University at Buffalo PSY 101

PSY 101
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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 1
LECTURE NOTES FOR SECTION 1 OF CLASS BEGIN HERE
Introduction
What Is ’t Ps holog ?
late ight hats
• What do dreams mean?

• Why are people the way they are?
• If a tree falls in the forest and no one hears it, does it really make a sound?
• Wh does ’t he/she call?
A Research Finding About Love
The Hindsight Bias

Predict Winner of Election
• Powell (1988)
The Hindsight Bias

• Predict Rape
• Janoff-Bulman et al. (1985)
What Is Psychology?
• The Scientific Study of Behavior and the mind.
What Is Psychology?
• “ ie tifi : “ ste ati , o je ti e ethods of o se atio ook alls e pi i al

What Is Psychology?
• Behavior
Any activity that can be observed, recorded, and measured.
What Is Psychology?
• Mind:
– All conscious and unconscious mental states
– Must be inferred
Goals of Psychology
• Not just to describe and explain behavior but also to predict and control behavior.
The History of Psychology

Wundt
• The father of psychology
• First laboratory
• Structuralism – identify the common elements of experience
• Introspection
Functionalism
• How and why does the mind help us function in the world?
• Influences by Charles Darwin
• William James
– Amazing Ideas and Prose
– First Lab in USA
Gestalt Psychology
• The whole is more than the sum of its parts
• Visual (e.g. Neon)
Psychodynamic Theory
• Freud
• Theory of how thoughts and feelings affect behavior
• Push and pull of unconscious and conscious forces

Behaviorism
• Skinner
• Reaction to Psychodynamic Theory
• Reinforcement
• Study behavior for behaviors sake
Humanistic Psychology
• Rogers
• Reaction to Behaviorism and Psychodynamic
• People have positive values, free will, and creativity
• Goal: Personal Growth
Cognitive Approach
• How information is stored and operated on
• Reaction to Behaviorism
Neuropsychology
• Understanding how the brain works helps us to understand psychology
Evolutionary Psychology
• Natural Selection: changes in the frequency of genes in a population that occur because those genes give an
organism more chance of survival
What do psychologists do?
Research Methods
Steps to Research:
1. Observe phenomena
2. Come up with hypothesis
3. Operationalize variables
4. Choose research method
5. Analyze data
6. Theory

The Story of Kitty Genovese

• Wh Do ’t People Help?
Come up with Hypothesis

• Hypothesis: a tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between causes and consequences
• E p: the la ge the u e of people ho a e it ess to a e e ge , the less likel a o e is to i te e e.
Operationalize your variables

• Variables: measurable conditions that vary
• Exp: number of people, helping
• I depe de t Va ia le: the a ia les thought to p edi t the othe a ia le

• Variable thought to predict other variable
• Exp: number of people
• Dependent Variable: Any variable whose values are the result of changes in the independent variable. The
p edi ted
• Exp: helping
• Operationalization: the concrete representation of the variable of interest

• Exp: what is helping?
Choose a Research Method

1. Case Study
2. Survey
3. Correlational Research
4. Experiment

Choose a Research Method

• Case Study: real life description
– Pro: rich data source
– Con: vulnerable to biases, limited generalizability
Ge e aliza ilit : hat i fe e es a ou ake a out the phe o e a’s eadth.
Survey
• Interviews or questionnaires of many participants concerning a particular phenomena of interest
– Pros: more generalizability, wide array of topics, real life description
– Co s: ul e a le to iases, tests a e o elatio al i atu e
Bias: self-presentation bias, wording
Wording Biases

Correlational Studies
• Measure the independent and dependent variables in a number of cases in order to generalize to an entire
population
Correlation: A statistical measure of how closely two variables are associated
• Correlations can range from -1.0 to +1.0

• Correlations vary in sign (+ or -) and in magnitude (0 – 1)
Explaining Correlations
• Start with 3 variables, (X, Y, & Z) where X and Y are correlated:
– X might cause Y
– Y might cause X
– X might be correlated with Y, which causes Z
• Correlations show patterns, not causes
Correlational Studies
• Pros: tell us about relationships between variables
• Cons: say nothing about causation
• Examples: trees and crime, self-esteem
Experiment


• Manipulate variables in a controlled environment in order to assess the effects of such a manipulation on other
variables
– Pros: can draw casual influence
– Cons: vulnerable to biases, can be artificial
• How do you assign people to levels of independent variable (conditions)?

– Let them pick?
– Time of day?
– Alphabetical order?
• Hallmark of experiment is random assignment

• Random assignment: assign subjects to the experiment in a way that gives each person an equal chance of
being in the experiment
• Why? Want to make sure that nothing but IV is affecting experiment
• Confounding variables: extraneous variables that could affect experiment
• Conclusions from experiment. Do groups differ?

• Statistical significance: less than 5% chance that difference could occur due to chance.
Theory
• An organized set of principles that describe, predict, and explain some phenomena
Ethical Issues
• Informed Consent: subjects sign a form that explains what the experiment is about, their rights, and the right to
stop at any time without penalty
• Internal Review Board
What makes Psychological Research Scientific?

• Precision (operational definitions)
• Skepticism (doubt what is accepted)
• Reliance on empirical evidence
• Willi g ess to ake isk p edi tio s ust e falsifia le
• Openness (share data)
Psychophysiology


Methods of Psychophysiological Research the study of how brain functioning relates to brain function
• Twin studies
• Brain damage case studies
– Phineus gage
– Used to be only way
• Lesion studies in animals
• Imaging
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Looking at electrical activity in the brain to see what is going on
Con: not very specific
Can see the amount of energy
Positron Emission Tomography

• Active areas have increased blood flow
• Radioactive isotopes (small amounts) are placed in the blood o : a ’t just go a ou d i je ti g people ith
radiactivity
• Sensors detect radioactivity
• Different tasks show distinct activity patterns
Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI

• Magnetic fields align certain ions and compounds
• When field is removed, these molecules release energy as radio waves
• Kind of like an x-ray
• Provides clear, 3D images
New update: FMRI combines MRI and pet scans
The Nervous System

• Central Nervous System
• Peripheral Nervous System
Divisions of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System
– Brain
– Spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System
– Somatic
– Autonomic


Neurons
• The cells of the nervous system
• Communicative cells
– Sensory: receive signals from outside nervous system
– Motor: transmit signals to muscles
– Interneurons: communicate with each other (vast majority)
Structure of a Neuron
Nervous system is build up of thousands of neurons
The Neuron in Action

• Information Transfer (2 phases)
1. Presynaptic (happens within neuron)
– At rest - negatively charged
– When signals are sent channels are opened and inside becomes more positive
– When threshold is reached the neuron fires: action potential
– All or none: the firing of a neuron is like a gun
– Slow: 120 meters per second
– Myelin sheath – speeds it up.
• Multiple Scerosis
2. Postsynaptic is graded
– voltage change at receptor cite is caused chemically (neurotransmitters)
– Each neuron connected to up to 100,000 others


How Neurons Communicate
• Axon terminals release neurotransmitter
• Neurotransmitter enters synaptic gap
• Neurotransmitter binds to receptors that it fits
• Reuptake: surplus reabsorbed
Neurotransmitters
• After crossing the synapse, the neurotransmitter is reuptaken or degraded
• There are more than 40 known types
• Different neurotransmitters have different effects
• Drugs, neural diseases often affect neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine: important for learning, memory, muscle movement
• Serotonin: influences mood and regulates food intake
• Dopamine: important to movement and to pleasure and reward
• Norepinephrine: maintains alertness & wakefulness
Drugs
• Many drugs influence synaptic transmission
• Drugs can be agonistic or antagonistic
Agonistic Drugs
• Increase release of neurotransmitter, or
• Activate receptors, imitate neurotransmitter, or
• Inhibit reuptake of neurotransmitter
Antagonistic Drugs to decrease

• Interfere with release of neurotransmitter, or
• Occupy and block neurotransmitter sites
Peripheral Nervous System

• Somatic: voluntary muscle activity


• Autonomic
– Sympathetic: generally activates gets your body going
– Parasympathetic: generally inhibits slows you down and gets you into a state of rest and realization
The Brain
Brainstem
• The primitive inner core
• Medulla
– Vital involuntary functions such as sneezes, breathing (hanging)
• Pons
– Sleep and arousal
• Reticular formation
– Screens incoming information and arouses higher brain centers when needed
• Cerebellum
– Learning acquired reflexes
– Motor coordination (alcohol)
Limbic System
emotions, memory, and learning
• Thalamus
– Sensory relay station. All but smell
• Amygdala
– Fear, anger, aggression
– Story of Elliot
• Hippocampus
– Memory formation
– Story of H.M.
– Limbic System
• Hypothalamus
– Regulates glands, autonomic NS, release of hormones
– Limbic System
– Basi eeds: fou F’s
- Fighting
- Fleeing
- Feeding
- fornicating

• Hypothalamus
– Regulates glands, autonomic NS, release of hormones
– Basi Needs: Fou F s
Lobes of the Brain

• Temporal Lobes: Auditory Perception. Categorization. Essential for social interaction
• Occipital Lobes: Contain the visual cortex, associations related to visual stimuli
• Parietal Lobes: Sensory integration and then project to frontal lobes. Mental manipulation. Cross-modal
matching
• Frontal Lobes: sta of ai . Co tai o t ols fo spee h p odu tio , thi ki g, pla i g, easo i g, i pulse
control, motivation. Phineas Gage
The Case of Phineas Gage

• Gage was a railroad construction foreman
• An 1848 explosion forced a steel tamping rod through his head
• Othe s said he as … o lo ge Gage…
• Lost his job, worked as a sideshow exhibit
Motor corext: sends info out

Sematic cortext: gets info from nerves
Some parts of brain are bigger bc it takes up more info
Somatic cortex is close to parletal lobe
Two Hemispheres
• Language mostly in left hemisphere
• Detecting emotion, spatial abilities, music are in right
• Right controls and received input from left side of body and vice-versa
• The Corpus Callosum Provides a pathway for communication between the hemispheres
“pe ’s “plit-Brain Experiment

• Split-brain subjects could not name objects shown only to the right hemisphere
• If asked to select these objects with their left hand, they succeeded
• The ight side of the ai does ’t o t ol spee h
Plasticity in Brain & Behavior


• Some rats are housed alone in empty cages
• Their littermate twins are group-housed in cages with toys, which are changed frequently
• Richer environments led to heavier, thicker brains, more synapses, and better learning
• Neurons do not regenerate but do die off; no improving the brain bc of this
• But brain does get stronger
Sensation and Perception

• Not the sa e thi g…
• Sensation: the conversion of a stimulus (e.g. light) to neural impulses at a receptor site (e.g. eyes)
• Perception: interpreting those stimuli, applying meaning to them
Perception occurs in your brain where it interprets information that you get in
Sensation & Perception Processes

• An age old question: If a tree falls in the forest and no one is there to hear it, does it make a sound?
Transduction
• The process of translating physical information into neural impulses
Five Senses
• At least (e.g. equilibrium, pain)
• Each sense perceives certain types of info (e.g. light)
• Has different structures (e.g. rods and cones in eyes)
Thresholds
• Absolute Threshold
– The smallest amount of stimulation that can be detected
Absolute Sensory Thresholds

• Vision: A single candle flame from 30 miles on a dark, clear night
• Hearing: The tick of a watch from 20 feet in total quiet
• Smell: 1 drop of perfume in a 6-room apartment
• Touch: The wing of a bee on your cheek, dropped from 1 cm
• Taste: 1 tsp. Sugar in 2 gal. water
Structures of the Human Eye
Parts of the Eye

• Pupil: small opening through which light enters the eye
• Lens: transparent part of eye inside pupil that focuses light
• Retina: lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light


The Retina
Contains rocks and cones
Rods
• Mostly in the periphery
• More light sensitive; detect light and dark
• Take 20-30 minutes to fully adapt to darkness
Cones
• Mostly in the fovea
• Less light sensitive; detect colors
• Have best detail vision
• Adapt fully to darkness in 2-3 minutes
Visual Pathways
Color vision
The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory:
S-CONES: SENSITIVE TO BLUE

M- CONES: SENSITIVE TO GREEN
L- CONES: SENSITIVE TO RED
Every other color can be explained by these three colors
After-Image Effect
American flag experiment


The Opponent Process Theory
Cells are connected as to place sensations of:
Red in opp. To green
Blue in opp. To yellow
Black in opp. To white
Cells are connected so as to place sensations of:
After-Image Effect
• Our receptor cells become over-stimulated and then send less information into our brain for a short while
afterwards.
• Opponent color is thus seen more
Color Vision
• The trichromatic theory explains perception at the receptor level
• The opponent process theory explains it at higher brain levels
Perception
Bottom up versus top down

• Bottom up processing: use bits of information (e.g. color, brightness)
• Top down processing: use prior information
Perception is affected by context and expectations
• True for auditory perception as well

• Chicago Police
• What we expect to see/hear influences what we see/hear
Critical Role of Attention

• We are surrounded by stimuli all the time
• Perception depends on attention
• Preconscious Processing
Can only attend to one thing at a time


Preconscious Processing
• The processing that occurs prior to the filtering process
• Exp: dichotic listening task
– Cocktail party effect
• Exp: sensitivity to sound while sleeping. Klinger
Change Blindness
Were not paying as much attention as we think we are
– We tend not to notice unexpected changes in our environments
• Illusion of Memory
– We think we perceive and remember more of our world than we actually do
Perceiving visual forms

• Gestalt Psychology: whole is more than the sum of its parts.
Figure-Ground
We organize the world so some parts of a stimulus appear to stand out (figure) in front of other parts (ground)
Similarity
• We group things that are similar in color, shape, etc. into single units and see them as belonging together
Proximity
• We perceive as a unit things that are closer together relative to other things
Good Continuation
• We group things together if they appear to form a continuous pattern
Example: lines are continued through if they cross other lines
Closure
We tend to complete figures with gaps in them, by ignoring the gaps and mentally filling in what we believe
should be there
Depth Perception
Binocular Cues
• Reti al dispa it : e es do ’t see the sa e thi g
• Convergence: eyes move inward to see things

Depth Perception
Monocular Cues
• Linear Perspective: as they get further away, objects begin to converge (get closer together)
The Ponzo Illusion
• Top line seems farther away

– But the retinal images of the red lines are equal!
Depth Perception
Monocular Cues
• Interposition: when something blocks another object
• Relative size: knowing the size of something and using it for perspective
• Texture Gradient: Things in foreground are more distinct and pronounced
How do we know these rules?

• Experience: blind people who regain sight have trouble perceiving depth.
• The Visual Cliff
• Devised by Gibson and Walk to test depth perception
• Glass surface, with checkerboard underneath at different heights
– Visual illusion of a cliff
– Ba a ’t fall
• Mom stands across the gap
• Heartbeats of 2 month old babies are faster when over cliff
Visual Illusions
• Are they nature or nurture?
• Answer: some of both!
Müller-Lyer Illusions
• Muller-Lyer only occurs in developed countries with carpentered living areas. Top down
• He a ’s g id: o petitio a o g e epto ites

Taste Buds
• Photograph of tongue surface (top), magnified 75 times
• 10,000 taste buds line the tongue and mouth
– Taste e epto s a e do i side the ud
• Children have more taste buds than adults
Taste
• Involves only 5 sensations: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
• Most of what we consider taste is actually smell
• Texture is very important in enjoyment of food
• People love fats for the smooth feeling they give food (most are tasteless)
Sensitivity to Touch
Extrasensory Perception
• Extrasensory Perception (ESP):
– The ability to perceive something without ordinary sensory information
– This has not been scientifically demonstrated
• Three types of ESP:

– Telepathy – Mind-to-mind communication
– Clairvoyance – Perception of remote events
– Precognition – Ability to see future events
ESP
• No scientific evidence
• Does science know all?
Thought and Language
Outline of Lecture
• Mental Representation
• Methods of Problem Solving
• Heuristics and Biases
• Language

Concept
• A mental category that groups objects or events
– Chairs
– Flying
– Dogs
How are concepts stored?

• Analog – sensory correspondence to features of the stimuli
– E.g. Pumpkin Pie
• Symbolic – not sensory but meaningful
Symbolic Representations
• Prototype: an especially representative example of a concept- Qui k thi k of a f uit

• Exemplar: actualy example
Schema
• Integrated collection of concepts concerning a topic or aspect of the world
• Can have schemas for anything
– Objects
– Situations
– People
Duncker's Candle Problem

• Using only the objects shown in the picture, mount the candle to the wall
Why study representations?

• One reason: can affect problem solving
• Functional Fixedness: failure to use familiar objects in novel ways
Problem Solving
• Algorithms:


Problem-solving strategies that guarantee a solution. May be time-consuming.
Exp. Read every newspaper and call every police department
Heuristics:
Promising problem-solving strategies that don't guarantee a solution. Often faster.
Why do we use heuristics?

• Information processing constraints: we can only process so much info at one time (working memory)
• Moti atio al Co st ai ts: e do ’t al a s a t to do the e est just good e ough)
Availability Heuristic
• Use ease with which instances come to mind to estimate probability
•
Exp: which is more common reason for death?
– Diabetes or homicide?
– Tornado or lightning?
– Shark attack or falling airplane parts?
Availability Heuristic
• Example: how many words are there in English that could fit in:
– __ __ __ __ __ I N G
– __ __ __ __ __ __ N __
Consensus heuristic
• Assume others think like us
• When asked how others think, we use ourselves as a guide
Example of False Consensus
Barack Obama second term election
False Consensus Effect

Anchoring Effect
• The tendency to use the initial number as an anchor when making a judgment
• Exp:
– Exp: How long is Mississippi river?

– 500 Miles?
– 5000 Miles?
Anchoring Effect Can also have effect with non-numerical judgments.

Which car do you prefer?
Car A Car B
Stylish Expensive
Good Gas Mil Fair Service
Fair Service Good Gas Mil
Expensive Stylish
Laws of Sympathetic Magic

• Law of contagion
• Law of similarity
Law of contagion
• o e i o ta t, al a s i o ta t
• Ex: apple juice.
– Bug in bottom of first cup
– Drink second cup?
Law of Similarity
• Image = object
Melted chocolate looks like poop
Confirmation Bias
• The tendency to search for information that confirms original hypotheses
• Exp: Told story of Hannah
– ½ poor background
– ½ well-to-do


• Different academic promise
The essentials: what makes language language?

• Phonemes: the smallest units of sound in spoken language
• Exp: boy versus toy is one phoneme difference
• Humans can produce 100
• English uses 45
• Babies babble all phonemes at six months
• By one year start to limit
• Other animals have different phonemes
Syntax
• Internal structure of a sentence
• All languages have rules for how sentences are arranged – a basic part of language
• I E glish e eed a ou a d a e Ia .
• B o a’s a ea
• B o a’s aphasia
Semantics
• The meaning of a word or sentence
• Morphemes – smallest unit of meaning walk v. walking
• Semantics V. Syntax:
• loud eat haught lue . I toda s hool go.
Pragmatics
• The way that language conveys meaning indirectly
• E.g. a I ask ou a uestio ?
• E.g. Do ou k o he e the est oo is?
Innate or learned?
• Empiricism: we learn syntax (behaviorists)
• Nativism: crucial parts of language are innate
• All humans learn language: ways our brains are constructed
Learning language is innate

1. Children from different cultures go through similar stages of language development
2. Children over generalize
3. Child e do ’t need correction to learn rules
4. Children in groups will form own language
5. Infants derive linguistic rules automatically

Other Animals and Language

• Apes can learn hundreds of signs and can communicate with them effectively
– Do not use language innately
– Can they be generative?
• Dolphins and language
• Elephants and language
LECTURE NOTES FOR SECTION 1 OF CLASS END HERE

Consciousness
• Our Ongoing Awareness of Our Thoughts and Feelings
Conscious versus Unconscious Tasks

• Difference: require conscious attention or not
• Exp: learning to drive a car
• Ca do a u o s ious as lo g as the do ’t i terfere
• More than one conscious is hard=
• Stroop task
Why does stroop effect happen?

• Activation of the names of words happens unconsciously and automatically (without intent)
• Conflict between two different things which are activated
• Unconscious processes are out of our awareness
• Thus, there are things going on in our heads that we don’t know are there
Freud
• Conscious: in the spotlight of awareness
• Preconscious: can be easily brought into awareness
• Unconscious: banned from awareness. Suppressed
Subliminal Priming
• Activating thoughts or feelings without conscious awareness
• Bargh. Old people study.
– Aggression study
• Painting preference study
Function of Subliminal Mind

• Our brains have more to do than CNS mind can handle
– Subliminal mind picks up slack
• Subliminal mind as pattern detector
– Learn card game study
– Poster preference study
Altered States of Consciousness


• Sleeping
• Dreams
• Hypnosis
• Meditation
• Drugs and Alcohol
Falling Asleep
• Thoughts become hazy
• React less to external stimuli
• Muscles relax
• Body temp, heart rate, and blood pressure slowly drop
• Level of serotonin in brain increases
Sleep stages and brain waves

• Awake: Low-voltage, high-frequency beta waves
• Drowsy: Alpha waves prominent
• Stage 1 Sleep: Theta waves prominent
• Stage 2 Sleep: Sleep spindles and mixed EEG activity
• Slow wave sleep
(stage 3 and stage 4 sleep)
Progressively more delta waves (stage 4 shown)
• REM sleep
Low-voltage, high-frequency waves
Stage One
• Hypongenic sleep
• Feel a gentle falling or floating
• 5-10 minutes
• Wo ’t thi k ou ere asleep if a oke
Stage Two
• Mi or oises o ’t ake ou, ut still relati el eas to a ake
• 20 minutes
Stages Three and Four

• Breathing and pulse have slowed


• Hard to awaken
• Deep Sleep
• Slow wave sleep
Stage 5
• REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
• Increase in heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen consumption (similar to waking state)
• Heightened cerebral activity
• Muscle paralysis
• Dreaming
• 20-40 minutes in early night, up to an hour later
REM sleep throughout the life span
Normal sleep cycle

• Awake, stage 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM
• REM first occurs 90 minutes after falling asleep
• Naps best if get a full cylcle
Normal Sleep Cycle
Why do we Sleep?
• Restoration function
• Adaptive Process
• Facilitating learning
Restoration Function
• Recover from work done when animal was awake
• More exercise = more SWS
• Tired if deprived of SWS
• No REM = anxious and irritable
• REM re ou d
• Psychosis (long term deprivation)
Sleep as Adaptive


• “a e e erg at ight he a ’t get food
• Not sleepi g a lot if hu ted
Sleeping disorders
• Sleep apnea
• Narcolepsy
• REM behavior disorder
Dreams
• What Do We Dream About?
• 64% of dreams associated with sadness, fear, or anger
– Aggressive acts outnumbered friendly acts by 2:1
• 18% of dreams were happy or exciting
• 29% of dreams were in color
What Do We Dream About?

• Being naked when others are not or in an unusual place
• Falling
• Loose or falling teeth
• Taking an exam (being unprepared)
• Being chased (being unable to move quickly)
• Flying
• Lucid Dreams (realize we are dreaming)
Why do we dream?
Freud’s I terpretatio of Drea s

• Freud believed that dreams expressed wishes, often disguised
• Manifest Content
– Conscious dream content that is remembered after awakening
• Latent Content
– The unconscious, uncensored meaning of a dream


• Believed that symbols in dreams are universal
• Dreams are the key to the unconscious
• Wrote book on interpretation of dreams
Activation-synthesis hypothesis
• During REM sleep there are random bursts of nerve cell activity
• Dreams are the way the mind makes sense of those bursts. Tells a story.
• Explains why dreams can seem so random
Epiphenomenal Memory Theory

• Right Brain encodes the days memories during REM sleep
– Links memories to old ones
– Reestablishes neural pathways
• Left brain (language center) tries to make sense of what right brain doing. Tells stories
• Stories are dreams
Kar i’s e peri e t

• Participants learned a new skill
– 1/3 let sleep a full night
– 1/3 interrupted REM sleep
– 1/3 interrupted SWS
• Tested for new skill in morning
Consciousness-Altering Drugs
Drugs and Dependence

• Psychoactive Drug
– A chemical that alters perceptions, thoughts, moods, or behaviors
• Physical Dependence
– A physiological addiction in which more of drug is needed to prevent symptoms of withdrawal
• Psychological Dependence
– A condition in which drugs are needed to maintain a sense of well-being or relief from negative
emotions.
Classifying drugs
• Depressants slow down activity in the CNS.
• Stimulants speed up activity in the CNS.
• Psychedelic drugs disrupt normal thought processes.
• Narcotics relieve pain and cause euphoria.
Depressants
• Slow down the Central Nervous System (CNS)


– alcohol
– barbiturates
– tranquilizers
– sedatives
How Depressants Work

Barbiturates, sedatives
Alcohol Effect
• Death
• Unconsciousness
• Loss of motor control
• Clouded judgement
• Reduced motor skills
• Reduced inhibitions
Long term alcohol effects

• Damage to the liver
• Damage to the brain
• Fetal damage
Stimulants
• Speed up the CNS
– amphetamines
– cocaine
– nicotine
– caffeine
How Stimulants Work


Cocaine: reduce dopamine reuptake->pleasurable sensations, amphetamines: reduce norepinephrine reuptake->
alertness, activity
Cocaine
• Low dosage effects: intense short-term euphoria. Can be rebound
• High dosage effects: paranoia, irregular heartbeat, death
• Highly addictive
• Nasal membrane damage possible with long term use
Hallucinogens
• Include LSD, PCP, mescaline, marijuana
• Cause sensory distortions, hallucinations
• Effects of Hallucinogens on the Brain
• All have different effects
LSD and psilocybin

• Molecules that mimic serotonin
• Causes marked visual hallucinations, sensory distortions
• Induces powerful emotional feelings
• Negative hallucinations and emotions possible
• Flashbacks – fact or fiction? No biological evidence but theoretically could happen
Ecstasy (MDMA)
• Causes the release of serotonin and blocks the reuptake
• Effects dopamine system as well
• Causes euphoria
• Deaths li ked to i pure drug
• Possible long term harm to serotonin and dopamine systems
Marijuana (THC)
• Relieves anxiety, inhibitions
• Can fine-tune perception
• Can cause paranoid thoughts
• Increases appetite
• Reduces memory performance and motivation
• Takes weeks to metabolize
• No deaths, not physically addicting

Narcotics
• Reduce pain, cause euphoria
– heroin
– morphine
– opium
– codeine
How Narcotics Work
Heroin, morphine
Heroin
• Produces powerful euphoria, deadens pain
• Highly physiologically addictive
• Causes death in large doses
Learning
Defining Learning
• A change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience.
Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Observational Learning
Watso ’s E tre e E iro e talis

• Gi e e a doze health i fa ts, ell-for ed, a d o spe ial orld to ri g the up i , a d I’ll guara tee
to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist,
merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,
o atio s, a d ra e of his a estors.
– John Broadus Watson, 1928
Pa lo ’s Apparatus
• Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva
samples
– They do not cause the dog discomfort

Before Conditioning (classical conditioning)

• Before Stimuli Are Paired
– Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits Unconditioned Response (UR)
• Meat leads to salivation
– Neutral stimulus (NS) elicits no particular response
• Bell leads to orienting response only
During and After Conditioning

• Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus (NS) is Paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus
– Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered
– Happens a number of times (trials)
• After Several Trials
– When Bell rings, dog salivates
– The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR)
Classical Conditioning
• Generalization: when the classically- conditioned reaction occurs to similar stimuli.
Classical Conditioning Terms

• Acquisition
– Formation of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
• Extinction
– Elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus
• Spontaneous Recovery
– Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period
Classical conditioning links horror movie music to fear
Learning Factors
• Number of pairings
• Reliability of CS in predicting UCS
• Occurrence of CS just before UCS

Timing of CS before UCS
Prepared Classical Conditioning

• Organisms seem predisposed to make certain associations
e. g., nausea creates taste aversions
Exp: drinking
Exp: Garcia
• Gar ia’s rats
1. Bright light → Shocks
2. Bright Light → Nausea
3. Funny Water → Shocks
4. Funny Water → Nausea
Conditions 1 and 4 easiest for conditioning to occur
Classical conditioning and Ads
Classical Conditioning and Drug Overdose

Drug -> body prepares itself
Drug+ set -> body prepares itself
Set -> body prepares itself
New setting -> overdose (body unprepared)
Operant Conditioning
• Learning associations between actions and consequences
Thorndike and Puzzle Boxes

• Thorndike
• Cats put into puzzle boxes
– Slightly hungry
– Food outside


• Time to escape decreased over attempts
• Behaviors that worked to escape were repeated
– Other behaviors decreased
Operant Conditioning
Types of Reinforcement
• Positive Reinforcement
adds good things
Examples: Money, Praise, Food
• Negative Reinforcement
Taking bad things away
Examples: removing pain, toothache, hunger
Reinforcement & Punishment
Increase behavior Decreases behavior

Add stimulus Positive reinforcement Positive punishment
Remove stimulus Negative reinforcement Negative punishment
Shaping
• Rewarding successively closer approximations of a desired behavior
• Useful for teaching new behaviors
• Exp: puppy paper training
Rate of reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement: reward after every response
• Random reinforcement: only sometimes reward
• Random better
• Exp: kids and temper tantrums, icky boyfriends/girlfriends
Reinforcement Schedules
• Fixed Ratio
• Variable Ratio
• Fixed Interval
• Variable Interval
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

• Reward after a set number of responses


• Exp: Frequent shopper at Subway
Variable Ratio Reinforcement

• Reward after a varying number of responses
• Exp: local bakery throws in free muffin every once in a while
Fixed Interval Reinforcement

• Reward after a specific time interval
• Exp: Reward at the end of a half hour of studying
Variable Interval Reinforcement

• Reward after a variable time interval
• Exp: Reward at the end of a 15 minutes, then 10 minutes, then 25
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Steeper lines mean higher response rates
• Ratio schedules produce higher response rates than interval schedules
Extinction
• More rapid to fixed ratio than variable ratio reinforcement
• Thus, best is:
• An example :
Observational Learning
• Learning without direct reinforcement

Memory
Memory
• An Information-Processing Model
• The Sensory Register
• Short-Term Memory
• Long-Term Memory
• Autobiographical Memory
• Biological basis of Memory
Information-Processing Model of Memory
Stimulus-> sensory memory ->(attention) short term memory (STM)-> (encoding) Long term [goes back to retrieval]
(forgetting) (Forgetting)
• Forgetting can occur from any memory stage

• Retrieval puts information from LTM into STM
• Moving information from Sensory memory to STM requires attention
• Moving information from STM to LTM requires proper encoding
Sensory Memory
• Visual sensory memory (the icon)
• Auditory sensory memory (the echo)
– Very large capacity
– Very short duration:
• about 250 ms. for the icon
• 1-2 sec. for the echo
• Exp: Repeating after friend asks if you are listening
Short Term Memory (STM)

• Limited capacity -- 7 plus or minus 2 chunks
Chunk: a meaningful unit
Examples:
• A single letter (S)
• A group of letters (FBI)
• A group of words (Four score and seven years ago)
• Duration of 20-30 sec., due to limited capacity & interference


• Also alled orki g e or
Long-Term Memory
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
• Forgetting
• Reconstruction
Long Term Memory (LTM)

• Huge capacity
• Potentially long duration (decades)
• Organized by meaning
• Procedural Memory: Memory for motor skills learned through practice i.e. how to ride a bike
• Declarative Memory: Memory for facts & personal experiences
Elaborative Rehearsal
• Subjects were shown lists of words
• Asked to use one of three strategies:
– Visual: Is the word printed in capital letters?
– Acoustic: Does the word rhyme with _____?
– Semantic: Does the word fit the sentence _________?
Least popular to most popular
Semantic Network
Improving Memory


• Organization: Memory greatly enhanced by actively organizing material as it is learned
– Because of semantic networks
• Spaced Practice: Shorter practice sessions spaced widely apart; more effective than massed practice
• Mnemonic Devices:
– Strategies that can increase memory, esp. for material that is not easily organized;
– Impose an artificial structure on items that would otherwise be hard to remember
Mnemonic Devices
• Acronyms:
Representing each item with a single letter that fits into a familiar word or phrase
• Example:
– ROYGBIV
Factors Affecting Retrieval

• Serial Position
• Environmental Context
• State-Dependence
• Stress and Anxiety
The Serial-Position Effect

• Subjects memorized lists of words
• Recall immediate (yellow line) or delayed (green line)
• Primacy: Good recall of first items on list most important
• Recency: Good recall for last items
Most participants had primacy: recall first items on list
Also found recency: remember best what was saw last; went away after 30 seconds due to short term memory i.e.
taking tests
Environmental Context
• Becomes encoded along with the material being remembered
• Reinstating context often increases memory
• Exp: taking test in classroom, revisiting your old school
Context-Dependent Memory
• Scuba divers learned words either on land or underwater
• Tested for recall on land or underwater
• Recall was better in context where words had been learned
People learned best where they learned
State-Dependent Memory
• Internal body states are encoded with memories
• Memories easier to retrieve when these body states are entered again

Stress and Memory
Downward curve
Moderate stress is good, do better than low anxiety
Huge amounts of stress are distracting
Do enough to get prephirel nervous system to get going
Forgetting
• Failure to Encode: Failing to put material into LTM; Common in "forgetting" people's names
• Decay: Fading of memory through disuse; Impossible to distinguish from permanent retrieval failure
• Interference: Confusion or entanglement of similar memories
• Motivated Forgetting: Repression of memories, usually to avoid dealing with traumatic experiences
• Retrieval Failure: Inability to find the necessary memory cue for retrieval; Sometimes temporary
Tip of the Tongue

• Example of retrieval failure
• The feeling of being on the verge of recalling something
• Often you can say what letter it starts with, or how many syllables it has
Interference and Forgetting
Proactive interference: experimental control

Retroactive interference: experimental control [thing we studied second interferes with what we studied first]
Reconstruction


• Piecing memory together from a few highlights, then filling in details based on what we think should have
happened
• *All* memory is reconstructive to a degree
• Explains why people disagree about what happened so often
• All memory is reconstructed
•
Eye Witness Testimony

• Relies greatly on reconstructive memory
• Influential in trials
• Accuracy is variable terrible
Witness beliefs about their own testimony over time
False Memories
False Memories
• ½ of participants told to imagine themselves doing certain things
• All parti ipa ts rought a k later a d asked if the re e er doi g those thi gs
Autobiographical Memory
• Flashbulb Memories
– Highly vivid and enduring memories, typically for events that are dramatic and emotional
• Childhood Amnesia
– The inability of most people to recall events from before the age of three or four
• Hindsight Bias
– The tendency to think after an event that we knew in advance what was going to happen

Consciousness and Memory

• Implicit memory:
Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered
information on current thoughts or actions
• Explicit memory:
Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or item of information
i.e. hippocampus damage & new memories
Biology and Memory

• The basal ganglia and the cerebellum implicit processes
• The frontal lobes explicit processes
Semantic – Left
Episodic – Right
Motivation
Motivation
• The requirements and desires that lead animals to behavior
Maslow's Pyramid of Needs
• Needs arranged hierarchy

• Low-level needs must be meet before trying to satisfy higher-level needs
• Esteem: Status, respect, power
• Self-a tualizatio : Fulfill o e’s pote tial
It is hard to focus on higher goals when hungry
Basic Human Motives

• Hunger and Eating
• Sexual Motivation
• Belongingness

The Hunger-Regulation Cycle
• When blood glucose is low, people become hungry ou do ’t eat

• Food raises glucose, reduces hunger and eating
The Hypothalamus
• The ventromedial hypothalamus inhibits hunger when blood sugar is high
• The lateral hypothalamus stimulates eating when blood sugar is low
Weight
• People like fatty foods
• Set Point: a body weight that is easiest to maintain
Weight
• Metabolism: the rate at which food is converted to energy
• Gain weight:
– eat more
– more fat cells
– Slow metabolism
– Higher set point
• Lose weight
– Eat less
– Same number of fat cells
– Exercise more
– Faster metabolism
E ol i g as spe ies, ere ’t the sa e a ou t of food o pared to o

Evolutionary ancestors had a preference for fatty food and gained weight/ more likely to survive
Evolved into a preference for fatty food
Right now have an epidemic for obesity
Obesity
• 20% above ideal body weight
• 56% overweight; 20% obese
• Someone who is 40 percent overweight is twice as likely to die prematurely as an average-weight person.
• Obese people often face prejudice
• Feelings of rejection, shame, or depression are common
• Do ’t differ i perso alit hara teristi s
• Mostly genetic –several dozen genes
– Affect appetite
– Affect metabolic rate
– Affect satiation
• Careful diet changes and exercise


Do diets work?
• Ironic processes
– Try to not think of a white bear
– Two processes: distract and search
– Rebound occurs
• Effects on dieting
When other goals affect eating

• Eating disorders
Eating Disorders
• Anorexia Nervosa: an intense fear of being fat, feel fat even when emaciated, loss of 25% of body weight
• Bulimia: episodic, uncontrollable eating followed by purging
Eating Disorders
• Vast majority female 7/1
• 86% report onset of illness by the age of 20
• There are at least 8,000,000 or more victims in this country alone
• believe they would be happier and more successful if they were thin
• Society encourages these beliefs
• Society encourages their behavior
Media Images of thin women
Warning signs
• Deliberate self-starvation with weight loss
• Fear of gaining weight
• Refusal to eat
• Denial of hunger
• Constant exercising
• Sensitivity to cold
• Absent or irregular periods
• Loss of scalp hair
• A self-perception of being fat when the person is really too thin
REPERCUSSIONS
• PHYSICAL REPERCUSSIONS FROM ONE OR BOTH DISEASES
• Malnutrition -Dehydration -Serious heart, kidney, and liver damage -Tooth/gum erosion


• PSYCHOLOGICAL REPERCUSSIONS FROM BOTH DISEASES
• Depression -Shame and guilt -Impaired family and social relationships -Mood swings
Ideal Body Image

• Which image is ideal for your sex?
• Which comes closest to your own body?
Sexual Motivation
Gender differences in Reproduction

• Differential Investment
• Lead to different motives
• Men:
– as many as possible
– Fertile age
• Women:
– as wealthy as possible
– Find a mate for life
Sex Differences in Marriage Age

• Men tend to marry younger women
– This age differe e i reases ith a ’s age
• Women tend to marry men who are slightly older
– This changes little with age
Gender difference in interest in casual sex
Problems with evolutionary account?

• What we say and what we do are different things
• Everyone likes sex (female orgasm)
• “o ietal e pla atio s of o e ’s eha ior


• Ancestors had little choice
Belongingness Motives
• All Humans, across cultures, belong to small groups that involve face to face interaction
• Need for Affiliation
– Desire to establish and maintain social contacts
• Need for Intimacy
– Desire for close relationships characterized by open and intimate communication
• Self-Disclosure
– Sharing of intimate details about oneself to another person
Lack of belonging
• Most traumatic event: death of close other
• Mental health
– Depression
– Anxiety
• Physical Health
– Weakened immune system
– Men dying after wife
– More visits to health center
– Men are very likely to die right after wife dies bc nobody left to talk to or open up with, however women
still have connections even if husband dies
• Likelihood of suicide
– lack of social integration.
– More multiple and strong relationships = less likely to commit suicide
Esteem Motives
• Achievement Motivation
– A strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel
• Need for Power
– A strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over other people
Intrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation
– Wanting to engage in an activity for its own sake; for yourself
• Extrinsic Motivation
– Wanting to engage in an activity for external rewards; for others
–


– Payment and Intrinsic Motivation
College students had 3 sessions with puzzles

• “o e ere paid duri g the se o d sessio , others ere ’t
• Time spent on puzzles during breaks was covertly recorded
• If people are paid for a task they already enjoy, they may lose interest in it

Emotion
Four Components of Emotion
Physiological processes, expressive behavior, cognitive appraisal, emotion
The Physiological Component
The Autonomic Nervous System
Polygraph Tests as Lie Detectors

• Assumes that lying leaves distinctive physiological clues
• Empirical support is weak and conflicting
• Test is inadmissible in most courts
• It is illegal to use for most job screening
False positi es: tells us so e od is l i g ut the ’ e eall not\
-arousal but is really just the question freaking them out
The Expressive Component
Facial EMG Studies of Emotion

• Electrodes placed on the face record activity in various muscles
• Positive emotions increase activity in cheeks
• Negative emotions increase activity in forehead and brow area
The Cognitive Component
Counterfactual thinking
• What could have been
• Examined pictures of Olympic medal winners
• Happier if won bronze than silver
• I agi i g hat ould’ e ee f o tal lo es i.e. issi g pla e 30 seconds
• How we think about something influences emotiosn

Theories of Emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

• Emotion originates in the thalamus brain
• Bod ph siologi al s ste s a d Mi d e otio al e pe ie e a e i depe de tl a ti ated at the same
time
James-Lange Theory of Emotion

• Emotion arises from physiological arousal
– Happiness comes from smiling
– Sadness comes from crying
Sensory Feedback
• Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
– The hypothesis that changes in facial expression can produce corresponding changes in emotion.
Facial Feedback
• Strack
• Hold Pencil in mouth while doing task
• Mimic frowning or smiling
• Measure mood
Mood After Manipulation
Smiled: good mood

Frown: bad mood
Two-factor Theory of Emotion

• Physiological arousal
– Sweaty palms
– Increased heart rate
– rapid breathing
• Cognitive Label
– Attribute source of arousal to a cause
• To have an emotion, both factors are required
Dutto a d A o ’s stud


Attractive experiment
men were more attracted after crossing the bridge: misattribution of arousal
Four Components of Emotion
Emotion
• A state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals,
subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action.
Emotion and the brain
Amygdala: responsible for assessing threat; damage to amygdala results in abonormality in processing fear;
scrutinized information for its emotional important
Cerebral cotex generates more complete picture it can override signals sent by amygdala
Hormones and Emotion

• When experiencing an intense emotion, two hormones are released.
– Epinephrine
– Norepinephrine
• Results in increased alertness and arousal.
• At high levels, it can create the sensation of being out of control emotionally.
Facial Expressions
The same facial expressions of basic emotions are found across cultures and in totally blind and deaf children
Basic Emotions
• Fear
• Anger
• Disgust
• Surprise


• Happiness
• Sadness
• Contempt
Culture and Emotional Variation

• Culture determines what people feel angry, sad, lonely, happy, ashamed or disgusted about.
• “o e ultu es do ’t ha e o ds fo e otio s that see u i e sal to othe s.
- Tahitian and sadness
• Some cultures have words for specific emotions unknown to other cultures.
Emotional Leakage
• Much emotional meaning is communicated nonverbally.
• Leakage refers to communicative incidents in which nonverbal signals betray the true content of contradictory
verbal messages
Emotional Leakage
Facial Expressions
Emotional Leakage
Gaze
• Look at interaction partner in face 70-75% of the time
• Less conveys negative emotions
• More conveys positive emotions
Emotional Leakage
Gesture
• self-touching actions (e.g. touching face, gripping hands) indicate intense emotions: depression, elation, anxiety
Emotional Leakage
Touch
• Affection, love
• Fear
• But also power and status
• conveys power; higher position than they are
Emotion and Gender Overview

• Physiology and intensity.
• “e siti it to othe people’s e otio s.
• Cognitions.


• Expressiveness.
– Factors which affect expressiveness.
• Emotion work.
Gender -- Physiology and intensity

– Women recall emotional events more intensely and vividly than do men.
– Men experience emotional events more intensely than do women.
– Conflict is physiologically more upsetting for men than women.
• Possible reasons for differences in physiology and intensity.
• Males autonomic nervous system is more reactive than females.
• Men are more likely to rehearse angry thoughts which maintains anger.
• Women are more likely to ruminate which maintains depression.
Gender –“e siti it to Othe People’s E otio s

• Fa to s hi h i flue e o e’s a ilit to ead e otio al sig als:
– The sex of the receiver.
– How well the sender and receiver know each other.
– How expressive the sender is.
– Who has the power.
– Stereotypes and expectations.
Gender -- Cognitions
• Men and women appear to differ in the types of every day events that provoke their anger.
• Women become angry over issues related to their partners disregard.
• Men become angry over damage to property or problems with strangers.
• Gender -- Expressiveness
• In North America women:
– Smile more than men.
– Gaze at listeners more.
– Have more emotionally expressive faces.
– Use more expressive body movements.
– Touch others more.
– Acknowledge weakness and emotions more.
• Compare to women, men only express anger to strangers more.
Gender -- Emotion Work.

• Women work hard at appearing warm, happy and making sure others are happy.
• Men work hard at persuading others they are stern, aggressive and unemotional.
• Why?
– Gender roles and status.

Happiness
Mean 6.75; people tend to say they are happy
Who is Happy?
• Age
– People think it will play a role but does not
• No Gender differences
Marriage and Happiness
Why are married people happier?

• Two way street
• Marriage reduces loneliness
• Only true for happy marriages
– Unhappily married very unhappy
• 3 out of 4 Americans – spouse is best friend
• 4 in 5 would marry them again
Mood and Cognition
Mood and Cognition

• Encoding and recall better for mood congruent information
• Exp: mood induction, list of words, memory for words
• Exp: depressed people
Mood Congruency Bias

• Exp: given products to rate
– ½ given cookies and juice
– Rated products better
• E p: All thi gs o side ed, ho happ a e ou ith ou life?
– ½ fou d o e i Xe o a hi e
– Rated self as happier in general
Mood and use of Heuristics


• Happy – all is good. Can coast
• Sad – something wrong – must focus
• Exp: mood induction (happy, sad, neutral)
• Read a out Ji got aught heati g
• ½ gi e ste eot pe i fo atio Ji is stude t athlete
Mood and use of Heuristics
Use stereotypes to make judgments

Sad people do not use stereotype about jim
Developmental Psychology
The Nature-Nurture Debate
The debate over the extent to which behavior is determined by genetics and the environment
Nature or Nurture?
• Studying adopted children allows researchers to compare correlations between the traits of
adopted children and those of their biological and adoptive relatives.
Nature or Nurture?
• If identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins, then the increased similarity must be due to
genetic differences.
Nature or Nurture
Investigators have also studied twins who were separated early in life and reared apart.
Any similarities in traits between them should be primarily genetic.
Genetic Building Blocks
Genetic Building Blocks

• Chromosomes: Rod-like structures, found in all biological cells, that contain DNA molecules
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The complex molecular structure that carries genetic information.
• Genes: The biochemical units of heredity that govern the development of an individual life.

Prenatal Development: Nature and Nurture from the start

• Egg and sperm: only 23 chromosomes (not 23 pairs)
• Egg biggest cell in Body (pinprick)
• Life: sperm meeting egg
• Many sperm enter vagina. Only one can reach egg
• Natural Selection
• Nature/Nurture
• Egg changes to be impenetrable
Human Reproduction - II
Zygote
• Has 23 pairs of almost identical chromosomes
• One from mom, one from dad. Each with genetic code
• If they differ. Who wins?
• Gene Dominance: When a person possesses differing genes for the same trait, one is often dominant over the
other
Gene Dominance
Blastocyst
• Once formed, cell begins to divide
• After 3 days, 60-70 cells
• Now called Blastocyst
Prenatal development divided into trimesters

• First: Zygote, embryo, Fetus
• Second: body parts and neurons in place
• Third: growth
The developing fetus

External stimulation
Can the fetus learn?

• What is habituation?
Learned what something is
Can the fetus learn?

• Sandman: buzzing instrument to measure heartbeat
• Heartbeat would speed up
• Habituation occurred
• Change of frequency caused increase in heartbeat to return
• Able to discriminate and learn
Teratogens: When the environment hurts

• Substances:
– Alcohol
– Cigarettes
• Diseases
– AIDS
– Rubella (German measles)
• Mo ’s st ess le el
– Babies with attention difficulties
– Anxiety
– Unusual social behavior
– Why? Flight or flight response draws blood away from fetus
Positive Environments
• If babies can learn in womb then possible to give a head start
• Babies exposed to classical music related to intelligence
The newborn: a work in progress

• Human babies much less developed than other animals
• Ca ’t alk, little us le o t ol
• Brains are not developed (size of birth canal)
• Need care for a long time
• Humans attracted to babies


The Developing Brain
• At birth, neurons are in place, but few connections
• During first year, axons grow, dendrites multiply, connections form
• Over next few years, active connections strengthen
Sensory Capacities
• Born sensitive to range of female voices
• Like smell of lactating women (even if bottle fed)
The Newborn
• Reflexes
– Permanent
• Swallowing, breathing, coughing, blinking
– Temporary
• Palmar Grasp, Babinski, sucking, rooting
Temperament
Characteristic ways of responding to the environment that vary from infant to infant
Temperament
• “o e a ies app oa h a d so e a oid
• Fast prenatal heartbeat – more fearful as kid
• Extraversion – highly heritable
• Happi ess good dispositio
• Tend to last a lifetime
Physical and Motor Development: getting control

• Growing:
– 50% first year
– 75% second year ½ size final growth
• Order of muscle control
– Head
– Trunk
– Arms
– Legs
– Milestones in Motor Development
Perceptual development
• 2-3 months depth
• 2-3 months whole objects
• Hearing comes quicker – right away
Piaget’s Theo


• Assimilation
Fitting new objects, events, etc. into an existing schema
• Accommodation
Modifying a schema to fit new events, objects, etc.
Changing Schemas of the Earth

• From preschool through about the 5th grade, children gradually assimilate and then accommodate the spherical-
earth concept into their thinking
Piaget’s “tages
• Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
• Preoperations (2-7 years)
• Concrete Operations (7-12 years)
• Formal Operations (12 and up)
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Stages
Birth – 2 years
– Infant learns through concrete actions: looking, touching, putting things
in the mouth, sucking, grasping
– Thi ki g o sists of oo di ati g se so i fo atio ith odil o e e ts
– Major accomplishment is
object permanence
Piaget’s Theo of Cog iti e “tages

• 2 – 7 years
– Language and symbolic thought develop
– Still lack the cognitive abilities necessary for understanding abstract principles and mental operations
– Egocentric
– Cannot grasp conservation
Piaget’s Theo of Cog iti e “tages

• 7–12 years
– Thinking is still grounded in concrete experiences and concepts, but children can now understand:
• Conservation
• Reversibility
• Cause and effect
Co se atio of Li uid Task

Piaget’s “tages of Cognitive Development

12 or 13 to adulthood
• Beginning of abstract reasoning
• Can reason about situations not personally experienced
• Can think about the future
• Can search systematically for solutions
• Can draw logical conclusions
Can infants add and subtract?

• Show the baby the same array many times
• Show the array with an element missing (shown)
– or one added
• Surprise indicates that her or his expectations were violated
The Infant as Intuitive Physicist

• Infants look longer at objects that seem to violate physical laws than those that do not
– Surprise indicates that their expectations were violated
– They must know what is physically plausible for this to occur
Speed of Information Processing

• Response times decrease from 7 - 12 years of age
– Consistent across several different types of tasks
• This may be due to the biological maturation of the brain
– Increased myelination of axons
Social and Emotional Development The child in the world

Humans are very social- needing connections, belonging
Touching
• Touched newborns grow and develop faster correlational data
• Reduced right frontal EEG activity – associated with depression
• Better immune functioning
• Exp: touched preemies 15 min/ 3 X a day.
– Grew 15% faster.
– Were more alert.


– Discharged faster
Visual Preferences in Newborns

• Infants spend more time looking at patterns than solids
• Infants spend the most time looking at a drawing of a human face
• Is this just preference for complexity?
Newborns and Human Faces

• Infants were shown blank shape, a proper face, or scrambled facial features
– proper face and scrambled face have same complexity
• Infants looked more intensely at the proper face
Social Development
Attachment: A deep emotional bond that an infant develops with its primary caretaker
Primary Drives Theory: Attachment results from associating the satisfaction of primary drives with the being who
satisfies them.
Ha lo ’s “tud
• Tested primary drives theory in Rhesus monkeys
• 2 surrogate mothers:
– a wire surrogate that fed the infant
– a cloth surrogate that did not feed the infant
Ha lo ’s “tud
Ha lo ’s “tud
Results:
Despite the wire surrogate being a source of food, the infant monkeys attached to the cloth surrogate mother
Separation Anxiety
• Separation anxiety is a fear reaction when the primary caregiver is absent
• Seen in all cultures
• Corresponds with development of object permanence
E ikso ’s Eight “tages - I


• Trust vs. Mistrust
– Infancy (0-1 year)
• Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
– Toddler (1-2 years)
• Initiative vs. Guilt
– Preschool (3-5 years)
• Industry vs. Inferiority
– Elementary School (6-12 years)
Trust vs. Mistrust

• Ba ’s fi st ea
– Challenge:
Baby depends on others to provide necessities.
– If needs are not met, child may never develop essential trust of others.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• Toddler
– Challenge:
Young child must learn to be independent without feeling too ashamed or uncertain about his or her
actions.
Initiative vs. Guilt

• Preschool age
– Challenge:
Child acquires new physical and mental skills, but must also learn to control impulses.
– Danger lies in developing too strong a sense of guilt over his or her wishes and fantasies.
Industry vs. Inferiority

• School age
– Challenge:
Child learns to make things, use tools, acquire the skills for adult life.
– Children who fail lessons of mastery and competence may come out of this stage feeling inadequate and
inferior.
Styles of Attachment
• Strange Situation Test: A parent-i fa t sepa atio a d eu io p o edu e that is staged i a la o ato to test
the security of a hild’s atta h e t
• Secure Attachment: baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by
reunion
Ai s o th’s Vie
• Securely attached kids use caretaker as a secure base
• Anxious - Ambivalent infants first seek and then avoid caretaker. Cry and cling.
• Avoidant infants are not attached at all


• Parental responsiveness highest in securely attached kids, lowest in avoidant kids, and inconsistent in
ambivalent kids.
Day Care Prevalence
Day Care Providers
Day Care Effects

• Hard to study because of confounds
• Most research: reasonable-quality day care does not significantly harm kids
• The positive effects of day care that do occur appear to be social
• Some positive cognitive effects for very low income kids in high quality day care.
• Day Care and Aggression
• Kids in over 30 hours of daycare a week show more aggression in kindergarten.
• 17% of those who are in daycare more than 30 hours versus 6%
• Aggressive acts include attention seeking
• That u h ti e at o k is tiring
Gender
• is ou a a o o a gi l?
• Boys more active than girls
• More active play with boys; gentler with girls
• Nature/nurture interaction
• Case of John/Joan
– Sex hormones in womb
• Kids learn gender roles before they learn gender stability
Gender Segregation at Playtime

• Four-year-olds spend three times as much time with same-sex playmates as opposite-sex playmates
• By age six, children spend 11 times as much time with same-sex playmates
Parenting Styles
Who’s i ha ge?

Authoritarian Parenting
Effects:
• Low intellectual performance
• Lack social skills
• Particularly harmful for boys
Permissive Parenting
Effects:
• Poor academic performance
• Drinking problems
• Promiscuous sex
Authoritative Parenting
Effects:
• Higher intellectual performance
• Independence
• Internalized moral standards
Adolescence
• Between two worlds
Adolescence vs. Puberty

• Adolescence:
From the Latin "Adolescere," meaning "to grow up"
• Puberty:
From the Latin "Pubescere," meaning "to grow hairy"
Adolescence vs. Puberty

• Adolescence:
The culturally-determined state between childhood and adulthood
• Puberty:
The onset of sexual maturity
Onset of Puberty
Milestones


• Menarche: A gi l’s fi st e st ual pe iod
• Spermarche: A o ’s fi st ejaculation
• Girls begin to store more fat
• Boys hearts grow bigger
• Girls get bigger in hips than shoulders
• Boys get bigger in shoulders than hips
Adolescent Growth Spurt

• At about age 13 for girls, 16 for boys, there is a final maturational growth spurt in height
Puberty and Body Image in Girls

• Girls who mature earlier than their peers are usually less satisfied with their size, weight, and figure.
Puberty and Body Image in Boys

• Boys who mature later than their peers have only temporary decreases in body image.
E ikso ’s Eight “tages - II

• Identity vs. Role confusion
– Adolescence (13-19 years)
• Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Adolescence
– Challenge: Identity crisis
Teenagers must decide who they are, what they are going to do, and what they hope to make of their
lives.
– Those who resolve the crisis will emerge with a strong identity, ready to plan for the future.
– Those who do not will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions.
Three kinds of problems

• Conflicts with parents
– Frequency: early adolescence
– Intensity: mid-adolescence
– Most often with moms and daughters
• Mood Swings
– By mid-teen years 1/3 are depressed
– Often report feeling lonely or nervous
• Risky Behavior (late adolescence)
Invisibility fable: idea that it is unlikely to happen-> risky behvaior

What Do Parents and Teenagers Fight About?
Adolescent Disengagement
• The proportion of time spent with the family decreases almost 3% per year
• Not true for time spent alone with parents
A ou t of ti e spe t ith o , dad, i iduall do ’t ha ge ut ti e ith fa il goes do sig ifi a tl
Adolescent Transformation
• Boys feel worse while in family settings from grades 5-8, then improve
• Girls feel worse while in family settings from grades 5-10
– improvement later
Imaginary Audience
The strong focus on self leads adolescents to feel that everyone else is focused on them as well
Personal Fable
Adolescents assume their thoughts and feelings are unique (no one has ever loved so deeply, etc.)
BIOLOGY and the Teen Brain

• Changes in the adolescent brain:
– Pruning of synapses, primarily in prefrontal cortex
– Myelinization
• Neurological changes may not be complete until early 20s
• May help explain why strong emotions of adolescent years can overwhelm rational decision making
Realistic view of adolescence

• Rate of violent crimes committed by adolescents has been dropping steadily since 1993
• Feelings self-esteem do not suddenly plummet after the age of 13 for either sex
• Very little change in narcissism levels over the decades
• “u e : Toda ’s tee age s a e o e se uall o se ati e tha thei pa e ts e e
Adulthood and Aging: The Continuously Changing Self

Subjective Age
• Younger people tend to feel older than they are
• Older people tend to feel younger than they are
• This effect is most pronounced in the oldest and youngest

Physical Changes
• 20-50 no huge changes in physical self
• Metabolism progressively slows down
• Eyes progressively deteriorate
• After 50 changes begin in organ functioning
• Why?
– Some changes inevitable – cells dividing a little like a photocopy
– Lack of exercise, bad diet, lack of meaningful activity
• Exercise slows physical decline dramatically
• Continued sexual activity common among those over 80
Menopause
• Menopause: The end of menstruation and fertility.
• Can be difficult physically – less female hormones
• Can be hard psychologically
• Some women – new lease on life
Cognition in adulthood
• Stable until 50
• At 50 loss of connections in brain starts to catch up with people
• By 60 most people slower on cognitive tasks
• Dramatic drop right before death terminal decline
Intelligence and Age

• Measures of fluid intelligence decline steadily through middle and late adulthood
– Inductive reasoning
– Spatial ability
• Measu es of stallized i tellige e e ai sta le i to the 0’s
– Verbal ability
– Numeric ability
Perception in Adulthood
• 50% of 65 and older have cataracts – clouding of lens
• By 50 high pitch sounds are hard to hear.
• By 50 background sounds are hard to block out
• Taste buds survive, but smell is affected (which affects taste)
How Good is Your Memory?

• Older people are consistently less confident of their memory than younger people.

E i kso ’s “tages
Stage Age
Trust vs. Mistrust 0-1
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 1-3
Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6
Industry vs. Inferiority 6-Puberty
Identity vs. Role Confusion Adolescence
Intimacy vs. Isolation Young Adult
Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle-Age
Integrity vs. Despair Old Age
Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Young adulthood
– Challenge:
The young adult must share himself or herself with another and learn to make commitments.
– People are not complete
until they are capable of intimacy.
Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Middle years
– Challenge:
Will the adult sink into complacency and selfishness, or experience generativity—creativity and
renewal?
Ego Integrity vs. Despair

• Late adulthood and old age
– Challenge:
As a person ages, he or she strives to reach the ultimate goals of wisdom, spiritual tranquility, and
acceptance of his or her life.
Le i so 's “easo s" of the Life C le

• Periods of change interspersed with periods of relative calm.
A gued that it is ’t phases that atte ut the ha ge (that is the hardest) of going from one thing to another in
comparison to erikson
Periods of change that is hard in life
Life Course in Women

1) No children phase


2) Starting a family-preschool phase
3) School-age phase
4) Adolescent phase
5) Launching phase
6) Postparental phase
The M th of a Midlife C isis"

• 10,000 adults filled out a questionnaire that measured emotional instability
• Neithe ales o fe ales sho ed i eased i sta ilit du i g the 0’s o ea l 0’s
• There is a shift in thinking about life: distance from birth versus from death: reevaluation
From how many years have you lived to how many years do you have left
Self and Relationships

• Personality stable throughout the life course; 30+
• Have fewer, but more intimate relationships
Parenthood
• Marital satisfaction declines after the birth of the first child, esp. for women
• Role strain, inequitable division of labor are factors
Later Adulthood
• Only 13% of those over 65 are below the poverty line
• The majority of people view retirement positively
• Losing a spouse increases both mortality and suicide rates
Living Arrangements
Majo it do ’t li e i u si g ho e; o e li e lo ge ; +
Living Arrangements
The Kübler-Ross Stages of Dying

1) Denial and Isolation
2) Anger
3) Bargaining
4) Depression


5) Acceptance
Dealing with the death of others

• Grief: distress following death of a loved one
• Bereavement: missing a loved one and longing for his or her company
• Stages of grieving:
– Shock (3 weeks)
– Emotional upheaval (1 year) anger, loneliness, guilt
– Lessening of grief (after a year)
– Feeling like we miss that person
Intelligence
“pea a ’s Theo of I tellige e
• Spearman theorized that individuals differ in general ability (g)
“pea a ’s g Fa to
• Spearman proposed a General Intelligence (g)
– All-purpose ability
– Underlies all mental ability
• Specific Abilities (s)
– Abilities particularly relevant to this task or some part of it
• g and one or more s’s o t i ute to pe fo i g a pa ti ula task
Neural Speed and Intelligence

• Recorded time required for brain to react to visual stimuli
• Ordered subjects from slowest (1) to fastest (5)
• Subjects with higher conduction speed also had higher scores on an intelligence test
Speed of neural processing
IQ Scores
• Original Formula:
Mental Age X 100
Chronological Age
• Now calculated by deviation method
• Performance is compared to others of the same age
Range of IQ
100 = average


68% = 85-115
95% =
Extremes of Intelligence
• Mental Giftedness
– Substantially above average
– 130-135
• Mental Retardation
– Descriptive terms:
• Mild (IQ between 50-70)
• Moderate (IQ between 35-49)
• Severe (IQ between 20 and 34)
• Profound (IQ less than 20)
• Physical problems; unable to care for themselves
Making a Diagnosis
Mental health professionals look for three criteria before making a diagnosis of mental retardation in an adult:
1. An IQ below 70. The Wecshler Adult Intelligence Scale. The tests measure a person's ability to solve problems using
both verbal and nonverbal information. For instance:
• Aski g a pe so to ide tif hat's o g o a su d i a pi tu e, like a calendar with no Sundays.
• Ca a pe so put a se ies of pi tu es i a sequence to tell a logical story?
• Ho ell a a pe so e ite a se ies of umbers forward and backward?
2. Poor adaptive behavior skills. Psychologists look to see how well a person gets along in the world: how a person
interacts socially and his ability to take care of himself. For instance:
• Ca a pe so p epa e a o plete eal or make a new meal out of leftovers?
• Ca a pe so use a pho e ook to o de a pizza?
3. Evidence of retardation before the age of 18. Investigators look through school and medical records and talk with
school teachers, past employers, friends and family in a search for proof that mental retardation existed in a person as a
child.
IQ tests predict:
– School performance
– Occupational success
Nature's Influence on IQ Scores

• greater genetic similarity = more similar IQ scores.
– suggests a genetic component

Nurture's Influence on IQ Scores

• two individuals raised together = similar IQ scores =
– suggests the environment shapes intelligence.
Changing IQ
Biology: your genes give you a possible range of IQ scores

Environment determines where within that range you actually do fall
Effects of Schooling
• Children from comparable schools
– One with 180-day year
– One with 210-day year
• Children began study performing similarly
• At end of study, extended-year children performed better
Explaining Group Differences

• Within a group with all treated exactly the same, differences may reflect genetics.
• When one group differs from another, the differences may reflect environmental differences.
• 20 point IQ difference between low and high SES White kids
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• Rose thal told tea he s half of kids e e late loo e s
• Those kids ended up doing better at the end of the year.
• A pe so ’s e pe tatio a lead to its o fulfill e t
• Teachers with low expectations may settle for less
Do ’t gi e them opportunities
Stereotype Threat
– ½ students told test shows no bias
- African American students are aware of negative stereotypes
– Vulnerability to stereotype undermines performance
Anxiety, makes you nervous
Flynn Effect
– IQ scores rise about 3 points every ten years.
• Daily life becomes more complicated
• Nutrition is better
• Technology such as TV and video games
• Intermarriage
To have a healthy child, marry someone with a completely different genetic code to prevent recessive gene
Intelligence Types (Gardner)

• Linguistic – use language well
• Logical-mathematical – manipulate abstract symbols


• Musical
• Spatial reason well about spatial relations (surgery, architecture)
• Bodily-kinesthetic
• Interpersonal understand yourself
• Intrapersonal understand others and social relationships
Triarchic Theory (Sternberg)
Creative intelligence : creativity and insight

Analytic intelligence : book smart
Practical intelligence: street smart
Emotional Intelligence
• the ability to understand and regulate emotions effectively.

LECTURE NOTES FOR SECTION 4 OF CLASS START HERE
Personality
Personality
• Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that
characterizes an individual
Trait Theories
• Explain differences between people in terms of stable personality traits

• Modern day psychologists have found 5 personality dimensions that span cultures
The 5 Factor Theory
• Extraversion
• Neuroticism
• Conscientiousness
• Agreeableness
• Openness to Experience
Extraversion
Sociable versus retiring
Fun loving versus sober
Affectionate versus reserved
Neuroticism
Calm versus anxious
Secure versus insecure
Self satisfied versus self pitying
Openness
Imaginative versus practical
Preference for variety versus preference for routine
Independent versus conforming

Conscientiousness
Organized versus disorganized
Careful versus careless
Disciplined versus impulsive
Agreeableness
Soft hearted versus ruthless
Trusting versus suspicious
Helpful versus uncooperative
The 5 Factor Theory
• Helpful in predicting general trends in behavior

• Too general to predict behavior in a specific situation
Behaviorist Theory
• Behavior determined by:

Reward
Punishment
Classical conditionion
Heredity and Temperament
• Temperaments: Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways

o Present in infancy, assumed to be innate
o Relatively stable over time
• Include:
o Reactivity
o Soothability
• Babies who are easy or slow to warm up tend to be that way 10 years later
Genetic Influences on Personality
• 123 pairs of identical twins and 127 pairs of fraternal twins

• Measured on “Big Five” personality dimensions
• Results suggest that personality differences in the population are 40 - 50% genetically determined.

The Nature of Extraversion
• Eysneck: differences due to arousability

• Extraverts: low arousability, so seek external stimulation… lower heart rate reactivity
• Introverts: high arousability, so avoid external stimulation… higher heart rate reactivity
Personality Consistency
• Is personality more consistent at some points in the lifespan?

• Evidence indicates that personality is least stable during childhood
• Consistency increases with age
Many Theories of Personality Emphasize Early Childhood Experience
• Attachment Theory
• Freudian Theory
• Social Learning Theory
Attachment Theory
• Bond between infant and caregiver will influence the individual’s interactions with others
throughout the lifespan.
Freud!!
• Saw patients suffering from Hysteria (depression, anxiety, sleeplessness)

• Could find no medical cause
• Women reported being molested as children by male relatives
Freudian Theory
• Used Psychoanalysis (theory of personality and method of psychotherapy, assume that our
motives are largely unconscious)
• The Conscious: things you are currently aware of
• The Preconscious: could be retrieved if desired
• The Subconscious

Freudian Theory
• The Unconscious:
• The primary personality component
• Consists of things you're unaware of but that influence you
• Can't be tapped directly
• Reflected in slips of the tongue, dreams, etc.
Motivation Behind Personality
• Freud believed all behavior, no matter how mundane, was driven by two unconscious motivators:
• Eros: sexual motivation
• Thantos: aggressive motivation
• Psychological determinism
Freudian Theory
• Personality components
• Id: Concerned with drive satisfaction; follows the pleasure principle
• Superego: internalized parental control; conscience, morality, and social standard
• Ego: Reason, good sense, and rational control; follows the reality principle
Psychoanalytic Terms
• Pleasure Principle: the id’s boundless drive for immediate gratification

• Reality Principle: the ego’s capacity to delay gratification
Freud’s Model
Most happen unconsciously
ID is 100% unconconscious
Ego is mostly conscious but a little bit unconscious

Freudian Theory: Stages
• Personality will be determined by how Child Passes through psychosexual phases

• Oral (0-1 year)
• Anal (1-3 years)
• Phallic (3-6 years)
• Latency (6-puberty)
• Genital (from puberty)
• Oral Stage:
• Libido gratification: oral
• Infant learns to trust in others, esp. for food
• Oral Personality:
• Fixation: pessimism about the world, hostility or passivity. Excessive eating or drinking
• Anal Stage:
• Delay of gratification
• Pleasure and libido satisfaction from being in control
• Anal Personality:
• Fixation: either excessive orderliness or messiness. Anal retentive versus anal expulsive
• Phallic Stage:
• Sex-role identification occurs
• Oedipal or Electra Complex (sexual attraction to opposite sex parent).
• Mechanisms include castration anxiety (boys) & penis envy (girls) worried that someone is going
to cut off their penis
• Freudian Theory: Stages
• Phallic Personality:
• Fixation: sex-role identification problems, promiscuity, vanity, or excessive chastity

• Latency Stage:
• A time of focus on achievement and mastery of skills
• Libido is channeled into mastery activities
• Freud thought little of interest happened here
• Genital Stage:
• The time of mature personality, intimacy with others
• Libido satisfied by adult- type sexual activity
Freudian Theory: Defense
• Defense Mechanisms
o Methods used by the Ego to keep unconscious anxiety from entering consciousness
• E.G. “My best friends boyfriend is hot.”
Denial
• Refusing to accept that the feeling is present
Repression
• Relegating anxiety- causing thoughts to the unconscious, refusing to think about them
Projection
• Attributing one's undesirable traits or actions to others
Reaction Formation
• Taking actions opposite to one's feelings
Rationalization
• Creating intellectually - acceptable arguments to hide the actual desire

Displacement
• Substituting a less-threatening object for the subject of the hostile or sexual impulse
• Scapegoating
Sublimation
• Redirecting anxiety-causing impulses into socially acceptable actions

• The most mature mechanism
• Art
Freudian Personality Dynamics
• The id’s instinctual urges can be temporarily suppressed, but the energy must find an outlet
• Outlets are disguised and indirect, to provide release for energy that will be safe and appear
normal
Sexual aggressive, and other unacceptable impulses: dreams, jokes, slips of the tongue, sublimination, anxious
symptopms
Problems with Freud
• Violates the principle of falsifiability

• Key portions are contrary to recent data: There is no evidence for penis envy, castration anxiety
• Biased against women: Freud's negative attitudes towards women colored his entire theory
Contributions
• The discovery of unconscious processes

• His emphasis on childhood influences on adult behavior
• Defense Mechanisms
Parents versus Peers?

• Personality traits more nurture than nature

• Parents not consistent
• Secure base and beating the odds
• Peer groups
• Parents versus peers
• Most personality comes from peers not from parents/family
Social-Learning Theory
• Modeling: The social-learning process by which behavior is observed and imitated

• Locus of Control: The expectancy that one’s reinforcements are generally controlled by internal
or external factors
• Self-Efficacy: The belief that one is capable of performing the behaviors required to produce a
desired outcome.
Internal Locus
Belief you control your fate; you can make stuff happen -> taking action or optimism about the future
External Locus
Belief that you do ’t o trol your fate, it is out of your ha ds-> doi g othi g or pessi is a out the future, do ’t
work hard or try hard
High Self-Efficacy
Belief that you can do well, belief that within you you can do well-> greater effort and persistence->success->belief
you will do well
Low Self-Efficacy
Belief you will do poorly-> less effort and persistence->failure-> belief you will do poorly
Reciprocal Determinism
Environment-> <-personal cognitive factors-><-behavior-><-environment
All influences each other

The Humanistic Approach
• Carl Rogers
• Abraham Maslow
• Rollo May
Maslow’s Hierar hy of Needs
Physiological->safety->belongingness->esteem->self actualization
Humanist Psychologists
• Abraham Maslow
o Self-actualization: Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging, and satisfying
o Peak experiences: Rare moments of rapture caused by the attainment of excellence or the
experience of beauty
Flow, The Optimal Experience
• Csikszentmihalyi studied this, based on Maslow’s writings

• Absorption in activity
• Sense of effortlessness and perfection
• Focus on single activity
• Balance between high skill and high challenge
Humanist Psychologists
• Abraham Maslow
o Self-actualization: Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging, and satisfying
o Peak experiences: Rare moments of rapture caused by the attainment of excellence or the
experience of beauty
• Carl Rogers
o Conditional positive regard: The acceptance and love one receives from significant others is contingent
upo o e’s eha ior
o Unconditional positive regard: Love and support given to another person with no conditions attached

• Rollo May
o Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness,
anxiety,
and alienation
o Existentialism:
Emphasizes the inevitable dilemmas and challenges of human existence
Abnormal Psychology
Medical Student Syndrome
• Many symptoms resemble life's normal little problems psych 101 illness
• People studying illnesses often start thinking they have those illnesses
Abnormal Behavior
• Any behavior or emotional state that:

• Causes an individual great suffering
• Is self destructive
• Seriously impairs the persons ability to work or get along with others
• Endangers otjer or the community
• Historical Models
• zfUntil end of 18th century: feared and associated with evil
• Demonology: devil dwells within person
• Witch: picked with pin and no pain. Conversion disorder
Classification
• Pinel: late 18th century. See mentally ill as sick. Developed classification system modeled after
biological systems
• Why classify?
• Common shorthand
• Understand causes of symptoms
• Treatment plan
• DSM

Problems with classifying
• The danger of over-diagnosis (ADHD)

• The power of diagnostic labels (anger management)
• Confusion of serious mental disorders with normal problems (caffeine induced sleep disorder)
• The illusion of objectivity (homosexuality)
• Not easy to do (Rosenthal study)
The Rorschach Inkblot Test
• Ambiguous stimuli
• Person is asked to report what they see
• This type of test is called projective
• No clear image, so the things you see must be “projected” from inside yourself
Thematic Apperception Test
• Person is asked to tell a story about the “hero” in the picture

• Another projective test
• Based on Murray’s personality theory
• People are distinguished by the needs that motivate their behavior
Disorders
• Anxiety disorders
• Somatoform Disorders
• Dissociative Disorders
• Mood Disorders
• Schizophrenic Disorders
• Personality Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
• Simple Phobias
• Panic Disorders
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder
• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Phobias
• Phobia: an unreasonable, excessive, or irrational fear

• Only considered a phobia if great distress or major interference with life

• Example: Agoraphobia
• fear of being away from a safe place or person
• Example: Taphobia
• fear of being buried alive
Phobias
• Social Phobias:
• Includes fears of public embarrassment, public speaking
• Lead to avoidance of social situations
Social Phobia and Public Speaking
• Socially phobic and non-phobic adults prepared a speech

• Both groups showed increased anxiety and heart rate in anticipation
• Social phobics were more anxious
Phbics are reacting differently physiologically
Non phobics report increase heart rate differently
Phobias: Lifetime Prevalence
Women are more likely to be diagnosed phobic than men
Panic Disorder
• Feeling of being in an escalating cycle of catastrophe and doom

• Others feel as if they are having a heart attack as their heart races.
• Worry about "losing control" of themselves and being embarrassed in front of other people.
• Others breathe so quickly, gasping for air, that they hyperventilate and feel like they will suffocate from
lack of oxygen.
Common Symptoms of a Panic Attack
• a racing or pounding heartbeat

• dizziness and lightheadedness
• feeling that "I can’t catch my breath"
• chest pains or a "heaviness" in the chest
• flushes or chills
• tingling in the hands, feet, legs, arms
• jumpiness, trembling, twitching muscles

• sweaty palms, flushed face

• terror
• fear of losing control
• fear of dying
• fear of going crazy
Panic Attack
• Panic: Intense physiological reactions that occur in the absence of an emergency

• Onset can be sudden
• Frequent attacks diagnosed as panic disorder
• Rate among women twice the rate for men (1% of population)
Stress and Panic Disorder
• In many cases, the first attack comes soon after illness, miscarriage, or other traumatic event.
• Some people become so afraid of attacks they become agoraphobic
Panic disorders and the Brain
• Locus coeruleus
• Tells you to panic, tells you when something is wrong
• Some people may have over active coeruleus: pre dispose you to suffer from panic disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
• Lasts 6 months or more

• Low level anxiety
• No obvious feared object
• 3-4% of population
• Excessive thinking and dwelling on counter factuals
Phobias: Lifetime Prevalence
More likely to be diagnosed in women than in men
Obsessive Compulsives

o Obsessions: persistent, uncontrollable thoughts
A lot of germs around me
Five Kinds of Obsessions
• obsessive doubts
• endless chains of thought focusing on future events
• obsessive urges
• fear of losing control
• obsessive images
o Compulsions: intrusive, inappropriate actions that often prevent obsessions
I want to triwerl that chair=-> twirls chair, for satisfaction
Obessions-> anxiety-> compulsions-> (reduce) obsessions
Biology & O-C Disorders
• OCD patients show excessive functioning in the frontal lobes & the limbic system
• OCD patients show serotonin imbalances
What Happens to People with OCD
• Two-thirds of Obsessive-Compulsive patients improved after 10 years

• 80% improved within 40 years
• Very few were symptom-free
Not something you can get rid of but can be treated
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

• A traumatic even or catastrophe followed by difficulties in concentration and memory, inability to relax,
disturbed sleep, depression, psychic numbing – life loses enjoyment
• May feel guilt and have flashbacks
• More severe when caused by humans
• Why abnormal? Lack of healing
Lack of healing, when someone is getting worse
Causes of anxiety disorders
• Psychodynamic frued theory: underlying psychological conflicts or fears “bursting” into consciousness.
“little Hans”
• Little Han was afraid of horses: unconscious anxieties-> horse reared up in front: saw genitals therefore
scared
• Conditioned Model: conditioned responses. OCD temporarily reduced stress – reinforcing.
• Cognitive: perceptual processes distort estimation of danger. Ability to deal with it.
• Biological:
• Evolutionary
• Brain Differences: drugs
• Twin Studies
• Biological twins more likely to have anxiety disorders than fraternal twins
Somatoform Disorders
• Real physical symptoms with no biological cause:

• Conversion: Physical symptoms, such as paralyses, with no physical explanation. Exp: Cambodian
Women; combodian genocide, one particular group of women escaped to U.S. but were blind, visual
system and brain was reacting well but how? Psychologist believe that someones psychological drama
results in disorder
• Somatization Disorder: Repeated, varying symptoms with no physical cause; often of many years'
duration. Less common today. Better health care?
• Hypochondriasis: Excessive attention to state of health, along with preoccupation with the minor aches
and pains of living
Does ’t ake stuff up, just e aggerates; pa ig a too u h atte tio to it
Conversion Disorders

• In “Glove Anesthesia” (shown), the hand may be numb, although four different nerve tracts provide
sensation to the hand and lower arm
• The physical symptoms don’t match what is known about physiology
• …. Or do they????
Dissociative Disorders
• Dissociative Amnesia: Total or partial loss of information about the self; usually triggered by a
traumatic experience, rare but does happen
• Dissociative Fugue: Dissociative amnesia accompanied by fleeing the area; more common in war
zones, natural disasters
• Dissociate Identity Disorder: Multiple personalities; usually many rather than 2 or 3; extremely rare
o Early trauma (before age six)
o Successful coping occurs and so continues
Mood Disorders
• Dysthymic Disorder
• Depression
• Bipolar Disorder
• Seasonal Affective Disorder
• Suicide
Dysthymic Disorder
• A milder yet more enduring type of major depression.

• May appear to be chronically mildly depressed to the point that it seems to be a part of their personality.
• Often struggle for years before seeking treatment
Symptoms of Depression
• Sadness, anxiety, or "empty" feelings

• Decreased energy, fatigue,
• Loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyed
• Insomnia or oversleeping
• Loss or gain in weight
• Feelings of hopelessness and pessimism
• Feelings of helplessness and worthlessness
• Thoughts of death or suicide
• Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
• Restlessness, irritability or excessive crying
• Depression affects almost 10% of the population in a given year
• Two-thirds of those who are depressed never seek treatment

• 80%-90% of those who seek treatment for depression can feel better within just a few weeks
• the stress of a loss, especially the death of a loved one, may lead to depression in some people
Depression: Age of First Onset
• Depression is seldom identified before adolescence

• Diagnosed increases in early adulthood
• Most commonly diagnosed in middle age
• First diagnosis rare among the elderly
Gender & Depression
Women are more likely to suffer from depression
Causes of Depression?
• Biological: low norepinephrine & serotonin levels more likely to suffere from depression
• Hereditable component significant correlation
• Cognitive factors
Distorted Thinking
• Includes negative views of the world, the future, the self

• Tied to poor reality testing, learned helplessness last sort of thinking
Explanatory Style and Depression
• Measured explanatory styles among first-year college students

• Two years later, those with negative style were more likely to experience a major or minor depressive
disorder
The Vicious Cycle of Depression

• Depression can lead to behaviors that cause social rejection, which worsens depression
Depressed: more likely to feel social rejection
Bipolar Disorder
• Manic episodes & extreme depression mixed with normal affect

• Equally common in both sexes
Symptoms of Mania
• Abnormal or excessive elation

• Unusual irritability
• Decreased need for sleep
• Grandiose notions
• Increased talking
• Racing thoughts
• Increased sexual desire
• Markedly increased energy
• Poor judgment
• Inappropriate social behavior
Bipolar Disorder
Equally between males and females
High norepinephrine levels
Seasonal Affective Disorder
• A greater than normal mood fluctuation with the seasons

• Related to amount & intensity of light
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Everyone feels down in the winter months compared to warmer months

Need natural light to pick us up
Suicide Attempts
75% females
25% males
Suicide Deaths
Suicide Methods
Hanging 15%
Poison 13%
Other 6%
Vast majority of men use firearms 65% (gun) familiar and comfortable with guns
Suicide Methods
Women are much less likely to use firearms and more likely to use poison
Poison is the least effective method
Big window of time for poison to be removed from system
Suicide Facts
• 10-14% of those who attempt suicide will eventually succeed in a later attempt
• Suicide rates are highest among the elderly

• Most suicidal people leave clues of their intentions

• Most suicidal people have not made a definite decision to die
• Suicide is less frequent for married people and women with children
• The majority of suicide victims are suffering from depression
Schizophrenia
• Positive Symptoms:
o Symptoms found in schizophrenics
• Negative Symptoms:
o Normal behaviors that are absent in schizophrenics
Positive Symptoms
• Hallucinations (mostly auditory) hear things that are not really there
• Delusions (delusions of grandeur and persecution are most common)
• Speech disturbances (including word salad)
• Disorganized behavior (including silliness, weird motor behaviors)
• Inappropriate affect (emotional responses that are inappropriate for the circumstances, such as crying at
comedy shows)
Negative Symptoms
• Social withdrawal, limited speech and action, poor hygiene, apathy

• Flat affect (no emotional response at all)
Onset Timing
• Period of greatest susceptibility
First diagonosed: 20-40 (early adulthood)
Incidence
• Strikes 1/100 (1%)
Schizophrenia Types
No longer i D“M 5; people ho are s hizophre i do ’t te d to ha e all of the

• Paranoid:
o Delusions of grandeur
o Delusions of persecution
o Usually harmless, but may become violent if threatened
Schizophrenia Types
• Catatonic:
o Periods of frenzied activity alternating with periods of immobility
o May stay in odd positions for hours
Schizophrenia Types
• Disorganized:
o Inappropriate affect & actions
o Incoherent verbal behavior & silliness
o Delusions & hallucinations
Schizophrenia Types
• Undifferentiated:
o Used to describe schizophrenics with mixed or unusual symptoms
Causes
• Brain Abnormalities
• Excessive Dopamine Activity
• Stress
Excess Dopamine
• 2/3 of schizophrenics improve when given dopamine reducers

• PET scans show excess dopamine activity in sufferers
• Drugs that increase dopamine cause schizophrenic symptoms
• Only reduce positive symptoms
Schizophrenia: A Brain Disorder

• Pairs of identical twins, discordant

• i.e., one schizophrenic and the other normal
• Schizophrenics had enlarged ventricles (see arrows) compared to normal sibling related to the negative
symptoms of schizophrenia
Odds of being schizophrenic if:
Lifetime risk: 1%
If you have a sibling with schiz. Odds go up
Hereditary component, odds increase due to generic relative but does not go up to 100%
Vulnerability-Stress Model
o People with a constitutional vulnerability to schizophrenia develop symptoms when placed under
stress
Genes become active when under some biological or ___ stress
Personality Disorders
• Milder disorders
• Maladaptive traits that cause distress or an inability to get along with others
• Long-lasting
• High levels of functioning
Narcissistic personality disorder: Characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and self-absorption
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Constantly focused on how great they are
If you threaten their sense of self, tend to lash out and end relationships
Take stuff out on other people and blame others; lifelong disorder

• Characterized by a lifelong pattern of irresponsible, antisocial behavior such as lawbreaking, violence,

and other impulsive, restless acts
• Constantly doing things that they don’t care
Causes of APD
• Abnormalities in the central nervous system slow to develop classically conditioned responses to
anticipated danger, pain, punishment
• Impaired frontal-lobe functioning can lea to inability to control responses, regulate emotions,
understand long term consequences
• Genetic influences genes involved in frontal lobe causes of impulsivity
• Environmental events
Sexual Disorders
• Includes sexual dysfunctions and paraphilias

• Only dysfunctions & paraphilias causing distress to self or others are disorders
Paraphilias
• Voyeurism: Sexual attraction to watching unconsenting people nude or engaged in sexual activity
• Fetishism: Sexual attraction to inanimate objects
• Pedophilia: Sexual attraction to prepubescent children
• Exhibitionism: Sexual attraction to exposing one's genitals to unsuspecting strangers
• Masochism: Sexual attraction to being bound, beaten, or made to suffer
• Sadism: Sexual attraction to hurting others
Paraphilias
• Many arise through classical conditioning

• Most are strengthened when the person fantasizes the attraction while masturbating
Gender Identity Disorders
• Problems accepting one's identity as male or female

• Person may seek gender reassignment surgery
Not in DSM 5
Summary of Gender differences
• Why?

• Women are more likely to be disgonised with these disorders than men; bc:
• Genetic (no evidence either way) one chromosome difference-> difference that predisposes women to
symptoms than men, no evidence to suggest
• Bias in reporting women go to treatment more often than men do
• Bias in diagnosis
• Real-life differences: women more likely to live in poverty and to be abused as kids
Psychiatric Diagnosis: Gender Bias
• Case histories mailed to 354 clinical psychologists, asking for a diagnosis

• Fictitious clients, histrionic or antisocial symptoms
• Males were more often diagnosed as antisocial
• Females were more often diagnosed as histrionic
Gender played a big role in disgonosis (bias)
Creativity and Mental Illness
• The rate of mental illness is slightly higher among those successful in the arts than those successful in
other professions
Pos: people who have suffered are more creative
Empathic and appreciative
Treatment
Goals of Treatment
• Symptom Control
• Cure Symptoms
• Cure Disease
• Prevent Disease

Therapists
• Clinical Psychologists:
o Have a Ph. D. in Psych.
o Specialize in mental illness
• Psychiatrists:
o Are medical doctors
o Can prescribe drugs
• Counselors:
o Have a Masters in psychology or counseling
o Often deal in routine advising
• Social Workers
o Have an MSW, specialize in psychology problems
Old-Fashio ed Cures
• Trephination: drill a hole in the brain and literally let the devil grain out
• Exorcism & Burning at the Stake
• Confinement
• Whirling
• Bloodletting
None work for curing mental illness until it killed you
Somatic Therapy
• Work on the body directly

o Drugs large and commonly used
o Electroconvulsive Therapy
o Psychosurgery
Drugs
• Find a brain chemical that plays a role in the disease and then find a drug that will restore balance.
Low levels of serotonin-> depression, anxiety
Antipsychotic Drugs
Dopamine: related to positive symptoms
• Used primarily in the treatment of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders

• Many block or reduce sensitivity of dopamine receptors
• Some increase levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that inhibits dopamine activity

• Tardive dyskinesia : shaking/ tremor side effect, does not always go away; neurological damage
Antidepressant Drugs
• Used primarily in the treatment of depression, anxiety, phobias, OCD

• Mo oa i e o idase i hi itors MAOI’s : Ele ate orepi ephri e a d seroto i i rai lo ki g a e z e
that deactivates these neurotransmitters
• Tricyclic antidepressants: Boost norepinephrine and serotonin by preventing reuptake
• “ele ti e seroto i reuptake i hi itors ““RI’s : Boost seroto i pre e ti g reuptake
More norepinephrine gives more energy
Anti-anxiety drugs (tranquilizers)
• Drugs commonly but often inappropriately prescribed for patients who complain of unhappiness, anxiety, or
worry
• Increase the activity of GABA
Misprescribed, habit forming
Lithium carbonate
• Used to treat bipolar disorder

• Moderates levels of norepinephrine and protects cells from being over-stimulated by neurotransmitter
glutamate
• Must be given in right dose, bloodstream levels monitored
Hard for people suffering from bipolar on medication
Antipsychotic Drugs & Inpatients
id 50’s discovered antipsychotic drugs and found how to treat them, massive decline, life savers drugs
• Percentage of depressed people who

suffer a relapse
People feel depressed, feel better, but at higher risk at becoming depressed again
Limitations of Drug Therapy
• May not cure; just mask disease

• Harmful side-effects
• Cost – very expensive

• Don’t work for everyone
Electroconvulsive Therapy
• An effective treatment for severe depression not responsive to drugs giving people an electric shock
• May cause temporary memory loss
• 82% say less upsetting that going to the dentist
Psychosurgery
Doing surgery on the brain to treat mental illness
• Lobotomies done from 1935-1955

• Cingulotomies and other microsurgeries sometimes done today
Lobotomy Site
o Portions of the frontal lobe

o are separated from the
thalamus
Psychosurgery
• Works in 50-60% of patients

• Negatives:
• Results are unpredictable
• Consequences are irreversible
• 6% die during procedure
• even if it does work, also Removes portions of personality
For those that do ’t ork, is ade orse
Family has tried everything and nothing works so this is the last decision
Behavioral Therapies
• Classical Conditioning Techniques

o Flooding
o Systematic Desensitization
o Aversive Conditioning
• Operant-Conditioning Techniques

o Contingency management
o Token Economies
o Stimulus Satiation
Flooding
• Immerse consenting person in the fear stimulus

• After fear subsides, calm sets in, is associated with the feared object
Systematic Desensitization
• Teach subject to relax

• Create a hierarchy of feared situations, from least to most
• Work through situations, while maintaining relaxation
• Rubber snake
Systematic Desensitization
• Rats hierarchy example:
Aversion Therapy for Alcoholism
• Alcohol is paired with a chemical that causes nausea and vomiting

• Straightforward classical conditioning
Antabuse-> nausea
Alcoholic bev. -> nausea
Help in dealing with alcoholism
Operant Conditioning Techniques
• Contingency management: try to remove a reward for bad behavior and start rewarding good behavior
• Token Economies: Using tokens that can be exchanged for other items or privileges as a reinforcer
• Stimulus Satiation: Giving the person too much of a desired thing so as to reduce its attraction

A-B-C’s of E otio al Distress
• Disorders often occur with self-defeating beliefs

• Activating Event - Beliefs - Consequences
• Cognitive therapy helps people change these beliefs by using questions and then teach them that those
beliefs are hurting them
Cognitive Therapies
• Cognitive Therapy: A form of psychotherapy in which people are taught to think in more adaptive
ways.
• Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy: A form of cognitive therapy in which people are confronted
with their irrational, maladaptive beliefs
Common Irrational Beliefs
• Musterbating
o I must be perfect
o Everyone must love me
• Catastrophising
o It is catastrophic when things don't go as planned
Person-Centered Therapy
• A Humanistic therapy
• Founded by Rogers
• Uses mirroring & unconditional positive regard to promote self-actualization
o Primary empathy: restating what the client has just said to convey empathy
o Secondary empathy: saying something the client has not said but might be feeling
Gestalt Therapy
• Integrate the body and mind factors

• Integrate behaviors, feelings, and thinking
• Take responsibility for own decisions and how life has turned out.
• Therapist directs client to get in touch with feelings, resolve unfinished business

Existential Therapy
• Helps clients explore the meaning of existence and face with courage the great issues of life such as
death, freedom, free will, alienation, and
loneliness
In life we have to face our own mortality
Psychodynamics
• A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes
the exploration of unconscious motives and conflicts; modern psychodynamic therapies share this
emphasis but differ from Freudian analysis in various ways.
Psychodynamics
• Free association have client sit where they cant see you and have them talk without seeing you and have
them talk about whatever is on their mind,
• Analysis of Resistance look at what they avoid on saying
• Dream analysis
• Analysis of Transference judging, thinking bad things, client starts expressing feelings to you directly;
transferring onto you through an outter force of a real target and you use this to analyze
• Countertransference when you start having feelings towards your client; transferring your issues onto
your client; to avoid this-> must undergo years and years of psychodynamic therapy so they deal with
their own issues before dealing with other peoples issues
• 3-4 weeks of therapy for years
Problems with Psychodynamics
• Minimizes patient responsibility

• Neglects conscious motives and the present
• Fairly costly
• YAVIS: Young, Affluent, Verbal, Intelligent, Successful
Benefits of Psychotherapy
• The average psychotherapy client shows more improvement than 80% in no-treatment control group
• Summary result of 475 studies (Smith et al., 1980).
Is More Psychotherapy Better?

• With additional therapy sessions, the percentage of people improved increased up to 26 sessions
• Rate of improvement then levels off
• Based on a summary of 15 studies, 2400 clients (Howard, et al., 1996)
Do Some Therapies Work Better?
• Three common, nonspecific factors at work in all types of psychotherapy

o Supportive relationship
o Reason for hope
o Opportunity to open up
• For some disorders, certain types of therapy tend to be more successful
• There is no universal “best” type of therapy
Orientations of Psychotherapists
Bc therapy works best depending on the different issues client is dealing with: the largest portion of therapists fall into
the eclectic section: you know different techniques and you knowt he best technique to deal with your clients; do
whatever kind of therapy works for your client

LECTURE NOTES FOR SECTION 5 OF CLASS START HERE

Health and Well-being
Outline of Topics
• The self and well-being

• Psychoneuroimmunology
o Intro
o Stress
o Coping with Stress
o Other factors that affect health
The Self and Well-Being
• The Need for Self-Esteem

• The Self-A a e ess T ap
• Positive Illusions
The Self-Esteem Cycle
Ahigh self esteem- positive expectations- high effect- success- self credit- high elf esteem
Ads making you think about yourself worth
Self-Awareness Theory
Picture on phone
Makes us self critical; think about hwat we wish we were
“elf a a e ess is ’t al a s positi e so e t to dist a t ou sel es
Positive Illusions

• Unrealistic Optimism
• Unrealistically positive views of the self
• Illusion of Control
Unrealistic Optimism
• Students tend to rate their own chances as above average for positive events and below average for negative
events.
• Unrealistically Positive Views of the Self
• Everyone thinks they are above average
• Exp: high school students: 70% above average in leadership; 60% above average in athletic ability; 85% above
average in ability to get along with others (25% said that were in top 1%!!!)
• Exp: 94% of college professors think that they do above average work
Illusion of Control
Illusions and Well-being
• Depressed people more realistic

• Many argue that illusions are necessary for mental health
• Too many illusions are bad
Psychoneuroimmunology
• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): The study of the relationships among psychology, the nervous and endocrine
systems, and the immune system
The Biomedical Model
Biological factors->illness
The Biopsychosocial Model

Biological factors/ social factors/psychological factors-> health and wellness
Mind Over Matter
• For a wide range of afflictions, 30 to 40 percent of patients experience relief after taking a placebo.
Causes of Death, 1900-1995
• Since 1900, heart disease, cancer, and stroke have replaced infectious diseases as the major causes of death
• Behavioral factors contribute to each of these leading causes of death
Heart Disease Factors
• Sedentary Life Style

• Stress, Obesity
• Smoking
• High blood pressure
• Family history of heart disease
• Type A behavior
Personality & Coronary Heart Disease
• Type A Personality
• Competitive
• Impatient; Time-pressured
• Quick to anger - hostile
• Type B Personality
• Easygoing
• Relaxed
• Laid back
• Type A more prone to coronary heart disease
Personality type is less predictive of health problems than is hostility.
• Proneness to anger is a major risk factor.

• High hostility-> proneness to type A (heart attack) level of hostility

Cancer Risk Factors
• Diet
• Cigarette smoking
• Excessive alcohol use
• Promiscuous sexual behavior
• Genetics
• STRESS!!!!
Sources of Stress
• Conflict
• Lack of Control & Unpredictability
• Catastrophe & Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
SRRS Scores & Health
450-300: 80% chance of major health problem

300-150: 50% chance of major health problem
The Daily Hassles Scale
117 items used to measure the frequency and severity of a person's transactions with the environment that are
considered by the person to be stressful events.
Example: How much of a hassle was this for you?
0 = None or Did Not Occur 1 = Somewhat Severe 2 = Moderately Severe 3 = Extremely Severe
A. Misplacing or losing things 0 1 2 3

B. Troublesome neighbors 0 1 2 3
Predicts illness better than the SRRS

General Adaptation Syndrome
• Alarm: a threat mobilizes body resistance to stress

• Resistance: stress resistance reaches its maximum
• Exhaustion: The organism's resources for dealing with stress are exhausted -- stress resistance drops off
General Adaptation Syndrome
Immune System
• B-Cells:
• Produce and carry antibodies
• Produced in bone marrow
Pathways From Stress to Illness
• Stress can lead to unhealthy behaviors

• Stress triggers the release of hormones that suppress immune system activity
• Stress can reduce functioning of immune system and releases hormones
Pathways From Stress to CHD
• Under stress, people engage in less-healthy behaviors and are more physiologically reactive
• Both of these contribute to coronary heart disease
Stress Duration and Illness

• Volunteers were interviewed about life stressors, then infected with virus for cold
• As length of stress increased, so did the likelihood of catching the cold
• Stress impairs immune system functioning
Coping With Stress
• Coping Strategies
• The “elf-Heali g Pe so alit
• Social Support
Stress and Coping
• Although stressful events have effects on the body, the way we cope can promote health or illness.
Coping
• Problem-focused coping: attempts to modify, reduce, or eliminate the source of stress

• Emotion-focused coping: attempts to alter the emotional response to the stressor
• Religious belief appears to aid in coping with stressful events such as death of a child
Relaxation and the Heart
• Heart attack patients were taught to relax their pace

• A control group received standard medical care
• After 3 years, relaxation-trained patients suffered 50% fewer second heart attacks
Bio feedback - to slow their heart down
Hardiness - Resilience Under Stress
• Commitment
• Sense of purpose in work, family, and life
• Challenge

• Openness to new experiences and change

• Control
• Belief that one has the power to influence important future outcomes
Heartfelt Forgiveness
Change in heart rate - Those who look at it in a positive way, their heart rate are much lower then those
who felt hate and hold grudges
Hugs and Health
Support from other people can sometimes help us through hard times
Neuron threat- even a stranger lower the stress, having someone support help with stress
Exercise
Low activity level in USA
Exercise Benefits
• Improved heart efficiency

• Higher HDL levels
• Stronger bones, esp. in women
• Burns more calories, aiding weight control
• Moderates stress effects
Fitness, Stress, and Health
• In college students, life stress was linked with increased visits to the health center for low-fitness students
• High-fitness students handled the stress with less illness (alleviating/ to deal with stress)
Other Factors that affect Health
Low Immune Response
o Factors which can lower the immune response to illness:

• Depression
• Stress

• Social problems
• Loss of a spouse
• Marital problems
Lifestyle Factors
• Lack of Sleep
• Lack of Exercise
• Smoking
• Drinking & Drug Abuse
Lack of Sleep
• The vast majority of Americans get too little sleep

• This is especially true of college students
Hopelessness and Risk of Death
• In Finland, middle-age men were rated for hopelessness

• Six years later, higher ratings had predicted risk of death, cancer, and heart attack
Hopelessness lead to illness
Social Psychology
The parable of the good Samaritan- Darley and Batson 1973- 67 students from the Princeton Theological
Seminary
-Talk on either the Good Samaritan or jobs in theology
-1/3 were told they had extra time, 1/3 were told they had enough time, 1/3 were told they are late
-Those were given the Good Samaritan end up helping in general but in a hurry less than 1% helped
Outline
• Definition
• Social Influence
• Social Perception
• Group Processes
• Relationships
• Culture
• Gender
Definition
• The effects of the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others on affect, behavior, and cognition.

Social Influence
• Obedience
• Conformity
• Attitudes and attitude change
• Cognitive Dissonance
Experimenter Prompts
• Please continue.
• The experiment requires that you continue.
• It is absolutely essential that you continue.
• You have no other choice, you must go on.
Predictions before study
• Psychiatrists: 120 volts = 100% disobedience

• Students: 135 volts = 100% disobedience
• Middle class adults = 100% disobedience
Why?
• Pre-existing beliefs about authority

• Over arching ideology (the value of science)
o F o Yale to esea h asso iates of B idgepo t -47%
• The experimenter assumed responsibility
o ho is espo si le if that a is hu t?
o Pull a switch to let another person give shock 65-93%
• Immediacy:
o In room: 40%
o Hold arm: 30%
• the sequential nature of the task
Social Roles
• What begins as obedience may switch to power of social roles

The Chameleon Effect
• Pa ti ipa ts o ked ith a pa t e ho as eall o e of the e pe i e te s

• Hidden cameras recorded behavior
• Participants mimicked their partner without realizing it
A Classic Case of Suggestibility
• Subjects in dark room were shown a light

• While alone (Pregroup), each estimated how far the light moved
• In three sessions, estimated light movement in a group
• “u je ts’ esti ates o e ged o a o o alue
• The group established its norm
Conformity
• Subjects in a group were asked to match line lengths.

• Confederates in the group picked the wrong line.
• Subjects went along with the wrong answer on 37% of trials.
Private and Public Conformity
• Private conformity
o Both behavior and opinions change
o Informational social Influence
• Public conformity
o Temporary and superficial change
o Outward compliance, inward maintenance of previous beliefs
o Normative social influence

Group Size and Conformity
• Conformity increases with group size up to about 4-7 people

• Adding additional persons has little effect
• One dissenter can reduce conformity by up to 80 percent
Attitudes and Attitude Change
• Persuasion
• Compliance
• Cognitive Dissonance
The Process of Persuasion
• The Source
o Credible
o Likeable
• The Audience
o Focus on content - central route
o Focus on cues - peripheral route
Two Routes to Influence
• If source is clear, message relevant, and audience involved, an effortful central route is used
• If the source speaks unclearly, message is trivial, or the audience is not engaged, easier peripheral route is used
The Process of Persuasion
• The Message
o No more than moderate discrepancy from what the audience expects
o Based on facts acceptable to the audience
• Emotion
o Fear works only if information on how to avoid the situation is also presented
o Positive emotion distracts us and makes us more vulnerable to influence
Compliance Techniques

• Foot in the door

• Low ball
• Door in the face
• Authority
• Scarcity
• Liking
Foot in the Door
• Start with a small request

• Follow up with a large one
• Compliance: want to see self as consistent
• e e a pe a da ill help.
Low-Ball
• Make an attractive initial offer

• After getting a commitment, make the terms less good
• Compliance: want to see self as consistent
• Car sales people
Door in the Face
• Start with a large request.

• Follow up with a small one.
• Reciprocal concessions
• that’s ot all te h i ue
Authority
• More likely to comply if told by authority

• Informational social influence
• I’ ot a do to ut I pla o e o TV.
Scarcity
• toda o l o e a fe left
• Reactance theory (reverse psychology)
• Quick appraisal of quality
• Heuristic cue: must be good

Liking
• physical attractiveness (kids and gross food)

• similarity (sales training programs and body gestures)
• compliments (ad campaigns telling you how great you are)
• cooperation (car salesmen who do battle against guy in office)
Cognitive Dissonance
• The unpleasant state that occurs when attitudes don't match behaviors
• Dissonance creates tension; the person is motivated to reduce the tension
• One way to reduce dissonance is to change the attitude that conflicts with behavior
• Brought people in, made them do a task
and control group
1/3 made them tell people it was a fun experiment and paid them money $1
2/3 paid 20 $
the asked thei o e all e jo e t; $ g oup a tuall e jo ed it o e: og iti e disso a e: attitude do ’t atch
your behavior
Dissonance in the real world
• Fraternity initiations
• Army indoctrination
• Graduate school
• Post-decision dissonance
Making Attributions
• Social Perception: The processes by which we come to know and evaluate other persons.
• Attribution Theory: A set of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior.
• All behavior ambiguous
o Exp: Your new roommate is mean to you
Fundamental Attribution Error
• A simulated quiz show gave questioners an advantage over contestants

• Observers still judged questioners as more knowledgeable
• Contestants also rated questioners higher

Oh he’s s a t he sa s s a t thi gs
“eei g so eo e ask a u h of uestio s s. so eo e that does ’t k o a thi g
Ignored the situation and observed dissonental attribution
Fundamental Attribution Error: A Western Bias?
• U.S. and Indian subjects described the causes of several behaviors

• Cultural differences not seen in young children
• With age, Americans made more personal attributions
• Indians made more situational attributions
Actor-Observer Bias
• We attribute behavior of others to internal traits, but our own behavior to situational variables
• Somebody cutting someone else in traffic vs. when you cut someone off in traffic
Self-Serving Bias:
• We attribute our successes to disposition and our failures to situations

• Helps us maintain a positive outlook and self-image
o Exp: fail quiz = unfair quiz
o Ace quiz = smart cookie
Behavioral-Confirmation Bias
• Men and women brought into lab

• Interact over telephone
• Men shown pi tu es of the o e
• Interacting with an attractive women or and unattractive women
• Only recorded the women dialogue and then had a third indicator rate how would they rate the women;
thought women were better when the men thought women were more attractive
• Pic in phone 11/29
Behavioral-Confirmation Process
• We use our existing beliefs to interpret new information, which affects our behavior
• This may create false support for our biases
• Pic in phone 11/29

Group Processes
• Prejudice
• Social facilitation
• Social loafing
• Group think
Prejudice
• Definitions
o Stereotypes: beliefs about the characteristics of different groups (cognition)
o Prejudice: evaluative reactions (typically negative) to a social group and its members (emotion)
o Discrimination: differential treatment based on group membership (behavior)
A long history in the United States
300 Professional Athletes surveyed

• Johnson, 1991
• Big race differences in who believed that black athletes were discriminated against
• 63% of black athletes
• 2% of white athletes
Does Racism Exist in America?

• White and non-white people disagree
• 40-60% of white people think that the average black person has it better than the average white person
• Disproportionate percentages of white and non-white tell a different story

o Black heart attack patients are less likely to undergo cardiac catheterization. Doctors refer them for it
40% less often than white patients with same symptoms
o Whites are five times more likely to receive emergency clot-busting treatment for stroke
o Black women are 4 times more likely to die in childbirth
o Black levels of unemployment have been roughly twice that of whites since 1954
Does it exist today in America?
• Research tells a different story

– People are more likely to assume a suspect is guilty when he has a African-American or Hispanic name
– People are quicker to see anger in African-American faces
– People are more likely to assume a cell phone is a gun when held by an African-American
– People are more likely to hire a candidate with a Caucasian name as compared to an African-American
name
All of these occur when people claim no racism
Does sexism exist in America today?
Does homophobia exist in America today?
Types of prejudice
• Old fashioned Racism
• Implicit versus Explicit Racism
• Ambivalent Racism
Old Fashioned Racism

• Research done in 1920s and 1930s
• Anti-black affect
• Anti-egalitarianism
• Changes in egalitarianism over century
o Nazi anti-Semitism
o Civil rights movement
The American Dilemma

• Reconcile lingering anti-black affect with egalitarian beliefs?
• Prejudice goes underground

Implicit versus Explicit racism

• Implicit prejudice: negative attitudes that may not be consciously acknowledged
• Explicit: assert egalitarian values; ha i g feeli gs o the su fa e do ’t a t to be discriminative
Aversive Racism Theory

• People want to avoid feeling or appearing racist, avoid being prejudice on the service
• People are careful not to behave in an obviously racist way
• Racist reactions occur only when they can be attributed to something else
• Exp: helping and race
White people were more likely to help black people when there is no excuse
White people were less likely to help black people when there is an excuse
Percentage Who Helped
Explanations for prejudice

• Socio-cultural perspective
• Self-esteem maintenance
• Marxist approach
• Realistic group conflict
• Social cognitive perspective
Socio-cultural perspective
• Parental transmission prejudice Is taught
• The peer group
• The broader cultural context (the media)
• Cultivation hypothesis: the more cultural products consumed, the bigger changes in reality
• Exp: sexist attitudes and beer commercials
The more perpejudice ideas displayed the more tht is acted out
Beer commercial where women are overly sexualized; sexist commercials were less likely to evaluate female candidates
becomes normalized bc this si the way we treat one another
Self-Esteem maintenance
• Projection
• Scapegoating
• Spencer and Fein
Derogating Others to Build Self-Esteem

• Subjects were given positive or negative feedback, then rated a female job applicant they thought was Jewish or
Italian
• Subjects with lowered self-esteem rated the Jewish woman lower than the Italian
• Negative feedback subjects who could belittle the Jewish woman showed an increase in self-esteem
• Being prejudice against one another can raise self esteem
Marxist Approach
• Prejudice is a product of economic stratification
• Justification of social inequality
• Cla k a d Cla k’s Doll studies
Realistic Group Conflict Theory

• Competition for limited resources
• Evolutionary roots
• “he if’s o e s a e e pe i e t
Ran a summercamp for boys: randomly divided the boys on two camps- Eagles vs. Rattlers
Started noticing each other and then made stereotypes about each other
Rated themselves as favorable and rated others as unfavorable
Tried to end it and made boys combine
Have to mke them think as one unit
Social Identity Theory

• Personal Identity and Social Identity both contribute to self esteem.
• Viewing and treating ingroups more favorably than outgroups can boost self-image.
Social Cognition Perspective

• Information overload
• Categorize to make easier
• Categorizing people leads to stereotyping
Prejudice is a great time-saver: It allows us to form opinions without taking time to think
Guilt Ratings of White Target

Guilt Ratings of Hispanic Target
Used prejudice and discrimination more when they are tired
Strategies for prejudice change

• Contact
• Self-awareness and compunction
Contact
• Deseg egatio : the g a d e pe i e t
• Importance of climate
• Superordinate goals
To make people feel like theyre working together on something
Self-Awareness and Compunction
Pic on phone
Social Facilitation
• Does having an audience help?
Pic on phone
When thinking hard about doing good-> increase arousal->bad performance
Social Loafing
• People te d to e e t less effo t i a g oup task he e e e o e’s pe fo a e is pooled

• The o e people i the g oup, the o e ea h i di idual’s a ou t of effo t de eases
Ways to Decrease Social Loafing

• “epa ate ea h i di idual’s o t i utio f o o e all g oup pe fo a e

• Ea h i di idual’s task is e essa fo o e all g oup su ess
• Reward individual as well as group
• Group members are friends
• Make tasks personally meaningful
Group Think
• Ja is’s a hi al a al sis of g oup de isio aki g fias oes.

• Joh so ’s de isio to es alate U“ i ol e e t i the Viet a a
• Ca te ’s pla to li e ate the hostages
• Ke ed ’s a of pigs ope atio
• Bush ad i ist atio ’s decision to go to war with Iraq
Groupthink
• A group may over-emphasize unity

• Members may suppress their own doubts
• Open dissent is stifled by other group members
• Can lead to lower-quality decisions by the group
Social Relations
• Liking and Loving

• Aggression
• Altruism
• Helping Behavior
Love and Marriage as Social Exchange
• market pricing in dating and betrothal

• homogamy: the matching principle
• each person has a potential mate value and matches the person who you end up with

• matching works best on physical attractiveness
Love and Marriage as Social Exchange
• o ple at hi g to ala e the ooks
Personality and Relationship Success: Attachment theory
• Securely attached most successful

• Secure – I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending in them and having them
depe d o e. I do ’t ofte o a out ei g a a do ed o a out so eo e getti g too lose to e.
• Avoidance: I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely,
difficult to allow myself to depend on them,. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, love partners
want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being.
• Anxious: I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner does not
reall lo e e o o ’t sta ith e. I a t to e ge o pletel ith a othe pe so , a d this desi e s a es
people away.
Conflict in Close Relationships: Destructive Behavior
• complaining & criticizing

• showing contempt
• defensiveness
• stonewalling
Conflict in Close Relationships: Destructive Beliefs
• men & women are fundamentally different

• partners cannot change
• sexual perfectionism
• disagreement is destructive
• mindreading is expected

Conflict in Close Relationships: Destructive Perception and Communication
• Attributional distortions
• seeing hostility where none was intended
• seei g o e’s o eha io as justified a d easo a le, a d as a ea tio to the pa t e
• seei g the pa t e ’s egati e eha io as u justified a d aused ha a te fla s
“te e g’s Theo
• Triangular Theory of Love

o Commitment two people are gonn stick together no matter
o Intimacy physical aspect, desire one another
o Passion
Consumate Love
Commitment,intimacy, and passion
Liking: intimacy
Compassionate Love : commitment and intimacy
Infatuated Love: passion
Empty Love: commitment
Romantic Love: intimacy and passion
Fatuous Love: commitment and passion (end of relationship)
Aggression

• Causes are complex:

o Biological Factors
o Frustration Effects
o Social Effects
Aggression
• Correlation in twins:
• Identical twins are more aggressive than fraternal twins
Biological Factors
• Testosterone levels also correlate with aggression

• Alcohol usage increases aggression
Frustration-Aggression
• Behavior is directed toward a goal

• Achievement of the goal is blocked
• Causes frustration
• Frustration increases aggression
Social Learning Theory
• Aggression learned by:

o Observation and Modeling
o Reinforcement
o Punishment
Culture of Honor
• More violence in south and west than east and north due to historical differences and how people made money
• Herding versus agriculture
• Hyper-alert to threat threat to your honor you have to defend
• Nisbett study
Someone walks down the hall and then swear at other person; northeat bumped into were more likely to laugh it off
etc.
South: makes a problem out of it due to culture of honor
Heat and Violence

More likely tohappen insummer month than winter
Gender and Aggression
• Boys and men generally more aggressive

• Girls and women more relationally aggressive
Altruism
• Altruism: Helping behavior that is motivated primarily by a desire to benefit others, not oneself.
• Altruism
• Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: The theory that an empathic response to a person in need produces altruistic
helping.
Altruism: Two Pathways to Helping
• People have two reactions to someone in need:

o Personal distress (guilt, anxiety, and discomfort)
o Empathy (sympathy and compassion for the person)
• Helping can satisfy both selfish and noble motives
Can help with: empathy

or with more selfish reasons, seeing someone hurt makes us feel bad/guilty
The Bystander Effect
• The more observers there were, the less likely that anyone would help
• Not per observer, but total
A Model of Bystander Intervention
Individualism and Collectivism
• Individualism: A cultural orientation in which personal goals and preferences take priority over group
allegiances. (Western, European, Canadian)

• Collectivism: A cultural orientation in which cooperation and group harmony take priority over purely personal
goals. (Asian)
Culture and the Self
• People from individualistic cultures see themselves as individualistic and distinct from others
• People in collectivist cultures see themselves as interdependent, part of a larger social network
Individual and Collective Selves
• “tude ts i U.“. a d Chi a o pleted I a ____ se te es

• Americans more often filled in personal qualities
• Chinese were more likely to cite group affiliation
Uniqueness or Conformity?
• Which subfigure do you prefer?

• Kim & Markus found cultural differences in aesthetic preferences:
• Americans like those that stand out
• Koreans like those that fit in
Language and Self Definition
• Bili gual stude ts i Ho g Ko g o plete I a ___ se te es i E glish o Chi ese

• Students responding in English focused more on personal traits
• Students responding in Chinese focused more on group affiliations
Multicultural Perspectives
• Ethnic Diversity: A Fact of Life

• Acculturation and Ethnic Identity

Acculturation and Ethnic Identity
• Acculturation: The process by which individuals are changed by their immersion in a new culture.
• Ethnic Identity: The pa t of a pe so ’s ide tit that is defined by an ethnic heritage, language, history, customs,
and so on.
• Acculturation Stress: The stress and mental-health problems often found in immigrants trying to adjust to a new
culture.
Acculturation Strategies
Pic on phone
Cultural Identity and Acculturative Stress
• Hispanic college students

• Questionnaires on Hispanic identity, American identity, and acculturative stress
• Students who embraced both cultures report less acculturative stress
Gender: The Great Divide?
• How are Men and Women Different?

• Why are Men and Women Different?
• Putting Sex Differences in Perspective
What Are the Real Differences?
• Males are more physically aggressive

o Differences seem to be linked to testosterone
• By elementary school
o Males are better at math abilities
o Females are better at verbal abilities
o Differences seem to be linked to environmental expectations
Gender Roles and Schemas
• Gender Roles: Sex-typed behaviors promoted by social learning.

o E.g. sitting, interrupting
• Gender Schemas: Beliefs about men and women that influence the way we perceive ourselves and others.

o E.g. men are assertive, women are bitchy

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PSY 101

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 1

LECTURE NOTES FOR SECTION 1 OF CLASS BEGIN HERE

late ight hats

• What do dreams mean?

A Research Finding About Love

The Hindsight Bias

The Hindsight Bias

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 2

The History of Psychology

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 3

What do psychologists do?

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 4

The Story of Kitty Genovese

Come up with Hypothesis

Operationalize your variables

• I depe de t Va ia le: the a ia les thought to p edi t the othe a ia le

• Operationalization: the concrete representation of the variable of interest

Choose a Research Method

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 5

Choose a Research Method

Ge e aliza ilit : hat i fe e es a ou ake a out the phe o e a’s eadth.

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 6

Correlation: A statistical measure of how closely two variables are associated

• Correlations can range from -1.0 to +1.0

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 7

• How do you assign people to levels of independent variable (conditions)?

• Hallmark of experiment is random assignment

• Why? Want to make sure that nothing but IV is affecting experiment

• Confounding variables: extraneous variables that could affect experiment

• Conclusions from experiment. Do groups differ?

What makes Psychological Research Scientific?

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 8

Positron Emission Tomography

Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI

New update: FMRI combines MRI and pet scans

The Nervous System

Divisions of the Nervous System

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 9

Nervous system is build up of thousands of neurons

The Neuron in Action

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 10

Antagonistic Drugs to decrease

Peripheral Nervous System

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 11

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Lecture Notes, Gabriel Psych101 Section 1 Page 12

Lobes of the Brain

The Case of Phineas Gage

Motor corext: sends info out

“pe ’s “plit-Brain Experiment

Plasticity in Brain & Behavior

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