| nthelate 190s, fon von Neumann and his colleagues published a description oft ‘of'an electronic computer. The components included: : : An arithmetic-logie unit to perform calculations A central control nit to control the sequence of operations i _ Armemory to hold both date and programs so ha programs could be executed ecently Input and output units Dura ners iia snouts mn EPA injoo NLS The central processing unit (CPU) controls the operation of the system by decoding and execut . Decoding and execution are carried out by a microprocessor, chip made o} includes primary storage, which it uses to store instructions and data that this Storage is called random access memory (RAM) because the computer can acess and Drimary storage directly. A related term encountered frequently in discussions of evi ‘only memory (ROM), Programs stored in this permanent memory control the ¢ ‘the and cannot be changed by the user's programs, < . ‘An input device is used for entering instructions and data, Input devices for the git fii Figure include a keyboard and mouse. yf Bi | -RiLautiat device is used for displaying data to people. The ouput devices forthe personal computer UAE inchude 2 monitor and laser panes. A monitor of hs type is oen called a video display vor.TF | | | | Secondary Storage holds programs and data for future processing, Secondary storage for the personal ‘computer in Figure includes a hard disk and diskettes. Introducation to Data Processing ‘What is Data? Data isthe plural of datum which means raw facts. Itis a representation of facts, concepts, or nstuctons in a formalized manner suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or automatic means ‘Data usually represents some aspect of the physical world around us, such as a lst of names and addresses, the temperature of the room, today’s date and time or bank statement. Or in other words data is a collection of ‘symbols or information which are provided tothe computer. Structure of Database ( ‘ore + abbreviation of Binary digIT, A bit isthe smallest unit data just like an atom which is thesmallest uit of mater, CayTe ; A.group ofrelatd bites acting us aunt forms byte ora character Eg:AB,CD\1.2.34/2, ec; are example of bytes or character. FIELD OR DATA ITEM: A group related bytes forms a field or data item, Eg: Albert is afield of name ‘House No. 23, Eastern Road, Londo — is afield of Address. RECORD : A group of related fields a record * Eg. Albert 25 years BSc 23 Eastern Road . isan example ofa record having four fields of name, age, address and class FILE: A group of related records is called a file DATABASE : Collection of files is know as database. Data Processing Cycle ‘There ae tnee main steps involved in data progessing sytem. INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT INPUT > PROCESSING > OUTPUT anpur t “The souce data entering system is called input. Input would be of different types ie. commercial, scientific, statistical ete ‘ >PROCESSING | ‘The oresy planned insruction within the sytem is caled procesing ourPuT By performing, sorting, calculation, analysis and other operations, a machine can arrive at results (output) that ‘may be used for further processing or retorded as report or files of information. Difference between Data and Information Ms tn un ond infireion re olen uted imeréangeble| Hove ipl fo Vow Oa 6 Sw material resources that are processed into finished information products. Information can then be defined as ‘data that has been transformed into a meaningfl and useful form for specific human beings. Definition of Computer : ‘The term computer has come to mean a special type of calculating device which is used to process the data automatically under contol ofa set of instructions (called the program), stored ints memory. We can define asunder: iT IS AN ELECTRONIC DEVICE CALCULATING DEVICE WHICH PROCESSES THE DATA IN PRESCRIBED MANNER AND GIVES THE DESIRED RESULTS" ‘AND ‘Computer is a fast and an electronic device which automatically accept information fom input device end ‘process them and prepared result for output device in a detail step by step instructions. Structure Figure of COMPUTER c.P.u i : ALU weut cu a | loureur, MEMORY [ i | FIRST LARGE-SCALE COMPUTER-ENIAC(Elecionic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) IN 1945, ENIAC was built combined by | PRESPER EKERT and Dr, JOHN, ‘These things ar including in first large-scale COMPUTER, 4) 15,000 $9, ii) 30 TONS weight i) 18,000 vacuum tubes iv) 5,000 pls calculating speed : ‘y) 400,0008 cost of price bauLarge Worldwide Computer Manufacture Companies IBM_ INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINE NCR NATIONAL CASH REGISTER COMPANY ICL. INTERNATIONAL COMPUTER LIMITED (Some Useful) STANDS FOR MIPS Millions Instruction Per Second TP ‘Track Per Inch MDP. ‘Manual/Mechanical Data Processing BIOS Basic Input Output System ASCIL ‘American Standard Code Information Interchange ANSI ‘American National Standard Institute VGA ‘Video Grephics Array | PIO Parallel In Parallel Out COM ‘Computer Output Microfilm FAT File Allocation Table GIGO Garbage In Garbage Out wo Input & Output 10P VO Processor Le Liguid Crystal Display MPU, Micro Processor Unit MIs. ‘Management Information System EDP Electronics Data Processing “UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer ny Information Technology www World Wide Web Isp Internet Service Provider ‘TCPAP ‘Transmission Control Protocol /Iatemet Protocol FIP File Transmission Protocol ‘Types of Computers Personal computers ‘Workstations Minigomputers Mainframe computers Super computes i Computers are classified based on their power and speed as microcomputers, workstations, minicomputers, ‘mainframe, or supercomputers, A personal computer isa single-computer that ss on a desktop or can be carried around by the user. A workstation is a powerful single-user computer that can be used for complex. data analysis and design work. Both personal computers and workstations are often called microcomputers. Minicomputers are larget computers typically shared by 2 department in a company for processing transactions, accessing corporate database, and generating reports. Mainframe computers are even more ©powerful; they are used to process large volumes of online transactions and to generate reports from large databases. A supercomputer is specialized high speod computer used for lengthy calculations rather than for processing transactions or generating zepors Generations of Computer First Generation ‘The logic and data in the frst computers were represcnied by off-on switchs, Initially the switches were clectromechanical moving pats that clicked open and st. Soon, researches saw tat vacuum tubes could Sitch offon sates much more rapidly than mechanical device, thus making vacuum tubes the preferred technology. Vacuum tubes consisted of filament and metal plat inside a elas tbe. Although much faster than cletromechanical switches, vacuum tubes bummed out rapidly, generted beat, and sed @ lot electricity, Despite these shortcomings, vacuum tubes were the bais fbr te fist generation of eomputers tround 1964 Second Generation mn 1948, Bell Laboratories developed the first transistor using the semiconductor element germanium. This switching device was based on the peculiar properties of semiconductors, which conduct electricity only under ceriain circumstances. It consisted of contiguous layers of different types of semiconductor material ‘Transistors could do the same off-on switching that vacuum tubes could do but were much smaller, less fragile, generated less heat, and used less electricity. Now production techniques were developed, causing the price of transistors 10 plummet when Texas Instruments developed a way 10 make transistors out of silicon (the main ingredient in common sand) rather than rare and costly germanium. Transistors were the basis forthe socond weneration of computers around 1958. Third Generation Production techniques for silicon transistors were based on creating a microscopically thin mulilayer pattem of physically distinct materials on top of a silicon wafer, a thin cross-sectional slice of e larger silicon erystal. The methods for creating the pater included diffusing impurities into silicon, depositing materials such as aluminum onto the silicon, and etching patterns in the silicon. For more efficient production, multiple transistors were produced on the same physical wafer, which was later cut into tiny individual transistors. Continual improvement of these production techniques has progressed to the point that the patterns on some current semiconductor chips (individual semiconductor devices) contain line widths of less than 1 micron Although transistors were a major improvement over vacuum tubes, they till had to be wired together with ‘other tansisiors and other electrical components, such as resistors and. capacitors. In. 1958, Texas. {Instruments developed a prototype ofan integrated circuit, a semiconductor circuit in which the transistors, ‘and capecitors are made simultaneously in the same contiguous piece of semiconductor material. By climinating excessive wiring between discrete components, the integrated circuit brought much greater miniaturization and reliability, Furthermore, reducing the mount of wiring sped up circuit operation. The ‘off-on switching times of semiconductors were so fast thatthe speed of electrons moving through wires ‘emerged as one of the limiting factors in the resulting systems, Integrated circuits were the basis for the third generation of computer around 1964 Fourth Generation ‘The next step was to combine multiple circuits imo an ind scale integration (LS), and later very large scale integration (VLSI). Today, chips containing } million bits.po Of RAM have become commonplace, LSI and VLSI chips were the basis for the fourth generation of ‘computers around 1971 A key breakthrough in combining circuits into an individual chip vas to put all the intemal logic of a computer ina single chip, This was first done by Intel in 1971, and the result was called a microprocessor. Today, microprocessors have become integral parts of devices, ranging from whet we think of as electronic devices (such as personal computers, VCRs, phone answering machines) to what we think of as mechanical devices (such as automobiles and copiers). : Fifth Generation ‘Although great progress has been achieved in extending the computing power of VLSI chips, no commonly agreed upon fifth generation has emerged, The term fh generation usvally applies to research leading toward computers that exhibit greater “intelligence.” Japan's highly publicized Fifth Generation project attempted to develop some of the technology needed for a future generation of computers that could perform uman-like reasoning, In theory, these computers would use parallel processing and would be ‘guided by techniques for learning about how the world operates. The capabilities that would define this new generation have not yet been attained and may not evolve for decades. ‘Fypes of Computer and their Application There are thes types of compute. a Digital , Analogue Hybrid a, DIGITAL COMPUTER ‘A digital computer is counting device that operates diretly on data. Digital computer operates on input which are ON-OFF fype (being digits 0 or 1) and its output is also inform of ON-OFF signals. Digital computer is ‘capable of performing sequences of internally stored instructions. Its most versatile machine, Applications Applications of: Digital computer in business data processing and scientific purposes. In special situations (€g,,to simulate a guided missile sytem or a new aierafl design, b. ANALOG COMPUTERS ‘The anslog computer operates by measuring. The analog computer accopts variable electrical signals (analog values) as inputs, and its output is also in the form of analog electrical signals Analog computer has only limited memory facility bu it more efficent in continuous calculations, The example of analog computers odometer & vometer. This computer ean be used mainly in refineries and for weather forecast et Applications Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process corrol purposes. It measures continuous physical magnitudes (eg. pressure, temperature, vohage current, shat rotations, length which represent or are analogous to the numbers under consideration eee Os) CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. This is an integrated circut family, having high threshold logic and a technology which consumes very how power compared to other semiconductor technologies £) DubugDebugging ‘These refer to the activty/process of detecting, locating mistakes in software (program) and in hardware (eystem wiring) ble A un ») of four bits. Half'a byte, vv) Port A signal input (access) or output (egress) point, often 2 connector. A point at which connection can bbe made between an inputioutput device and the CPU, allowing data to be posed. ‘w) Pixel The smallest element of a VDU with graphics capability. 3) Punched Card_A piece of light weight card-board on which information is epresented by holes punched in specific positions. Thus is the earliest method of feeding deta into a computer. ¥) Silicon It provides base for soli state micro electronic components and acts as raw material for ICs, 2) Terminal A device used for sending or receiving data to or from a computer, Introduction to EDP System 1. Hardware 2. Software 3. User Program 4, Procedure ~ 5, Personnel 4) System Analyst ii) Programmer iil) Computer Operator 1. HARDWARE, Flardware term use to describe all computer equipment and any relative device. Physically structure of ‘computer in which monitor, central processing unit, printer, key board, eables and peripheral and any related device to computer are called Hardware. These equipment may be on line or offline. 2. SOFTWARE Software is a term used to describe any of the program or series of instructions for computer is called software. These include the System Software and Application Software, a) System Software: All the manufacturer supplied progrems-and routines for the computer system is knows system software. ‘These are of three types. §) Operating System: ‘Those are mosly internal builtin program and techniques to help the user inthe operation ofthe computer. “These programs and routines make computer asa usable and powerful machines ii) Interpreters:61010001110 Assembly language is an example of low-level language, High-Level Languages High-lovel languages share three important advantages. SIMPLIFICATION. Since the terminology in high-Jevel languages is “almost English’ the languages can be easily learned and undesstood. In fact, most people can write simple programs ater afew days study STANDARDIZATION. The high-level languages have been standardized (upto slight modification). DIAGNOSTIC ERROR DETECTION. Each high-level language has its ovm syntax, or set of rules that govern the writing of statements in the language. Hence before a program is translated and executed, the ‘compiler checks each statement in the program for syntactical errors. LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR ‘Language wanslators (or language processor) aro programs that trenslate other programs into machine Jenguage instruction codes the computer can execute. They also allow you 10 write you own programs by providing program creation and editing facilities. Computer programs like BASIC, COBOL, or PASCAL, ‘Which must be translated info the computers own machine language before they ean be processed by the PU. ‘ ‘Most programming language translator programs are called ether assemblers, compilers or interpeters Compiler ; Compiler js a program used to transite commands writen in a high level language into. mech ‘understandable language. Interpreter ‘An interpreteris a special type of compiler that translates and executes each program line by line. It never can ‘move forward sill previous error deducted. Introduction to Operating System ‘An operating system is defined as a program which supervises the running ofthe othe: programs. Tn practice ‘the operating system supervises the program, controling the input nd output functions of each program and passing control ffom one program to anather. Jn other words, an operating system is a collection of programs and routines used by the computer to contol its operation. , Disk Operating System (DOS) ‘Disk Operating System is salient partner. It act as a translator between homan to machine. Disk operating system is a way of communication in between you and your computer. Its eble to use with single user environment Local Area Network (LAN) ‘relatively cheap and simple high-speed dsta communication system linking a number of personal computers ‘within a defined and smal! locality to enable sharing of single and/or expensive resources. UNIX UNIX is several things. It is a computer operating system, It s elso a large set of utility programs. These uilities include general user, programmer, typesetting, communication, and administrative commands, @Utility Programs Pre written programs, usually by manufacturers and supplied with the system. Used in data-base management systems, Modes of Electronic Data Processing a) Multiprogramming Maltiprogramming is the concurrent execution of two or more processing program simultaneously resident in the main storage area of a computer. | b) Multiprocessing | | Multiprocessing is a computer system that contsins to or more interconnected procesors, cach wih ts own | arithmetic end logic units, and each capsble of independ operation, 6) Access Time Interval between the deta requested by ALU (athmetc logics unit inthe central procesing tit) and data | rade available tit. It is often used as a reference to the speed of a memory. i @ OnLine | | ‘he online mean that the computer and process re rely connered with espe to iformation and thre isnot intervention of human being between them. «) Batch Processing and Real Time Processing, ‘There are basically two modes of Data entry. In Batch processing the data to be processed are accumulated i ‘over 2 period of time and then processed all together. In Real Time processing, each transaction is processed 18s soon asi is received. ) Time Sharing ‘A method of operation in which the computers shared concuectly between more thn one users by dividing | ime between them. Computers operate so fast that they give an impression of simukaneous operation, In ‘other words, the computer gives each user a frequently repeated, slice of the time, so tht each user gets most immediate response, | 2) Off Line Off line computer system is one in which there is no immediate requirement ffom process or operation and it | ‘can do computations leisurely. | h) Online | ‘An on-line computer is one which is operating in real time and it hes to control the process being controlled | immediately. Ithas atively monitor and control the processor operation. | §) Data Communications: ‘Data communications and data transmission are synonymous. It implies transfer 1i) cof coded data by telephone, telegraph cr radio communication circuits, i 3) Modem | Acronym for data set QMOdshtor DEModulator) ModulaorDemodulatr czeit used for ansmision of | data over telephone fines converts the DC signals on the terminal devices into audio-frequency signals for | ‘transmission (and vice versa). 1 ‘A device that converts signals in one form to another form compatible with another form compatible with | another kid of equipment @What is an Information System ‘An information system is a combination of work practices, information, people, and information technologies organized to accomplish goals in an organization. Work practices are the methods used by people and technology to perform work. The information in information systems can include formatted data, text, pictures, and sounds, Except when they totaly automate a task, information systems include People who enter, process, or use data, Information technology includes hardware and soRware that performs one or more data processing tasks such as capturing, transmitting, “storing, retrieving, ‘manipulating, or display da Components Figure expands the definition of an information system by showing relationship between goals, work Practices, information, people, and information technology. The figure shows that the focal point for Understanding information systems is work practices rather than information technology. The key issue is how the various components interact o create work practices that satisfy organizational goals, j Although goals are not a component ofan information system, they do play a vital role in determining work practices. Goals provide criteria for deciding whether the organization's work practices should be changed Other important determinants of change include people's charecteristics, available information and information technology, and other factors outside of the system. For example, the goal of bringing new products to market quickly might motivate a variety of work practices combining people, information, and information technology. Work Practices in ‘Work practices are the methods used by people and technology to perform work. They encompass not only procedures prescribed by operations manuals, but also the general ways in which people coordinate, ‘communicate, make decisions, and perform other tasks in a business. +t the system Wot aemgih = frmatted date, ten, Plies, ed sae GOs le who ete, peers, cede de| | | Information People i Except when they totally automate a tas, information system must include people who eater, process, oF se dua, The two-way arrow between work practices and people iadcates ther the acne practices affect the People and thatthe characteristics ofthe people inthe system determine wh wae ractices are feasible. Information Technology capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating, or splaying data. Some exemples include Ricrocompiters, muinfame computers, ter code scamers, franaction Processing software, and spreadsheet software 4 | i {ure shows that changes in work practices may be driven by new ideas, problems, and avifonmenta, end technological forces. These forces ereae new organization gels which require new hort Practices In tum, these work pracices often require that people adapt, that iftiem ines or ‘made available, and that new ways to use information technology are developed. “BASTING SYSTENA Te ‘COMPETITIVE INNOVATION i us Sehoee, AND Work practices, sae arouse ona ae coal i People A wide range of forces leads tothe developeInteraction of Business and Technological Trends To participate knowledgeably in the development and use of information systems, one also needs to understand the business and technological trends that are shaping’ work practices. The concern in this section is with industry wide rather than company-specific issues, Dynamics of Technological and Business Innovation ‘The current state of information technology enables current work practices and leo is the stertng point for innovations. Shortcomings in an industry's work practices reveal needs, opportunities, and risks, These needs and opportunities motivate the search for technological improvements, suchas enhanced data captnee technology through scanners or advancements in telecommunications through satellites. In turn, the innovations eventually become widespread, and the cycle continues with the Search for opportunites, \oeee el [tetas] a ladealpy | I Sp | od reer [ tt } heer Figur illustrates how this process is driven by two forces: business needs and the technology itself As the current technology evolves, it provides a platform for developing even more powerful technologies, a turn, these new technologies enable advances in both industry's work practices and technology itself, These ‘mutually reinforcing phenomena assure fiture rapid change. Figure also illustrates that applying information systems is not just @ technical task. Major successes and innovations in applying information system arise from business needs and opportunities, ‘The adoption of new technology and new work practices is a multifaceted change process. Business Trends Greater pervasiveness of computers ‘Twenty years ago, most business computers were lage, expensive machines controlled by a techically trsined staff and housed in specially airconditioned rooms. Today, most workers ean expect to have some daily interaction with computers. Greater automation of work Automation is the use of machines to perform tasks that people once did. Throughout business and society, ‘work is becoming more automated and less labor intensive, This trend has varied impacts on people, business, and societyTas cieneefietion image of automation as something done by a humanlike robot isa fir ery from the {riliy of automation today. Understanding automation requires looking atthe pantculr types ofemromared set mn cat be divided into tasks decid at data (sich as capring,transmiting, storing, retdeving and dplaying data) versus tasks diected at physical objects (auch a transporting, Mbicating, ook assembling). ‘New forms of organization and management ‘Host lage businesses have traditionally been organized hierarchically. Functions were divided among epartments and decisions made at the highest levels and fired down tothe ranks. Ia this model, mach ot the interaction and communication occurs in narow groups within deparimenis. Managers ofen ty ta Teict information Now, both ot contol their departments and to manipulate the departments image {Rovshout the onanization. Many middle mangers spend much of ther time combining and summasizigg ‘operating results and creating reports. Faster pace of business Time has become a key corporate resource, The ability to bring produets to market quickly and to respond auickly to customer demand ar key determinants of competitive success. Areas whete information systems have hed the greatest impact include the design and manufacturing cycle and inventory control ‘May companies have slashed both the rime to design a prodict and the time to manufacture it by more than 30% This improvement eame from reorganizing work flows, removing unnecessary bureaueracy, and ‘using information technology to eliminate redundant work and speed up the necessary work Technological Trends Greater availability of digitized information Information exists in ive different forms —- formatted data tex, image (picture), audio (sounds), and video {sequences of pictures and sound) ~~ each of which canbe digitized. Digitization involves coding the ata San equivalent or approximately equivalent set of numbers, Greater portability of electronic devices ‘As mentioned earlier, the frst computers filled entire rooms. Until the 1980s, telephone systems were {typically anchored in place by wire connection, and data input into computers typically involved the use of ‘onputer terminals in a fixed location ‘The miniaturization of electronic components plus advences in communication technology led to much Srester portability of computer end communication devices, Devices are portable when their users can cary them around conveniently. For example, laptop computers can be used anywhere and businesspeople oftea carry them on business trips. Hundreds of pages of data can be stored on a pocket-sized diskette, while the ‘equivalent of hundreds of diskettes can be stored on a single compact sk. Greater Connectivity Connectivity iS the ability to transmit data between computerized devices in an information system, Insteasngly, computerized data can be transmitted almost instantaneously nearly anywhere inthe eri ‘The scope of connectivity includes person-to-machine transmission of business data and instructions for automated equipment‘Current forms of connectivity represent great progress beyond the first telephone networks, in which calls ‘were rovted through mechanical switching centers and traveled over copper wires. Early long distance calls Tequired operators, who did the switching by hand, Calls to large businesses went through mechanical switchboard in which other telephone operators mechanically connected outside calls to inside phone lines. Transmission of business data over phone lines was limited by the amount of data that could be ‘encoded into analog signals, sent across copper lines, and then decoded. Greater ease of use : Today advanced technology means that even people with serious disabilities can drive safely, In the 1960s; Computers were largely considered to be the realm of technical experts. Today, millions of workers routinely use desktop computes interactively, even though they know litle about computer technology Information is accessible through interactive terminals that can show text and graphics. Interective techniques for entering and requesting data exist in both business application systems such as investory end Purchasing and tools such as spreadsheets and word processors. Users of well-designed systems can complete their work by filling ia blanks rather than by mastering complicated computer languages. Even though we don't know exactly how computers will be used in 20 years, we can safely say that they will be ‘even easier to use than they are today. Information Technology, Impact on the society What are some ofthe major impacts of information systems on organizations and society? Information systems have affected employment by eliminating some types of jobs, increasing productivity in other jobs enough to reduce staffing needs, changing the nature of some jobs, and creating ew types of obs, Information systems can support many forms of centralization or decentralization. Also, information Systems have changed communication patterns and power relationships by creating new communication links and bypassing the chain of command. Thanks to information systems, remote work and {elecommuting are more prevalent. Finally, information systems have generated both positive and negative ‘unexpected consequences for organizations and society Employment People offen speculate about the ultimate impact of automation on employment. Science fiction suggests ‘worlds in which robots do the work and people need to find new ways to occupy thenaselves, The results of ‘automation to date are not so clear-cut. As the photograph of a spray-painting robot shows some type of ‘work have been automated, However, there are many claims that technological innovations have created oF will create more jobs than they have displaced, Information systems have reduced the staffing required for certzin tasks. Information systems have iminated many jabs that ean be automated, such as connecting telephone calls. In other areas, they have climinated jobs by increasing productivity of those who remain in the jobs. For exam, word processors have raised typing productivity 30% 10 80% by reducing the time spend in retyping, correcting. and handling paper. At one bank, the'S0 people in the international money transfer department could do the ‘work thet 430 people did 10 years earlier. Centralization versus Decentralization of Organizations ince the First commercial applications of computers, there has been speculation about their potential impact on the management and control of organizations. Early speculations predicted that organizations would become more centralized because middle mangers would not be needed as much to filter end ‘organize information. More recent studies show evidence of deceatralization allowing local mangers to control their own operations and to be responsive to customers. Headquarters monitors performance inPad = - w fm Serco ae Se aes ae ay ee ee apparent tht technology supports many varieties of centralization or decentralization, leaving the choice to,mmanagement Com munications patterns and Power Relationships Computer networks have spawned many new communication pattems, often increasing communication between individuals in different departments who never communicated direcly in the past. For example, electronic mail makes 1 much easier to go directly to the source rather than working through intermediete management levels of pass information upward and downward, Consequently, a sales vice-president might prefer to get specific questions answered by sending them toa salesperson directly, without going through the regional manger. Remote Work During rush hour in a large city, many of the people trapped in their cars probably wish they could just work at home. With the workstations and communications technologies that are available today, many workers can do just that by defining atleast some of their work as remote work, Remote work is work done somewhere other than the organization's office or workspace. While few jobs can be done effectively ‘without occasionally meeting with coworkers, mangers, and subordinates, some of the work can be done in ‘many businesses without being on the premises. Common reasons for doing remote work include time ‘wasted in commuting, availability of trained workers at remote locations, and the need to meet home responsibilities, ‘Telecommuting isthe substitution of telecommunications for travel to an office. Many work environments ermit occasional work at home to eliminate time spend commuting, and for other reasons. The ability to transmit computerized data, send documents by fex, and work collaboratively at distance fs increasing rapidly. As we move toward global communications, the ability of educated people throughout the world to be knowledge work at home will increase, Correspondingly, the competitive advantage of living near the castomer or employer may decrease