The Effect of Fiber Content on the Crashworthiness

Parameters of Natural Kenaf Fiber-Reinforced

Hexagonal Composite Tubes
M. F. M. Alkbir1, S. M. Sapuan1, 2, 3, A. A. Nuraini1, M. R. Ishak3, 4
1
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang Selangor, MALAYSIA
2
Laboratory of BioComposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Research Products (INTROP),
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang Selangor, MALAYSIA
3
Aerospace Manufacturing Research Centre (AMRC),
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang Selangor, MALAYSIA
4
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, MALAYSIA

Correspondence to:
M. F. M. Alkbir email: alkbir74@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to study the effect of fiber
content on the crashworthiness parameters (i.e.,
energy absorption and stroke efficiency) and the
failure modes of a non-woven kenaf (mat) fiber-
reinforced hexagonal composite tube. The composite
was prepared and fabricated using the hand-lay-up
method; fabrication was followed by axial
compression testing using an Instron 3382 machine.
Various fiber contents were considered, including
25%, 30%, 35% and 40%. A fiber content of 25% to
30% (mass percent) resulted in the best
crashworthiness parameters. Furthermore, the amount
of energy absorbed decreased as the fiber content
increased, as did the mean crash load and the stroke
efficiency. A few distinct failure modes were
identified during the experiments, including the
progressive failure mode, in which failure begins at
the top end of the tube, and the transverse crack
failure mode, which is associated with the
buckling failure mode; after the crash occurs, the top
or bottom end of the hexagonal tube begins to break
and is fragmented into small pieces.
Keywords: energy absorption, fiber content, kenaf
fiber, axial test.
Nomenclature
NFR Natural fiber reinforcement
Pm Mean crash load, kN
(Et): Total energy absorbed, kJ
SE Stroke Efficiency, %
CE Crash Efficiency, (-)
INTRODUCTION
Composite materials manufactured using natural
fibers and polymers such as kenaf, hemp, jute,
pineapple, palm oil, cocoa and pod husks have
become extremely attractive due to low density, cost,
purity, and environmental friendliness. Furthermore,
natural fibers absorb energy well [1-4].
In industrial applications, natural fiber composites
have already been used, and there is interest in using
NFR in the automobile, boating and aerospace
industries. NFR can reduce automotive mass and
prevent corrosion and adverse environmental effects.
Previously, the automotive industry used steel,
shifted to aluminum, and now it uses natural fibers.
Approximately 15% of the total mass of a vehicle is
due to the natural fibers used in its production [5].
Figure 1 shows the forecast growth in the use of
natural fibers by application in the United States from
2002 to 2005 [6].

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Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016

FIGURE 1. The growth outlook for natural fibers in the USA from
2000 to 2005 by application [6].
In the past two decades, many investigations have
defined crashworthiness as the ability of a vehicle to
save its occupants from harm in a sudden accident.
Therefore, crashworthiness is an important factor in
automobile and airplane design [7-9].
To understand the absorption of energy and failure
modes, a few parameters (e.g., shape and geometry)
that affect the crashworthiness of a composite tube
(e.g., the peak load, average crash load, crash force
efficiency, and specific energy absorption) are
selected. Values for some of these parameters that
help the tested tubes avoid fast buckling (including a
typical length of 50–150 mm and a wall thickness of
4-8 mm) have been determined in previous studies.
Furthermore, tubes with numerous shapes, such as
circular tubes [10-13], square tubes [14-16],
rectangular composite tubes [17], radial corrugated
composite and composite corrugated tubes [18],
hexagonal and octagonal cellular composite and
hexagonal ring systems [19, 20], composite elliptical
cones [10], and cone–tube–cone composite systems
[21] have been designed and used in the experiments.
Abdewi et al. [22] studied the effect of the
corrugation geometry on crash behavior and energy
absorption. Two types of tube, a circular composite
tube (CCT) and a radial corrugated composite tube
(RCCT) were used. The authors concluded that the
radial corrugated composite tube (RCCT) absorbed
more energy than the circular composite tube (CCT).
Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics
Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016
The fiber content is a very important factor that
affects a composite structure and its mechanical
properties. El-Shekeil et al. [23] investigated the
effect of the fiber content (at 20, 30, 40, and 50% by
mass) on the tensile, flexural, and impact properties
of kenaf bast fiber-reinforced TPU composites. The
composite specimens were prepared using the melt-
mixing and compression molding methods. The
sample with a fiber content of 30 % had the highest
tensile strength, and the tensile modulus increased
with the fiber content. There was an improvement in
the flexural strength and modulus as the fiber content
increased, as shown in Figure 2. Increasing in the
fiber content caused a decrease in the impact
strength.
Jawaid et al. [24] concluded that the tensile properties
increased with the amount of jute fiber in hybrid
composites. Currently, there are no investigations
that address the use of the fiber content as a
parameter that affects composite tubes. The main
objective of this study is to investigate the effect of
the fiber content on the crashworthiness parameters
and the failure modes of non-woven kenaf fiber (mat)
reinforced hexagonal composite tubes.
FIGURE 2. The effect of the fiber content on the tensile strength
and modulus [23].
EXPERIMENTS AND MATERIALS
Non-woven kenaf fiber (in the form of a mat) was
obtained from (IPSB) Innovative Pultrusion Sdn.
Bhd., Seremban, Malaysia. The resin and hardener
were from Chemical Pacific, Singapore. The kenaf
mat density was measured and found to be 0.17
g/cm3; its thickness was 4 mm. Figure 3 shows the
type of fiber used in this study. It comes in rolls and
is cut using a hand-cutting machine to the mandrel
shape shown in Figure 4.
76 http://www.jeffjournal.org
The Functions of the Matrix and the Non-Woven TABLE I. The properties of the epoxy resin used (D.E.R. ™
Kenaf Fiber 331™).
Reinforcing fibers are strong, stiff and effective at
improving the mechanical properties of composite Flexural strength (N/mm2) 96
materials. However, reinforcing fibers are often Flexural modulus (Kn/mm 2) 3
brittle and abrasive, lack toughness, and can 2
Tensile strength (N/mm ) 79
chemically degrade when exposed to the
environment. The matrix is weaker and less stiff but Elongation at break (% ) 4.4
tougher and often more chemically inert than the
fibers. The matrix supports the fibers and transfers
TABLE II. The mechanical properties of natural kenaf fiber.
the stress to them, allowing the fibers to carry most of
the load. In addition, the matrix protects the fibers Formulation RE
from physical damage and the environment.
3 0.13 - 0.17 [25, 26]
Bulk Density (g/cm )
Composite materials combine the advantages of the Modulus of electricity (GPa) 53 [27-29]
two constituents. The specifications of the kenaf fiber Elongation at break (%) 1.6–3.5 [29-33]
and epoxy used in this study are listed in Table I;
Table II lists the properties of the type of epoxy resin Tensile strength (MPa) 630-930 [29, 30, 32, 33]
(D.E.R. ™ 331™) and natural kenaf fiber used.
Moisture Content (%) 74 [34]

PREPARATION OF THE COMPOSITE

SPECIMENS
The composite specimens were fabricated using the
hand lay-up process, which is a low-cost option.
Simple and complex shapes can be made using this
process. The hand lay-up process is suitable for
making parts for prototypes because a high degree of
skill is not necessary for fabricating specimens.

The Fabrication Process

FIGURE 3. Non-woven kenaf fiber.
The composites were prepared and fabricated using
the hand-lay-up method. The final shapes of all
composites were the same. As shown in Figure 5,
first, a layer of wax was placed on the wooden mold
to ensure that it would be possible to extract the solid
composite tube from it. Thin plastic sheets were used
to cover the mold plate to ensure a perfect finish to
the product’s surface. Then, the reinforcing material,
non-woven kenaf mats chopped and cut to the mold’s
size, was placed on top of the nylon sheets on the
surface of the mold. Following the supplier’s
recommendation and the data sheet, the epoxy and
hardener were mixed together in a 2:1 ratio. To make
it ready for use, the matrix was stirred for
approximately five minutes. A brush was used to
apply the mixture to the surface of the fiber. Then,
the roller was pressed and rolled over the composite
to build up a suitable thickness. The pre-warping
mass of the fiber mat was recorded and divided by
the composite’s final mass to determine the fiber
content. The results for the samples were 25%, 30%,
35% and 40%. When the surface of a molded part is

FIGURE 4. The hand and electric cutting machines.

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Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016
smooth, strong adhesion between the layers of the
structure cannot always be obtained. This leads to a
decrease in the resistance of the tube to compression
loading. Insufficient mixing can adversely affect the
results.
The mixture was carefully applied to the surface of
the wooden mandrel. This step is necessary at the end
of the process is compaction of the composite to
remove the trapped bubbles- failure to accomplish
this can affect the results significantly. The non-
woven kenaf fiber/epoxy composite was then cured at
room temperature (32°C) for 48h to ensure that the
resin in the specimens cured uniformly and achieved
its optimum hardness. Finally, the cured tube was
extracted from the mandrel for testing.
VOID CONTENT
The presence of voids in a composite can reduce
mechanical and physical properties. During the
impregnation of the matrix with fiber during the
fabrication process, air or other volatiles become
trapped in the composite. The most general cause of
voids is the inability to remove all of the air present
in the kenaf or chopped fiber as it is mixed into the
matrix [35, 36]. To prevent the void content from
increasing during the hand lay-up process, the wet
composite can be rolled using hand rollers to
facilitate uniform resin distribution and remove air
pockets. This process is repeated until a smooth
surface is obtained.
FIGURE 5. A schematic diagram of the specimen.
Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics
Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016
The Experimental Procedure
An axial compression test was performed on
specimens of each type. A static axial compression
load was applied using an Instron 3382 universal
testing system with a full load range of 100 kN, as
shown in Figure 6. The load platens were set parallel
to each other prior to the initiation of the test. Three
tests were conducted for each specimen, which
contained two layers of fiber. The tests were
performed at a speed of 15 mm/min. The load and
displacement were recorded by an automatic data
acquisition system. The results of the best of the three
tests are presented; however, the results were
remarkably repeatable.
FIGURE 6. The Instron 3382 universal testing system.
THE CRASHWORTHINESS PARAMETERS
From a crashworthiness perspective, it is necessary to
design a vehicle to be able to absorb large amounts of
energy during an accident. The primary parameters
are the initial crash load, the average crash load, the
stroke efficiency, and the amount of energy absorbed.
The load-displacement relationship for composite
tubes, which includes the essential factors and the
primary regions, is shown in Figure 7. The primary
parameters for the load-displacement curve are:
• Crash zones: The pre-crash stage, crash
stages, and the compaction stage.
• Initial failure load: This load can be
determined directly from the curve. It is
followed by a considerable reduction in the
applied load.
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 • Mean crash load (Pm): This load is
determined by averaging the crash loads
applied throughout the post-crash stage.
• Total energy absorbed (Et): This is the
area under the load-displacement curve
during the post-crash stage; mathematically,
it is
Et
Stroke Efficiency (SE): This is the ratio of the
crashable length to the total length:
SE = Scr / Lt
THE CRASH EFFICIENCY PARAMETER
The crash efficiency is the ratio of the average force
to the maximum force,
CE =Favg /Fmax
Where Fmax is the peak force and Favg is the average
force. This ratio should be close to 1 in order to avoid
overstressing the material as it absorbs energy. The
average force is proportional to the amount of energy
absorbed, and the maximum force is proportional to
the maximum deceleration. Therefore, the crash
efficiency parameter highlights the capacity to absorb
energy while maintaining an acceptable deceleration.
FIGURE 7. A schematic of the load-displacement relationship for
composite tubes.
Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics
Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results for Tubes with Fiber Contents of 25%
The load-deformation history of the hexagonal
composite with a fiber content of 25% is shown in
Figure 8 (A and B). The onset of progressive
crashing occurs after a displacement equivalent to
approximately 3 mm. The initial decrease in the load-
displacement curve is nearly elastic; the displacement
(1) is associated with the linear deformation of the tube.
The load decreases sharply when the tube wall
cracks, dropping to 3 kN with a displacement of
approximately 9 mm. The onset of fluctuations in the
load is immediate. A progressive failure mode occurs
at this time, as shown in picture 3 accompanying
(2)
Figure 8A. A sudden increase in the load is observed
beginning at 55 mm, and the load reaches its
maximum value of 4.5 kN at about 70 mm
displacement. In the last stage, the tube loses its
resistance load capacity due to the transverse crack
(3) shown in picture 4 accompanying Figure 8B.
It is clear that there is a void between the fiber layers
that causes the middle of the tube to crash. This
feature is important because a break that begins at the
middle of the tube affects tube balance when it
crashes. A fracture at the middle of the tube provides
a guide to all aspects of fiber-matrix cohesion.
Results for Tubes with Fiber Contents of 30%
Two load-displacement curves for axially crashed
composite hexagonal tubes are shown in Figure 9 (A
and B). As the plate in the Instron machine plate
begins moving down, the tubes resist the load until
the first peak at 2.5 kN. Then, the load decreases
gradually. In the crashing stage, the load fluctuates
with the motion of the upper plate. There are internal
voids caused by gas bubbles as a result of increasing
the fiber content, leading to reductions in the
crashworthiness parameters. In the case of a fiber
content of 30%, the failure mode is buckling. Finally,
the tube begins to compact, which leads to a rapid
increase in the load.
Results for Tubes with Fiber Contents of 35%
The load-deflection curve for the specimen with a
fiber content of 35% is shown in Figure 10 (A and
B). This specimen experiences decreases in the load
because of the significant fiber structure. The load
reaches its minimum value of 0.6 kN at a
displacement of 18.5 mm. The tube then recovers
against the applied load, which peaks at about 2 kN
after 40 mm. In the delaminated areas, this is
79 http://www.jeffjournal.org
coupled with skewed cracks at the adjacent
interfaces, which appear as irregular transverse crack
lines in the pictures in Figure 10B. precrushing stage
4.5
Results for Tubes with Fiber Contents of 40% 4 void content
The deformation history for a tube with a fiber 3.5 lead to first
content of 40 % shows that the tube crashes in a 3 peak load

Load (kN)
manner similar to that of the tube with a fiber content
2.5
of 35%. The weaker interface due to inadequate
2
adhesion results in the reduction of the composite
strength and modulus due to the mutual abrasion of 1.5
fibers, resulting in fiber damage and fracture crack 1
initiation and growth due to void coalescence. 0.5
0
Figure 11 (A and B) includes photographs of the non- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
woven natural kenaf (mat)/epoxy composite tubes Displcement (mm)
with fiber contents of 40%. These are subjected to an (A)
axial compression test at a fixed (quasi-static) speed.
It is clearly observed that the tube’s fiber structure
fails. The crashing of the tube begins in a bulk mode
with a high stress concentration. Three distinct stages
of compression, which correspond to different energy
levels, are visible. The first stage is designated by the
elastic behavior of the load until the first peak (at
1.093 kN) followed by a second region in which the
energy is lost until the displacement reaches 53 mm
and the load reaches 0.337 kN. Finally, the third
region is characterized by the high fraction of energy
dissipated in the fiber fraction.

The resin outflow from a composite usually leads to

an undesirable void content during the fabrication
(B)
process. Voids are noted in all composites, as pointed
out in the pictures in Figures 8-11. This results in FIGURE 8. (A and B) Load-displacement curves for hexagonal
insufficient fluidity during the fabrication process, composite tubes with fiber contents of 25%.
resulting in uneven resin distribution and irregular
arrangement of fibers.

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Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016
 (A)

(A)

(B)

FIGURE 9. (A and B) Load-displacement curves for hexagonal

composite tubes with fiber contents of 30%.

(B)

FIGURE 10. (A and B) Load-displacement curves for hexagonal

composite tubes with fiber contents of 35%.

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Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016
 The amount of energy a structure is able to absorb
depends on the area under the load-displacement
curve. The energy absorption characteristics of non-
woven kenaf (mat)/epoxy composite hexagonal tubes
are calculated using Eq. (1) above and the load-
displacement curves that are based on to the fiber
contents of the tubes. Therefore, hexagonal tubes
with higher average crash loads are able to absorb
more energy, as shown in Figure 13.

(A)

FIGURE 13. The average crash load (Pm) for the non-woven kenaf
(mat)/epoxy hexagonal tubes.

A significant decrease in ability of the non-woven

kenaf/epoxy reinforced hexagonal tubes to absorb
energy is observed as the fiber content increases, as
shown in Figure 14. It can be seen that the maximum
amount of energy able to be absorbed (145 kJ) occurs
for a fiber content of 25%. Non-woven kenaf
(B)
fiber/epoxy contains of a large amount of matrix
FIGURE 11. (A and B) Load-displacement curves for hexagonal resin, which causes the fiber to adhere well.
composite tubes with fiber contents of 40%. Additionally, increasing the mass percentage of the
matrix increases the stiffness of the bio-composite
The Effect of the Fiber Content on the Ability of hexagonal tubes, as shown in Figure 14.
Non-Woven Kenaf Fiber/Epoxy Composite
Hexagonal Tubes to Absorb Energy
The energy lost by the natural fiber reinforced
hexagonal composite tubes during the compression
test is partly dissipated as fractures and vibrations
and partly absorbed by the laminate. Obviously,
crashing is a combination of different failure or
deformation modes that absorb different amounts of
energy, resulting in significant or more severe
damage.

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Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016

FIGURE 14. The energy absorbed (Et) by non-woven kenaf
(mat)/epoxy hexagonal tube specimen.
The Effect of Fiber Content on the Stroke
Efficiency (SE) of Nonwoven Kenaf /Epoxy
Composite Hexagonal Tubes
Stroke efficiency is related to the load fluctuations
that occur during the collapse of the composite tubes.
Hexagonal tubes can be used in the front of a vehicle
as essential structural parts that absorb the energy of
a frontal impact. The crashing length is limited by
applying an axial load to the specimen. The practical
use of the energy that exceeds the absorption limit
(when the tube is destroyed, this increases the level
of speed and ceases with a very small change in the
deformation) leads to an amount that exceeds the
given load as the maximum acceptable amount. The
ratio of the relative deformation of the absorber at
which compaction occurs to its original length, in
other words, the ratio between the crashable length
and the total length of the tube, is referred to as the
stroke efficiency (SE).
Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics
Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016
It can be seen in Table III that the higher the SE is,
the greater the capacity for energy absorption. Energy
absorbers should be crashable to provide a long
deformation path and a gradual deceleration for the
vehicle occupants.
Longer strokes result in improvements in the stroke
efficiency of the specimens packed with non-woven
kenaf (mat)/epoxy. The stroke efficiencies are 93%,
91% and 90% and 80% for the samples with fiber
contents of 25%, 30%, 35% and 40%, respectively.
The SE of the proposed hexagonal structure means
that it has potential for use in the transportation
sector. This behavior is highly desirable for the safety
of vehicle occupants. The advantages of non-woven
kenaf (mat)/epoxy-reinforced composite hexagonal
tubes are due to the specific failure mechanisms of
the materials.
THE EFFECT OF THE FIBER CONTENT ON
CRASHING BEHAVIOR AND FAILURE
MECHANISMS
Under axial compression testing, the hexagonal
composite structures containing 30% and 40% kenaf
fiber both fail in a brittle, buckling mode. The
mechanisms associated with this failure are the
lamina bending mode and the shatter or transverse
crack failure mode. During the tests, the buckling
failure mode and, on a smaller scale, the transverse
cracking that occurs during the crashing stage
dominated. On the outer and inner parts of the front
of the tube, long inter-laminar cracks form parallel to
the fibers; then, in the final stage of failure, the
destructive process of the laminar cracks is associated
with their fragmentation. The composite material
fails due to the presence of voids and its porosity.
For fiber contents of 25% and 30 %, the failure
mechanism of the hexagonal tubes is presented in
Figure 15a. The layers are bunched into the outside
of the tube. In addition, the resin with the fibers is
destroyed when the tube starts bending, as shown in
Figure 15b.
83 http://www.jeffjournal.org
TABLE III. The relationship between the crashing parameters (Ce, was shown that the resin outflow from a composite
Pm, SE and Et) and the fiber content
usually leads to an undesirable void content during
the fabrication process, an irregular arrangement of
Designation CE Pm kN SE % Et kJ
fibers and uneven resin distribution.
25% 0.716 2.433 93 145.99
30% 0.681 1.012 91 76.943 Various fiber contents, including 25%, 30%, 35%
35% 0.485 0.946 90 66.27 and 40% by mass, were axially compression
40% 0.122 0.415 80 20.79
tested using an the Instron 3382 system at a fixed
speed of 15 m/min. Based on the test data, the
following conclusions are possible:

1. The total amount of energy absorbed

decreases as the fiber content increases.
This is also the case for the stroke
efficiency.
2. Axial crashing results in decreasing stroke
efficiency, crash efficiency, tensile strain
and mean crashing load as the fiber content
increases.
3. A few distinct failure modes were identified
during the experimental tests of the
hexagonal composite tubes:
• A progressive failure mode in
which the failure starts at the top of
the tube.
(A) • A transverse crack failure mode is
associated with the buckling failure
mode.
• After the crash, the top or bottom
end of the hexagonal tubes starts to
break and is fragmented into small
pieces.
4. Kenaf fiber content of 25% to 30% results in
optimum values of the crashworthiness
parameters.

(B)
FIGURE 15A. A micrograph of the surface of the wall and the
failure modes of the tube.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the effects of different fiber contents on
crashing modes and the energy absorbed by
nonwoven kenaf (mat) composite hexagonal tubes
were investigated uneder axial compreson loads. It
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Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 86 http://www.jeffjournal.org

Volume 11, Issue 1 – 2016