.2J where ABCD ia the axiai plane of the first anticline, and A',B’ C' D' the axial trace of the second axial plane. The crest of the two anticlines will coincide to form a doubly plunging anticlane. sb) Anticline crossing syncline +: In the case of an anticline crossing a syncline, the structure will be as shown in the Fig.2.10. ABCD is the axial plane of the syncline ane A'B'C'D’ the axial plane of the anticline. The synclinal trough will come up at the crest of the cross folded anticline.38 CLEAVAGE IN PLUNGING FOLDS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION56 {c) Syneline crossing syncline : In the case of a syncline crossing another syncline, the structure will be rather like the one shown in ‘the Fig.2.11. ABCD is the axial plane of the first syncline, and A’ B' C' D! the axial plane of the second syncline. The resulting struc- ture will be a double plunging syncline. The synclinal trough will go deep. (a) Syncline crossing anticline : The figure Xepresente a syncline crossing an anticline. ABCD-is the axial plane of the anticline and A' B' C' D' the axial Plane of the syncline, The crest of the anticline will go down. Fig. 2.12. : It is now widely recognised that cross folds have a profound influence in localising mineral deposits of both epigenetic and syngenetic types. Ore localisation with thickening of strata at the axial regions of cross folds has been recognised in the gold-bearing lodes of Kolar Gold fields, copper deposits of Singhbhum and Agnigundala, and many’ manganese and iron ore deposits of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh32. In the Precambrian formations of India, four types of cross-fold are known. They are t (4) Cross folds with axes perpendicular to the axes of the earlier folds. (ii) Cros folds with axes at an angle to the earlier fold axes (about 45° or less). Here there may be two separate cases 3 fa} axes opposed to the direction of plunge of the earlier folds and (b) axes nearly in the same direction as the plunge of the earlier folds. (4ii) The axes of cross folds are almost parallel to the axes of earlier folds in both strike and dip but the axial plunge is (a) opposed to the plunge of earlier fold axes and (b) parallel to the direction of plunge of the earlier folds.BT CROSS FOLDS: ITS RELATION TO MAIN FOLD a ABCD AXIAL PLANE OF THE FIRST ANTICLINE XpiCd! AXIAL PLANE OF THE SECOND ANTICLINE FIG! 28 ANTICLINE CROSSING —ANTICLINE. ABCD AXIAL PLANE OF THE SYNCLINE ABCD AXIAL PLANE OF THE ANTICLINE FIG: 2.19 ANTICLINE CROSSING SYNCLINE58 ABCD AXIAL PLANE OF THE FIRST SYNCLINE ASCO AXIAL PLANE OF THE SECOND SYNCLINE FIG: 2.11 SYNCLINE CROSSING SYNCLINE ABCD AXIAL PLANE OF THE ANTICLINE Waco AXIAL PLANE OF THE SYNCLINE FIG:2.12 SYNCLINE CROSSING ANTICLINE59 (iv) In this case, the only visible effect is the reversal in the direction of plunge of the axes of the earlier folds, resulting in culminations and depressions, canoe folds and dome structures32, Common problems posed by folds in mineral exploration : Folds create many problems for the explora- tion geologist. Ore bodies die out suddenly or blossom into rich shoots depending on the relationship between structure and mineralisation. Mineralisation and structure may have two types of relationship: (a) where mineralising fluids have followed the already existing structure,and (b) where structuré has transformed the shape of already existing mineral bodies. In the former case, the folding existed prior to mineralisation and ores concentrate wherever there are favourable openings. This may be the bottom of synclines or the crest of anticlines and only rarely the limbs of the folds. The important point here is to establish the correct relationship between folding and mineralisation. Such relationships tend to show regional characteristics, In some regions, mineralisation may be exclusively in anticlinal crests, In others, only the synclinal bottom may be mineralised. In the second case, mineralisation may be uni- form but may show exaggerated thicknesses in anticlinal crests or synclinal troughs. Such areas offer attractive mining possibilities and should be studied and recognised. The choice of exploration methods is also influenced by folds. Where mineralisation is preferen- tially in synclines, the area might require to be proved by drilling, whereas anticlines may be amenable to pit ting, trenching, etc. The correct delineation of the depth of the fold is a problem of considerable consequence in explo- Yation. Some standard formulae are available for this but are not universally applicable. One such method xecommended by Billings is given below*°.60 * Fig.2.13 shows a fold in which a key bed is folded. The term b is the present breadth of the folded area: the 1, Which is the original width before folding, is measured along some convenient bed in the folded belt. The term h is the amount of uplift due to folding. In Fig. 2.13,the heavy black line represents a single bed. At the left end of the section, it is flat and has not been affected by the folding. In the folded area it has been uplifted from the position of the broken line to the position shown by the heavy solid line. The average uplift h can be determined in several ways. The simplest is to measure the actual uplift at stated intervals - such as at every millimeter in the figure shown - and to compute the average. All the factors in the equation given above, except d, are known, For convenience in computation, the equation can be rewritten : bh 1-» as The answer d gives the depth of folding measured from the key bed where it is horizontal. A better method is to project the geometry of each fold by vertical projections with the help of cross- sections and planar features. The method is explained in Annexure-I, where a rather complex case has been dealt with. (B) Faults Faults are defined as ruptures along which the epposite walls have moved past one another. Some faults have a small displacement whereas the displacement of some faults is measured in kilometres30, The major elements by which a fault is described are : (4) Fault plane - The plane along which faulting took place. (44) Hade - The component of the dip - the angle between fault plane and vertical. *published with kind permission of M/s Prentice Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffe N.J. 07632, Extracted from “Structural Geology" by M.P.Billings. Copyright 1942, 1954 by Prentice Hall Inc.(iid) (av) (v) (va) 61 Dip of fault _~ The angle between the fault plane plane and horizontal. Net slip - Displacement along the fault plane. In Fig.2.14 ac is the net slip. Throw - Throw is the vertical dis- placement. In Fig. 2.14 it is ab. Heave - The horizontal component of the movement along the fault plane. In Fig.2,14 it is be. Different types of faults Faults are classified into six categories. Each classification lays emphasis on some particular characteris- tic of the fault. (a) (4a) Classif: tion based on net slip (a) Strike slip fault. Net slip is parallel to the strike of the formation. (b) Dip slip fault. Net slip is parallel to the dip of the formation. (c) Diagonal slip fault. Net slip is diagonal to both strike and dip??. Classification based on attitude of fault relative to attitude of adjacent beds (a) Strike fault ~ Fault is parallel to the strike of the beds. (b) Dip fault - Fault is parallel to the dip of the beds. (c) Oblique fault - Fault is at an angle to the strike of the bed. (da) Longitudinal fault ~ Fault is parallel to the regional structure parallel to the major fold axis. (e) Transverse fault - Fault is perpendicular or diagonal to the regional structure - say, fold axis30.62 | Ligases KEY BED tS HORIZONTAL IN AREA WHERE STRATA ARE LI NOY FOLDED === a 8 PRESENT GREADTH OF FULDEO BELT AVERAGE UPLIFT DUE TO FOLDING ORIGINAL BREADTH OF FOLDED BELT DEPTH OF FOLDING (A) SQUARE DEFORMED INTO & RECTANGLE NO CHANGE IN AREA, (B) FOLDED STRATA FIG: 2:13. METHOD OF CALCULATING. DEPTH OF FOLDING PUBLISHED WITH KIND PERMISSION OF M/S PRENTICE HALL INC, ENGIENOOD CLIFFS N.J. 07632. EXTRACTED FROM “STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY" BY M.P.BILLINGS. COPYRIGHT 4942, 1954 BY PRENTICE HALL INC, NET SUP : THROW > HEAVE ¢ FAULT. PLANE FIG: 2.16 NET SLIP, THROW, HEAVE OF A FAULTEY EY PARALLEL FAULTS EN: ECHELON FaULIS Sa) EY PERIPHERAL FAULS. RADIAL FAULTS GEOMETRICAL CLASSIFICATION OF FAULIS(444) (iv) (v) (va) 63 Classification based on fault pattern (a) (b) (c) (a) Parallel fault ~ Strike and dip of several faults are parallel . En echelon fault - Short faults that overlap one another. Peripheral fault - Arcuate faults that ound a circular area. Radial fault - Faults radiate from one point 30, Classification based on value of dip fault (a) (>) High angle fault - Dip of the fault plane higher than 45°. Low angle fault - Dip of the fault plane lower than 45°. Classification based _on apparent movement (a) (») Normal fault - Hanging-wall side of the fault moves down relative to the foot-wall. Reverse fault - Hanging-wall moves up relative to the foot-wal15°. Genetic classification (a) Classification based on relative movements Classification based on - eee (3) Thrust fault - Hanging-wall moves up relative to footwall. Fault is of regional dimensions. (ai) Gravity fault - Hanging-wall moves down relative to footwall. (iii) Rift fault - Longitudinal fault with displacement parallel to the strike of the fault. (iv) Tear fault - Transverse fault with displacement parallel to the strike of fault??,64 ib} Classification based on absolute movements + Based on the absolute movement of blocks, four types of thrust and an equal number of gravity faults can be recognised. Gravity faults - Thrust fault: (4) Footwall stayed in place - hanging-wall moved down, (ii) Footwall moved up = hanging wall stayed still. (4ii) Both blocks moved down = but the hanging wall moved more. (4v) Both blocks moved up - but the hanging wall moved less, Other faults are : {a) Upthrust - High angle fault with the uplifted block as the active element. Underthrust - Thrust fault in which footwall has moved. (bd) (c) Overthrust - Thrust fault in which hhanging-wall has moved30, Study and recognition of faults in the field (a) (ia) Gai) (iv) Ww) (vi) Sequence and terminology used for faults are : Kind of fault, strike and dip with their vertical or lateral variations, displacement and direction of movement. Drag and brecciation. Auxiliary fault slices, drag folds, width of brecciation. Linear elements, Striations, grooves and slickensides. Dating. Evidence of more than one period of movement. Possible mineralisation and effect on ground water. Topographic expression!4,65 Criteria for recognition of faulta In many cases faults are directly recognisable. Where they are not, careful observation of certain typica! features of faults is very essential for pinpointing the fault. Six groups of criteria are generally recognised30, They are t (a) discontinuity of structures, (b) repetition or omission of strata, (c) features characteristic of fault planes, (a) silicifications and mineralisation, (e} geudden changes in sedimentary facies, and (£) physiographic evidences. (a) Discontinuity of structures 1 Features like dykes, sills, veins, prominent fractures, folds, etc., may be seen ending abruptly against a plane in an exposure. This may be due to faulting. (b) Repetition and omiseion of strata: Ina traverse line, a strata may disappear altogether in a sharp contact or may be repeated sequentially in association with sharp contacts. Both may indicate, faulting. (c) Features characteristic of fault-planes : In some cases, it is possible to recognise the fault plane by virtue of certain characteristic features. They are (4) slickensides, (14) million structure, (111) drag, (iv) gouge, (v) breccia, (vi) mylonite, and (vii) horses (caught up blocks). (4) _Slickensidee 1 These are striations in the fault planes caused by movement and can be easily recogni- sed by the glistening surfaces and striations. (44) Mullion structures 1 They are large grooves or furrows with a definite crest, and bottom. (444) Drags The end of the beds affected by fault ie dragged up and down,66 (iv) Gouge : Fine-grained clay like powdery rock. (v) Breccia : Mixture of angular and subangular Xock pieces of varying sizes in a finely crushed matrix. (vi) Mylonite : Microbreccias with streaked or platy structure, which are typically dark and fine grained. The coherence of a microbreccia is maintained during deformations. (vid) Horses : Small blocks of rocks caught up in a wide fault plane. (a) Silicification and mineralisation : Silicifica- tion may occur along the zones of fracture. Similarly, mineralisation may also occur. (e) Sudden change in the sedimentary facies : The ee ener tn acaes phenomenon of a coarse-grained sandstone abutting against a shale of the same age and other similar instances is indicative of faulting during sedimentation. (£) Physiographic evidences :! The following physiographic evidences are suggestive of faults; (i) off- set ridges, (ii) scarps, (iii) triangular facet, and (iv) truncation of structures by a mountain front. (i) Offset ridge +: Due to fault, a resistant sedi- mentary stratum may show discontinuity. This is called an offset ridge. (id) Scarp +: A steep straight slope of any height. (aii) Triangular facet +: On scarp faces, some 'V' notches may form due to erosion during movement. The sum- total is a structure known as a triangular facet. (iv) Truncation of structure : Sudden termination of structures, particularly against a mountain front is suggestive of faulting. Other field evidences are springs in a linear arrangement, trees in a line, and lakes in a line, all of which may coincide with the alignment of the fault. The sudden steepening of a stream bed, abrupt ending of a stream, etc., also may indicate faulting?,67 The criteria discussed above are all indicative of faulting but individually none of them offer any con- clusive evidence. Besides, some of them also indicate other structures like folds, unconfommities, etc. Careful study and a series of eliminations at each stage is essen- tial before a particular set of criteria can be correlated to a fault. Usually, a combination of several criteria is essential before any conclusion can be drawn?0_ Effects of faults on folds When a tectonic disturbance takes place in an area, it may give rise to new structures either by partial or total destruction of old structures or by superimposition of a new set of rocks over the reliefs of existing struc- tures. Faults, folds, shears, joint, etc. are all geo~ logical deformations caused by stress and strain. In a normal sequence of events, it can be expected that folds are formed first, whether synclines or anticlines, and if the forces causing the folding are still intense, then the rocks yield to these forces forming faults, shears, etc. Hence, in an area which is geologically least dis- turbed, it is not difficult to establish the sequence of events. But, in an area that has experier:ed such dis- turbances repeatedly, it is very difficult to establish the generations to which an individual structure belongs to and its effect on other structures. The effect of folds on faults is now widely known, But the reverse of this, i.e. the effect of faults on folds, is still a subject of controversy. However, many examples have been given by authorities as to the influence of faults on folds, though on a regional scale, which go to establish that folding in blanket sediments on a known basement rock followed the faults in the base- ment?!, Goguel33 has shown that the fault planes may become ancher sheets against which folds localize. According to this author, groups of faults often delimit a collapsed structure as a trench or "pinched" belts, the crushing of which may produce a folded character. Often, the resultant, structure is controlled by the nature of the rock or its resistance te deformation, e.g. when resistant beds come into contact with plastic beds, an overthrust fault may form.68 Common problems posed by faults in mineral exploration : Just like folds, faults also present various problems to the exploration geologist. Many fault planes act as passages for the mineralising solutions and many deposits are formed in the fault plane itself. Faults may cut off mineralising solutions in a favourable host rock or may act as a connection to a favourable host rock, Fauits may also block off the already existing deposits. As in folds, in faulte also, it is important to establish the exact relationship existing between faults and mineralising solutions. If the fault is premineral, then there is every chance of the fault plane influencing the mineralisation. On the other hand, if the fault is postmineral, then the deposit may be merely displaced. Such problems are not amenable to any standard solutions. Each case has to be studied on its own merits and solutions found on the basis of the observations. The following criteria are sometimes useful in distinguishing the premineral faults from the postmineral faults ¢ (a) Premineral fault + (i) Mineralisation will be in the fault plane. Ore may be in breccia and vugs, and (ii) localising effect of the fault on ore. Ore bodies tend to be in the fauit™+, (b) Postmineral fault (i) Ore will be slickensided or brecciated. Drags will be clearly visible in many cases, and (ii) observable offsetting of veins or orebodies?4, The presence or absence of a fault in a region will substantially influence an exploration strategy parti- cularly in the choice of methods. Ore bodies may come close to the surface in certain faults making it an attsac- tive target proved easily by shallow drill holes. It can also affect the economic workability of an ore body adversely by throwing it down to great depths. In many cases, the determination of the down- thrown or upthrown block is of great importance. The criteria for such recognition are discussed below t69 Correlation of wall rocks - I ihe sequence of 9 which have been faulted is known, at is easy to the displaced block. (ii) Drag - This has been explained earlier, The drag is always against the direction of movement. (iii) Slickensides - The groove of a slickenside will be smooth in the direction of movement and rough against it. (iv) ‘Throw of minor and sympathetic fault - since minor and sympathetic faults form in harmony with ‘he main faults, their direction of throw will indicate ‘he direction of the throw of the main fauit3). (c) Unconformities + Unconformity is defined as a surface of erosion, which separates the younacr strata from the older. Four types of unconformities are recognised, They are ~ (4) angular unconformity, (ii) diaconformity (431) Local unconformity, and (iv) non-conformity??. (4) Angular unconformity : When the beds on either side of the plane of unconformity are not parallel. (ii) Discenformity : The formations on either side of the plane of unconformity are parallel. (iii) Local unconformity : basically, a disconformity but of a strictly local nature. (iv) Non-conformity : ‘hen the older rock is of plutonic origin®®, Study and criteria for recognition of unconformities in the field : Por the recognition of an unconformity, the following criteria may be made use of =10 (a) Difference in the degree of induration : the rocks on either side of an unconformity are likely to show different degrees of induration, the older rock showing greater induration. (b) ‘Differences in the grades of metamorphism: the younger rocks are likely to be less metamorphosed than the older ones on either side of an uncon= formity. ({c) Differences in folding : in some cases, the younger rocks will show less intense folding than the older on the two sides of an unconformity. (a) Relation to intrusives : in some cases, the presence or absence of an intrusive may determine the presence of an unconformity3°. Unconformities are studied best in a single sharp exposure. Aerial photographs are very useful in the study of unconformities. Common problems posed by unconformities in mineral explora- tion = Since unconformities separate rocks of differing ages, it is natural that they should act as barriers in mineral deposits associated with either of the two sets of rocks. Some of the problems posed by unconformities are similar to those posed by faults, But the solutions in this case are different. Thus dying out of deposits at ‘the plane of unconformity is common but, unlike in faults, their continuity also ends at the plane of unconformity. The plane of unconformity itself is the seat of a large variety of residually and mechanically concentzvated mineral deposits like bauxite, clay (in conglomerates), gold, etc. or planes of unconformities may also act as a channel for mineralising solutions. ‘The major problem in most unconformities is that the planes may be too irregular and undulating, and the resulting mineral deposits are likely to be very irregular. This problem has to be overcome by a systematic geological mapping followed by drilling to trace the contjnuity of the plane of unconformity itself. The proving of any deposit will come only at @ later stage.a The role of structure in ore localisation + Most of the rock and geological structures described earlier offer controls in localising mineral deposits. The most common structures which have a direct bearing on ore localisation are (i) bedding planes, (44) cleavages, (iii) joint planes, and (iv) faults and folds?>, Of these, the role played by fault and shear zones is most important. The pre-ore faults in particular offer a ready passage to mineral and ore carrying solutions. Faults and shear zones are iened when the ore or mineral fluids penetrate and travel along the planes of weakness”. Examples of shear zones acting as ore paths are very typically seen in deposits of barytes (Pulivendala), fluorite (Chandidongri), copper (Khetri and Mosaboni) and lead-zinc (Zawar). In all these cases, the shear zones, fault zones, etc. have provided excellent field guides. The localising influence of fold is typically seen in the iron and manganese ore deposits. The synclinal troughs have usually shown a better concentration in many ixon and manganese deposits than anticlinal crests. Thus, the manganese deposits of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra show evidence of structural influence, particularly the influence of synclines. The Sandur and North Kanara manganese deposits have also shown preferential concentra~ tion along synclines, although many anticlines have also shown excellent ore concentrations. Cross folded anticlines have played a major role in bringing out manganese ore deposits near the surface in Sandur where these doubly plunging anticlines have provided excellent field guides. Iron ore deposits of Goa and Karnataka also have shown evidence of structural influence. Most of the major iron ore deposits in the Sandur synclinorium like Donimalai, Kumarasvamy, NEB range, etc., have been preserved in cross folded synclines. he influence of bedding planes, cleavage, schistosity, etc. is best demonstrated by the mica deposits of Nellore and Hazaribagh where the mica bearing pegmatites have intruded along the planes of achistosity and cleavage. In this case also, the relationship has been made use of as a field guide.2 2.2 References NIMOWITZ (SN), and STONE (DB), Earth Science Se: The world we live in, D.Von Nostrand Company, York, 1960. EMMONS (HE), ALLISON (IS), SFANFFER (CR) and THIEF (GA), Geology, principles and processes, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961, BATEMAN (AM), Eccnomic Mineral deposits, Asia Publish- ing House, 2nd Edition, 1950, RANKAMA (K) and SAHAMA (TG), Geochemistry, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 37, 1950, A dictionary of mining, mineral and related terms. United States Department of Interior, 1968. GRAVES (HB), The mineral key, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1947, FORD (WE), A Text book of Mineralogy by DANA (ES), First Indian Edition, Asia Publishing House, 1959. SINKAANKAS (J), Mineralogy for amateurs, D.Von Nostrand Company Inc., 120, Alexander Street, New Jersey, 1964. FORD (EW), Dana's text book of mineralogy, Second Indian Bdition, 1960. Bulletin No. LG-3-B 15 of Denver Equipment Company, Colorado, U.S.A. REHWALD (G), Application of ore microscopy in benefi~ ciation of ores of precious metals and of non- ferrous metals. TYRREL (G#), The principles of petrolcgy, first Indian Edition, Asia Publishing House, 1962,14, 15. a. le. 19, 20. ai. 22 23, 24, 25. 26. 73 LOOMIS (FB), Field book of common rocks and minerals, Revised Edition, G.P,Putnam & Sons, New York, 1948. LAWRENCE (MJ), Exploration - Basic consideration in planning, Austr. Min., Vol. 68, No. 1, 1976, VONBERNWITZ (MW), Hand-book for prospectors and operators of small mines, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1943, PEARL (RM), How to know the minerals and rocks, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Ine., New York, 1955, ZIM (HS) and SHAFFER (PR), Rocks and minerals, Golden Press, New York, 1957, TURNER (FJ) and VERHOOGEN (J), Igneous and metamorphic petrology, Indian Edition, Allied Pacific Private Ltd., Bombay, 1962, KNIGHT (CL), Oregenesis - the source bed concept, Econ, Geol., Vol. 52, No. 7, 1957, AMSTUTZ (GC), Sedimentology and oregenesis, Develop- ment in Sedimentology, Vol. 2, Elsevier Publishing Co., New York, 1964, PEREIRA (J), Reflections on oregenesis and exploration, Min, Mag., Vol. 108, No. 1, Jan, 1963, Metallogenic - minerogenetic map of India, Geol.Surv. India, 1963, DERRY (DR), Economic aspects of Archacan - Proterozute boundaries, Econ. Geol., Vol. 56, No, 4, 1961, GHOSH (DB), SASTRY (BBK), RAO (AJ) and RAHIM (AA), Ore environment and ore-genesis in Ramgiri Gold field Andhra Pradesh, India, Econ, Geol., Vol. 65, No. 7, 1970, PEREIRA (J), Further reflections on ore-genesis and exploration, Min. Mag., Vol. 109, No. 5, 1963, SARKAR (SC), Sulphide mineralisation at Sargipalle, Orissa, India, Econ.Geol, Vol. 69, No. 2, 1974,27. 28, 29. 30. ah. 32, 33. 34, 35, 74 RADHAKRISHNA (BP), Copper mineralization in Karnataka, India, Geol. Soc. India, Vol. 15, No. i, 1974, HILLS (BS), Outlines of structural geology, Methuen and Co. Ltd., London, 1962. HIMUS (GW) and SWEETING (GS), The elements of field geology, University Tutorial Press Ltd., London, 1959, BILLINGS (MP), Structural Geology, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1946, DE SITTER (LU), Structural Geology, first Edition, McGraw Hill Book Co, Inc.,3959. NARAYANASWAMY (S), Cross-folding and en-echelon fold— ing in Precambrian rocks of India and their relation to metallogenesis, J.Geol.Soc. India, Vol. , No.1, GOGUEL (J), Tectonics, English Tr, by THALMANN (HE), W.H, Freeman & Co., 1962. McKINSTRY (HE), Mining Geology, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1962, GILL (JE), The Canadian Precambrian shield structural geology of Canadian ore deposits, Canadian Inst. Min. Met., 1948.75 AN * RECONSTRUCTION OF A FOLD BY DRAWING A “RIGHT SECTION* AND DETERMINATICN OF THE DEPTH OF FOLD Data Proviced The surface geological informaticn for 2 syncline shown in Fig. 2.15 #s available (solid lines). Pete Construct @ right section normal to the plunge of the syncline to illustrate the true configuration of the structure. Method Examine Fig. 2.15 and determine the average bearing ond inclination of plunge linés. The plunge can be determined by teking any two planes on the map (Fig. 2.15), such as the intersection of bedding and cleavage, or the intersection of two bediing plenes (e.c., intersection Of bedding planes at outcrop X, 342/4RC WSW, with bedding planes at outcrop Y, 315/280 SW), and determining the bearing end inclination of the line of intersection of the two planes. In the example mentioned, the plunge of the intersection line approximates due South and 20° of inclination. This appears to be the average for ell of the plunge lines. Draw lines AB perpendicular to the average bearing of the plunge lines, and then draw perpendiculars to AB through points A and B. Then select any points C, E, F, etc., on ene of the formation contacts, end draw lines CC', EE', FF’, etc., parallel to AB, The lines C'C*, E'E", F'F" are then drawn in on the longitudi- nai sections with a 20° plunge from the horizontal, The lines BH and AJ are ostablishei by making the angles C'BH and DAJ = 7C°, whict is the complement of the 20° plunge angle. The lines BH and AJ thus represent the traces of the right sections as seen in the Jongitutinal view. Then using A or B as centres, 2nd BE”, BC", AF" as radii, area in the ares EYE"', C*C™, and F"P™, etc. Finally Qraw in lines ENE™, C™C™, end F™E™ parallel to AB, making the lengtns of these ines equal to EE', Cc’, and FF‘, respectively. The yoints E™, C™, PM thus establish the position of the forma- tion contact in their right section. This procedure may be repeated for numerous points to establish the complete structural picture for the richt section. The process may be speeded up if proportional dividers are available by setting the dividers in the ratio of Ci: BC", With this ratio, the distance CW is quickly reduced to wo". ‘The same ratio can be applied to any poirts on the plan view. *Copyright with the kind permission of Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. from Structural Methods for the Exploration Geologist by Peter C. Badgley, 1959.EN Rien SECTION TRACE OF TROUSN PL INe, eT" STE PaTEn C, OAD 16 Plan view “on” secrion Cue FIG:245 RECONSTRUCTION OF A FOLD BY DRAWING A "RIGHT SECTION” AND DETERMINATION OF THE OEPTH OF FOLD COPYRIGHT YT! TIE KIND PSRMTSGION OF HAFPER 4 ROW, PUSLISHENS, memions ror . sgseno vennea. 5 sweuneo otf win pune oF Lincarion 3 a? wcuneo : ary veRticat } awcuineo vernicat a, overTumne> ail [© EXPLORATION aB0L0715F nyChapter 3__ 3.0 Organisation and Methods Exploration aims at searching out new mineral deposits. In a virgin terrain, this may involve the loca- tion of possible targets by prospecting. In an already known area or in a developed mine, exploration may be done solely to study the potential of a new mining block. The object of all such efforts is to locate and develop more mining blocks in the minimum of time and cost. Exploration is in short an important economic function of the mineral industry, its main aim being the creation of new profit centres for tomorrow’, In the national context, however, in some cases it may not be a centre of profit monetarily, but a national need. 3.1 Organisation Prospecting and exploration have for long been dominated by individual efforts’. . This has been true throughout the world. In India also, in a sense it has been true. Exploration has become a business activity of the mineral industry only in recent times and the concept of management is in a state of development even in very advanced countries. In India, the management concept is yet to develop fully. Proper organisation and management are, however, essential ingredients in the successful execution of explora- tion. The major function of exploration management is to coordinate the three major factors required for locating new deposits, viz., ideas, money and luck’, Of these, the factor of luck is the major imponderable in every exploration effort. By quantifying and eliminating various unknowns, the factor of luck can be reduced to some specific risk level which can be foreseen and measured. Prospecting for new deposits, apart from exploring known ones, is a major gamble. The law of “gambler's ruin” applies here too. The rule expresses the changes of going broke in a short run of bad luck. Such spells of bad luck can be compared to the non-discovery of any new deposit in a continuous series of search in an apparently favourable78 terrain, The law of “gambler’s ruin” suggests that, in order to overcome such @ row of failures, it is essential to keep trying despite failure. Such decisions are possible only when large capital is available and the decision to continue is based on a logical and scientific reasoning’. Scientific reasoning in this casecomes only from geological knowledge. Yt is logical therefore that exploration management should be in the hands of a geologist. An exploration manager should combine broad geological knowledge with imagination, physical endurance, tenacity of purpose, readiness to assume risks and should be prepared to take decisions quickly in the best possible way, in many cases even without knowing all the fects. It is also important that exploration management should be as close to the field as is feasible, the authority for making technical decisions in particular resting at the field level’. The management functions of mineral exploration can be broadly identified in the following types of activities: (2) selection of minerals for exploration, (2) acquisition of mineral rights, (3) recruitment and organisation of personnel, (4) procurement of equipment, and (5) co-ordination and administration. 3.1.1 Selection of Minerats for Exptoration ‘The process of selection is essentially guided by market conditions for a particular mineral or mineral-based industry. Thus, a cement plant may require limestone, a steel plant may need iron ore, limestone and dolomite, and a pottery may look for clay deposits. The demand may be for the export of raw ore like iron and manganese ores. The organisation or geologists entrusted with the task of prospecting and explor- ing for any deposit should know the type of ore, quantities, specifications, location and also the rate at which the ore materials are needed. Normally, in such cases, the choice of the mineral/ore is outside the control of exploration manage- ment. ‘The specific needs are conveyed to the exploring agency by the industry which is looking for the specific ore or ores. The exploration geologist/organisation may have a purely commercial aim in finding and developing’ ore bodies to attract interested investors to develop them commercially.79 In such cases, it is essential to study the market conditions, and select minerals which are easy to locate and have a ready market, Here, the selection of the mineral ts largely in the hands of the exploration organisation. When the minera’/ore to be looked for ts known, the next step ts to look for information as to where to look for them, The memoirs, records, and bulletins of the Geolosical Survey of Indie and the geological maps accompany- ing them represent the main source of such information. The rerorts and other records of State Geology and Mines Departments, the publications of the Indian Bureau of Mii and other agencies and quite often the district gazetteers at the district headquarters, or the State Atlas may also rovide the required key deta for further field work. 3.1.2 Acquisition of Mineral Rights In India, anyone who wishes to undertake mineral exploration would be legally required to possess a certificate of approval from the State Government and then obtain a prospecting licence or mining lease?, Mineral discoveries are made during routine geological work like systematic gealogical mapping or other exploration work done by the Geological Survey of India or the State Departments of Geology and Mining. Such discoveries can be studied from a scientific angle without disturbing the surface, but for chipping pieces of rock, without recourse to any legal sanction. However, for mineral exploration for purposes of opening up and mining mineral deposits, certain legal sanctions are required. The procedures to be followed are embodied in the various statutes of the Central and State Governments. For acquiring the mineral rights of an area, the pre-requisites in stages are (1) Certificate of Approval, i414) "a. Proapecting Licence (P-l.) and/or a Mining Lease (M.L.)3 ££ already issued, (111) an incometax clearance certificate from the Incometex officer concerned, and (iv) a valid clearance certificate of payment of mining dues such as royalty, surface rent, ete. (4) Certificate of Approval 1 Before venturing to prospect or exploit any major mineral, an entrepreneur must possess a Certificate of Approval. This certificate {s issued by the concerned State Government end signifies the financial and/or technical ability of the person to enter the field of mining industry?.(443 Prospecting Licence : A prospecti: eologist © should. be well conversant with the proaudure for Scquicieg the rights to prospect and mine mineral deposits. It is essential to obtain a P.L. for the areas to be investigated. Generally, a large area should be chosen as a prospecting target which can be progressively reduced after locating some Promising mineral deposits. Finally, the mining lease may be taken only for such areas which can sustain mining: A Prospecting Licence is issued for a period of 1-2 years, which is renewable for an Additional year. During this period, the licencee is exfe.ted to Prove the deposit in order to enable the opening up of a mine, During this period, no ore can be raised for commercial purposes except. in the case of mica, gold, silver, and precious minerals), (411) Laws coverning mining leace 1 A Mining Lease may be taken directly in areas where the presence of mineral deposit is known. Or it may be taken after prospecting of a few targets in an area of promise. A mining lease area should cover the deposit and some adjacent areas for the development of ancillary facilities like waste disposal, construction of surface structures such as office, colony, explosive magazine, processing plants and space required for other facilities connected with mining. The mining lease is issued for periods of 20 or 30 years and can be renewed for @ similar period. The lease provides exclusive rights to the lessee to-exploit, process and market the ore and ore = products . The salient features of the Mineral Concession files governing the issue of the Certificate of Approval, Prospecting Licence and Mining Lease in respect of minerale other than coal, ofl, atomic and minor minerals are given in Appendix - 3.1 A, The rights and obligations of the holder of a prospecting licence or a mining lease are aostracted and incorporated in Appendix 3.1 B. 3.1.3 Recruitment and Organisation of Personnel ‘The success of any exploration venture depends on the training and background of its personnel. The recruit- ment of exploration personnel should be done carefully giving due emphasis to the academic background and qualifications, professional experience and scientific temperament... TA addition, an exploration geologist should have thé following qualities: