IRLF

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OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
OR

Revived.. __

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HUMBOLDT LIBRARY
POPULAR SCIENCE LITERATURE.
No. 62.] NEW YORK :
J. FITZGERALD.

November, 1884. Entered at the New York Post-Office as Second-Class Matter. I ^Numbers
1

THE
OF THE

ANCIENT
BY GEORGE RAWLINSON,
WOR M.A.
|J

INTRODUCTION. ier flights. Conjecture is found to be

more amusing than induction, and an
"
Religio est, quae superioris cujusdam na-
ingenious hypothesis to be more at-
quam Divinam vocant, curam caerimo-
turae,
tractive than a proved law. Our " ad-
niamque affert." Cic. De Inventione, ii. 53.
vanced thinkers " advance to the fur-
1, IT is the fashion of the day to thest limits of human knowledge,
speculate on the origins of things. sometimes even beyond them and be- ;

Not content with observing the mech- witch us with speculations, which are
anism of the heavens, astronomers dis- as beautiful, and as unsubstantial, as
cuss the formation of the material uni- the bubbles which a child produces
verse, and seek in the phenomena with a little soap and water and a to-
which constitute the subject-matter of bacco-pipe.
"
their science for Vestiges of Crea- 3. Nor does even religion escape.
tion." Natural philosophers propound The historical method of inquiry into
theories of the "Origin of Species," the past facts of religion is in danger
and the primitive condition of man. of being superseded by speculations
"
Comparative philologists are no longer concerning what is called its philos-
satisfied to dissect languages, com- ophy," or its " science." are con- We
pare roots, or contrast systems of tinually invited to accept the views of
grammar, but regard it as incumbent this or that theorist respecting the
upon them to put forward views re- origin of all religions, which are attrib-
specting the first
beginnings of lan- uted either to a common innate idea
guage itself. or instinct, or else to a common mode
2. To deal with facts is thought to of reasoning upon the phenomena and
be a humdrum and commonplace em- experiences of human life. While the
ployment of the intellect, one fitted for facts of ancient religions are only just
the dull ages when men were content emerging from the profound obscurity
to plod, and when progress, develop- that has hitherto rested upon them,
" "
ment, the higher criticism were un- fancy is busy constructing schemes
known. The intellect now takes loft- and systems, which have about as
2 [SOj THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
much reality as the imaginations of a and Babylonians, Iranians, Sanskrit-
j

novelist or the day-dreams of an Al- ic Indians, Phoenicians, Etruscans,

naschar. The patient toil, the care- Greeks, and Romans.
ful investigation which real Science The religion of the Jews has been
requires as the necessary basis upon omitted, as sufficiently well known to
which generalization must proceed, all educated persons. The religions
and systems be built up, is discarded of ancient barbarous races have been
" short and "
for the easy method of excluded, as not having come down to
jumping to conclusions and laying us in any detail, or upon sufficiently
down as certainties what are, at the trustworthy evidence. The eight na-
best, "guesses at truth." tions selected have, on the contrary,
4. It is not the aim of the present left monuments and writings, more
" Science of Re-
writer to produce a or less extensive, from which it has
ligion," or even to speculate on the seemed to be possible to give a tolera-
possibility of such a science being ul- bly full account of their religious be-
timately elaborated when all the facts liefs, and one on which a fair degree
are fully known. He has set himself of dependence may be placed. No
a more prosaic and less ambitious doubt, as time goes on, and fresh dis-
task that, namely, of collecting ma- coveries are made of ancient docu-
terials which may serve as a portion rnents, or an increased insight ob-
of the data, when the time comes, if it tained into the true meaning of their
j

ever comes, for the construction of contents, we shall come to know much
|

the science in question. A

building more than we know at present on the
cannot be erected without materials subject here handled but it is confi-
; ;

a true science cannot be constructed dently believed that further research

without ample data. and study will only supplement, and
5. Careful inquiries
into the real not contradict, the views which are
nature of historical religions are nec- here put forward. The author will
essary preliminaries to the formation gladly see the sketch which he here
of any general theories on the subject attempts filled up and completed by
of religion worth the paper upon which others.
they are written. And such inquiries
have, moreover, a value in themselves.
" The
proper study of mankind is
CHAPTERI.

man " and the past history of the hu-

;
THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT
man race possesses an undying inter- EGYPTIANS.
est for the greater portion of educated
human kind. Of that past history 6eoaifl(; Trt
. . .

/ndAtora KCLVTUV avdpuiruv, HEROD, ii.

there is no branch more instructive,
and few more entertaining, than that 7. THE religions of the ancient
which deals with religious beliefs, world, if we except Judaism, seem to
opinions, and practices. Religion is have been, all of them, more or less
the most important element in the polytheistic but the polytheism grew
;

thought of a nation and it is by study- up in different ways,

;
was carried out
different lengths, and pro-
ing their religibns that we obtain the to very
best clue to the inner life and true ceeded upon considerably varying
character of the various peoples who principles. In some places natural
have played an important part in the objects and operations appear to have
drama of human affairs. presented themselves to the unso-
6. In the ensuing pages the relig- phisticated mind of man as mysteri-
ious tenets and practices of eight prin- ous, wonderful, divine and light, fire, ;

cipal nations of antiquity are passed the air,

the sun, the moon, the dawn,
in review the nations being those the cloud, the stream, the storm, the
with which ancient history is chiefly lightning, drew his attention sepa-
concerned the Egyptians. Assyrians ratelv and distinctly, each having
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [81]

qualities at which he marveled, each, multitudinousness, its complexity,

as he thought, instinct with life, and and the connection of this latter feat-
each, therefore, regarded as a Power, ure with early local diversities in the
a Being the natural and proper ob- names and offices of the gods. Wil-
Else- kinson, who does not profess to ex-
ject of worship and
reverence.
where, men seem to have begun with haust the subject, enumerates seventy-
a dim and faint appreciation of a three divinities, and gives their
single mysterious power in the world several names and forms.* Birch
without them, and to have gradually has a list of sixty-three "principal
"
divided this power up into its various deities,"t and notes that others per-
manifestations, which by degrees be- sonified the elements, or presided
came separate and distinct beings. over the operations of nature, the
The process in this case might stop seasons, and events."t It is not,
short after a few steps had been perhaps, too much to say, that the
taken, or it might be carried on Egyptian pantheon in its final form
almost interminably, until a pantheon comprised some hundreds of gods
had been formed in which the mind and goddesses, each known under a
lost itself. different name, and each discharging
8. Where the polytheism grew up more or less peculiar functions. We
out of an analysis, the principle of say, "each discharging more or less
the division might be either physical peculiar functions," since some deities
or metaphysical a separation of nat-
;
were so nearly alike, came so close
ure into its parts, or an analysis of the one to the other, that their iden-
the Being presiding over nature into tity or diversity is a moot point, still
his various .powers and attributes. disputed among Egyptologists. In
Or these two processes might be com- other cases the diversity is greater,
bined and intermixed, the pantheon yet still the features possessed in
being thus still further enlarged at common are so numerous that the
the expense of some confusion of gods can scarcely be considered
thought and complexity of arrange- wholly distinct, and, indeed, are not
ment. Again, occasionally, there unfrequently confounded together
was a further enlargement and com- and blended into a single personage.
plication, in consequence of the de- We hear of Amen-Ra, Amen-Kneph,
sire toembrace one system analy- Ra-Harmachis, Isis-Selk, Phthah-So-
in
ses which were really distinct, or to kari-Osiris, and the like. There is
comprise in a single national religion reason to believe that a main cause of
\

local diversities of arrangement or this multiplication of deities, nearly

nomenclature, or even to admit into a or quite the same, which at first sight
system based on one principle ele- seems so strange and unaccountable,
ments which belonged properly to is to be found in the originally local
systems based upon others. The character of many of the gods, and
whole result in such a case was one the subsequent admission of purely
of extensive complexity, and even provincial deities into the general
contradiction; a tangle was produced pantheon.
which it was scarcely possible to un- 10. With a view to educe order out
ravel. The system, however, gained
in richness and variety what it lost in *" Manners and Customs of the Ancient
logical sequence and intelligibility, Egyptians," vols. iv. and v. For the forms,
and continued to have a firm hold see his " Supplement," plates 21 to 72.
" "
t See his Dictionary of Hieroglyphics in
on the minds of many when religions Bunsen's " Egypt," vol. v. pp. 581-583.
" Guide to the British
of greater internal
consistency had J Museum," p. 4.
lost their power. An inscription of Rameses II. speaks
" the thousand
of gods, the gods male, the
9. The Egyptian polytheism was of those which are of the. land of
the character last described. Its
gods female,
"
Egypt (" Records of the Past," vol. iv. p.
most striking characteristics were its 31) but this phrase is no. doubt rhetorical.
;
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
of this multitudinous confusion, at- thus at variance, no certain list of
tempts were made by the Greeks, even the eight great gods can be put
and perhaps by some of the later forward.
Egyptians themselves, to classify the 11. The twelve gods of the second
deities, and divide them into certain order are still more indeterminate.
ranks or orders, each of which should Two lists have been formulated, one
comprise a certain definite number. by Sir G. Wilkinson, and the other by
Herodotus speaks of a first, a second, the late Baron Bunsen, but each in-
and a third order,* and assigns posi- cludes three deities which are excluded
* The formation of such
tively to the first order eight, and to by the other.
1

the second twelve gods, leaving the lists is mere guess-work and the con- ;

third rank indeterminate. Some clusion to be drawn from the attempts

traces of a similar classification are made is that, while the Egyptians rec-
found in some of the native writers ;f ognized a gradation of ranks among^
and it is generally agreed that a dis- their deities, and assigned to some a
tinction of ranks was recognized position of decided
; superiority, to
but when an endeavor is made to others one, comparatively speaking,
specify the gods of each rank, insur- inferior, there was no " hard-and-fast
"
mountable difficulties present them- line separating rank from rank, or
selves. It seems clear that even the order from order, nor was any definite
first eight gods were not established number of divinities reckoned in any

by the general consent of the nation division.

in all parts of Egypt, and probable 12. Still, we can easily particularize
that in one and the same place they the principal divinities, the gods which
were not always the same at different were the chief objects of worship,
periods. According to what seems either in the main centers of popu-
the earliest tradition, the eight names lation, or throughout the country.
were those of Phthah, Ra, Shu (or There can be no doubt that to this
Kneph),$ Seb, Osiris, Isis, Set, and class belong Ammon, Khem, Kneph,
Horus according to the latest re- Phthah, Ra, Osiris, and Neith. Am-
;

searches, they were, at Memphis, mon was the chief god of Thebes,
Phthah, Shu, Tefnu, Seb, Nu (or Khem of Chemmis, or Panopolis,
Nut), Osiris, Isis, and Athor while Kneph of Elephantine, Phthah of
;

at Thebes they were Ammon, Mentu, Memphis, Ra of Heliopolis, Osiris of

Turn (or Atum), Shu, Seb, Osiris, Abydos and Philae, Neith of Sais. It
Set, and Horus. Others have will perhaps be a better illustration of
thought to find them in Ammon, the Egyptian religion to give a partic-
Khem, Maut, Kneph, Sati, Phthah, ular though brief account of these
Neith, and Raj or in this list with a seven deities than to waste pages in
single change that of the last name, generalities.
for which it is proposed to substitute 13. Ammon
is said to have meant,
that of Bast or Pasht.H" It is evident etymologically, "the concealed
"
that, while the chief authorities are god y and the idea of
;
was Ammon
that of a recondite, incomprehensible
* Herod, ii.
43.
" Chron. Can."
t As Manetho (ap. Euseb.
i.
* Bunsen's list consists of
19).
t The name given is Agathodaemon, who Chons *Bast *Ma Savak
is thought to represent one or other of these Thoth *Athor Tafne Seb
gods. Turn Shu Mentu Netpe ;

See Birch's "Egypt from the Earliest Wilkinson's of

Times to B.C. 300," Introduction, pp. x. xi., *Ra Khons Shu Savak
and compare " Guide to the British Muse- Seb Tafne *Anouke *Seneb
um," p. 12. Turn
Netpe Thoth Mentu.
Bunsen's "Egypt's Place in
||
Ancient The peculiar names are marked with an as-
History," vol. i. pp. 366-367. terisk.
" "
Tf Wilkinson, in Rawlinson's Herodotus," t Manetho ap. Plutarch, De Isid. et Osir."
vol. ii. pp. 284-286 (32d edition). s.
" De
9 ; lamblich, Mysteriis," viii. 3.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 188]

divinity, remote from man, hidden,
mysterious, the proper object of the
profoundest reverence. Practically,
this idea was too abstract, too high-
flown, too metaphysical, for ordinary
minds to conceive of it and so Am-
;
" the
god who has made the sun and
moon to revolve under the heaven and
above the world, and who has made
the world and all that is in it." * Some
representations exhibit him as a potter
with his wheel and the inscriptions
;

mon was at an early date conjoined accompanying them assign to him the
with Ra, the Sun, and worshiped as formation of gods and men. It is
Ammon-Ra,* a very intelligible god, perhaps as a procreating principle
neither more nor less than the phys- that he is figured commonly with the
ical sun, the source of light and life, head of a ram. Kneph was wor-
" the lord of existences and
support shiped chiefly in Upper Egypt, at
of all things."t Elephantine and the Cataracts but ;

14. Khem was the generative princi- he was acknowledged also at Thebes,
ple, the power of life and growth in at Antseopolis, and elsewhere.
nature. He was rudely and coarsely 1 6. Phthah, whom the Greeks iden-

represented as a mummied figure, with tified with their Hephaistos, and the
phallus in front, and forms an un- Romans with their Vulcan, was a cre-
sightly object in the sculptures. He ator of a more vulgar type than Kneph
presided primarily over the vegetable or Khem. He was an artisan god, the
world, and was the giver of fertility actual manipulator of matter, and di-
and increase, the lord of the harvest, rect maker of the sun, the moon, and
and the patron of agriculture. But the earth. He is called, " the father
" the
the human species and the various of the beginnings," first of the
kinds of animals were also under his gods of the upper world," " he who
" the
charge, and from him obtained con- adjusts the world by his hand,"
tinuance. He is
" the of lord of the beautiful
called, king countenance,"
the gods," "the lifter of the hand," and " the lord of truth." f He is also
" the lord of the " the "
crown," power- defined by an ancient writer \ as the
ful," and further bears the special god who creates with truth." We find
"
title of Kamutf, bull of his mother," him represented under three quite dif-
in allusion to the relation which he ferent forms, as a man walking or sit-
bore to Nature. ting, as a mummied figure, accompan-
"
15. Kneph was the divine spirit or ied by the emblem of stability," and
soul considered as forming the scheme as a pigmy or dwarf. A
figure of this
of creation. His name is by some last description provoked the ridicule
connected etymologically with the of Cambyses, the Persian conqueror
"
Egyptian word for breath," which of Egypt, who "entered the grand
is nef; and curious analogies are temple of Phthah at Memphis, and
traced between him and the third Per- made great sport of the image."
son of the Holy Trinity in the Chris- Forms of Phthah are found consist-
tian system. ||
As " the Spirit of God " ing of two figures placed back to back,
at the time of the creation "moved and even of three figures placed at
upon the face of the waters," so an angle. These seem, however, to
Kneph is represented as the deity represent combinations of Phthah
who presides over the inundations. As with other nearly allied gods, and are
the heavens were made by the " breath called commonly " figures of Phthah-
of God's mouth," so Kneph is called, Sokari," or of " Phthah-Sokari-Osiris."
17. Ra was the Egyptian sun-god,
* See " Records of the and was especially worshiped at Heli-
Past," vol. ii. pp. 21,
31, etc. ;
vol. iv. pp. n, 16, etc.
t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 129, 1. 12. * Bunsen, vol. i. p. 377.
" Records " Records of the Past," vol. viii.
\ of the Past," vol. viii. p. 142. t pp. 5-15 ;
" "
Bunsen, Egypt's Place," vol. i. p. 375. Birch, Guide to the British Museum," p. 13.
" Ancient " De
tl Wilkinson. Egyptians," vol. iv. J lamblichus, Mysteriis," viii. 3.

p. 236. Herod, iii.

37.
 THE RELIGIONS <JJt- i ilE ANCIENT WORLD.

opolis. Obelisks, according to some,* man, standing or walking. He carries

and were always,
n- presented his rays, in his two hands the crook and the
or usually, erected in his honor. flagellum or whip, and commonly
Heliopolis was certainly one of the wears on his head the crown of Upper
places which were thus adorned, for Egypt, with a plume of ostrich feather
one of the few which still stand erect on either side of it. A special char-
in Egypt is on the site of that city. acter of goodness attaches to him.
The kings for the most part consid- find him called, " the manifester
We
ered Ra their special patron and pro- of good," "full of goodness and
tector; nay, they went so far as to truth," "the beneficent spirit," "be-
"
identify themselves with him, to use neficent in will and words," mild of
his titles as their own, and to adopt heart,"
" and fair
and beloved of all
his name as the ordinary prefix to who see him." *
their own names and titles. This is 19. Neith, or Net, the goddess of
believed by many to have been the Sais, was identified by the Greeks f
origin of the word Pharaoh, f which with their Athene (Minerva), but
was, it is thought, the Hebrew render- does not appear to have been really a
ing of Ph' Ra
=
" the sun." Ra is
goddess of wisdom. She was the fe-
sometimes represented simply by a male correspondent of Khem, the
disk, colored red, or by such a disk conceptive element in nature, as he
with the ankh, or symbol of life, at- was the generative. Her titles are,
" "
tached to it but more commonly he
;
the mother," the mistress of
has the figure of a man, with a hawk's heaven," "the elder goddess." $ She
head, and above it the disk, accom- is represented in the form of a woman
panied by plumes, or by a serpent. standing, and wearing on her head the
The beetle (scarabaeus) was one of crown of Lower Egypt. In her left
his emblems. As for his titles, they hand she carries a scepter, sometimes
are too numerous to mention the accompanied by a bow and two ar-
:

" "
Litany of Ra % alone contains rows in her right she bears the ankh, ;

some hundreds of them. or symbol of life. One of the signs

1 8. Osiris was
properly a form of with which her name is written re-
Ra. He was the light of the lower sembles a shuttle; from which fact,
world, the sun from the time that he combined with her carrying a bow and
sinks below the horizon in the west to arrpws, she has been called, " the god-
the hour when he reappears above dess of war and weaving." Her
the eastern horizon in the morning. worship was not very widely spread,
This physical idea was, however, at a nor is she often mentioned in the in-
later date modified, and Osiris was scriptions.
generally recognized as the perpetu- ^20. No part of the Egyptian religion
ally presiding lord of the lower world, was so much developed and so multi-
the king and the judge of Hades or plex as their sun worship. Besides ||

Amenti. His worship was universal Ra and Osiris there were at least six
throughout Egypt, but his chief tem-
* " Records of the Past," vol. iv.
ples were at Abydos and Philae. Or- pp. 99-
103; Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol.
dinarily he was represented in a iv.
p. 320.
mummied form as the god of the dead, t Plat.
" Tim."
p. 22, A Cic.
" De
Nat. ;

but sometimes he appears as a living Deor." iii. p. 248.

"
J Bunsen, Egypt's Place," vol. i. p. 386;
" Ancient
*
Zoega, "De Obeliscis;" Plin. "H. N." Wilkinson, Egyptians," vol. iv" p.
xxxvi. 8, s. 14. 285.
Rawlinson's " Herod-
"
t So Wilkinson (in Birch, Guide to Museum," p. 13.
otus," vol. ii.
p. 181, note i) and others. Birch goes as far as to say, that " most
||

But the derivation from Pfi'ouro^ " the king," of the gods were connected with the sun, and
is perhaps as probable. represented that luminary in its passage
" "
J See Records of the Past," vol. viii. pp. through the upper or lower hemisphere
105-128. ("Guide," p. n); but this seems to be an
Herod, ii. 42, with Wilkinson's note. exaggeration.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORL1X
other deities who had a distinctly so- most any act of man, might be taken
lar character. These were Shu, Aten, eparately and personified, the personi-
Horus or Harmachis, Turn or Atum, fication becoming thenceforth a
god
Khepra, and Mentu. Shu was the or goddess.
sun's light, Aten the sun's disk, Har, 23. A
class of deities possessing a
or Har-em-akhu (Horus or Harma- very peculiar character remains to be
chis), the sun at his rising Turn (or
noticed. ;
These are the malevolent
Atum) the same luminary at his set-
deities. Set or Sutech, the great
ting Khepra was the life-giving power
; enemy of Osiris, a god with the head
of the sun while Mentu was a provin-
;
of a griffin or giraffe Bes, according ;

cial sun-god, adopted into the gener- to some,* the god of death Taouris ;

al pantheon. Athor, moreover, the the wife of Bes and Apap, or Apepi, ;

mother of Ra, and Isis, the sister and the great serpent, generally repre-
wife of Osiris, were in some sort sun- sented as slain by Horus.t All these
goddesses, and bore upon their heads were distinctly malignant and evil
the disk of Ra, to mark their close deities their representations were, in
;

connection with the great luminary. every case, more or less hideous and
21. Compared with the worship of grotesque they were all feared and
;

the sun, that of the moon was quite hated, but nevertheless worshiped ;

secondary and insignificant. Two their figures were worn as charms,

gods only, Khons and Thoth, had, and even temples were built in their
properly speaking, a lunar character.* honor.
Of these Khons was the moon-god 24. While the entire pantheon of
simply, while Thoth combined with Egypt was thus multiform and mani-
his lunar aspect, somewhat curiously, fold, practically the deities who re-
"
the character of the god of letters." ceived worship in each several town
He was represented with the head of and district were but few. Local
an ibis and the ibis and cynocepha-
;
triads were almost universally recog-
lous ape were sacred to him. Both he nized, and in each place its special
and Khons commonly bear on their triad monopolized, so to say, the relig-
heads a crescent and disk, emblem- ious regards of the inhabitants. $ At
atic respectively of the new and the Memphis, the established triad con-
full moon. sisted of Phthah, Sekhet, and Turn ;

22. Other deities of some impor- at Thebes, of Ammon- Ra, Maut, and
tance in the religious system were Khons at Heliopolis of Ra, Nebhept ;

Maut, the consort of Ammon, who (= Athor), and Horus at Elephan- ;

represented matter or nature Sati, tine of Kneph, Sati, and Anuke at

; ;

the consort of Kneph, a sort of Egyp- Abydos, of Osiris, Isis, and Horus ;

tian Juno; Sekhet, the consort of at Ombos, of Savak, Athor, and

Phthah, usually represented as lion- Khons at Silsilis, of Ra, Phthah, and
;

headed, or cat-headed Seb, the Egyp- the Nile god, Hapi or Neilus. Some-
;

tian Saturn Hanhar (Onuris), the times a fourth god or goddess was as-
;

Egyptian Mars Sabak or Savak, the sociated with the principal three, as
;

crocodile-headed god Anuke, a war Bast at Memphis, Neith at Thebes,

;

goddess Nebta (Nephthys), sister of Nephthys at Abydos, and Hak at Ele-

;

Osiris and Isis Nut or Netpe, god- phantine but the fourth was always
; ;

dess of the firmament and Ma, god- quite subordinate.

; Occasionally a
dess of truth. The Egyptians had
also gods of taste and touch, of silence, * So Wilkinson ("Ancient Egyptians,"
of writing, of medicine, of the harvest, vol. iv. p. 431). Others regard Bes as" sim-
a name of Set or Typhon (Birch, Dic-
etc. Almost any fact of nature, al- ply of tionary Hieroglyphics," p. 581). "
"
1 Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians," Sup-
*
Representations of Osiris are found as plement," pi. 42.
Osiris- Aah (Birch, " Guide to Museum," p. |
"
Egypt from the Earliest Times,"
" In-
"
15), or "Osiris, the moon-god;" but these troduction," p. xi. Wilkinson,
;
Ancient
are pnrelv abnormal. Egyptians," vol. iv. pp. 230-233.
8 j86j THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

cityrecognized more than one triad had a more local character. Lions,
;

for instance, Silsilis held in honor, emblems of Horus and Turn, were sa-
besides Ra, Phthah, and Hapi, a triad cred at Leontopolis crocodiles, em- ;

consisting of Set, Thoth, and Netpe blems of Savak, at Crocodilopolis and

;

and another comprising Ammon, Ra, in the Fayoum generally wolves or ;

and Savak. jackals, emblems of Anubis, at Lyco-

25.Another peculiar feature of the polis shrew-mice, emblems of Maut, ;

Egyptian religion, and one which, at Buto and Athribis hippopotami ;

though it may have had some redeem- emblems of Set and Taouris, at Pa-
1

ing points,* must be pronounced on premis antelopes at Coptos ibexes ; ;

the whole low and degrading, was the and frogs at Thebes goats at Mendu ; ;

worship of live animals. In the first vultres at Eileithyia ; fish at Latopolis ;

instance, certain animals seem to have ichneumons at Heracleopolis and ;

been assumed as emblems of certain pther animals elsewhere. Each town

gods,t from some real or fancied was jealous for the honor of its special
analogy after which, in course of favorites
;
and quarrels broke out ;

time, the animals themselves came to between city and city, or between
be regarded as sacred ; specimens of province and province, in connection
them were attached to the temples, with their sacred animals, which led
kept in shrines, and carefully fed and in some cases to violent and prolonged
riurtured during life, and at death em- conflicts, in others to a smoldering
balmed and buried in sacred reposi- but permanent hostility. It is diffi-
tories, while the entire species had a cult to say how much of the religious
sacred character assigned to it univer- sentiment of the nation was absorbed
sally or partially. Animals of these by these unworthy objects but there ;

kinds it was unlawful to kill, either in is no just ground that

for believing
Egypt generally, or within the limits the animal worship, absurd as it may
within which they were honored; if have been, interfered seriously with
they died, their death was mourned, the reverence and respect which were
and they were carefully buried by paid to the proper deities.
those who found them, or to whom 27. The worst, and most pronounced
they belonged, with more or less cere- ! form of the animal worship has still
mony.t Of animals universally sa- j
to be mentioned. In some instances
cred the principal were cows and heif- the belief was, not that a particular
ers, which were sacred to Athor cy- ;
class of animals had a sacred charac-
nocephalous apes and ibises, which ter, but that a deity absolutely became
were sacred to Thoth cats, which ; incarnate in an individual animal,
were sacred to Bast hawks, which
; and so remained till its death. Ani-
were sacred to Ra and perhaps asps,
;
mals to which this was supposed to
though this is uncertain. Sheep, es- have happened were actual gods, and
pecially rams, were generally regarded received the most profound venera-
as sacred, being emblems of Kneph : tion that it was possible to pay.
and dogs, though not assigned to any Such were the Apis bulls, of which a
special deity, held a similar position. succession was maintained at Mem-
26. The worship of other animals phis, in the temple of Phthah, incarna-
to some, of Phthah,*
* The sacred character of cows and heifers tions, according
to others of Osiris,t which
secured a continual increase in the stock of according
cattle that of cats and ichneumons, of ibises, were among the objects of worship
;

hawks, and vultures, preserved those useful most venerated by the Egyptians.
animals, of which the two former kept the Such,
again, were the Mnevis bulls
houses free from mice and snakes, while the
of Heliopolis, incarnations of Ra or
three latter were admirable scavengers.
t As the vulture of Maut, the ibis of Thoth,
* See Birch, "
and the ram of Kneph, etc.
"
Egypt from the Earliest
| Herod, ii. 66, 67, with*Wilkinson's notes. Times," Introduction," p. xii.
"
So AVilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," t Wilkinson, in Rawlinson's Herodotus,"
vol. v. p. ^43. vol. ii.
p. 428, note 2.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Turn, and the Bacis or Pacis bulls of echo with their joyous acclamations.
I

Hermonthis, incarnations of Horus. The worship was 'concluctecj chiefly

|

These beasts, maintained at the cost by means of rhythmic lit^toes

of the priestly communities in the hymns, in which an&v prayer
great temples of their respective cities were blended, the latter predominat- "
were perpetually adored and prayed ing.* ing.* Ceremonv followed cerSfoW*
Ceremony
to by thousands during their lives, The calendar was crowded with fes-
and at their deaths were entombed tivals and a week rarely passed with-
; *
with the utmost care in huge sarcoph- out the performance of some special
agi, while all Egypt went into mourn- rite, some annual observance, having
its own peculiar attractions.
ing on account of their decease. Foreign-
28. The external manifestation of ers beheld with astonishment the al-
religion in Egypt was
magnificent most perpetual round of religious ser-
and splendid. Nowhere did
religious vices, which engaged, or at any rate
ceremonial occupy a larger part in seemed to engage, the main attention
the life of a people. In each city and of all ranks of the people.
town, one or more grand structures 29. Belief in a future life was a main
upreared themselves above the rest principle of the Egyptian religion.
of the buildings, enriched with all Immediately after death, the soul, it
that Egyptian art could supply of was taught, descended into the lower
painted and sculptured decoration, world (Amenti), and was conducted
dedicated to the honor and bearing to the " Hall of Truth," where it was
the name of some divinity or divinities. judged in the presence of Osiris, and
The image of the great god of the of his forty-two assessors, the " Lords
place occupied the central shrine, ac- of Truth," and judges of the dead.
companied in most instances by two Anubis, the son of Osiris, who was
or three contemplar gods or goddesses. called " the director of the weight,"
Around were the chambers of the brought forth a pair of scales, and
priests, and further off court after after placing in one scale a figure or
court, some pillared, some colonnaded, emblem of Truth, set in the other
and all more or less adorned with a vase containing the good deeds of
sculpture and painting, the entrance the deceased, Thoth standing by the
to them lying through long avenues while, with a tablet in his hand,
of sphinxes or obelisks, which con- whereon to record the result. t If
ducted to the propylaea, two gigantic the good deeds were sufficient, if they
towers flanking the main doorway.* weighed down the scale wherein they
A perpetual ceremonial of the richest were placed, then the happy soul was
kind went on within the temple walls permitted to enter " the boat of the
;

scores of priests, with shaven heads sun," and was conducted by good
and clean white linen garments,! spirits to the Elysian fields (Aahlu),
crowded the courts and corridors to the " Pools of Peace," and the
;

long processions made their way up dwelling-places of the blest. If, on

or down the sphinx avenues, incense the contrary, the good deeds were
floated in the air, strains of music re- insufficient, if the scale remained
sounded without pause, hundreds of suspended in the air, then the unhappy
victims were sacrificed everywhere soul was sentenced, according to the
;

a holiday crowd, in bright array,

cheerful and happy, bore its part in *See the "Litany of Ra," and the
" "
the festival, and made the courts re- Hymns to Osiris, Amen, " Amen-Ra, and
Ra-Harmachis, published in Records of the
Past," vol. ii. pp. 105-134; vol. iv. pp. 99-
* These towers have been
compared, with 104; vol. vi. pp. 99-101 ; and vol. viii. pp. 131-
some reason, to those which commonly adorn I34-
the western fagade of our cathedrals. (Fer- " Ancient
t Wilkinson, Egyptians," vol.
"
gusson, History of Architecture," vol. i. p. v. pp. 314, 315. Representations of the
scene are frequent in the tombs, and in the
" Ritual of
t Herod, ii.
37. many copies of the the Dead."
10 [86] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

degree of its ill go through sarcophagi covered with lids that it

deserts, to
a round of transmigrations in the
bodies of animals more or less un-
clean the number, nature, and dura-
;
tion of the transmigrations depending
on the degree of the deceased's demer-
was scarcely possible to lift, or even
to move. Hence if a man was wealthy,
tie spent enormous sums on
making
himself a safe and commodious, an ele-
gant and decorated tomb either pil- ;

its, and the consequent length and se- .ng a pyramid over his sarcophagus, or
verity of the punishment which he de- excavating deep into the solid rock, and
served, or the purification which he preparing for his resting-place a remote
needed. Ultimately, if after many chamber at the end of a long series of
trials sufficient purity was not attained,
galleries. With the notion, probably,
the wicked soul, which had proved it- that it would be of use to him in h'is
self incurable, underwent a final sen- passage through Amenti to Aahlu, he
tence at the hands of Osiris, judge of took care to have the most important
the dead, and, being condemned to passages from the sacred book enti-
"
complete and absolute annihilation, tled the Ritual of the Dead," either
was destroyed upon the steps of inscribed on the inner part of the coffin
Heaven by Shu, the Lord of Light.* in which he was to lie, or painted on
The good soul, having first been freed his mummy bandages, or engraved
from its infirmities by passing through upon the inner walls of his tomb.*
the basin of purgatorial fire guarded Sometimes he even had a complete
by the four ape-faced genii, was made copy of the book buried with him, no
the companion of Osiris, for a period doubt for reference, if his memory
of three thousand years, after which failed to supply him with the right in-
it returned from Amenti, re-entered vocation or prayer at the dangerous
its former body, rose from the dead, parts of his long journey.
and lived once more a human life 31. The thought of death, of judg-
upon the earth. This process was ment, of a sentence to happiness or
gone through again and again, until misery according to the life led on
a certain mystic cycle of years be- earth, was thus familiar to the ordi-
came complete, when, to crown all, nary Egyptian. His theological no-
the good and blessed attained the tions were confused and fantastical ;

final joy of union with God, being but he had a strong and abiding con-
absorbed into the divine essence viction that his fate after death would
from which they had once emanated, depend on his conduct during his life
and so attaining the full perfection on earth, and especially on his ob-
and true end of their existence. servance of the moral law and per-
30. With their belief in a future formance of his various duties.f
life, and their opinions regarding the
fate of good and bad souls, were bound *Bunsen, "Egypt's Place," vol. v. pp. 127-
up in the closest way their arrange- 129.
t See Birch, "Egypt from the Earliest
ments with respect to dead bodies, and
Times," p. 46 "The Egyptian enjoyed all
:

their careful and elaborate prepara- the

pleasures of existence, and delighted more
tion of tombs. As each man hoped in the arts of peace than war. In his relig-
to be among those who would be re- ious belief the idea of a future state, and prob-
of the transmigration of souls, was ever
ceived into Aahlu, and after dwelling ably
present to his mind, while and his long life
with Osiris for three thousand years was one
preparation for death to be devoted
would return to earth, and re-enter or pious to the gods, obedient to the wishes
their old bodies, it was requisite that of his sovereign, affectionate toward his wife
and children, were the maxims inculcated for
bodies should be enabled to resist de- his domestic or inner life. that cir-
Beyond
cay for that long period. Hence the cle his duties tomankind were comprised in
entire system of embalming, of swath- giving bread to the hungry, drink to the
clothes to the naked, oil to the
ing in linen, and then burying in stone thirsty,
wounded, and burial to the dead. On the ex-
ercise of good works he rested his hopes of
* Birch, "Guide to
Museum," pp. 14, 15. passing the ordeal of the future and great
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT \Y;:RL1>. 11

32. The better educated Egyptian the divine wisdom, Ammon the divine
had a firmer grasp of the truths of mysteriousness or incomprehensibility,
natural religion. Below the popular Osiris the divine goodness. It may

mythology there lay concealed from not be always easy to say what is the
general view, but open to the educated exact quality, act, or part of nature
classes, a theological system which which is represented by each god and
was not far removed from pure " nat- goddess but the principle was clear
;

ural theology." The real essential and beyond a doubt. No educated

unity of the divine nature was taught Egyptian priest certainly, probably no
and insisted on. The sacred texts educated layman, conceived of the
"
spoke of a single being, the sole pro- popular gods as really separate and
ducer of all things in heaven and distinct beings. All knew that there
earth, himself not produced of any," was but one god, and understood that
"
the only true living God, self-origi- when worship was offered to Khem,
"
nated," who exists from the begin- or Phthah, or Maut, or Thoth, or Am-
" who has made all
ning," things, but mon, the one god was worshiped un-
has not himself been made." * This der some one of his forms, or in some
being seems never to have been rep- one of his aspects. Hence, in the sol-
resented by any material, even sym- emn hymns and chants, which were
bolical form.f It is thought that he composed by the priests to be used in
had no name, or, if he had, that it the various festivals, the god who is
must have been unlawful to pronounce for the time addressed receives all the
"
or write it.$ Even Ammon, the con- highest titles of honor, and even has
cealed God," was a mere external ad- the names of other gods freely assigned
umbration of this mysterious and un- to him, as being in some sort identical
approachable deity. He was a pure with them. Thus in one hymn, Hapi,
spirit, perfect in every respect, all- the Nile god, is invoked as Ammon
wise, all-mighty, supremely, perfectly and Phthah;* in another, Osiris as
good. Ra and Thoth f while in a third Ra ;

33. Those who grasped this great is Khem and Ammon, Turn and Horus
truth understood clearly that the many and Khepra all in one,$ and though
"
gods of the popular mythology were spoken of as begotten of Phthah,"
mere names, personified attributes of is "the good god," "the chief of all
" the ancient of
the one true Deity, or parts of the nat- the gods," heaven,"
"
ure which he had created, considered the lord of all existences," the sup-
as informed and inspired by him. port of all things." |j

Num or Kneph represented the crea- 34. It is not altogether easy to say
tive mind Phthah the creative hand, what the educated Egyptian believed
or act of creating Maut represented with respect to evil. The myth of
;

matter, Ra the sun, Khons the moon, Osiris represented him as persecuted
Seb the earth, Khem the generative by his brother, Set or Sutech, who
power in nature, Keith the conceptive murdered him and cut up his body
power, Nut the upper hemisphere of into several pieces, after which he
heaven, Athor the lower world or un- was made war upon by Horus, Osiris'
der hemisphere Thoth personified son, and in course of time deposed
;

and thrust down to darkness.lT In

and the latter mythology Set and Bes,
judgment, reaching the Aahlu or Elysian
fields, and Pools of Peace of the Egyptian Taouris and Apepi were distinctly
paradise."
* Lenormant, "
Manuel d'Histoire An- * " Records of the Past," vol. iv. p. 107, 11-

cienne," vol. i.
p. 522. Similar phrases are 4 and n.
frequent in the religious inscriptions.
all t Ibid. p. 103, par. 24, adfin.
"
(See Records of the Past," vol. ii. pp. 129- \ Ibid. vol. h. pp. 130, 131, and 133.
132; vol. iv. pp. 99-100; vol. vi. 100, etc.))' Ibid. p. 129, 1. 20.
t Wilkinson, " Ancient 2-12.
Ibid.
Egyptians," vol. iv. I! 11.
" Ancient
p. 178. IT Wilkinson, Egyptians," vol. ir.
Ibid. PP- 3 2 9-333-
 -
[901 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

malignant beings, personifications, some that the religion of the educated

apparently, of an evil principle ; and Egyptians comprised a recognition
from the inscriptions and papyri of of the doctrine of the Trinity. The
this period, we should gather that learned Cudworth in the seventeenth
the Egyptian religion was dualist ic,century undertook to prove that a
and comprised the idea of a constant doctrine closely resembling the Chris-
and interminable struggle between tian had been taught by the Egyptian
the powers of light and darkness, priests many centuries before Christ,*
of good and evil a struggle in which and some moderns have caught at his
;

there was some superiority on the statements, and laid it down that the
part of good, but no complete victory, doctrine of the Trinity maybe traced
not even a very decided preponder- to an Egyptian source. But there is
ance. On the other hand, as we go really not the slightest ground for
back and examine carefully the more this assertion. Cudworth's argu-
ancient monuments and the earlier ments were long ago met and refuted
writings, we find less and less trace by Mosheim ; f and modern investiga-
of this antagonism; we find Set or tion of the Egyptian remains has but
Sutech spoken of as "great," "glo- confirmed Mosheim's conclusions.
?> *
rious ; we find that the kings iden- The Egyptians held the unity of God ;

tify themselves with him,f build him

but their unity had within it no trinity.
magnificent temples, and make him God with them was absolutely one in
numerous offerings. $ It is doubtful essence, and when divided up, was
whether at this time any notion existed divided, not into three, but into a
of evil or malignancy attaching to Set. multitude of aspects. It is true that
If it did, we must suppose the early they had a fancy for triads but a ;

creed to have been that "the bad triad is not a Trinity. The triads are
was a necessary part of the universal not groups of persons, but of attrib-
system, and inherent in all things utes the three are not coequal, but
;

"
equally with the good and so, ; distinctly the reverse, the third in the
that divine honors were due to the triad being always subordinate nor;

is the division regarded as in

gods representing the principles of any case
disorder and evil no less than to those exhaustive of the divine nature, or ex-
representing the opposite principles. clusive of other divisions. Moreover,
The change of view with regard to as already observed, the triad is fre-
Set may have been connected to some quently enlarged by the addition of a
extent with national rivalries, for Set fourth person or character, who is
was, beyond a doubt, the special god associated as closely with the other
of the Hyksos,|| the foreign con- three as they are -with each other.
querors of Egypt, whom after-ages Cudworth's view must therefore be
detested, and also of the Khita or set aside as altogether imaginary ;

Hittites,1[ with whom the Pharaohs of and the encomiast of the Egyptian
the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twen- religion must content himself with
tieth dynasties were engaged in con- pointing out that a real monotheism
stant hostilities. underlay the superficial polytheism,
35. It has been maintained by without requiring us to believe that
even the wisest of the priests had any
* " Records of the
Past," vol. iv. p. 29.
knowledge of the greatest of all Chris-
t Ibid. vol.
tian mysteries, t
p. 76; vol. viii. p. 75.
ii.

\ Ibid. vol. iv. p. 27 ; vol. viii. pp. 27-31.

So Wilkinson, " Ancient Egyptians," vol. "
* See the Intellectual
System of the Uni-
1 '
iv. p. verse, ch. v. p. 413.
423.
II Birch, "Egypt from the Earliest Times," t In the Latin translation of Cudworth's
p. 75; "Records of the Past," vol. viii. p. great work, notes to p. 413.
\ See Latin translation of Cudworth's great
'

. V Records of the Past," vol. iv. pp. 31, 32. work, p. 28.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
CHAPTER II.
THE RELIGION OF THE ASSYRIANS them the religious regards of the
AND BABYLONIANS.
" Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth."
ISAIAH xlvi. i.
"
Merodach is broken in pieces."
36. THE
Babylonian and Assyrian
polytheism differed from the Egyp-
tian, in the first place, by being less
multitudinous,* and in the second,
by having far more than the Egyp-
tian, an astral character. The Meso-
potamian system was, moreover, so
far as appears, what the Egyptian was
not, a belief in really distinct gods.
The great personages of the pantheon
have for the most part their own pe-
culiar offices and attributes
they do
not pass the one into the other they
clo not assume each other's names
they do not combine so as to produce
a single deity out of several. We
have no indication in the literary re-
mains of Babylon or Assyria of any
esoteric religion, no evidence on which
we can lay it down that the concep-
tions of the educated upon religious
subjects differed seriously from those
of the lowest ranks of
worshipers.f
Berosus, who was a Chaldaean priest,
and who should, therefore, if there
was any such system, have been
well acquainted with it, has in his ex-
tant fragments nothing monotheistic,
nothing to distinguish his religious
views from those of the mass of his
countrymen. According to
pearance, the religion of the Baby-
lonians and Assyrians was thus a real
polytheism, a worship of numerous
divinities, whom it was not thought
necessary to trace to a single stock,!
* It is true that
"
the inscriptions speak in a
vague
"
way of four thousand," and even of
the five thousand gods " (" Records of the
vol. vii. p. 128
Past," Rawlinson, "Ancient
;
Monarchies," vol. i. p. 155, note 9).
But,
practically, there are not more than about
twenty deities who obtain frequent mention.
t The late Mr. Fox Talbot expressed
1873 a somewhat different opinion. (See the
"Transactions of the Society of Biblical
Archaeology," vol. ii. p. 35.) But it does not
appear to me that he made out his case.
"
$ See the Author's Ancient Monarchies,"
vol. i.
p. 142.
191] 13-
who were
essentially on a par the one
with the other, and who divided
among
peo-
ple.
37. An account of the Assyrian and
Babylonian religion must thus be, in
JER. 1. 2. the main, an account of their
pantheon.
From the character of their
gods,
from the actions and attributes as-
signed to them, from the material
representations under which they
showed them forth, we must gather
the tone of their religious
thought,
the nature of the opinions which
they
entertained concerning the mysterious
powers above them and beyond them,
whom they recognized as divine be-
ings.
; 38. In each country, at the head of
;
the pantheon stood a god, not the
;
origin of the others, nor in any real
sense the fountain of divinity, but of
higher rank and dignity than the rest
primus inter pares, ordinarily named
first, and assigned the titles of great-
est honor, and forming the principal
or at least the highest object of wor-
ship both to the kings and people.
This deity is, in Assyria, Asshur in ;
Babylonia, II or Ra. Some critics *
are of opinion that the two gods are
essentially one, that the Assyrian As-
shur is neither more nor less than II
or Ra localized and regarded as the
special god of Assyria, the protector
of the Assyrian territory and the tute-
lary divinity of the Assyrian kings.
all ap-
But this view is not generally accepted
and seems to rest upon no sure foun-
dation. There is a marked difference
of character and position between the
Babylonian II and the Assyrian As-
shur. II in the Babylonian system is
dim and shadowy ;
his attributes are,
comparatively speaking, indistinct ;
and his very name is not of frequent
occurrence. f Asshur in the Assyr-
ian system is, of all the gods, by far
*As M. Lenormant. (See his "Manuel
in d'Histoire Ancienne," vol. ii. p. 182.)
"
t In the six Assyrian volumes of Records
of the Past," I find the name of II (or El),
only four times (vol. v. pp. 21, 129; vol. vii.
pp. 95, 96). In two of these places it seems
to stand for Bel, who is called Bel-El some-
times (Ibid, vol. xi. p. 24).
14 [92] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
the most pronounced and prominent establishes them in the government,
figure. No name
occurs so often as lengthens the years of their reigns,
his no god has attributes so clear-
; preserves their power, protects their
ly marked and positive. On these Forts and armies, directs their expe-

grounds it has been ditions, gives them victory on the day

generally held,
that the two are not to be identified,
but to be kept distinct, and to be re-
garded as respectively peculiar to the
two nations. We
proceed, therefore,
to speak of them separately.
39. II (or Ra) was, as already re-
marked, a somewhat shadowy being.
There is a vagueness about the name
itself, which means simply " god,"
and can scarcely be said to connote
any particular attribute. The Baby-
lonians never represent his form, and
of battle,makes their name cele-
brated, multiplies their offspring
greatly, and the like. To him they
look for the fulfillment of all then-
wishes, and especially for the estab-
lishment of their sons, and their sons'
sons, on the Assyrian throne to the
remotest ages. Their usual phrase
when speaking of him is, " Asshur,
my lord." They represent themselves
as passing their lives in his service.
It is to spread his worship that they

they frequently omit him from lists carry on their wars. They fight, rav-
which seem to contain all the other age, destroy in his name. Finally,
principal gods.* Yet he was cer- when they subdue a country, they are
" set up the emblems of
tainly regarded as the head of the careful to
pantheon, and in the most ancient Asshur," and to make the conquered
times must have been acknowledged people conform to his laws.*
as the tutelary deity of Babylon itself, 41. The ordinary titles of Asshur
" "
which received its name of Bab-il (in are, the great lord," the king of
" " he who rules
Accadian, Ka-ra\ meaning the Gate all the gods," supreme
of II," from him. He seems to have over the gods." He is also called,
" the father of
had no special temple, being probably occasionally, the gods,"
worshiped in all temples by the few although that is a title which belongs

persons who were his votaries. His more properly to Bel. He is figured
name was, occasionally, but not very as a man with a horned cap, and
frequently, used as an element in often carrying a bow, issuing from the
the personal appellations of Babylo- middle of a winged circle, and either
nians, f shooting an arrow, or stretching forth
40. Asshur, the Assyrian substitute his hand, as if to aid or smite. The
for II or Ra, was primarily and espe- winged circle by itself is also used as
cially the tutelary deity of Assyria and his emblem, and probably denotes his
of the Assyrian monarchs. The land ubiquity and eternity, as the human
of Assyria bears his name without form does his intelligence, and the
any modification ; its inhabitants are horned cap his power. This emblem,
i;
his servants "or "his people;" its with or without the human figure, is
" an almost invariable accompaniment
troops the armies of the god As-
" "
shur ;
its enemies the enemies of of Assyrian royalty. The great king
Asshur." As for the kings, they stand wears it embroidered upon his robes,
connected with him in respect of al- carries it engraved upon his seal or
most everything which they do He cylinder, represents it above his head
places them upon the throne, firmly in the rock-tablets whereon he carves
his image, stands or kneels in ador-
* As, for instance, that of Agu-kak-rimi in ation before under its
it, fights
the inscription published in vol. vii. of the
" " shadow, under its protection returns
Records," pp. 7, 8, where ten great gods" it
are enumerated, viz. Anu and Anunit, Bel
:
victorious, places conspicuously up-
and Beltis, Hea and Davjdna, ZSra (Zir-ba on his obelisks. And in all these
nit ? ), Sin, Shamas, and Merodach, but no
mention is made of II. * "Records of the Past," vol. i. 17;
p.
" Records of
t the Past," vol.iii. p. 15 ;
vol. vol. iii.
pp. 86, 93, 95, 96; vol. v. pp. 14, 15,
ix. p. 99 etc. ;
etc. ;
vol. ix. pp. 5, 8, 9, etc.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

representations, it is remarkable how and animating matter ;

and Bel, the
he makes the emblem conform to the organizing and creating spirit, by
circumstances in which he is himself which matter was actually brought
engaged at the time. Where he is into subjection, and the material uni-
fighting, Asshur, too, has his arrow verse arranged in an orderly way.
upon the string, and points it against But
may be questioned whether the
it

the monarch's adversaries. When

which hides the esoteric meaning
he veil
is returning home victorious, With the of the Assyrian religion has been as
disused bow in his left hand, and his yet sufficiently lifted to entitle such
right hand outstretched and elevated, conjectures to much attention. Our
Asshur, too, has the same attitude. own belief is that Anu, Bel, and Hoa
In peaceful scenes the bow disappears were originally the gods of the earth,
altogether. If the king worships, the of the heaven, and of the waters, thus

god holds out his hand to aid if he corresponding in the main to the
;

is engaged in secular acts, the Divine classical Pluto, Zeus or Jupiter, and

presence is thought to be sufficiently Poseidon or Neptune, who divided

marked by the circle and the wings between them the dominion over the
without the human figure.* visible creation. But such notions
42. In immediate succession to became, in course of time, overlaid to
Asshur in Assyria and II in Babylonia, a great extent with others and ;

we find in both countries a triad, con- though Hoa continued always more or
sisting of Anu, Bel, and Hea or Hoa. less of a water deity, Anu and Bel
These three are called, par excellence, ceased to have peculiar spheres, and
" became merely "great gods," with a
the great gods." f In execrations
they are separated off from all the general superintendence over the
other deities, and placed together in world, and with no very marked differ-
a clause which stands at the head of ence of powers.
the list of curses. In invocations 44. Anu is commonly spoken of as
their names follow, for the most part, "the old Ann," "the original chief,"
"
immediately after the name of As- the king of the lower world," and
shur; and this is their usual and "the lord of spirits and demons."
proper position in all complete lists There is one text in which he seems
of the chief gods. $ Anu and Bel in to be called " the father of the gods,"
the Babylonian system are brothers, but the reading is doubtful. We
both being sons of II or Ra but this cannot identify as his any of the di-
;

relationship is scarcely acknowledged vine forms on the Assyrian or Baby-

in Assyria. Hoa in both countries lonian monuments, nor can we assign
stands apart, unconnected with the to him any emblem, excepting that
other two, and, indeed, unconnected of the single upright wedge, which
with any of the other gods, except represents him on the Chaldaean
with such as are his offspring. numeration tablets. This single
43. It has been conjectured that wedge has the numerical power of
in this triad we have a
cosmogonic sixty, and sixty appears to have been
myth, and that the three deities rep- assigned to Anu as his special number.
resent Anu, the primordial chaos, or Though a "great god," he was not
matter without form ; Hoa, life and one toward whom much preference
intelligence, considered as moving in was shown. His name is scarcely
ever found as an element in royal or
other appellations the kings do not
;
* See the Author's " Ancient Monarchies,"
Yol. ii.
pp. 234, 235.
very often mention him and only ;

"
Records of the Past," vol. vii. p. 121 one monarch speaks of himself as his
;

vol. ix. pp. 100, 106, etc. special votary.*

" Records of
\ the Past," vol. Hi. p. 83 ;

vol. v. p. vol. vii. p. 7 * " Records of the

29 ; ;
vol. ix. p. 23, etc. Tiglath Pileser I. (See
See Lenormant, " Manuel d'Histoire Past," vol. v. p. 24.) Yet even he is still
Ancienne," vol. ii. pp. 182, 183. more devoted to Asshur.
1G 104] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
The god Bel, familiarly known the "great gods," and is called, "the
45.
to us both from Scripture * and from king," " the great inventor," and " the
the Apocrypha,! is one of the most determiner of destinies." We have
marked and striking figures in the already remarked that he was specially
pantheon alike of Babylonia and of connected with the element of water
Assyria. Bel is " the god of lords," and hence he is " the king of the deep,''
" the
father of the gods," " the crea- " the king of rivers," " the lord of fount-
"
tor," "the mighty prince," and "the ains," and, to a certain extent, the
just prince of the gods." He plays a lord of the harvest." In the legend
leading part in the mythological le- of creation he is joined with Bel, in
gends, which form so curious a feat- the office of guardian, and watches
ure in the Babylonian and Assyrian over the regularity of the planetary
religion. In the " History of Crea- courses.* In the "War of the Gods/'
"
tion we are told that Bel made the he and Bel plan the defense, after
earth and the heaven that he formed which Hea commits the executions of
;

man by means of a mixture of his the plans made to his son, Marduk or
own blood with earth, and also Merodach.t In the flood legend, Hea
formed beasts and that afterward he naturally plays an important part. It
;

created the sun and the moon, the is he who announces to Hasis-adra,
stars, and the five planets. $ In the the Babylonian Noah, that a deluge is
" War of
the Gods," we find him con- about to destroy mankind, and com-
tending with the great dragon, Tia- mands him to build a great ship, in
mat, and after a terrible single com- order that he may escape it.$ It is
bat destroying her by flinging a he again who opposes the wish of Bel
thunderbolt into her open mouth. to make the destruction complete, and
He also, in conjunction with Hoa, persuades him to let Hasis-adra and
plans the defense when the seven his family come out safe from the ark.
spirits of evil rise in rebellion, and In the tale of Ishtar's descent into
the dwelling-place of the gods is Hades, Hea's counsel is sought by the
assaulted by them.|| The titles of moon-god and by a skillful device he
;

Bel generally express dominion. He obtains the restoration of the Queen

is "the lord," par
excellence, which is of Love to the upper world. Indeed, ||

the exact meaning of his name in throughout the whole of the mythology
"
Assyrian he is ;
the king of all the we find all clever inventions and well-
"
spirits," the lord of the world," and laid plans ascribed to him, so that his
" "
again, the lord of all the countries," history quite justifies his title of lord
Babylon and Nineveh are, both of of deep thoughts." Hea is probably
them, under his special care Nine- ;
intended by the Oe of Helladius,^!
veh having the title of " the city of and the Cannes of Berosus,** who
Bel," in some passages of the inscrip- came up out of the Persian Gulf, and in-
tions. The chief seat of the worship structed the first settlers on the Lower
of Bel in Babylonia was Nipur, now Tigris and Euphrates in letters, science,
Niffer, and in Assyria, Calah, now religion, law, and agriculture.
Niinrud. He had also a temple at 47. In direct succession to the three
Duraba (Akkerkuf). triad, Anu, Bel, and
gods of the first
46. Hea or Hoa, the third god of Hea or Hoa, we find a second still
the first triad, ranks immediately after more wide]y recognized triad, com-
Bel in the complete lists of Assyrian prising the moon-god, the sun-god, and
deities. He is emphatically one of the god of the atmosphere. There is
* " Records of the Past," vol. ix. p. 118.
* Isaiah xlvi. I
Jer. 1. 2
;
li. 44.
; t Ibid. vol. v. p. 165.
"
t See the history of Bel and the Dragon." \ Ibid. vol. vii. pp. 135, 136.
<r
} Berosus ap. Euseb. Chron. Can." i. 3. Ibid. p. 142.
"Records of the Past," vol. ix. pp. 137- Ibid. vol. i. pp. 147-149.
||

"
139- l"Ap. Phot. Bibliothec." cclxxxix. p. 1594.
j|
Ibid. vol. v. p. 164. ** Berosus
ap. Euseb. " Chron. Can." 1. s. c.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT \VOKLD. IU5J 17

great difference of opinion with respect supporting architect," "the strength-

j

to the name of the last god of these ener of fortifications," and, more gen-
" the
three, which is never spelt phonetically erally, lord of building."
in the inscriptions, but only repre- 49. A
close bond of sympathy united
sented by a monogram. He has been Sin with the two other members of the
called Iva (or Yav), Vul, Bin, Yem second triad. When the seven spirits
(or Im), and recently Rimmon.* of evil made war in heaven, and di-
Without presuming to decide this rected their main attack upon Sin, as
vexed question, we propose to adopt the chief leader of the angelic host,
provisionally the rendering "Vul," as Shamas and Vul instantly came to
the one likely to be most familiar to his aid, withstood the spirits, and,
our readers, from its employment by fighting firmly side by side with him,
Sir Henry Rawlinson, Mr. George succeeded in repulsing them.* The
Smith, and Mr. Fox Talbot. We shall three are frequently conjoined in in-
speak therefore of the second triad as vocations, execrations, and the like.f
one consisting of Sin, Shamas, and j
In offerings' and festivals, however,
Vul, the gods respectively of the moon, Sin is united with Shamas only, the
the sun, and the atmosphere. place of Vul being taken by a goddess
'

is very noticeable that in

48. It who is entitled " the divine mistress of
Assyria and Babylonia the moon-god the world." t
took precedence of the sun-god. 50. Sin was among the gods most
Night probably was more agreeable to widely and devoutly worshiped, both
the inhabitants of those hot regions in Babylonia and Assyria. He had
than day ; and the cool, placid time temples at Ur, Babylon, Borsippa,
when they could freely contemplate Calah, and Dur-Sargina. The third
the heavens, and make their stellar month of the year, called Sivan, was
and other observations, was especially dedicated to him. In a month not
grateful to the priestly astronomers so dedicated we find sacrifice to the
who had the superintendence and ar- moon prescribed on nine days out of
rangement of the religion. Sin, the the thirty. His name was widely
moon, is thus one of the leading deities. used as an element in royal and other
He is called, " the chief of the gods appellations, as, for instance, in the
of heaven and earth," " the king of well-known name, Sennacherib, which
the gods," and even " the god of the in the original is Sin-akhi-irib, or
"
gods." t These seem, however, to Sin has multiplied brothers."
be hyperbolical expressions, used by 51. Shamas, the sun-god, occupies
his votaries in the warmth of their the middle position in the second
"
hears, when in the stage of religion triad, which is either Sin, Shamas,
which Professor Max Miiller has desig- Vul," or "Vul, Shamas, Sin," though
nated " Henotheism." $ Sin more more commonly the former. His
"
properly was the brilliant," " the titles are either general or special.
illuminator,"
" he
who dwells in the In a general way he is called, " the
sacred heavens," "he who circles establisher of heaven and earth," " the
round the heavens," and " the lord of judge of heaven and earth," "the
"
the month." Again, for some recon- warrior of the world," and the regent
dite reason, which is not explained, he of all things," while, with direct refer-
was selected to preside over architect-
and in this connection he " the
ure, is *See "Records of the Past," vol. v. pp.
164-166.
* " Transactions of the Society of Biblical t Ibid. vol. i. pp. 57, 93, etc. ; vol. v. pp.
"
Archaeology," vol. v. p.441 ; Records of the 7, 122, 123 ;
vol. ix. pp. 23, 100, etc.
" Records of the
past," vol. v. p. 29; vol. vii. pp. 165, 170; \ Past," vol. vii. pp. 159,
vol. ix. pp. 23, 27, etc. 162, etc.
t In the Inscription of Nabonidus. (See See the calendar referred to in the _last
"Records of the Past," vol. v. pp. 146, 147.) note, where sacrifices to Sin are prescribed
"
J Contemporary Review," Nov. 1878, pp. for the ist, 2d, I3th,' I4th, iSth, 2oth, 2ist,
722. 22d, and 29th days of the month.
IS THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
" the
ence to bis physical nature, he is we are told that it was he who actual-
"
lord of fire," the light of the gods," ly made the Flood.* But otherwise
"the ruler of the day," and "he who the mythology is silent about him,
illumines the expanse of heaven and offering in this respect a remarkable
earth." contrast to the Egyptian, where the
52. The kings regard him as afford- sun is the principal figure.
ing them especial help in war. He 55. Vul, the god of the atmosphere,
" the
is supreme ruler, who casts a who completes the second triad, has,
favorable eye on expeditions," the on the whole, a position quite equal
"
vanquisher of the king's enemies," to that of Sin and Shamas, whom he
"
the breaker-up of opposition." He occasionally even precedes in the
"
"casts his motive influence over the ists.f Some kings seem to place
monarchs, and causes them to " as- aim on a par with Anu, or with
semble their chariots and their war- Asshur, recognizing Anu and Vul, or
" "
riors," he goes forth with their Asshur and Vul, as especially the
armies," and enables them to extend great gods," and as their own pecul-
their dominions he chases their ene-
; iar guardians. $ In a general way
mies before them, causes opposition "
be corresponds with the Jupiter
"
to cease, and brings them back with Tonans of the Romans, being the
"
victory to their own country. prince of the power of the air," Ihe
53. Besides this, in time of peace, lord of the whirlwind and the tem-
he helps them to sway the scepter of pest, and the wielder of the thun-
power, and to rule over their subjects derbolt. His most common titles
"
with authority. It seems that, from are the minister of heaven and
"
observing the manifest agency of the earth," the lord of the air," and
material sun in stimulating all the "he who makes the tempest to
functions of nature, the Assyrians and ige." He is regarded as the de-
Babylonians came to the conclusion stroyer of crops, the rooter-up of trees,
that the sun-god exerted a similar in- the scatterer of the harvest famine, ;

fluence over the minds of men, and scarcity, and even their consequence,
was the great motive agent in human pestilence, are assigned to him. He
"
history.* is'said to have in his hand a flaming
54. The worship of Sham as wr.s sword," with which he effects his rav-
universal. The seventh month, Tisri, ages; and this "flaming sword,"
was dedicated to him, and in the which probably represents lightning,
second Elul, he had, like the moon- seems to form his emblem on the tab-
god, nine festivals. His emblem ap- lets and cylinders, where it is figured
pears upon almost all the religious as a double or triple bolt. But Vul
cylinders, and in almost all lists of has also a softer character; as the
the gods his name holds a high place. god of the atmosphere he gives the
Sometimes he is a member of a lead- rain and hence he is " the careful
;

ing triad, composed of himself to- and beneficent chief," "the giver
gether with Sin and Asshur. t In the of abundance," and "the lord of
mythological legends he is not very fecundity." In this capacity, he is
frequently mentioned. We find him, naturally chosen to preside over ca-
however, defending the moon-god, in nals, the great fertilizers in Mesopo-
conjunction with Vul, when the seven tamia and thus we find among his
;
" the lord of " the
spirits make their assault upon titles, canals," and
heaven $ and in the deluge tablets
; establisher of works of irrigation."
*" Ancient Monarchies," 56. To the eight "great gods,"
vol. i.
p. 160=
t the position which he holds regu-
This is
*" Records of the Past," vol. vii. p. 138.
larly in the Inscriptions of Asshurbanipal,
the son of Esarhaddon. .(See " Records of t Ibid. vol. ix. p. 100.
t Ibid. vol. 46 vol. v.
the Past," vol. i. pp. 58, 71, 77, 93-5, 99, 100, pp. 24-26.
iii. p. ;

" Ancient Monarchies," voL

103, etc.).
i. pp. 164,
t See above, p. 16. 165.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
whose functions have been here de- To the wife of Sin no proper name is
scribed, may be added most conven- given but she is frequently asso-
;

iently in this place, six goddesses. It ciated with her husband under the
ap-
was a general, though not a universal pellation of " the great lady." The
rule, in the Assyrian and Babylonian wife of Shamas is Gula or Anunit, who
mythology, that each god should was, Ifke Beltis, a "great goddess,"
have a wife. From this law the heads but had a less distinctive character,
of the respective pantheons, II and being little more than a female Sun.
Asshur, were exempt;* but otherwise Finally, Vul had a wife called Shala
almost all the principal deities are or Tula, whose common title is sarrat,
"
united in pairs, one of whom is male Queen," but who is a colorless and
and the other female. Anu has a wife, insignificant personage.
Anata or Anat, who is a pale and 57. On the second of the two great
shadowy personage, the mere faint re- triads which hold so high a place in
flex of her husband whose name she the Assyrian and Babylonian panthe-
receives, merely modified by a femi- ons, there follows a group of five gods,
nine inflection. Bil or Bel has a wife, with an unmistakably astral charac-
Bilat, known to the classical writers These are Nin or Bar, Merodach
ter.
as Beltis or Mylitta,f a term stand- or Marduk, Nergal, Ishtar, and Nebo,
ing to Bil as Anat to Anu, but desig- who correspond respectively to the
nating a far more substantial being. planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus,
" the mother of the
Beltis is gods," and Mercury. Nin, or Bar, who pre-
" the " the
great goddess," great sided over the most distant of the vis-
*'
lady," the queen of the lands," and ible planets, Saturn, was more an
" the
queen of fecundity." She cor- object of worship in Assyria than in
"
responds to the Cybele of the Phry- Babylonia. He has been called the
gians, the Rhea of the Greeks, and Assyrian Hercules,"* and in many
" " " "
the Magna Mater or Bona Dea respects resembles that hero of the
of the Romans. Occasionally, she classical nations. Among his titles
adds to this character the attributes of are found, "the lord of the brave,"
Bellona and even Diana, being spoken " the warlike," " the champion," " the
of as presiding over war and hunting. warrior who subdues foes," " the re-
The wife of Hoa has been called ducer of the disobedient," " the exter-
Dav-kina but the first element of the minator of rebels," "the powerful
;

name seems now to be read more lord," " the exceeding strong god,"
I

" he whose sword is

generally as Nin, while the second and good." He
is rendered by azu.%. Ninazu is said presides in a great measure both over
"
to have been "queen of Hades and war and hunting. Most of the Assyr-
" the
lady of the house of Death." ian monarchs represent themselves
Her special office was to watch and as going out to war under- his aus-
soothe the last hours of the dying. ||pices, and ascribe their successes
mainly to his interposition. He is
*In one place Iobserve a mention of especially useful to them in the sub-
a "goddess Assuritu " (" Records," vol. i. p. jection of rebels. He also on some
60), who might seem to be a feminine form occasions incites them to engage in
of Asshur. But the original reads, " Asshur
va Ishtar Assuritu," which shows Aseuritu
the chase, and aids them strenuously
to be a mere title of Ishtar. in their encounters with wild bulls and
(See G. Smith's
" Annals
of Asshurbanipal," p. 17.) lions.f It is thought that he was em-
t Herod, i. 131, 199; Hesychius ad. voc.
blematically portrayed in the winged
" Records of and human-headed bull, which forms
\ the Past," vol. ix. pp. 131,
132. Professor Sayce reads the name as
Ninkigal (Ibid. p. 146).
*
See Professor Sayce's note on the pas- Layard, "Nineveh and Babylon," p. 214;
" Records of the
sage last quoted. Past," vol. v. pp. 7, 21, 23,
4
J Records," vol. v. p. 146. Compare vol. etc.
iii.
p. 141. t See " Records of the Past," vol. v. p. 21.
L>0 [98] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
so striking a feature in the architect- and that he becomes an almost ex-
ural erections of the Assyrians. clusive object of worship ; it is then
58. As Nin was a favorite Assyrian that we find such expressions as "I :

so Merodach was a favorite Babylo- supplicated the king of gods, the lord
nian god. From the earliest times the of lords, in Borsippa, the city of his
Babylonian monarchs placed him in loftiness,"* and "O god Merodach,
the highest rank of deities, worship- great lord, lord of the house of the
ing him in conjunction with Anu, gods, light of the gods, father, even
Bel, and Hea, the three gods of the for thy high honor, which changeth
first triad.* The great temple of not, a temple have I built."t
Babylon, known to the Greeks as the 59. In his stellar character, Mero-
Temple of Bel,t was certainly dedi- dach represented the planet Jupiter,
cated to him and it would therefore with which he was supposed to have
;

seem that the later Babylonians, at a very intimate connection. The

any rate, must have habitually applied eighth month (Marchesvan) was ded-
to him the name of Bel, or " lord,'' icated to him.$ In the second Elul
which in earlier times had designated he had three festivals on the third,
a different member of their pantheon. on the seventh, and on the sixteenth
Merodach's ordinary titles are, " the day.
great," "the great lord," "the 60. Nergal, who presided over the
" the
prince," prince of the gods," planet Mars, was essentially a war-
and " the august god." He is also god. His name signifies " the great
the judge," " the most an- man," or the "great hero; "|| and his
"
called,
"
cient," "he who judges the gods," commonest titles are the mighty
"the eldest son of heaven," and in hero," " the king of battle," " the de-
one place, "the lord of battles."! stroyer," " the champion of the gods,"
Occasionally, he has still higher and and
" the
great brother." He " goes
exclusive such "
seemingly designations, before the kings in their warlike ex-
as, "the great lord of eternity," "the peditions, and helps them to con-
"
king of heaven and earth," the lord found and destroy their enemies.
" the chief
of all beings," of the gods," Nor is he above lending them his
and " the god of gods."^ But these assistance when they indulge in the
titles seem not to be meant exclu- pleasures of the chase. One of his
sively. He is held in considerable titles is " the god of hunting," *![ and
honor among the Assyrians, being while originally subordinated to Nin
often coupled with Asshur,|| or with in this relation, ultimately he outstrips
Asshur and Nebo,H as a war-god, one his rival, and becomes the especial
by whom the kings gain victories, and patron of hunters and sportsmen.
obtain the destruction of their ene- Asshur-bani-pal, who is conspicuous
mies. But it is in Babylonia, and es- among the Assyrian kings for his in-
pecially in the later Babylonian Em- tense love of field sports, uniformly
pire under Nebuchadnezzar and Ne- ascribes his successes to Nergal, and
riglissar, that his worship culminates. does not even join with him any other
It is then that all the epithets of high- deity. Nergal's emblem was the hu-
est honor are accumulated upon him, man-headed and winged lion, which
is usually seen, as it were on guard,
* See the at the entrance of the royal palaces.
Inscription of Agu-kak-rimi, pub-
lished in the " Records of the Past," vol. vii.

p. 3, lines 5 and 6.
t Herod, i. 181-183; Strab. xvi. p. * " Records of the Past," vol. v. p. 120.
1049;
"
Arrian,
"
Exp. Alex." vii. 17. t Ibid. p. 142.
J Records of the Past," vol.
v. p. 29. J Ibid. vol. vii. p. 169.
Ibid. vol. v. pp. 112, 119, 122 ; vol. ix. pp. Ibid. pp. 159, 1 60 and i

96, 1 06. ||
Sir Rawlmson in the Author's " Herodo-
Ibid. vol. i. p. 20 ; vol. iii. pp. 53, 55 ; vol. tus," vol. i.
p. 655.
||

H. Rawlinson in the Author's

" He-
v. p. 41 ; vol. x. p. 53, etc. T Sir
*{Ibtd. vol. vii. pp. 25, 27, 45, etc. rodotus," 1. s. c.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
61. Ishtar, who was called Nanaby the sixth month, Elul, was dedicated
the Babylonians,* corresponded both to her*
in name and attributes with the As- 62. Nebo, the last of the five plane-
tarte' of the Phoenicians and Syrians. tary deities, presided over Mercury.
Like the Greek Aphrodite* and the It was his special function to have
Latin Venus, she was the Queen of under his charge learning and knowl-
" the
Love and Beauty, the goddess who edge. He is called god who
" he who
presided over the loves both of men possesses intelligence,"!
"
and animals, and whose own -amours hears from afar," he who teaches,"
and " he who
were notorious. In one of the Izdu- teaches and instructs,"^
bar legends, she courts that romantic The tablets of the royal library at
"
individual, who, however, declines her Nineveh are said to contain the wis-
advances, reminding her that her dom of Nebo." He is also like
"
favor had always proved fatal to those Mercury, the minister of the gods,"
persons on whom she had previously though scarcely their messenger, an
bestowed her affections.f There can office which belongs to Paku. At the
be little doubt that in Babylon, at any same time, as has often been re-
rate, she was worshiped with unchaste marked, Nebo has, like many olher ||

rites, $ and that her cult was thus of the Assyrian and Babylonian
of a corrupting and debasing charac- gods, a number of general titles, im-
ter. But besides and beyond this soft plying divine power, which, if they
and sensual aspect, Ishtar had a fur- had belonged to him alone, would
ther and nobler one. She corre- have seemed to prove him the supreme
"
sponded, not to Venus only, but also deity. He is the lord of lords, who
to Bellona
"
being called the god-
;
has no equal in power," " the supreme
dess of war and battle," " the queen chief," "the sustainer," "the sup-
" " "
of victory," she who arranges bat- porter," the ever ready," the. guard-
" " the lord
tles," and she who defends from at- ian of heaven and earth,"
tack." The Assyrian kings very gen- of the constellations," " the holder of
erally unite her with Asshur, in the the scepter of power," "he who grants
accounts which they give of their ex- to kings the scepter of royalty for the
peditions speaking of their forces governance of their people." It is
;

as those which Asshur and Ishtar had chiefly by his omission from many
committed to their charge ; of their lists, and by his humble place,1T when
battles as fought in the service of he is mentioned together with the
Asshur and Ishtar, and of their tri- " that we are as-
really great gods,"
umphs as the result of Asshur and sured of his occupying a (compara-
Ishtar exalting them above their ene- tively speaking) low position in the
mies. Ishtar had also some general general pantheon. The planetary
titles of a lofty but
vague character ; gods had in most instances a female
she was called, "the fortunate," "the complement. Nebo was closely asso-
happy," "the great goddess," "the ciated with a goddess called Urmit or
mistress of heaven and earth," and Tasmit, Nergai with one called Laz,
"
the queen of all the gods and god- and Merodach with Zirpanit or Zir-
desses." In her stellar aspect, she
presided ox'er the planet Venus ;
and * " Records of the Past," vol. vii. p. 169.
t Ibid. vol. v. pp. 113, 122, etc.
" Ancient
\ Monarchies," vol. i. p. 177.
" Records of the
Past," vol. i. p. 58.
* " Records of the Authors " He-
Past," vol. iii.
pp. 7, 10, || Sir H. Rawlinson in the
" Ancient
n, 13, 14, etc. ; vol. v. pp. 72, 83, 102, etc. rodotus," vol. i. p. 661 ;
Monarch-
"
Records of the Past," vol. ix. pp. 125- ies," 1. s. c.
128. Nebo's place varies commonly from the
If
J See Herod, i. 199 of Baruch, vi. 43, and fifth to the thirteenth, and is generally about
;

Strabo, xvi. p. 1058. the seventh. Nebuchadnezzar, however, puts

"
Records of the Past." vol. i. pp. 69-86 him third. (" Records of the Past," vol. v. p.
;

vol. iii.
p. 45, etc. i
122.)
 [i03j THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

banit. Nin, the son of Bel and Beltis, trayed their cherubim, by animal forms
is sometimes made the husband of his of great size and grandeur, having
mother,* but otherwise has no fe- luman heads and huge outstretched
male counterpart. Ishtar is some- wings.* There was nothing hideous
times coupled with Nebo in a way or even grotesque about the represen-
that might suggest her being his \vife,t ations of the Assyrian gods. The
if it were not that that position is cer-
object aimed at was to fill ihe specta-
tainly occupied by Urmit. or with feelings of awe and rever-
63. Among other Assyrian and ence ;
and the figures have, in fact,
Babylonian deities may be mentioned universally, an appearance of calm
Nusku, a god assigned a high rank by placid strength and majesty, which is
Asshur-bani-pal ;$ Makhir, the gocl- most solemn and impressive.
dess of dreams, Paku, the divine 65. The gods were worshiped, as
messenger, Laguda, the god of a generally in the ancient world, by
||

town Kisikjf Zamal, Turda, Ish-

call prayer, praise, and sacrifice. Prayer
kara, Malik, deities invoked in was offered both for oneself and for
curses ;** Zicum, a primeval goddess, others. The " sinfulness of sin " was
" the
said to be mother of Ann and ; deeply felt, and the Divine anger dep-
"
the gocls,''tt Dakan,$$ perhaps Da- recated with much earnestness. O!
?

gon, Martu, Zira, Idak, Kurrikh, etc. my Lord,' says one suppliant, "my
Many other strange names also oc- sins are many, my trespasses are great;
cur, but either rarely, or in a con- and the wrath of the gods has plagued
nection which is thought to indicate me with disease, and sickness, and
that they are local appellations of sorrow. I fainted, but no one
some of th well-known deities. No stretched forth his hand I groaned, ;

more need be said of these person- but no one drew nigh. I cried aloud,
ages, since the general character of but no one heard. O Lord, do not
the religion is but little affected by Thou abandon thy servant. In the
the oelief in gods who played so very waters of the great storm, do Thou
insignificant a part in the system. lay hold of his hand. The sins which
64. The Assyrians and Babylonians he has committed, do Thou turn to
worshiped their gods in shrines or righteousness. "t Special interces-
chapels of no very great size, to which, sion was made for the Assyrian kings.
however, was frequently attached a The gods were besought to grant
"
lofty tower, built in stages, which were them length of days, a strong sword,
sometimes as many as seven. The extended years of glory, pre-eminence
tower could be ascended by steps on among monarchs, and an enlarge-
the outside, and was usually crowned ment of the bounds of their empire." \
by a small chapel. The gods were It is thought that their happiness in
represented by images, which were a future state was also prayed for.
either of stone or metal, and which Praise was even more frequent than
bore the human form, excepting in prayer. The gods were addressed
two instances. Nin and Nergal were under their various titles, and their
portrayed, as the Jews, perhaps, por- benefits to mankind commemorated.
* Ancient Monarchies,"
"O Fire!" we read on one tablet, U
"
vol. i.
p. 169. Great Lord, who art exalted above
^ Ibid. vol.
J
"
i.
p. 176.
Records of the Past," vol. i.
pp. 57, 58.
all the earth O noble son of
! !

7J 77, 94, 95. etc 5 vo1 ix PP- 45. 61, etc.

- - - heaven, exalted above all the earth,
Ibid. vol. ix. p. 152.
|| Ibid. vol. v. p. 165. * tfzek. x. 8-22.
" Records of the
IF Ibid. vol. ix. pp. 3 and 15. t Past," vol. iii.
p. 136.
* Ibid.
;

p. 101. I Ibid. p. 133.

ft Ibid. p. 146, and note. Fox Talbot in the "Transactions of the
\\ Ibid. vol. lii.
p. 40; voj. v. p. 117 ; vol Society of Biblical Archaeology," vol. i.
p.
vii. pp. n, 27, etc. 107.
As at Borsippa (Birs-i-Nimrod), where a H "Records of the Past," vol. iii. pp. 137,
portion of each stage remains. 138-
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [I01J 23

O Fire, with thy bright flame, thou give him life, and Merodach grant
dost produce light in the dark house ! him an abode of happiness,"* or, " To
Of all things that can be named, thou the sun, the greatest of the
gods, may
dost create the fabric; of bronze and he ascend and may the sun, the
;

of lead, thou art the melter of silver of the gods, receive his soul
;
greatest
and of gold, thou art the refiner of ;
into his holy hands."f The nature of
. . . thou art the purifier. Of the the happiness enjoyed may be
gathered
wicked man, in the night-time, thou from occasional notices, where the
dost repel the assault but the man
;
soul is represented as clad in a white
who serves his God, thou wilt give radiant garment,* as
dwelling in the
him light for his actions." Sacrifice presence of the gods, and as partak-
almost always accompanied prayer ing of celestial food in the abode of
and praise. Every day in the year blessedness. On the other hand,
seems to have been sacred to some Hades, the receptacle of the wicked
deity or deities, and some sacrifice or after death, is spoken of as "the
other was offered every day by the abode of darkness and famine," the
'*
monarch,* who thus set an example to place where earth is men's food, and
his subjects, which we may be sure their nourishment clay; where light
they were not slow to follow. The is not seen, but in darkness they
principal sacrificial animals were bulls, dwell; where ghosts, like birds, flutter
oxen, sheep, and gazelles.f Libations their wings, and on the door and the
of wine were also a part of the recog- doorposts the dust lies undisturbed."!
nized worship, | and offerings might Different degrees of sinfulness seem
be made of anything valuable. to meet with different and appropriate
66. It is an interesting question punishments. There is one place
how far the Assyrians and Babylo- apparently,- a penal fire reserved for
nians entertained any confident expec- unfaithful wives and husbands, and
tation of a future life, arid, if so, what for youths who have dishonored their
view they took of if. That the idea bodies. Thus it would appear that
did not occupy a prominent place in M. Lenormant was mistaken when he
their minds that there was a con- said, that, though the Assyrians rec-
;

trast in this respect between them and ognized a place of departed spirits,
" in
the people of Egypt, is palpable from yet it v/as one which there was no
the very small number of passages in trace of a distinction of rewards and
which anything like an allusion to a punishments." ||

future state of existence has been 67. The superstitions of the Assyr-
delected. Still, there certainly seem ians and Babylonians were numerous
to be places in which the continued and strange. They believed in charms
existence of the dead is spoken of, of various kinds IT in omens,** in as- ;

and where the happiness of the good trology, in spells, and in a miraculous
and the wretchedness of the wicked power inherent in an object which
"
in the future state are indicated. It they called the Mamit." What the
has been already noticed, that in one
passage the happiness of the king in
another world seems to be prayed for. * " Transactions of the
Society of Biblical
In two or three others, prayer is Archreology," vol. ii. p. 32.
t Ibid. p. 31.
offered for a departing soul in terms " Records of the
" \ Past," vol. iii. p. 135.
like the following May
: the sun "Transactions," etc., vol. i.
p. 113.
" Records of the
|| Past," vol. i.
p. 143.
"If Ibid. vol. iii. p. 142.
* See the **
fragment of a Calendar pub- Among the remains of Assyrian and
lished in the " Records of the Past," vol. vii. Babylonian literature are tables of omens de-
pp. 159-168. rived from dreams, from births, from an in-
t Ibid, pp. 137, 159, and 161 ; "Ancient spection of the hand, or of the entrails of an-
Monarchies," vol. ii. p. 271. imals, and from the objects a traveler meets
" Records of the
| Past," vol. iii. p. 124; with on his journey. Dogs alone furnish
vol. vii. p. 140. eighteen omens (Ibid.> vol. v. pp. 160-170).
24 [102 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
Mamit was is quite uncertain.* Ac- abode of the seven spirits of evil,
cording to the native belief, it had where they were forced to remain,
descended from heaven, and was a their return to heaven being prohib-
" "
treasure," a priceless jewel," in- ited. In their room man was created.*
finitely more valuable than anything 69. The Chaldasan legend of crea-
else upon the earth. It was ordina- tion, according to Berosus, was as
rily kept in a temple, but was some- follows :

"
times brought to the bedside of a sick all was darkness
In the beginning
person, with the object of driving out and water, and therein were generated
the evil spirits to whom his disease monstrous animals of strange and pe-
was owing, and of so recovering him. culiar forms. There were men with
68. Among the sacred legends of the two wings, and some even with four,
Babylonians and Assyrians the follow- and with two faces and others with ;

ing were the most remarkable. They two heads, a man's and a woman's, on
believed that at a remote date, before one body and there were men with the
;

the creation of the world, there had heads and horns of goats, and men with
been war in heaven. Seven spirits, hoofs like horses and some with the ;

created by Anu to be his messengers, upper parts of a man joined to the

took counsel together and resolved to lower parts of a horse, like centaurs ;

"
revolt. Against high heaven, the and there were bulls with human
dwelling-place of Anu the king, they heads, dogs with four bodies, and
plotted evil," and unexpectedly made with fishes' tails men and horses with ;

a fierce attack. The moon, the sun, dogs' heads creatures with the heads ;

and Vul, the god of the atmosphere, and bodies of horses, but with the
withstood them, and after a fearful tails of fish and other animals mix- ;

struggle beat them off.f .There was ing the forms of various beasts.
then peace for awhile. But once Moreover, there were monstrous fishes
more, at a later date, a fresh revolt and reptiles and serpents, and divers
broke out. The hosts of heaven were other creatures, which had borrowed
assembled together, in number five something from each other's shapes,
thousand, and were engaged in sing- of all which the likenesses are still
ing a psalm of praise to Anu, when preserved in the temple of Belus. A
" With a woman ruled them
suddenly discord arose. all, by name Omor-
"
loud cry of contempt a portion of ka, which is in Chaldee Thalath, and
the angelic choir " broke up the holy in Greek Thalassa (or 'the sea').
song," uttering wicked blasphemies, Then Belus appeared, and split the
and so " spoiling, confusing, confound- woman in twain and of the one half ;

ing the hymn of praise." Asshur was of her he made the heaven, and of
asked to put himself at their head, the other half the earth and the ;

but " refused to go forth with them."! beasts that were in her he caused to
Their leader, who is unnamed, took perish. And he split the darkness,
the form of a dragon, and in that and divided the heaven and the earth
shape contended with the god Bel, asunder, and put the world in order,
who proved victorious in the combat, and the animals that could not bear
and slew his adversary by means of a the light perished. Belus, upon this,
thunderbolt, which he flung into the seeing that the earth was desolate, yet
creature's open mouth. Upon this, teeming with productive powers, com-
the entire host of the wicked angels manded one of the gods to cut off his
took to flight, and was driven to the head, and to mix the blood which
flowed forth with earth, and form men
* See a therewith and beasts that could bear
paper by Mr. Fox Talbot in the
" Transactions of the So man was made, and was
Society of Biblical the light.
vol.
being a partaker of the
ii.
Archaeology," pp. 35-42. intelligent,
"
t Records of the Past," vol. v. pp. 163-166.
t Ibid. vol. vii. pp. 127, 128.
Ibid. vol. ix. pp. 137-139. * "Records of the Past," vol. vii. p. 177.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
wwtoe
Divine wisdom. Likewise Belus made ng on that day a cessatio \from all
the stars, and the sun and the moon, 3usiness. And he (Anu) set the sun
and the five planets."* in his place in the horizon of
which heaven." *
70. The only native account tr*
has been discovered in part resembles The following is the Chaldean
is different. account of the Deluge, as rendered
this, but in many respects
So far as at present deciphered, it runs from the original by the late Mr.
thus : George Smith t :

"When the upper region was not "Hea spake to me and said :

and the lower re- Son of Ubaratutu, make a ship

yet called heaven,
was not yet called earth, and the after this fashion for I destroy
gion
the sinners and life and cause
abyss of Hades had not yet opened .

its arms, then the chaos of waters
re birth to all ; and the waters
were gathered into one place. Men
dwelt not as yet together no animals
as yet wandered about; nor as yet
had the gods been born not as yet
had tlieir names been uttered, or their
to enter in all the seed of life, that
thou mayest preserve them. The
ship which thou shalt make, ....
;
cubits shall be the measure of the
length thereof, and .... cubits the
;
measure of the breadth and height
thereof and into the deep thou shalt
;

attributes Then were born

[fixed].
launch it.' I understood, and said to
the gods Lakhmu and Lakhamu; Hea, my Lord
*
Hea, my Lord, this
they were born and grew up which Thou commandest me, I will
. . . .

Asshur and Kisshur were born and perform [though I be derided] both :

lived through many days .... Anu by young and old, it shall be done/

" He
*****
(was born next). Hea opened his mouth, and spake
This shalt thou say to them ....
'

(Anu ?) constructed dwellings (hiatus of six lines) .... and enter

for the great gods he fixed the con- thou into the ship, and shut to the
;

stellations, whose figures were like door and bring into the midst of it
;

animals. He made the year into por- thy grain, and thy furniture, and thy
tions ;. he divided it; twelve months goods, thy wealth, thy servants, thy
he established, with their constel- female slaves and thy young men.
lations, three by three. And from And I will gather to thee the beasts
among the days of the year he ap- of the field, and the animals, and I
pointed festivals he made dwellings will bring them to thee and they shall
; ;

for the planets, for their rising and be enclosed within thy door.' Hasi-
for their setting. And, that nothing sadra his mouth opened and spake,
should go wrong, nor come to a stand, and said to Hea, his Lord There *

he placed along with them the dwel- was not upon the earth a man who
lings of Bel and Hea and he opened could make the ship .... strong
;

great gates on all sides, making strong [planks] I brought .... on the fifth
the portals on the left and on the day .... in its circuit fourteen
right. Moreover, in the center he measures [it measured] in its sides ;

placed luminaries. The moon he set fourteen measures it measured ....

on high to circle through the night, and upon it I placed its roof and
and made it wander all the night closed [the door]. On the sixth day I
until the dawning of the day. Each embarked in it on the seventh I ex- :

month without fail it brought together

festal assemblies in the beginning of * " Records of the Past," vol. ix. pp. 117-
;

the month, at the rising of the night, 118.

t Mr. Smith's paper, read on Dec. 3, 1872,
shooting forth its horns to illuminate was first published in the " Transactions of
the heavens, and on the seventh day the Society of Biblical Archaeology," in 1874.
a holy day appointing, and com man d- It was afterward revised, and republished in
"
the Records of the Past," vol. xii. pp. 135-
"
* Berosus ap. Euseb. Chron. Can." i. 2: 141. The translation is taken mainly from
" this second version.
JSyncell. Chronographia," vol. i. p. 53.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
amined it without on the eighth I world to corruption turned, then I in
:

examined it within planks against the presence of the gods prophesied

;

the influx of the waters I placed : evil. When I in the presence of the
where I saw rents and holes,
I added gods prophesied evil, then to evil
what was required. Three measures were devoted all my children. I, the
of bitumen I poured over the outside mother, have given birth to my peo- :

three measures of bitumen I poured ple, and lo now like the young of !

over the inside .... (five lines ob- fishes they fill the sea.' The gods
scure and mutilated) .... Wine were weeping for the spirits with her ;

in receptacles I collected, like the the gods in their seats were sitting in
waters of a river also [food], like the
;
lamentation covered were their lips ;

dust of the earth, I collected in boxes on account of the coming evil. Six
[and stored up]. And Shamas the days and nights passed the wind, the ;

material of the ship completed [and flood, the storm overwhelmed. On

made it] strong. And the reed oars the seventh day, in its course was
of the ship I caused them to bring calmed the storm and all the tem- ;

[and place] above and below pest, which had destroyed like an
All I possessed of silver, all I pos- earthquake, was quieted. The flood
sessed of gold, all I possessed of the He caused to dry the wind and the ;

seed of life, I caused to ascend into deluge ended. I beheld the tossing
the ship. All my male servants, all my of the sea, and mankind all turned
female servants, all the beasts of the to corruption like reeds the corpses ;

field, all the animals, all the sons of floated. I opened the window, and
the people, I caused to go up. A the light broke over my face. It
flood Shamas made, and thus he spake passed. I sat down and wept over ,

I saw the
*
in the night I will cause it to rain my face flowed my tears.
:

from heaven heavily. Enter into the shore at the edge of the sea for twelve ;

midst of the ship, and shut thy measures the land rose. To the
"
door.' country of Nizir went the ship: the
72. The command of Shamas is mountain of Nizir stopped the ship :

obeyed, and then "The raging of a to pass over it was not able.- The
storm in the morning arose, from the first clay and the second clay the
horizon of heaven extending far and mountain of Nizir, the same the ;

wide. Vul in the midst of it third day and the fourth day the
thundered Nebo and Saru went in mountain of Nizir, the same the f.fih
:
;

front : the throne-bearers sped over and sixth the mountain of Nizir, the
mountains and plains the destroyer, same; in the course of the seventh
:

Nergal, overturned Ninip went in day i sent out a dove, and it left.
:

front and cast down the spirits The dove went to and fro, and a
:

spread abroad destruction in their resting-place it did not find, and it

:

fury they swept the earth the flood returned. I sent forth a swallow, and
:

of Vul reached heaven. The it left; the swallow went to and fro,
to
bright earth to a waste was turned and a resting-place it did not find, and :

the storm o'er its surface swept it returned. 1 sent forth a raven, and :

from the face of the earth was life it left the raven went, and the ;

destroyed the strong flood that had corpses on the water it saw, and it
:

whelmed mankind reached to heaven did eat it swam, and wandered away, : :

brother saw not brother; the flood and returned not. I sent the animals
did not spare the people. Even in forth to the four winds I poured out :

heaven the gods feared the tempest, a libation: I built an altar on the
and sought refuge in the abode of peak of the mountain seven jugs of :

Anu. Like dogs the gods crouched wine I took; at the bottom I placed
down, and cowered together. Spake reeds, pines, and spices. The gods
Ishtar, like a child uttered the great collected to the burning the gods col- :

goddess her speech When the lected to the good burning. Like
:
'
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [105]

sumpe "(?) over the sacrifice they gath- grew pale, like a flower when cut from
ered.' the stem ; like the stalk of a reed, she

73. One more example must con- shook. And she said, ' I will cure
clude our specimens of the legends her rage I will
speedily cure her
current among the Assyrians and fury. Her curses I will repay. Light
Babylonians in ancient times. As the up consuming flames Light up a !

preceding passage is myth based upon blaze of straw Be her doom with
!

history, the concluding one shall be the husbands who left their wives ;

taken from that portion of Assyrian be her doom with the wives who for-
lore which is purely and wholly imag- sook their lords be her doom with
;

inative. The descent of Ishtar to the youths of dishonored lives. Go,

Hades, perhaps in search of Tammuz, porter, and cpen the gate for her but ;
*
is related as follows :
strip her, as some have been stripped
"To the land of Hades, the land ere now.' Tne porter went and opened
of her desire, Ishtar, daughter of the the gate. 'Lady of Tiggaba, enter,'
*
Moon-good Sin, turned her mind. he said Enter. It is permitted. :

The daughter of Sin fixed her mind to The Queen of Hades to meet thee
go to the House where all meet, the comes.' So the first gate let her in,
dwelling of the god Iskalla, to the but she was stopped, and there the
house which men enter, but cannot great crown was taken from her head.
depart from the road which men Keeper, do not take off from me the
'

*
travel, but never retrace the abode crown that is on my head.' Excuse
of darkness and of famine, where it, lady, the Queen of the Land insists
earth is their food, their nourishment upon removal.'
its The next gate let
clay where light is not seen, but in her but she was stopped, and there
in,
darkness they dwell where ghosts, the ear-rings were taken from her
*
like birds, flutter their wings, and on ears. Keeper, do not take off from
the door and the door-posts the dust me the ear-rings from my ears.' Ex- *

lies undisturbed. cuse it, lady, the Queen of the Land

u When Ishtar arrived
at the gate insists upon their removal.' The
of Hades, to the keeper of the gate a third gate let her in, but she was
word she spake :
'
O
keeper of the stopped, and there the precious stones
*
entrance, open thy gate Open thy were taken from her head.
!
Keeper,
gate, I say again,that may I enter in do not take
! off from me the gems that
If thou openest not thy gate, if I do adorn my head.' Excuse it, lady,
not enter in, I will assault the door, the Queen of the Land insists upon
the gate I will break down, I will at- their removal.' The fourth gate let
tack the entrance, I will split open her in, but she was stopped, and there
the portals. I will raise the dead, to the small jewels were taken from her

Keeper do not take off from

'
be the devourers of the living Upon brow. !

the living the dead shall prey.' Then me the small jewels that deck my
the porter opened his mouth and spake, brow.'
'
Excuse it, lady, the Queen
and thus he said to great Ishtar: of the Land insists .upon their re-
*
Stay, lady, do not shake down the moval.' The fifth gate let her in, but
door; I will go and inform Queen she was stopped, and there the girdle
'

Nin-ki-gal.' So the porter went in was taken from her waist. Keeper,
and to Nin-ki-gal said These curses do not take off from me the girdle
:
*

thy sister Ishtar utters; yea, she that girds my waist.' Excuse it,
blasphemes thee with fearful curses.' lady, the Queen of the Land insists
And Nin-ki-gal, hearing the words, upon its removal.' The sixth gate
let her in, but she was stopped, and
*The translation of Mr. Fox Talbot, as there the gold rings were taken from
"
given in the Transactions of the Society of her hands and feet.
Keeper, do not
*

Biblical Archaeology," vol. Hi. pp. 119-124,

and in
again
" Records of the vol. i!
take
Past,"
off from me the gold rings of my
*
pp. 143-149, is here followed. hands and feet.' Excuse it, lady,
 [106] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
the Queen of the Land insists upon
dwelling, a throne of state shall be
their removal.' The seventh gate let
thy seat! Magician and conjurer
her in, but she was stopped, and there shall kiss the hem of thy garment ' !

"
the last garment was taken from her Nin-ki-gal opened her mouth and
body. 'Keeper, do not take off, I spake : to her messenger, Namtar,
pray, the last garment from my body.' commands she gave: 'Go, Namtar,
'Excuse it, lady, the Queen of the the Temple of Justice adorn Deck !

Land insists upon its removal.' the images Deck the altars
!
Bring- !

" After that Mother Ishtar had de- out Anunnak, and let him take his
scended into Hades, Nin-ki-gal saw seat on a throne of gold Pour out !

and derided her to her face. Then for Ishtar the water of life; from
ishtar lost her reason, and heaped my realms let her depart.' Namtar
curses upon the other. Nin-ki-gal obeyed he adorned the Temple ; ;

hereupon opened her mouth, and decked the images, decked the altars ;

Go, Namtar, .... and bring brought out Anunnak, and let him
'

spake :

her out for punishment, afflict her take his seat on a throne of
. . .
gold ;

with disease of the eye, the side, the poured out for Ishtar the water of
feet, the heart, the head (some lines life, and suffered her to depart. Then
effaced) the first gate let her out, and gave her
" The Divine
messenger of the gods back the garment of her form. The
lacerated his face before them. The next gate let her out, and gave her
assembly of the gods was full. back the jewels for her hands and
. . .

The Sun came, along with the Moon, feet. The third gate let her out, and
his father, and weeping he spake thus gave her back the girdle for her waist.
unto Hea, the king ' Ishtar has de- The fourth gate let her out, and gave
:

scended into the earth, and has not her back the small gems she had worn
risen again and ever since the time upon her brow.
;
The fifth gate lei
that Mother Ishtar descended into her out, and gave her back the precious
hell, .... the master has ceased stones that had been upon her head.
from' commanding; the slave has The sixth gate let her out, and gave
ceased from obeying.' Then the god her back the ear-rings that were taken
Hea in the depth of his mind formed from her ears. And the seventh gale
a design ; he modeled, for her escape, let her out, and gave her back the
the figure of a man of clay.
'
Go to crown she had carried on her head?'
save her, Phantom, present thyself at So ends this curious legend, and
the portal of Hades the seven gates with it the limits of our space re-
;

of Hades will all open before thee quire that we should terminate this ;

Nin-ki-gal will see thee, and take notice of the religion of the Assyrians
pleasure because of thee. When her and Babylonians.
mind has grown calm, and her anger
has worn itself away, awe her with the
names of the great gods ! Then pre-
pare thy frauds Fix on deceitful! III. CHAPTER
tricks thy mind Use the chiefest of
!

thy tricks Bring forth fish out of an

! THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT
empty vessel That will astonish Nin-
! IRANIANS.
ki-gal, and to Ishtar she
will restore
6vo na-f avrovs elvai apx&?,
her clothing. The reward a great
ayaObv dai(j.ova nal KCLKOV dalfjiova. DiOG.
reward for these things shall not Laert. Proem,
/. 2.
fail. Go, Phantom, save her, and the
great assembly of the people shall 74. THE Iranians were in ancient
crown thee Meats, the best in the times the dominant race throughout
!

city, shall be thy food Wine, the the entire tract lying between the
!

most delicious in the city, shall be thy Suliman mountains and the Pamir
drink ! A royal palace shall be thy steppe on the one hand, and the great
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [107] 2

Mesopotamia valley on the other. cially of such as wish to study the

Intermixed in portions of the tract history of religions.
with a Cushite or Nigritic, and in 75. Ancient tradition associates this
others with a Turanian element, they religion with the name of Zoroaster.
possessed, nevertheless, upon the Zoroaster, or Zarathrustra, according
whole, a decided preponderance and to the native spelling,* was, by one
;

the tract itself has been known as account,! a Median king who con-
" "
Ariana," or Iran," at any rate from quered Babylon about B.C. 2458. By
the time of Alexander the Great to another, which is more probable, and
the present day * The region is one which rests, moreover, on better au-
!

in which extremes are brought into thority, he was a Bactrian,$ who, at a

sharp contrast, and forced on human date not quite so remote, came for-
observation, the summers being in- ward in the broad plain of the middle
tensely hot, and the winters piercingly Oxus to instill into the minds of his
cold, the more favored portions luxuri- countrymen the doctrines and precepts
antly fertile, the remainder an arid of a new religion. Claiming divine
and frightful desert. If, as seems to inspiration, and professing to hold
be now generally thought by the best from time to time direct conversation
informed and deepest investigators,t with the Supreme Being, he delivered
the light of primeval relation very his revelations in a mythical form, and
early faded away in Asia, and religions obtained their general acceptance as
there were in the main elaborated out divine by the Bactrian people. His
"
of the working upon the circumstances religion gradually spread from happy
"
of his environment, of that religious Bactra," "Bactfa of the lofty ban-
"
faculty wherewith God had endowed ner,'^ first to the neighboring coun-
mankind, we might expect that in this tries, and then to all the numerous
peculiar* region a peculiar religion tribes of the Iranians, until at last it
should develop itself a religion of became the established religion of the
strong antitheses and sharp contrasts, mighty empire of Persia, which, in the
unlike that of such homogeneous tracts middle of the sixth century before our
as the Nile valley and the Mesopota- era, established itself on the ruins of
mian plain, where climate was almost the Assyrian and Babylonian king-
uniform, and a monotonous fertility doms, and shortly afterward overran
spread around universal abundance. and subdued the ancient monarchy
The fact answers to our natural antici- of the Pharaohs. In Persia it main-
pation. At a time which it is difficult tained its ground, despite the shocks
to date, but which those best skilled of Grecian and Parthian conquest,
in Iranian antiquities are inclined to until Mohammedan intolerance drove
place before the birth of Moses, $ thereit out at the point of the sword, and

grew up, in the region whereof we are forced it to seek a refuge further east,
speaking, a form of religion marked in the peninsula of Hindustan. Here
by very special and unusual features, it still continues, in Gtizerat and in
very unlike the religions of Egypt and Bombay, the creed of that ingenious
Assyria, a thing quite sui generis, one and intelligent people known to An-
very worthy of the attention of those glo-Indians and may we not say to
who are interested in the past history Englishmen generally ? as Parsees.
of the human race, and more espe- 76. The religion of the Parsees is
contained in a volume of some size,
* who
is the earliest of extant writ-
Strabo,
ers to use
" Ariana " in
this broad sense,
* See " Zendavesta,"/<z.m#z.
probably obtained the term from the contem- "
poraries of Alexander. It was certainly used t Berosus ap. Syncell. Chronographia," p.
by Apollodorus of Artemita (ab. B.C. 130). 147.
t See Max Miiller,
"
Introduction to the \ Hermipp. ap. Arnob. " Adv. Gentes," i.
Science of Religion," Lecture I. pp. 40, 41. 52; Justin, i. i ;
Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6; Moses
\ Haug,
"
Essays on the Religion, etc., of Choren. " Hist. Armen." i. 5.
"
the Parsees," p. 255. Vendidad," Farg. ii. s. 7.
80 [1031 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
which has received the name of " the but it was developed at so early a date *
Zendavesta.'' * Subjected for the last out of that teaching, that in treating
fifty years to the searching analysis generally of the Iranian religion we
of first-rate orientalists Burnouf, must necessarily regard Dualism as a
Westergaard, Brockhaus, Spiegel, part of it. The Iranians of historic
Haug, Windischmann, Hiibschmann times held that from all eternity there
this work has been found to belong had existed two mighty and rival be-
in its various parts to very different ings, the authors of all other existences,
dates, and to admit of being so dis- who had been engaged in a perpetual
sected t as to reveal to us, not only contest, each seeking to injure, baffle,
what are the tenets of the modern and in every way annoy and thwart the
Parsees, but what was the earliest other. Both principles were real per-
form of that religion whereof theirs is sons, possessed of will, intelligence,
the remote and degenerate descendant. power, consciousness, and other per-
Signs of a great antiquity are found sonal qualities. To the one they gave
to attach to the language of certain the name of Ahura-Mazda, to the other
rhythmical compositions, called Ga- that of Angro-Mainyus.
thas or hymns ; and the religious ideas 78. Here let us pause for a mo-
contained in these are found to be at ment, and consider the import of these
once harmonious, and also of a sim- two names. Names of deities, as
pler and more primitive character Professor Max Miiller has well pointed
than those contained in the rest of out,f are among the most interesting
the volume. From the Gathas chiefly, of studies ;
and a proper understand-
but also to some extent from other, ing of their meaning throws frequently
apparently very ancient, portions of very considerable light on the nature
the Zendavesta, the characteristics of and character of a religion. Now,
the early Iranian religion have been Ahura-Mazda is a word composed of
drawn out by various scholars, partic- three elements: "Ahura," "maz,"
"
ularly by Dr. Martin Haug; and it is da." The first of these is properly
from the labors of these writers, in the an adjective, signifying, "living; "it
main, that we shall be content to corresponds to "asura" in Sanskrit,
draw our picture of the religion in and like that passes from an adjecti-
question. val to a substantival force, and is used
"
77. The most striking feature of for living being," especially for liv-
the religion, and that which is gener- ing beings superior to man. Perhaps
ally allowed to be its leading charac- it may be best expressed in English
"
teristic, is the assertion of Dualism. by the word spirit," only that we
By Dualism we mean the belief in two must not regard absolute immaterial-
original uncreated principles, a princi- ity as implied in it. "Maz" is cog-
ple of good and a principle of evil. nate to the "maj" in major, and the
"
This creed was not perhaps contained " mag or " meg in " magnus
" "
and
in the teaching of Zoroaster himself,}: pfr/af ;
it is an intensitive, and means
" much." "
Da " or " dao " is a word
* a double
Anquetil Duperron introduced the sacred of meaning it is a partici-
;

book of the Pavsees to the knowledge of Eu-

ple, or verbal adjective, and signifies
ropeans under this name and the word thus either
;

introduced can scarcely be now displaced. "giving" or "knowing," being

"
Otherwise " Avesta-Zend might be recom- connected with the Latin "do,"
mended as the more proper title. " Avesta" "dare" (Greek 6i6o/u), "to give,"
means "text," and "Zend" means "com- and with the Greek
dafjvai,
ment." "Avesta u Zend," or "Text and
Comment" is the proper title, which is then
* The Second "
contracted into " Avesta-Zend." Fargard of the Vendidad,"
"
f Haug, Essays," pp. 136-138; Max Mul- which from internal evidence may be pro-
"
ler, Introduction to the Science of Relig- nounced earlier than B.C. 800, is as strongly
ion," pp. 26-29. Dualistic as
any other portion of the volume.
" Introduction
J See the Author's " Ancient Monarchies," t to the Science of Relig-
vol. iii.
pp. 104, 105. ion," Lecture III. pp. 171 et seqq.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [109]

u<
know," "knowing." The entire
to itual gifts, truth, devotion, " the good
"
word, Ahura-Mazda," thus means mind," and everlasting happiness ;
"
either, the much-knowing spirit," or and, as he rewarded the good, so he
the "much-giving spirit," the "all- also punished the bad, although this
" *
was an aspect in which he was but
bountiful," or the all-wise."
79. Angro-Mainyus contains two seldom contemplated.
elements only, an adjective and a sub- 81. Angro-Mainyus, on the other
stantive. "Angro" is akin to "ni-hand, was the creator and upholder
" "
it meansof everything that was evil.
ger," and so to negro ;
" Main- Op-
simply "black" or "dark." posed to Ahura-Mazda from the be-
yus," a substantive, ginning, he had been engaged in a
is the exact equiv-

alent of the Latin "mens," and the perpetual warfare with him. What-
Greek pho?. It means "mind," ever good thing Ahura-Mazda had
" Thus Angro-Main- created, Angro-Mainyus had cor-
intelligence."
" black or dark intelli-
yus is the rupted and ruined it.* Moral and
gence." physical evils were alike at his dis-
80. Thus the names themselves posal. He could blast the earth
sufficientlyindicated to those who with barrenness, or make it produce
firstused them the nature of the two thorns, thistles, and poisonous plants ;

beings. Ahura-Mazda was the " all- his were the earthquake, the storm,
bountiful, all wise,being" or the plague of hail, the thunderbolt;
living
" who stood head of all he could cause disease and death,
at the
spirit,"
that was good and lovely, beautiful sweep off a nation's flocks and herds
and delightful. Angro-Mainyus was by murrain, or depopulate a Conti-
"
the dark and gloomy intelligence," nent by pestilence ferocious wild
;

that had from the first been Ahura- beasts, serpents, toads, mice, hornets,
Mazda's enemy, and was bent on mosquitoes, were his creation he ;

thwarting and vexing him. And with had invented and introduced into the
these fundamental notions agreed all world the sins of witchcraft, murder,
that the sacred books taught concern- unbelief, cannibalism he excited
;

ing either being. Ahura-Mazda was wars and tumults, continually stirred
"
declared to be the creator of life,
"
up the bad against the good, and la-
the earthly and the spiritual he had;
bored by every possible expedient
made " the celestial bodies," " earth, to make vice triumph over virtue.
water, and trees," "all good creat- Ahura-Mazda could exercise no con-
ures," and "all good, true things." trol over him ;
the utmost that he
He was "good,"
"holy," "pure," could do was to keep a perpetual
" "
the holy god,"
" the holi- watch upon his rival, and seek to
true,"
est," "the essence of truth," "the baffle and defeat him. This he was
father of truth," "the best being of not always able to dp despite his best
;

ali," "the master of purity." Su- endeavors, Angro-Mainyus was not

premely happy, he possessed every unfrequently victorious.
blessing, "health, wealth, virtue, wis- 82. The two great beings who
dom, immortality."t From him came thus divided between them the em-
all good to man on the pious and pire of the universe, were neither of
the righteous he bestowed, not only them content to be solitary. Each
earthly advantages, but precious spir- had called into existence a number of
inferior spirits, who acknowledged
their sovereignty, fought on their side,
and sought to execute their behests.
ary,
" Auramazda." At the head of the good spirits sub-
The expressions in inverted commas are
t ject to Ahura-Mazda stood a band
all taken from Haug's translations of the
Yasna given in his "Essays." The exact * See the Second Fargard of the " Vendi-
"
place of each is noted in the Author's An- dad," which is given at length in the above-
cient Monarchies," vol. iii. p. 96. mentioned work, vol. iii. pp. 238-240.
32 [110J THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
of six dignified with the title of ance to the army of Ahura-Mazda,
"
Amesha-Spentas, or Immortal Holy they maintained the struggle on some-
Ones," the chief assistants of the thing like equal terms, and showed no
Principle of Good both in counsel and sign of any intention to make their
in action. These were Vohu-mano, submission.
" "
or Bahrnan, the Good Mind Asha- ; 83. Neither Ahura-Mazda nor the
"
vahista, or Ardibehesht, the High- Amesha-Spentas were represented by
"
est Truth ; Khshathra-vairya, or the early Iranians under any material
Shahravar, the genius of wealth forms. The Zoroastrian system was- :

Spenta-Armaiti (Island-armat), the markedly anti-idolatrous and the ut- :

genius of the Earth Haurvatat most that was allowed the worshiper
:

(Khordad), the genius of Health was an emblematic representation of

:

and Ameretat (Amerdat), the genius the Supreme Being by means of a

of Immortality.* In direct antithesis winged circle, with which was occa-
to these stood the band, likewise one sionally combined an incomplete hu-
of six, which formed the council and man figure, robed and wearing a tiara.
chief support of Angro-Mainyus, A four-winged figure at Murgab, the
"
namely, Akomano, "-the Bad Mind ancient Pasargadae, is also possibly a
:

Indra, the god of storms Saurva representation of Serosh

: out other-
:
;

Naonhaitya Taric and Zaric.f Be- wise the objects of their religious re-
: :

sides these leading spirits there was gards were not exhibited in material
marshaled on either side an innu- shapes by the early Iranians.
merable host cf lesser and subordinate 84. Among the angelic beings rev-
ones, called respectively ahuras and erenced by the Iranians lower than
devas, who constituted the armies or the Amesha-Spentas, but still of a
attendants of the two great powers, very high rank and dignity, were
and were employed by them to work Mithra, the genius of light, early iden-
out their purposes. The leader of the tified with the sun ; Tistrya, the Dog-
angelic hosts, or ahuras, was a glori- star;* Airyaman, a genius presiding
ous being, called Sraosha or Serosh \ over marriage f and others. Mithra ;
" the
good, tall, fair Serosh," who was originally not held in very high
stood in the Zoroastrian system where esteem but by degrees he was ad- ;

Michael the Archangel stands in the vanced, and ultimately came to occu-
Christian. The armies of Angro- py a place only a little inferior to that
Mainyus had no such single leader, assigned from the first to Ahura-
but fought under the orders of a Mazda. Darius, the son of Hystaspes,
number of co-equal captains, as placed the emblems of Ahura-Mazda
" destruction "
Drukhs,
" "
Aeshemo, and of Mithra in equally conspicuous
:

" "
rapine Daivis,
: deceit Driwis, positions on the sculptured tablet
:

" "
poverty and others.
:
Offering above his tomb and his example was ;

an uninterrupted and dogged resist- followed by all the later monarchs of

his race whose sepulchres are still
* " " Lect- in existence. \ Artaxerxes Mnemon
Haug, Essays," p. 263 Pusey, ;

ures on Daniel," pp. 536, 537. placed an image of Mithra in the

"
t Haug, 1. s. c. Windischmann, Zoroas- temple attached to the royal palace at
;

trische Studient," p. 59.

Susa. He also in his inscriptions
\ On Serosh, see the Author's "Ancient
vol. iii. 112.
unites Mithra with Ahura-Mazda, and
Monarchies," pp. 99,
no doubt true, as Dr. Pusey ob- prays for their conjoint protection.!
It is
serves (" Lectures on Daniel," p. 535), that Artaxerxes Ochus does the same a
the character of the Amesha-Spentas, and of
the other great spirits or genii of the Zenda- * " Zendavesta," iii. 72 (Spiegel's edition).
" below that of the "
vesta, is altogether holy t Haug, Essays," p. 231.
" See the Author's " Ancient Monarchies,"
angels," and that the term archangel,"
"
if \
misnomer iv. p. 334, and Flandin,
"
applied to any of is
them, ".a (Ibid. vol. Voyage en
p. 538). But still there resem-
is sufficient Perse," pis. 164, bis, 166, 173-176.
blance to make the comparison natural and Loftus " Chaldaea and Susiana," p. 372.
not improper. il Ibid.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [Ill] 33

little later * and the is also showed it to the sacrificial after

; practice fire,
observed in portions of the Zenda- which the victim was cooked and
vesta composed about this period, f eaten at a solemn meal by the priests
Ahura-Mazda and Mithra are called and worshipers united.
" the two " 86. The purity required of the Irani-
great ones," the two great,
imperishable, and pure." $ ans was inward as well as outward.
85. The position of man in the cos- Outward purity had to be maintained
mic scheme was determined by the by a multiplicity of external observ-
fact that he was among the creations ances,* forming in their entirety a
of Ahura-Mazda. Formed and placed burden as heavy to bear as that im-
on earth by the Good Being, he was posed by the Mosaic ceremonial law
bound to render him implicit obedi- on the people of Israel. But inward
ence, and to oppose to the utmost purity was not neglected. Not only
Angro-Mainyus and his creatures. were the Iranians required to refrain
His duties might be summed up under from all impure acts, but also from
the four heads of piety, purity, in- impure words, and even from impure
dustry, and veracity. Piety was to thoughts. Ahura-Mazda was "the
be shown by an acknowledgment of pure, the master of purity," and would
Ahura-Mazda as the One True God, not tolerate less than perfect purity in
by a reverential regard for the Ame- his votaries.
sha-Spentas and the Izeds, or lower 87. The industry required by the
angels, by the frequent offering of Zoroastrian religion was of a peculiar
prayers, praises, and thanksgivings, kind. Man was placed upon the
the recitation of hymns, the occasional earth to Ahura-Mazda's
" preserve
"
sacrifice of animals, and the perform- good creation and this could only
;

ance from time to time of a curious be done by careful tilling of the soil,
ceremony known as that of the Ha- eradication of thorns and weeds, and
oma or Homa. This consisted in the reclamation of the tracts over which
extraction of the juice of the Homa Angro-Mainyus had spread the curse
plant by the priests during the recita- of barrenness. To cultivate the soil
tion of prayers, the formal presenta- was thus a religious duty: f the whole
tion of the liquid extracted to the sac- community was required to be agricult-
rificial fire, the consumption of a small ural and either as proprietor, as
;

portion of it by one of the officiating farmer, or as laboring man, each Zo-

ministers, and the division of the re- roastrian was bound to "further the
mainder among the worshipers. In "
by advancing tillage. works of life
sacrifices the priests were also neces- of veracity was incul- 88. The duty
sary go-betweens. The most ap- cated perhaps more strenuously than
proved victim was the horse but it any other. "The Persian youth are
; ||

was likewise allowable to offer oxen, taught," says Herodotus,! " three
sheep, or goats. The animal having things, and three things only to ride, :

been brought before an altar on which to draw the bow, and to speak the
burnt the sacred fire, kindled origin- truth." Ahura-Mazda was the " true
ally (according to the general belief) spirit," and the chief of the Amesha^
from heaven, was there slain by a Spentas was Asha-vahista, "the best
priest, who took of the flesh and truth."- Druj, "falsehood," is held
up to detestation, alike in the Zenda-
* Sir H. Rawlinson " Cuneiform
Inscrip- vesta and in the Persian cuneiform
tions," vol.
inscriptions, as the basest, the most
i.
p. 342.
" " i|
t Yasna," i.
34 ;
ii. 44 ;
iii. 48 ; Mihr
Yasht," i
[3.
J See Pusey's " Lectures on Daniel," * " Vendidad," Farg. 8-u, and 16, 17.
note "
p. 542, 3. t Yasna," xxxiii. 3.
" Herod, i. 136.
See Haug, Essays," p. 239. J
Xen. "
y "Yasna," xliv. 18. Compare Yasna," xxxv. 3.
" " "
Cyrop." v-iii. 3, 24 and Ovid, Fasti," i.
; ||
Sir H. Rawlinson, Cuneiform Inscrip-
38S- tions." vol. i.
pp. 200, 244, 245, etc.
 [112] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

contemptible, and the most pernicious makes evident, that no more is in

it

of vices. reality asserted in them than the

89. If it be asked what opinions were continued existence of the soul ; and
entertained by the Zoroastrians con- Spiegel comes to the conclusion that,
cerning man's ultimate destiny, the even so late as the time when the
answer would seem to be, that they " Vendidad " was "
written, the res-
were devout and earnest believers in urrection of the body was not yet
the immortality of the soul, and a con- known to the Parsees,"* or Persians.
scious future existence. It was taught 91. The original religion of the
that immediately after death the souls Iranians was Dualism of a very pro-
of men, both good and bad, proceeded nounced type, assigning, as it did, to
together along an appointed path to Angro-Mainyus complete independ-
the "bridge of the gatherer." There ence of Ahura-Mazda, and equal
was a narrow road conducting to eternity with him, with
almost equal
heaven, or paradise, over which the verged upon polytheism
power. It
souls of the good alone could pass,by the very important position which
while the wicked fell from it into the
it
assigned to certain of the ahuras or
gulf below, where they found them- angels, whom it coupled with the
selves in the place of punishment. Principle of Good in a way which
The pious soul was assisted across derogated from his supreme and un-
" rivaled In
the bridge by the angel Serosh, the dignity.f its morality it

happy, well-formed, swift, tall Se- maintained a high tone but it im- ;

rosh," who went out to meet the posed on its followers a burdensome
weary wayfarer, and sustained his yoke of ceremonial observances. It
steps as he effected the difficult pas- taught a future life, with happiness
sage. The prayers of his friends in for the good and misery for the
this world much availed the deceased, wicked but unfortunately inclined
;

and helped him forward greatly on to identify goodness with orthodoxy,

his journey. As he
entered, the angel and wickedness" with a rejection of
Vohu-mano rose from his throne, and the doctrine of Zoroaster.
" How
greeted him with the words 92. It may help the reader to un-
happy art thou, who hast come here derstand the inner spirit of the re-
to us, exchanging mortality for im- ligion, if we give one or two speci-
"
mortality !Then the good soul mens of the hymns which constituted
went joyfully onward to the golden so important a part of the Zoroastrian
throne, to paradise. As for the worship. The following is one of the
wicked, when they fell into the gulf, Gathas, and is by some assigned to
they found themselves in outer dark- Zoroaster himself t:
ness, in the kingdom of Angro-Main- " Now
will I speak and proclaim to all who
yus, where they were forced to remain have come to listen
in a sad and wretched condition.* Thy praise, Ahura-Mazda, and thine, O Vohu-
It has been maintained by mano.
90.
some that the Asha ! I ask that thy grace may appear in
early Iranians also the lights of heaven.
held the doctrine of the resurrection
of the body.f Such a doctrine is Hear with your ears what is best, perceive
with your minds what is purest,
certainly contained in the more re-
So that each man for himself may, before the
cent portions of the Zendavesta ; and doom cometh,
great
it is argued that there are expres- Choose the creed he prefers. May the wise
sions in the more ancient parts of that ones be on our side.
work which imply it, if they do not -*
Spiegel,
" A
vesta," vol. ii. p. 248, 249.
actually assert it. But a careful ex- t
" Lectures on
Daniel," p. 535, n. 9.
Pusey,
" Ein Zoroastrisches
amination of the passages adduced | Hiibschmann, Lied,
mit Riicksicht auf die Tradition, ubersetzt
* " Vendidad," " Es- f

und erklart."
xix. 30-32 ; Haug, |
Miinchen, 1872. Compare
says," p. 156, Max Mullen " Lectures on the Science of
" |

Essays," p. 266.
1

f Hang, Religion," pp. 237-239.

 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 35

" We
These twoSpirits are twins ; they made ; worship Ahura-Mazda, the pure, the
known in times that are bygone master of purity :

That which is good and evil, in thought, and We worship the Amesha-Spentas, possessors
word, and action. and givers of blessings :

Rightly decided between them the good ; not

so the evil. We worship the whole creation of Him who
is True, the heavenly,
When these Two came together, first of all With the terrestrial, all that supports the
they created good creation,
Life and death, that at last there might be for All that favors the spread of the good Mazd-
such as are evil yasna* religion.
Wretchedness, but for the good a happy blest
existence. We praise whatever is good in thought, in
word, or in action,
Of these Two the One who was evil chose Past or future we also keep clean whatever
;
what was evil ;
is excellent.
He who was kind and good, whose robe was
the changeless Heaven,
Chose what was right; those, too, whose Ahura-mazda, thou true and happy beingO !

works pleased Ahura-Mazda.

We strive both to
think, and to speak, and
to do whatever is fittest
Both our lives t to preserve, and bring them
They could not rightly discern who erred and both to perfection.
worshiped the Devas ;

They the Bad Spirit chose, and, having held

counsel together, Holy Spirit of Earth, for our best works'^
Turned to Rapine, that so they might make sake, we entreat thee,
man's life an affliction. Grant us beautiful fertile fields aye, grant
them to all men,
But to the good came might and with might ;
Believers and unbelievers, the wealthy and
came wisdom and virtue ;
those that have nothing."
Armaiti herself, the Eternal, gave to their
bodies
93. The religion of the early Irani-
Vigor e'en thou wert enriched bv the gifts
;
ans became corrupted after a time by
that she scattered, Mazda. O
an admixture of foreign superstitions.
Mazda, the time will come when the crimes The followers of Zoroaster, as they
of the bad shall be punished
spread themselves from their original
;

Then shall thy power be displayed in fitly re- seat

upon the Oxus over the regions
warding the righteous
Them that have bound and delivered up lying south and south-west of the Cas-
falsehood to Asha the Truth-God. pian Sea, were brought into contact
I

with a form of faith considerably dif-

Let us then be of those who advance this
world and improve it, ferent from that to which they had
O Ahura-Mazda, O Truth-God bliss con- previously been attached, yet well
ferring adapted for blending with it. This
!

Let our minds be ever there where wisdom

abideth !
was Magism, or the worship of the
elements. The early inhabitants of
Then indeed shall be seen the fall of perni- Armenia, Cappadocia, and the Zagros
cious falsehood ;
under circum-
But in the house where dwel) Vohu-mano, mountain-range, had,
stances that are unknown to us, de-
Mazda, and Asha
Beautiful house shall be gathered forever veloped this form of religion, and had
such as are worthy. associated with its tenets a priest-caste,

O men, claiming prophetic powers, and a

you but cling to the precepts Mazda
if
has given, highly sacerdotal character. The es-
Precepts, which to the bad are a torment, but sentials of the religion were these :

joy to the righteous, the four elements, fire, air, earth, and
Then shall you one day find yourselves vic-
torious through them."
* " Mazd-yasna " means " Ahura-mazda
Our other specimen is taken from .the worshiping." Mazdisn was used commonly
" "
Yasna," or Book on Sacrifice," to designate the orthodox, under the Sassa-
and is probably some centuries later nians.
t The two lives are
"
the life of the soul "
than the great bulk of the Gathas*:
and " the life of the body " (Haug, " Essays,"
1. s. c.).
*
Haug,
"
Essays," pp. 162, 163. \i.e.
"
our agricultural labors " (ibid.}.
38 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

water, were recognized as the only ment of which was essential to every
proper objects of human reverence. sacrificial ceremony.* Claiming su-
Personal gods, and together with them pernatural powers, they explained
temples, shrines, and images, were re- omens, expounded dreams, and by
jected. The devotion of the worship- means of a certain mysterious manipu-
ers was paid, not to any powers pre- lation of the barsom, or bundle of tam-
siding over the constituent parts of arisk twigs,f arrived at a knowledge
nature, but to those constituent parts of future events, which they would
themselves. Fire, as the most subtle sometimes condescend to communi-
and ethereal principle, and again as cate to the pious inquirer.
the most powerful agent, attracted es- 95. With such pretensions it was
pecial regard and on the fire-altars
;
natural that the caste should assume
of the Magians the sacred flame, gen- a lofty air, a stately dress, and an en-
erally regarded as kindled from vironment of ceremonial magnificence.
heaven, was kept uninterruptedly burn- Clad in white robes, and bearing upon
ing from year to year, and from age their heads tall felt caps, with long
to age, by bands of priests, whose spe- lappets at the sides, which (we are
cial duty it was to see that the sacred told ||) concealed the jaw and even
spark was never extinguished. To the lips, each with his barsom in his
defile the altar by blowing the flame hand, they marched in procession to
with one's breath was a capital of- the fire- altars, and standing round
fense, and to burn a corpse was re- them performed for an hour at a time
garded as equally odious. When vic- their magical incantations. The cred-
tims weie offered, nothing but a small ulous multitude, impressed by sights
portion of the fat was consumed in of this kind, and imposed on by the
the flames. Next to fire, water was claims to supernatural powers which
reverenced. Sacrifice was offered to the Magi put forward, paid them a
rivers, lakes, and fountains, the victim willing homage; the kings and chiefs
being brought near to them and then consulted them and when the Irani- ;

slain, while the utmost care was taken ans, pressing westward, came into con-
that no drop of their blood should tact with the races professing the
touch the water and pollute it. No Magian religion, they found the Ma-
refuse was allowed to be cast into a gian priest-caste all-powerful in most
river, nor was it even lawful to wash of the western nations.
one's hands in one. Reverence for 96. Originally Zoroastrianism had
earth was shown by sacrifice and by been intolerant and exclusive. Its
abstention from the usual mode of first professors had looked with aver-
burying the dead.* sion and contempt on the creed of
94. The Magian priest-caste held their Indian brethren they had been ;

an exalted position. No worshiper fierce opponents of idolatry, and abso-

could perform any rite of the religion lutely hostile to every form of religion
unless by the intervention of a priest, except that which they had themselves
who stood between him and the Deity worked out. But with the lapse of
as a mediator.f The Magus prepared time these feelings had grown weaker.
the victim and slew it, chanted the The old religious fervor had abated.
mystic strain which gave the sacrifice An impressible and imitative spirit
all its force,poured on the ground the had developed itself. When the Zo-
propitiatory libation of oil, milk, and roastrians came into contact with
honey, and held the bundle of thin Magism, it impressed them favorably.
tamarisk twigs, the barsom (baresma) There was no contradiction between
of the later Zend books, the employ- its main tenets and those of their old
religion they were compatible, and
;

* The chief authorities for this description

are Herodotus Strabo * Strabo, 1. s. c.
(i. 132), (xv. 3, 13,
14.) and Agathias 24).
(ii. t Dino, Fr. 8; Schol. ad. Nic. Ther. 613.
"
t Herod. 1. s. c. ;
Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6. t Strabo, xv. 3, 15 Diog. Laert. Proem."
;
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [115] 37

might readily be held together; and dead themselves, they

hit on an expe-
the result was, that, without giving up dient which,without requiring them
any part of their previous creed, the to do what they 30 much
disliked,
Iranians adopted and added on to it had the same result transferred, that
all the principal points of the Magian is,the bodies of their departed friends
belief, and all the more remarkable of into those of other living
organisms,
the Magian religious usages. This and so avoided the pollution of any
religious fusion seems first to have element by their decaying remains.
taken place in Media. The Magi be- Immediately after death' they removed
came a Median tribe,* and were the bodies to a solitary place, and
adopted as the priest-caste of the Me- left them to be devoured
by beasts
dian nation. Elemental worship, div-and birds of prey, crows, ravens, vult-
ination by means of the barsom, dream- wolves, jackals,
ures, and foxes.
expounding, incantations at the fire- This was the orthodox practice,* was
altars, sacrifices whereat a Magus employed by the Magi themselves in
officiated, were added on to the old the case of their own dead, and was
dualism and qualified worship of the earnestly recommended to others ;t
Amesha-Spentas, of Mithra, and of but as it was found that, despite all
the other ahuras and a mixed or exhortations, there were some whose
;

mongrel religion was thus formed, prejudices would not allow them to
which long struggled with, and ulti- adopt this method, another had to be
mately prevailed over, pure Zoroastri- devised and allowed, though not rec-
anism.f The Persians after a time ommended. This was the coating of
came into this belief, accepted the the dead body with wax previous-
Magi 'for their priests, and attended ly to its deposition in the ground, t
the ceremonies at the fire-altars. Direct contact between the corpse
97. The adoption of elemental wor- and the earth being in this way pre-
ship into the Iranian system produced vented, pollution was supposed to be
a curious practice with regard to dead avoided.
bodies. It became unlawful to burn 98. The mixed religion thus con-
them, since that would be a pollution stituted, though less elevated and
of fire or to bury them, thereby pol-
;
less pure than the original Zoroas-
luting earth or to throw them into a
;
trian creed,must be pronounced to
river, thereby polluting water or even ;
have possessed a certain loftiness and
to place them :n a sepulchral cham- picturesqueness which suited it to
ber, or a sarcophagus, since that would become the religion of a great and
cause a pollution of air. What, then, splendid monarchy. The mysterious
was to be done with them ? In what fire-alcars upon the mountain-tops,
way were they to be disposed of ? with their prestige cf a remote antiq-
Some races of men, probably moved uity the ever-burning flame believed
by these scruples, adopted the prac- to have been kindled from on high
tice, which they regarded as emi- the worship in the open air under the
nently pious, of killing those who, they blue canopy of heaven the long
suspected, were about to die, and troops of Magians in their white
then eating them.t But the Iranians robes, with their strange caps, and
had reached that stage of civilization their mystic wands the frequent
when cannibalism is held to be dis- prayers, the abundant sacrifices, the
gusting. Disinclined to devour their low incantations the supposed pro-
phetic powers of the priest-caste all

* Herod, i. 101. this together constituted an imposing

T See WestergaarcTs
"
Introduction to the whole at once to the eye and to the
Zenda vesta," p. 17; and compare the Au-
thor's " Essay on the Religion of the Ancient * Strabo, xv.
3, 20. Compare Herod, i-
"
Persians in his " Herodotus," vol. i. pp. 414- 140.
"
419, ^d edition. 1 Vendidad," Farg. v. to viii.
] Herod, i 216 ;
iii.
99. | Herod. 1. s. c.; Strabo, 1. s. c.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

mind, and was calculated to give addi- was an extensive polytheism, but a
tional grandeur to the civil system polytheism of a very peculiar charac-
that should be allied with it. Pure ter. There lay behind it, at its first
Zoroastrianism was too spiritual to formation, no conscious monotheism,
coalesce readily with Oriental luxury no conception of a single supreme
and magnificence, or to lend strength power, from whom man and nature,
to a government based on the princi- and all the forces in nature, have their
ples of Asiatic despotism. Magism origin. If we hold, as I believe we
furnished a hierarchy to support the do right to hold, that God revealed
throne and add splendor and dignity Himself to the first parents of the hu-
to the court, while it overawed the man race as a single personal being,
subject class by its supposed posses- and so that all races of men had at
sion of supernatural powers and of the first this idea as an inheritance
the right of mediating between man handed down to them traditionally
and God. It supplied a picturesque from their ancestors, yet it would seem
worship, which at once gratified the certain that in India, before the relig-
senses and excited the fancy. It gave ion which we find in the Vedas arose,
scope to man's passion for the mar- this belief had completely faded away
velous by itsincantations, its divin- and disappeared; the notion of
" "
ing-rods, itsomen-reading, and its " God "had passed into the notion of
dream-expounding. It gratified the gods a real polytheism universally
;

religious scrupulosity which finds a prevailed, even with the highest class
* and
pleasure in making to itself difficul- of intellects when, in the
;

ties, by the disallowance of a thousand course of time, monotheistic ideas

natural acts, and the imposition of showed themselves, they sprang up in
numberless rules for external purity. individual minds as the results of in-
At the same time it gave no offense dividual speculation, f and were ut-
to the anti-idolatrous spirit in which tered tentatively, not as doctrines, but
the Iranians had always gloried, but
as hypotheses, as timid "guesses at
upheld and encouraged the icono- truth," on the part of those who con-
clasm which they had previously prac- fessed that they knew little or noth-
ticed. It thus blended easily with ing.
the previous creed of the Iranian peo- 100. If it be asked how this forge t-
ple, and produced an amalgam that fulness came about, how the idea of
has shown a surprising vitality, hav- one God, once possessed, could ever
ing lasted above two thousand years be lost, perhaps we may find an an-
from the time of Xerxes, the son of swer in that fact to which the tradi-
Darius Hystaspis (B.C. 485-465) to tions of the race and some of their
the present day. peculiar expressions $ point back, that
for many centuries they had been lo-
cated in one of the cruellest regions
of the earth, a region with " ten
CHAPTER IV. months of winter and two months of
summer," where the struggle for ex-
THE RELIGION OF THE EARLY SANS- istence must have been terrible in-
KRITIC INDIANS.
* See Max Miiller, " Ancient Sanskrit Lit-
"Le pantheisme naturaliste et le polythe- erature," pp. 528, 529.
isme, sa consequence inevitable, s' et'aient t Ibid. p. 559.
"
graduellement introduits dans les croyances J As the expression, a hundred winters"
des Aryas." LENORMANT. Manuel d Histoire used for a hundred years. (See H. H. Wil-
1

Ancienne, vol. iii. p. 309. son's " Introduction to the Rig-Veda," vol. i.
p. xlii.)
See the description of " Aryanem vaejo
"'

99. THE religion of -the early

In-
the old home of the Aryans in the First
dians, like that of the Egyptians, and " "
Fargard of the Vendidad (" Ancient Mon-
like that of Assyrians and Babylonians, archies," vol. ii.
p. 432).
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. in-

deed, and all their energies, all their beings quite distinct from the objects
time, all their thought, must have been themselves, presiding over them, di- -

spent on the satisfaction of those phys- recting them, ruling them, but having
ical needs for which provision must a separate and another kind of exist-
be made before man can occupy him- ence.
self with the riddle of the universe. 102. And now the polytheism, al-
At any rate, however we may account ready sufficiently extensive through
for it, or whether we can account for the multiplicity of things natural, took
it or no, the fact remains somehow a fresh start. The names, having be-
;

or other the Sanskritic Indians had come persons, tended to float away
ceased to " retain God in their knowl- from the objects and the objects re- ;

"* "
edge ; they were for a time with- ceived fresh names, which in their
out God in the world," they had lost turn were exalted into
gods, and so
" eternal
the sense of His power and swelled the pantheon. When first
"
Godhead f they were in the condi- the idea of counting the gods pre-
;

tion that men would be in who should sented itself to the mind of a Vedic
be veritable "children of the soil," poet, and he subjected them to a
springing into life without inheritance formal census, he found them to
of ancestral notions. amount to no more than thirty-three.*
101. But there was one thing which But in course of time this small band
they could not be without. God has swelled into a multitude, and Visva-
implanted in all men a religious fac- mitra, a somewhat late poet, states
ulty, a religious instinct, which is
an the number at 3339.!
essential portion of their nature and 103. One of the features most
among the faculties which most dis- clearly pronounced in the Vedic poly-
tinguish man from the brutes. No theism is that which has been already
sooner was the tension produced by noticed as obtaining to a considerable
the severe character of their surround- extent both in the Egyptian and As-
ings relaxed no sooner did the plains syrian religions, t the feature which
of the Punjab receive the previous has been called " Kathenotheism " or
"
dwellers in the Hindu Kush than Henotheism." AVedic worshiper,
this instinct asserted itself, perceived for themost part, when he turned his
that there was something divine in the regards toward any individual deity,
world, and proceeded to the manu- forgot for the time being that there
facture of deities. Nature seemed was any other, and addressed the im-
to the Hindoo not to be one, but mediate object of his adoration in
many and all nature seemed to be
;
terms of as absolute devotion as if he
wonderful, and, so, divine. The sky, were the sole God whom he recog-
the air, the dawn, the sun, the earth, nized, the one and only Divine Being
in the entire universe. "
the moon, the wind, the storms, the In the first
fire, the waters, the rivers, attracted his hymn of the second
*
Mandala, the god
attention, charmed him, sometimes Agni is called the ruler of the uni-
'
him, seemed to him instinct
'
terrified verse/ the lord of men,' the wise
with power and life, became to him king, the father, the brother, the son,
the friend of man
'

objects of admiration and then of nay, all the pow-

;

worship. At first, it would appear, ers and names of the other gods are
the objects themselves were adored distinctly assigned to Agni."
;
Sim- ||

but the objects received names ; the

names were, by the laws of Indian " * Rig- Veda, viii. 30. (See Max Miiller's
Ancient Sanskrit Literature," p. 31.)
grammar, masculine or feminine ; and " "
t Rig- Veda Sanhita (translation of H.
the named objects thus passed into H.
Wilson), vol. iii. p. 7.
person s,-t the nomina became numina, J See above, pp. 40 and 56.
"
Max Miiller, Chips from a German
* Romans Romans "
i. 28.
"
t i. 20. Workshop," vol. i. p. 28 ; Science of Relig-
\ Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of ion," p. 141.
Religion," pp. 54-56. !|" Chips," 1. s. c.
40 [IIS] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
in another hymn, Varuna is
" the "
the bode of
ilarly, world," all-wise,"
kk k '
the wise god,' the lord of all,' the
* " the lord of the "
truth," good," the
heaven and *
animator of "
lord of earth,' the up- the
all," showerer
of
holder of order,' he who gives to men
'
benefits," "the fulfiller of the desire
"
glory.'* It is the same with Indra of him who offers praise ; * and,
he is ' the ruler of all that moves,' thewith more or less of reference to his
" the sender
mighty one,' he to whom there is
' '

original character, of
none like in heaven and earth ' " f rain,"
" the :
giver of food,"
"
the lord
"the gods," it is said, "do not reach of opulence," and " the wielder of
thee, Indra, nor men ; thou overcom- the thunderbolt." t Varuna is more
est all creatures in strength." The sparingly addressed; but, when ad-
best authority tells us that " it would dressed, is put quite upon a par with
be easy to find, in the numerous hymns Indra, joined with him in such phrases
of the Veda, passages in which almost as "sovereign Indra and Varuna,"
"
every important deity is represented Indra and Varuna, sovereign rulers,"
as supreme and absolute." $ At the "divine Indra and Varuna," "mighty
same time there is no rivalry, no com- Indra and Varuna," \ etc., and entreat-
parison of one god with another, no ed to afford the worshiper, equally with
conflict of opinion between the vota- Indra, protection, long life, riches,
ries of different deities each is su- sons and grandsons, happiness. Mi-
;

preme and absolute in his turn, simply tra is the usual companion of Varuna,
because " all the rest disappear for a sharing with him in the fifth Mandala
moment from the vision of the poet, eleven consecutive hymns, and else-
and he only who is to fulfill their de- where joined with him frequently ; jj

"
sires stands in full light before the they are observers of truth," " im-
" "
eyes of the worshipers. perial rulers of the world," lords of
"
104. Among the various deities heaven and truth," protectors of the
" "
thus, in a certain sense, equalized, universe," mighty deities," "far-see-
there are three who may be said to ing," " excelling in radiance *R they ;
"
occupy, if not the chief, at any rate uphold the three realms of light,"
" "
guide men in the
!

the oldest place, since their names scatter foes," i

have passed out of the sphere of mere right "way," " send rain from heaven,"
i

" ** "
appellatives, and have become proper grant men their desires,"
|
pro-
names, the designations of distinct cure for them exceeding and perfect
persons. These are Varuna, Mitra, felicity." ft They ride together in
and Indra originally, the Sky, the one chariot, which " shines in the
"
Sun, and the Storm (or, perhaps, the firmament like lightning ; $$ they
Day) but, in the Vedic hymns, only sustain the sun in his course, and con-
slightly connected with any particular jointly cause the rain to fall ; they are
"
aspects of nature, and not marked off possessed of irresistible strength,"$
by any strong differences the one and " uphold the celestial and terres-
from the other. Indra, indeed, is the
main object of adoration more than PP- 36, 145, 283; vol
;
Rig-Veda, vol.
one-third of the hymns in the earlier Hi. pp. 157, 159, and 166.
t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 283; vol. in. pp. 157 and
part of the Rig- Veda are addressed to
him.)! He is "the sovereign of the 1 60. " vol. iii. pp.
\ Rig- Veda," vol. i. p. 40 ;

63, 201, 203, etc.

*" Ancient Sanskrit Literature," pp. 536, Ibid. vol. iii. pp. 347~357-
537. t Ibid. p. 546. ||
As in vol. i. pp. 7, 117, and 230; vol. ii.
"
J Chips from a German Workshop," p. PP. 3-6, 53-55*59, etc.
28. Ibid. If Wilsons Introduction, vol. in. pp.
Forty-five in the first Astaka, out of 121 ;
!| 349~354- "
** Wilson's Introduction," vol.
39 in the second, out of 118 ; 48 in the third, iii pp.
out of 121 ; and 46 in the fourth, out of 140 354-35 6 -

altogether
"
"
178 out of 502. (See the Introduc-
" Trans-
^ Ibid. p. 349.
iion of Prof. H. H. Wilson to his \\ Ibid. p. 348.
lation of the Rig- Veda Sanhita.") Ibid. pp. 353, 354.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [119] 41

trial worlds."* It can scarcely be gods of human wants; the all-wise,

doubted that Mitra was once the who knows every thought of the wor-
sun, as Mithra always was in Per- shiper; the bestOA'er of all blessings
sia ;f but in the hymns of the Rig- on men, since it is by his intervention
Veda he has passed out of that subor- alone that their offerings are con-
dinate position, and has become a god veyed, and their wishes made known
who sustains the sun, and who has a to any deity. As conflagration, Agni
"
the consumer of forests, the dark-
general power over the elements.
is

has * " White-

His place as the actual sun-god pathed, the bright-shining."
been taken by another and distinct hued, vociferous, abiding in the firm-
deity, of whom more will be said pres-
ament with the imperishable resound-
ently. ing winds, the youngest of the gods,
105. these three gods, Agni, purifying and most vast, pro-
Next to
whose character is rather general ceeds, feeding upon numerous and
than special, must be placed Agni substantial forests. His bright flames,
the Latin ignis who is distinctly the fanned by the wind, spread wide in
god of fire. Fire presented itself to every direction, consuming abundant
the early Indians under a twofold as- fuel; divine, fresh-rising, they play
pect $ first, as it exists on earth, on upon the woods, enveloping them in
;

the hearth, on the altar, and in the luster."f Occasionally, instead of

conflagration secondly, as it exists in consuming forests, he devours cities
;

the sky, in the shape of lightning, me- with their inhabitants. When the
teors, stars, comets, and light gener- Aryan Indians prevail over their en-
ally, so far as that is independent
of emies and give their dwellings to the
the sun. The earthly aspect of fire is flames, it is Agni who " destroys the
most dwelt upon. The Vedic poet ancient towns of the dispersed,":}: and
"
sees it leaping forth from darkness on consumes victorious all the cities of
the rapid friction of two sticks in the the foe and their precious things."
hands of a strong man. It is greedy Hence, he is constantly invoked
for food as steps forth out of its
it against enemies, and exhorted to
prison, it snorts like a horse as with overthrow them, to give their cities to
" burn them
loud crackle it seizes and spreads destruction,to down like
among the fuel. Then for a moment pieces of dry timber," ||
to chastise
its path is darkened by great folds of them and " consume them entirely."
smoke but it overcomes, it triumphs, In his celestial character, Agni, on
;

and mounts up in a brilliant column the other hand, is, comparatively

of pure clear flame into the sky. As speaking, but rarely recognized.
culinary fire, Agni is the supporter of Still, his frequent association with In-
life, the giver of strength and vigor, dra IT ponts to this aspect of him.
the imparter of a pleasant flavor to Both he and Indra are " wielders of
" **
foocl,|i the diffuser of happiness in a thet hunderbolt they occupy a
;
"
dwelling. As a sacrificial fire, he is common car ft ; they are joint slay-
"
the messenger between the other gods ers of Vitra $$;
and Agni is described
" the
and man the interpreter to the other
;
in one place as agitator of the
clouds when the rain is poured forth,"
.* Ibid. p. 356.
t See the Author's " Ancient Monarch- *
Rig-Veda, p. 391.
ies," vol. ii.
p. 328; vol. iii.
pp. 348 and t Ibid. vol. iii. Compare pp. 136, 254,
" 385, etc.
Wilson " a
J says three-fold aspect (" In- J Ibid. p. 388.
troduction to Rig- Veda," vol. i. p. xxvii.), dis- Ibid. p. 1 6.
tinguishing between the region of the air and ||
Ibid. p. 126.
that of the sky; but the Vedic poets scarcely IT Mandala i. 21, 108 ; Mandala iii. 12;
make this distinction. Mandala v. 14 ; Mandala vi. 59 ; etc.
See Max "Ancient Sanskrit ** vol.
Miilier, Rig- Veda, iii. p. 500.
Literature," p. 547, note. ft Ibid. p. 501.
Rig- Veda, vol. iii. pp. 184, 247, etc.
!i Jt Ibid. vol. iii. pp. in, 503, etc.
42 [120] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
he who, " moving with the swiftness sacrificial food in sacrifices, bright-
of the wind, shines with a pure radi- shining she smiles, like a flatterer,
"
ance whose " falling rays, accom- to obtain favor, then lights up the
;

panied by the moving storms, strike world, spreads, expanding west-ward

against the cloud," which thereupon with her radiance, awakes men to
" " the
roars," after which shower consciousness, calls forth the pleas-
comes with delightful and smiling ant sounds of bird and beast, arouses
drops, the rain descends, the clouds all things that have life to their
thunder." * several labors.* Sometimes a mere
1 06. After Agni we may place in natural appearance, more often a
"
a single group, Dyaus, " the heaven ;
manifest goddess, she comes before
" "
Surya, or Savitri, the sun Soma, ;
men day after day with ever young
" the moon " " the dawn " and fresh beauty, challenging their
Ushas, ; ;

Prithivi, "the earth;" Vayu, "the admiration, almost forcing them to

"
wind " Ap, " the waters
; Nadi, ; worship her. The lazy inhabitants of
" the rivers " and the "
so-called civilized lands, who rarely
Maruts, the
;

storms." These are all nature-gods of ieave their beds till the sun has been
a very plain and simple kind, corre- up for hours, can scarcely understand
sponding to the Greek Uranus, Hee- the sentiments with which a simple
lios, Selene, Eos, Ge, or Gaia, etc., race, that went to rest with the even-
and to the Roman Ccelus, Apollo, ing twilight, awaited each morning
Luna, Aurora, Tellus, ^Eolus, etc. the coming of the rosy-fingered dawn,
Of all these the Maruts are the most or the ecstatic joy with which they
favorite objects of worship, having saw the darkness in the eastern sky-
twenty-four hymns devoted to them fade and lift before the soft approach
in the first six Mandalas of the Rig- of something tenderer and lovelier
Veda.f Next to these may be placed than day.
Ushas, who has eleven hymns then 107. Surya, "the sun," does not
;

Dyaus and Prithivi, who share seven play a prominent part in the Vedic
hymns after these Surya, who has poems. f
;
Out of the five hundred
six then Vayu, who has two then hymns in Wilson's collection, only six
; ;

Soma, who has one and lastly, Ap are devoted to him exclusively. $
:

and Nadi, who are not worshiped sep- His presentation is nearly that of
arately at all. Ushas, the dawn, is Heelios in the Greek, and Phoebus
perhaps the most beautiful creation of Apollo in the Roman mythology.
"
the Vedic bards. She is the friend Brilliant, many-rayed, adorable, he
of men she smiles like a young Wife
; yokes each morning his two, ; or
she is the daughter of the sky. She seven, swift coursers to his car, ||

goes to every house she thinks of and mounts up the steep incline of
;

the dwellings of men she does not heaven, following Ushas, as a youth
;

despise the small or the great she pursues a maiden, and destroying ;

brings wealth; she is always the her. IT Journeying onward at incredi-

same, immortal, divine age cannot ;

touch her she is the young god- *

; Rig- Veda, vol. i. pp. 236-238 and 298,
dess, but she makes men grow old." 299.
" Introduction to
Born again and again, and with bright t Wilson, Rig- Veda,"
vol. i.
p. xxxii.
unchanging hues, she dissipates the Mandala i. Suktas 50 and 115; Man-
J
accumulated glooms, anoints her dala ii. Sukta38 and Mandala v. Suktas Si
;

beauty as the priests anoint the and 82. Surya has also a part in Mandala i.
Sukta 35 Mandala v. Suktas 40 and 45 and
; ;

Mandala vi. Sukta 50.

* Ibid. vol. i.
p. 202. Rig- Veda, vol. i.
p. 98.
"
t See Wilson's " Introductions to the II
H>id. p. 133-
several volumes of the Rig-Veda Sanhita, IF Ibid. p. 304.
" Ancient Sanskrit
Compare Max Miiller's
vol. i. p. 15 ;
vol. iii. p. 7. Literature," pp. 529, 530,
" Ancient Sanskrit Litera where the following comment of an Indian
J Max Mtiller,
"
ture," p. 551. critic is quoted It is fabled that Praja-
:
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [121]

ble speed * between the two regions
of heaven and earth, he pours down
his quickening, life-bestowing, purify-
ing rays on all, dispels diseases, t
gives fertility, and multiplies wealth. i
Having attained the summit of .the
sky, he commences his descent,
and
traveling on a downward path, con-
ducts his car with safety to the far
limits of the west, carrying off
him the diffused rays of light,
all
and disappearing, no one knows
whither. ||
108. Vayu, the "wind," generally
coupled with Indra as a god of heaven,
has only two whole hymns,H and parts
of others, devoted to him in
five
Wilson's collection. What is chiefly
celebrated is his swiftness and in this
connection he has sometimes ninety-
nine, sometimes a hundred,** some-
times a thousand steeds,tt or even a
thousand chariots,$$ assigned to him.
The color of his horses is red or
purple. He is " swift as thought,"
he has " a thousand and is " the
eyes,"
protector of pious acts." As one of
the gods who " sends rain," 1T1F he is
invoked frequently by the inhabitants
of a country where want of rain is
equivalent to a famine.
" heaven "
Dyaus and
Prithivi, and " earth," are
sides the joint addresses, Prithivi is
sometimes the sole subject of a sacred
poem.* Dyaus has occasionally the
epithet of pitar, or "father," f and
thus, so far as the name goes, undoubt-
edly corresponds with the Jupiter or
Diespiter of the Romans. But he is
certainly not in the same way the
"
father," or creator, of the other gods.
with Rather, some individual poets, in their
craving after divine sympathy and
communion, have ventured to bestow
on him the name of " father " excep-
tionally, not with any intention of
making him the head of the Pantheon,
but as claiming to themselves a share
in the Divine nature, and
expressing
the same feeling as the Greek poet
;
when he said,
'*
For we are also his
offspring." \
109. It is unnecessary to detain the
reader with a complete account of the
rest of the thirty-three gods. Some,
as Aditi, Pushan, Brahmaspati, Brih-
aspati, Panjaniya, seem to be mere
duplicate or triplicate names of deities
|| || already mentioned. Others, as the
Aswins, Aryaman, Rudra, Vishnu,
Yama, belong to a lower grade, being
rather demigods or heroes than actual
deities. Others, again, are indistinct,
and of
importance, as Saraswati,
little

mostly coupled together, and ad- Bhaga, Twashtri, Parvata, Hotra, Bha-
dressed in the same hymns but, be- Sadi, Varutri, and Dhishana.
; rati,
no
Special attention must, however,
pati, the Lord of Creation, did violence to be called to Soma. By a principle of
his daughter. But what does it mean ? Pra- combination which is
quite inscrutable,
japati, the Lord of Creation, is a name of the Soma
sun and he is called so because he protects
;
represents at once the moon or
all creatures. His daughter, Ushas, is the moon-god, and the genius presiding
Dawn. And when it is said that he was in over a certain plant. The assignment
love with her, this only means that, at sun- of a sacred character to the
Soma, or
rise, the sun runs after the dawn, the dawn
being at the same time called the daughter
Homa plant (Sarcostema viminalis)^
of the sun, because she rises when he
ap-
was common to the Indie with the
proaches." Iranian religion, though the use made
* Ibid. vol. i.
p. 132. of it in the two worships was different.
t Ibid. vol. i. pp. 99 and 134.
i Ibid. vol. ii. pp. 307, 309, etc. According to the ordinary spirit of
Ibid. vol. i. p. 305. the Indie religion, a deity was required
Ibid. p. 99.
|| to preside over, or personify, this im-
I Mandala ii. Sukta 134; and Mandala vi.
Sukta 48.
** * Mandala v. Sukta 83.
Rig- Veda, vol. iii. p. 211.
tt Ibid. pp. 210 and 212. Compare vol. ii. "
t Max Miiller, Science of Religion," p.
p. 49. 172.
ii Ibid. vol. ii. p.
313. i Acts xvii. 28. St. Paul, as is well known,
Ibid. p. 46.
quoted Aratus.
II II Ibid. vol. i. p. 55. H. H. Wilson, in notes to the Rig- Veda,
II Ibid. vol. iii. p. 487. vol. i. p. 6, note a.
 44 [122] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

portant part of nature, and the god invoked to have arrived,* the offer-
chosen was the same that had the ings were presented, the divine favor
moon under his protection. Hence secured, the prayers recited, and the
arises, in the hymns to Soma, a curi- ceremony brought to a close by some
ous complication and it is often diffi-
; participation of the ministering priests
cult to determine which view of the in the offerings.
god present to the mind of the poet.
is 112. The praises, with which the
The notion of the plant is the predom- hymns generally commence, describe
inant one but intermixed with it in the power, the wisdom, the grandeur,
;

the strangest way come touches which the marvelousness, the generosity,
can only be explained by referring the goodness of the deity addressed,
them to Soma's lunar character.* adding in some instances encomiums
in. The worship of their gods by on his -personal beauty f and the
the Indians was of a very simple kind, splendor of his dress and decora-
consisting of prayer, praise, and offer- tions.:!: Occasionally, his great actions
ings. It was wholly domestic, that is are described, either in general terms,
to say, there were no temples or gen- or with special reference to certain
eral places of assembly but each exploits ascribed to him in the mythol-
;

man in his dwelling-house, in a cham- ogy. When he has been thus ren-
ber devoted to religious uses, per- dered favorable, and the offerings have
formed, or rather had performed for been made in the customary way, the
him, the sacred rites which he pre- character of the hymn changes from
ferred, and on which he placed his praise to prayer, and the god is im-
dependence for material and perhaps plored to bestow blessings on the
for spiritual blessings. An order of person who has instituted the cere-
/priests existed, by whom alone could mony, and sometimes, but not so
religious services be conducted ; and commonly, on the author or reciter of
of these a goodly array officiated on the prayer. It is noticeable that the
-all occasions, the number being some-
blessings prayed for are, predomi-
times seven, at other times as many nantly, of a temporal and personal de-
as sixteen.f It was not necessary for scription. The worshiper asks for
||

the worshiper to appear personally, food, life, strength, health, posterity;

or to take any part in the ceremony for wealth, especially in cattle, horses,
;

enough was done if he provided the and cows for happiness for protec- ; ;

chamber, the altar and the offerings. tion against enemies, for victory over
The chamber had to be spread with them, and sometimes tor iheir de-
the Kusa, or sacred rushes the fire struction, particularly where they are
;

had to be lighted upon the altar $ and represented as heretics.

; Protection
then the worship commenced. Priests against evil spirits is also occasionally
chanted in turn the verses of the requested. There is, comparatively
Mantras or sacred hymns, which com- speaking, little demand for moral
bined prayer wjth praise, and invited benefits, for discernment, or improve-
the presence of -the deities. At the ment of character, or forgiveness of
proper moment, when by certain mystic sin, or repentance, or peace of mind,
signs the priests knew the god or gods
* "
Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language,
* H. H. Wilson, in notes to the etc., of the Parsees," p. 248.
Rig- Veda,
"
vol. i. p. 235, note a. t Wilson, Introduction," vol. i.
p. xxiv.
" Introduction" to vol. i. See also Mandala Sukta Sukta
t See Wilson's p. i.
9, 3 ; 42,
:xxiv. 10 ;
etc.
has been questioned whether the fire
\ It J Rig- Veda. vol. i. p. 223.
was not kept burning continually, as in the This is especially the case in hymns ad-
" Introduc- dressed to Indra (Rig- Veda, vol. i. pp. 85-93,
Persian Fire Temples (Wilson,
tion "to vol. i. of Rig- Veda, p. xxiii.) but ~
;
I
3 6 I 39i etc.).
"
the constant allusions to the production of || Wilson, Introduction" to vol. i. of Rig-
"
fire by friction make clear that, ordinarily,
it Veda, p. xxv. Max Miiller, Chips from a
;

2, fresh fire was kindled. German Workshop," vol. i.

p. 27.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [123] 4T,

or sticiigth to resist temptation. The houghtlessness have mercy, al- ;

sense of guilt is slight.* It is only mighty, have mercy."

" in
some few instances that hatred of 113. The offerings wherewith the
untruth and abhorrence of sin are gods were propitiated were either vic-
expressed, and a hope uttered that ims or libations. Victims in the
the latter may be repented of or ex- early times appear to have been but
piated." t Still such expressions do arely sacrificed ; and the only animals
occur. They are not wholly wanting, employed seem to have been the horse
as they are in the utterances of the md the goat.* Libations were of
" Deliver us this hree kinds
ancient Egyptians. ; ghee, or clarified butter,.

day, O
gods, from heinous sin," is the ioney,t and the expressed and fer-
concluding petition of one Sukta.$ mented juice of the soma plant. The
May our sin be repented of," is the %hee and honey were poured upon the
*

burden of another. "Absolve us acrificial fire the soma juice was pre-;

from the sins of our fathers, and from sented in ladles \ to the deities in-
those which we have committed with voked, part sprinkled on the fire, part
our own bodies," is the prayer of a on the 'Kusa, or sacred grass strewed
" Varuna is
third. || merciful, even to upon the floor, and the rest in all
him who has committed sin," is the cases drunk by those who had con-
declaration of a fourth. If Now and ducted the ceremony. It is thought
then we even seem to have before us by some modern critics that the liquor
a broken-hearted penitent, one who offered to the gods was believed to in-
truly feels, like David or the Publican, toxicate them,
and that the priests
the depth to which he has fallen, and took care to intoxicate themselves with
" out of the ** cries to the
who, depths," remainder; but there is scarcely ||

God for forgiveness. " Let me not sufficient evidence for these charges.
yet, O
Varuna, enter into the house of No doubt, the origin of the Soma
clay," i. e., the grave, says a Veclic ceremony must be referred to the ex-
"
worshiper ft ;
have mercy, almighty, hilarating properties of the fermented
have mercy. If I
go along trembling, juice, and to the delight and astonish-
like a cloud driven by the wind, have ment which the discovery of them ex-
mercy, almighty, have mercy. Through cited in simple minds.lT But exhilara-
want of strength, thou strong and tion is a very different thing from

bright god, have I gone wrong; have drunkenness and, though Orientals
;

mercy, almighty, have mercy. Thirst do not often draw the distinction, we
caine upon the worshiper though he are scarcely justified in concluding,
stood in the midst of the waters have without better evidence than any
;

mercy, almighty, have mercy. When- which has been adduced as yet, that
ever we men, Varuna, commit an of- the Soma ceremony of the Hindoos
fense before the heavenly host, when- was in the early ages a mere Baccha-
ever we break the law through nalian orgy, in which the worshipers
intoxicated themselves in honor of
* Wilson, 1. s. c. Max Miiller says, on the approving deities. Exhilaration will
"
other hand, that the consciousness of sin is sufficiently explain all that is said of
a prominent, feature in the religion of the the Soma'in the
Veda" He means Rig- Veda and it is ;

(" Chips," vol. i. p. 41).

probably, a noticeable feature, not prominen
in the sense of its * On
the sacrifice of these, see Rig-Veda,
occurring frequently.
t These are Prof. Wilson's words ; anc vol. pp. 112-125.
ii.

they are quite borne out by the text of th t Honey is not common. On its use, see
Rig-Veda. Max Miilfer, " Ancient Sanskrit Literature,"
\ Manclala i. Sukta 115, 6. pp. 535 and 537.
Mandala i. Sukta 97. t Rig- Veda, Mandala i. Sukta 116, 24.
" Introduction" to vol. i. of
H Mandala vii. Sukta 86, 5. Wilson, Rig-
Tf Mandala vii. Sukta 87, 7. Veda, p. xxiii.
** Psa. cxxx. "
i. || Haug ? Essays on the Sacred Lan-
" Ancient
tt Max Miiller, Sanskrit Litera guage, etc., of the Parsees," pp. 247, 248.
"
ture," p. 540. T Wilson, Introduction," p. xxxvii.
40 [124] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
charitable to nothing night to day, from storm to calm and
suppose that
more was aimed at in the Soma
cere- from calm to storm, from lurid gloom
mony. to sunshine and from sunshine to lurid
114. The offerings of praise and gloom again the interesting business ;

sacrifice, and especially the offering of life, the kindling of fire, the light-
of the soma juice, were considered not ing up of the hearth the performance ;

merely to please the god, who was the of sacrifice the work, agricultural,
;

object of them, but to lay him under pastoral, or other, to be done during
a binding obligation, and almost to the day, the storing up of food, the ac-
compel him to grant the requests of quirement of riches, the training of
" The mortal who is children the attack of foes, the
the worshiper. ; war,
"
strenuous in worship," it is said,* ac- crash of arms, the flight, the pursuit,
"
quires an authority over the object the burning of towns, the carrying off
of his religious regards an authority of booty these things, and such
which is so complete that he may even things as these, so occupy and fill the
sell the god's favor to another person, minds of this primitive race, that they
in order to enable him to attain the have in general no room for other
object of his desires. "Who buys speculations, no time or thought to de-
tliis -my Indra," says Vamadeva, a vote to them. It is only occasionally,
Vedic poet,t " with ten milch kine ? in rare instances, that to this or that
When he shall have slain his foes, poet the idea seems to have occurred,
"
then let the purchaser give him back Is this world the whole, or is there
"
to me again which
;
the commenta- a hereafter? Are there such things
tor explains as follows :J "Vamadeva, as happiness and misery beyond the
"
having by muck praise got Indra into grave ? Still, the Rig-Veda is not al-
his possession or subjugation, proposes together without expressions which
to make a bargain when about to dis- seem to indicate a hope of immortality
"
pose of him and so he offers for ten and of future happiness to be enjoyed
;

milch kine to hand him over tempo- by the good, nor entirely devoid of
rarily, apparently to any person
who phrases which may allude to a place
will pay the price, with the proviso of future punishment for the wicked.
"
that when Indra has subdued the per- He who gives alms,'* says one poet,*
be "
son's foes, he is to returned to the goes to the highest place in heaven ;

vendor ! he goes to the gods." " Thou, Agni,

115. The subject of a future life hast announced heaven to Manu,"
seems scarcely to have presented it-
says another; which is explained to
self with any distinctness to the mean, that Agni revealed to Manu
thoughts of the early Indians. There the fact, that heaven is to be gained by
is not the slightest appearance in the
" Pious
pious works.t sacriricers,"
"
Rig-Veda of a belief in metempsy- proclaims third, % enjoy a residence
a
chosis, or the transmigration of human in the heaven of Indra pious sacrific- ;

souls after death into the bodies of ers dwell in the presence of the gods."
" Indra
animals. The phenomena of the Conversely, it is said that
present world, what they see and hear casts into the pit those who offer no
and feel in it, in the rushing of the sacrifice," and that " the wicked, who
wind, the howling of the storm, the are false in thought and false in speech,
flashing of the lightning from cloud are born for the deep abyss of hell."|j
to cloud, the splash of the rain, the In the following hymn there is, at
roar of the swollen rivers, the quick
changes from day to night, and from *Mandala i. Sukta 125, 5.
"
t Wilson, Rig- Veda," vol. i.
p. 80, note a.
#Mandala Sukta 15, 5.
iv. \ Ibid. vol. ii.
p. 42.
t Ibid. iv. Sukta 24, 10. Mandala
i. Sukta 121,
13.
| Wilson, Rig- Veda, vol. iii. p. 170, note 2. Wilson's " Rig-Veda," vol. iii. p. 129, com-
||

Max Miiller, "

Chips from a German pared with Max Miiller ("Chips," vol. i. p.
Workshop," vol. i. p. 45. 47)-
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [125] 47

any rate, clear evidence that the early is the Only One who upheld the
Vedic poets had aspirations after im- spheres ere they were created?"
mortality : After a multitude of speculations, he

" "They call him Indra,

concludes
Where there is eternal light, in the world
Mitra, Varuna, Agni then he is
where the sun is placed,
the beautiful-winged heavenly Ga-
In that immortal, imperishable world, place
me, O Soma. rutmat that which is one, the wise,
:

give it many names they c*all it Agni,

Where King Vaivaswata reigns, where the Yama, Matarisvan." * Another is
secret place of heaven is,
Where the mighty waters are, there make me still bolder, and plunges headlong in-
immortal. to the deepest vortex of metaphysics.
The following is a metrical version of
Where life is free, in the third heaven of his poem f :

heavens,
"Where the worlds are radiant, there make me " A time there was, when nothing that now
immortal. is
Existed no, nor that which now is not ;
Where wishes and desires are, where the
There was no sky, there was no firmament.
place of the bright sun is, What was it that then covered up and hid
Where there is freedom and delight, there Existence ? In what refuge did it lie ?
make me immortal. Was water then the deep and vast abyss,
The chaos in which all was swallowed up ?
Where there is happiness and delight, where There was no Death and therefore naught
joy and pleasure reside, immortal.
Where the desires of our heart are attained, There was no difference between night and
there make me immortal." *
day.
The one alone breathed breathless by itself :

1 16. As thus,
occasionally, the deep- Nor has aught else existed ever since.
er problems of human existence were Darkness was spread around all things were
;

approached, and, as it were, just
touched by the Vedic bards, so there
were times when some of the more
thoughtful among them, not content
with the simple and childish polythe-
ism that had been the race's first in-
stinct, attempted to penetrate further
into the mystery of the Divine exist-
veiled
In thickest gloom, like ocean without light.
The germ that in a husky shell lay hid,
Burst into life by its own innate heat.
Then first came Love upon it, born of mind,
Which the wise men of old have called the
bond
'Twixt uncreated and created things.
Came this bright ray from heaven, or from
below ?

Female and male appeared, and Nature

ence, to inquire into the relations that
wrought
subsisted among the various gods gen- Below, above wrought Will. Who truly
erally worshiped, and even to search knows,
out the origin of all things. " has Who Who has proclaimed it to us, whence this
" world
seen," says one, f the primeval being Came into being? The great gods them-
at the time of his being born, when selves
that which had no essence bore that Were later born. Who knows then whence
it came ?
which had an essence ? Where was
The Overseer, that dwells in highest heaven,
the the blood, the soul of the He
surely knows it, whether He Himself
life,
world ? Who sent to ask this from the Was, or was not, the maker of the whole,
"
sage that knew it ? Immature in un- Or shall we say, that even
He knows not ?
derstanding, undiscerning in mind,"
he goes on to say, " I inquire after 117. This poem, and the other
are sufficient
those things which are hidden even prayers above quoted,
to show that among the Vedic poets
from the gods Ignorant, I
inquire of the sages who know, who
* Max Miiller, " Chips from a German
*The translation is Prof. Max Miiller's Workshop," vol. i. p. 29.
{" Chips," vol. i. p. 46). 1 1 have followed as closely as possible the
"
t Wilson's Rig- Veda," vol. ii.
pp. 127, prose translation of Max Miiller,
"
given with
Max " an intermixed comment in his History of An-
1 28. Compare Miiller, Lectures on
the Science of Religion," p. 46. cient Sanskrit Literature," pp. 559-563.
48 [120] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
there were at any rate some who, by Greek writer of the tirst or second
God's grace, had raised themselves century after Christ bearing on the
above the murky atmosphere in which matter, and regarded by some mod-
"
they were born, had sought the Lord, erns * as containing an authentic ex-
and fell after Him," * had struggled position of the Phoenician teaching
out of polytheism into a conscious on a number of points, which, if not
monotheism, and, although they could exactly religion, are at any rate con-
not without revelation solve the nected with religion. But the work
problem of existence, had gone far to of Philo Byblius, from which Eusebius
realize the main points of true re- quotes, is so wild, so confused, so un-
ligion the existence of one eternal intelligible, that it is scarcely possible
;

and perfect Being, the dependence of to gather from it, unless by a purely
man on Him, the necessity of men arbitrary method of interpretation,!
leading holy lives if they would please any distinct views whatsoever. More-
Him, and the need, which even the over, the work is confined entirely to
best man has, of His mercy and cosmogony and mythology, two sub-
forgiveness. jects which are no doubt included in
''religion," as that term was under-
stood in the ancient world, but which
lie so much upon its outskirts, and so
CHAPTER V. little touch its inner heart, that even
an accurate and consistent exposition
THE RELIGION OF THE PHCENICIANS would
AND CARTHAGINIANS. go a very short way toward
acquainting us with the real'diamcter
"
Le dieu des Pheniciens, comme de tons of a religious system of which we knew
Jes pantheismes asiatiques, etait a la fois un
only these portions. Add to this,
et plusieurs." LENORMANT, Manuel d'His- that it is
very doubtful whether Philo
toire Ancienne^ vol. iii. p. 127.
of Byblus reported truly what he
118.IN discussing the religion of found in the Phoenician originals which
the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, we he professed to translate, or did not
have to deal with a problem far more rather import into them his own phi-
difficult than any which has yet oc- losophical notions, and his own theo-
" sacred
cupied us. No book," like ries of the relation borne by the
the Rig- Veda, the Zendavesta or the Phoenician theology to that of other
" countries.
Ritual of the Dead," here spreads
before us its stores of knowledge, re- 119. If, upon these grounds, we re-
quiring little more than patient study gard the fragments of Philo Byblius
to yield up to us the secrets which it is as untrustworthy, and as only to be
the object of our inquiry to discover. used with the utmost caution, we are
No extensive range of sculptures or reduced to draw our knowledge of
paintings exhibits to our eyes, as in the Phoenician and Carthaginian re-
Assyria, Greece, and Egypt, the out- ligion from scattered and incidental
ward aspect of the worship, the forms notices of various kinds from the
of the gods, the modes of approaching allusions made to the subject by the
them, the general character of the writers of portions of the Old Testa-
ceremonial. Nor has even any an- ment, from casual statements occur-
cient author, excepting one, treated ring in classical authors, from inscrip-
expressly of the subject in question, tions, from the etymology of names,
or left us anything that can be called
in any sense an account of the religion, * "
Especially Baron Bunsen. (See Egypt's
ft is true that we do possess, in the Place in Universal History," vol. iii. pp. 162-
" "
Evangelical Preparation of Euse- 287.)
t Bunsen assumes that Philo's work con-
bius, a number of -extracts from a
tains three cosmogonies, quite distinct, of
which the second and third contradict the
* Actsxvii. 27. first.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [127] 49

and from occasional representations ific titles, only applicable to real per-
|

accompanying inscriptions upon sons, and indicative of the fact that

'

stones or coins. Such sources as from the first the Phoenician people,
"
these require," as has been well like most other Semitic races, dis-
" the
said,* greatest care before they tinctly apprehended the personality
can be properly sifted and success- of the Supreme Being, and intended
"
fully fitted together and they con- to worship, not nature, but God in
;

stitute at best a scanty and unsatis- nature, not planets, or elements, or

factory foundation for a portraiture storm, or cloud, or dawn, or light-
which, to have any value, must be ning, but a being or beings above and
drawn with some sharpness and defi- beyond all these, presiding over them,
niteness. perhaps, and working through them,
120. One of the most striking feat- but quite distinct from them, possess-
ures of the Phoenician polytheism ing a real personal character. El
"
especially striking when we compare signified the strong," or " the power-
it with the systems which lay geo- ful,"'* and in the cognate Hebrevr
graphically the nearest to it, those of took the article, and became ha-El,
Egypt and Assyria is its compara- "the Strong One," He who alone has
tive narrowness. If we make a col- true strength, and power, and who
lection of the divine names in use therefore alone deserves to be called
" "
either in Phoenicia Proper or in the strong or " mighty/'' Eliun is
Phoenician colonies, we shall find "the Exalted," "the" Most High,"
that altogether they do not amount to and is so translated in our author-
twenty. Baal, Ashtoreth, Melkarth, ized version of Genesis (xiv. 18),
Moloch, Adonis, Dagon, Eshmun, where Melchizedek,' King of Salem,
Hadad, Onca, Sha- the well-known type of our blessed
El, Eliun, Baaltis,
"
mas, Sadyk, the Kabiri, exhaust Lord,f is said to have been the
pretty nearly the list of the native priest of the most High God," which
deities ;
and if we add to these the is in the original, " priest of El-Eliun."
divinities adopted from foreign coun- Again, Sadyk is "the Just," "the
tries, Tanith, Hammon (= Ammon), Righteous," and is identical with the
and Osir (= Osiris), we shall still find Zcdek occurring as the second element
the number of distinct names not to in Melchizedek, which St. Paul, in
exceed eighteen. This is a small the Epistle to the Hebrews (vii. 2),
number compared even with the pan- translates by " King of righteousness."
" "
theon of Assyria compared with Baal is
; Lord," or Master," an
that of Egypt, it is very remarkably equivalent of the Latin dominus, and
scanty. hence a term which naturally requires
121. It may be added that there another after it, since a lord must be
are grounds for doubting whether lord of something. Hence in Phoe-
even the eighteen names above given nician inscriptions $ we find Baal-
were regarded by the Phoenicians Tsur, "Lord of Tyre," Baal-Tsidon,
themselves as designating really so "Lord of Zidon," 'Baal-Tars, "Lord
many deities. We shall find, as we of Tarsus," and the like. Hence also
proceed, reason to believe, or to sus- we meet with such words as Baal-
" Lord of
pect, that in more than one case it is berith, treaties," Baal-pear*
"
the very same deity who is desig- Lord of Peor (a mountain), Baal-
'

nated by two or more of the sacred zebub, "Lord of flies," and Bed-
names.
122. The general character of the * " Science of
Max Miiller, Religion/' p.
names themselves is remarkable. A 177.
large proportion of them are honor- tSee Psa. ex. 4 Heb. vii. 1-24.
"
;

Gesenius,
J Scripturae Linguaeque Phoe-
nicia Monumenta," pp. 96, 277, etc.
* Max " Num. xxv. 3, 5 Judg. viii. 33 ix. 4 ; 2
Mliller, Science of Religion," pp. ; ;

117-118. Kings i.
3, 6.
50 [128] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
samin* " Lord of Heaven." Adonis, butes of inscrutability and omni-
c;nVnr^ ?
or more properly, Adoni, for the S is science i

merely the Greek nominatival ending, 124. A primary objection may

has nearly the same meaning as Baal, seem to lie against this view in the
being the Phoenician equivalent of the fact that the Phoenicians
recognized
Hebrew Adonai, the word ordinarily not only gods, but goddesses, the
"
rendered " Lord in our version of name Ashtoreth* belonging to the re-
the Old Testament. Adoni, however, ligion from the very earliest time to
takes no adjunct, since it is most which we can trace it back, and Baal-
" "
properly translated my lord," lord tis being placed by the side of Baal,
of me," f and thus contains in itself apparently as a distinct and separate
the object of the lordship. Moloch is personage. But it has been argued
" that "the original conception of fe-
melck, king," the initial element in
Melchizedek and it is this same
;
male deities differs among Semitic
word which appears a second time, and Aryan nations," and that the fem-
with an adjunct, in Melkarth, which inine forms among the Semites "were
is a contraction of melek-keretk, or at first intended only to express the
rather mdek-qereth,% which means energy or the collective powers of the
'**
king of the city." Baaltis, or Baalti, deity, not a separate being, least of
'is the feminine form of Baal, with the all a wife." f And this view is con-
.-suffix found also in Adoni, and has the firmed by passages in ancient inscrip-
"
meaning of my lady." The Greeks tions which seem to identify Phoeni-
-.expressed the word most commonly cian gods and goddesses, as one in
Jby BeUis, but occasionally by. Bel- the inscription of Mesa, which speaks
tihes, and, through a confusion of of Chemosh-Ashtar as a single cleity,
:thekindred labials m and by Mylit- ,
another in an inscription from Car-
:ta,|| The Kabiri are "the Great thage in which Tanith is called Pen-
"
Ones," from kabbir, great," which Baal, or "the face of Baal," and a
ittokts kabbirim in the plural. third, on the tomb of Eshmun azar,
123. It may be suspected, though it King of Sidon, where Ashtoreth her-
"
<cannot be proved, that these various self is termed Shem-Baal, the name
'names, excepting the last, were origi- of Baal." If Ashtoreth and Tanith

nallymere epithets of the One Eter- were merely aspects of Baal, if the
nal. andDivine Being who was felt to Phoenician Supreme God was "and-
.rule the world, and that, whatever rogynous," the fact that the religious
||

may have been the case elsewhere, system of the people admitted god-
the Phoenicians at any rate began desses as well as gods, will not mili-
with the monotheistic idea, whether tate against its original monotheism.
that idea originated in the recesses of 125. A
more vital objection may be
their own hearts or was impressed taken from the two names, Eshmun
tipon them from without by revelation. and Kabiri. The Kabiri were the
If El, Eliun, Sadyk, Baa], Adoni, Mo- sons of Sadyk they were seven in ;

loch, Melkarth, were all one, may not

,the same have been true of Dagon,
* Baal and Ashtoreth appear first
Hadad, Eshmun, Shamas, -etc.? nay, as Phoenician distinctly
even Ham- gods in i Kings xi. 5 but we ;

may not the foreign gods, that bear the same charac-
may suspect they
mon and Osir,;have been understood ter where they are mentioned in Judges ii. 13 ;

to be simply additional epithets of the x. 6. They appear as Syrian gods in the hi-
Most High, expressive of his attri- eroglyphical inscriptions as early as Rameses
II. (about r..c. 1350).
t Max Muller, " Science of Religion," p.
* Phil oBybl ius in the-".Fragmenta Histo- 183.
.ricorum Grascorum," vbl.'iii.,p. 565. } De Vogue in the "Journal Asiatique "for
Gesenius, p. 400.
'] 1867, p. 138.
J Gesenius, p. 96. Max Muller, "Science of Religion," p.
.Hesych. ad voc. B^%. 184.
"
| Herod, i.
131, 199. y Speaker's Commentary," vol. i.
p. 732.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [129] 51

number;* they were actual deities, Shamas,* so was Baal in Phoenicia.!

the special gods of sailors images of ;
The Greeks rendered Bel and
Baal,
them adorned the prows of vessels. not by Apollo, but by Zeus $ and ;

And Eshmun, the name of their their rendering was approved

by Philo
brother, is a word signifying "eight," Byblius, who, if a Greek by extrac-
"
or the eighth." It seems clear from tion, was well versed in Phoenician
this that the Phoenicians ultimately lore, and a native of Byblus, a Phoeni-
recognized at least eight gods aiid if cian town. Baal seems really to have
;

so, we must pronounce them polythe- been the Supreme God. His chief ti-
ists. tles were Baal-shamayin, "the Lord
126. At any rate, whether or no of heaven," Baal-berith, "
the Lord of.
they were polytheists from the first, treaties," corresponding to the Grecian
"
it cannot be doubted that they be- Zeus Orkios," and Belithan, \ " the
came such. When the Carthaginian aged Lord," with which we may com-
"
introduced by Plautus into his Pce- pare the Biblical phrase, "the An-
"
nulus commences his speech f with cient of days." IT He was also
" Yth alonim v'alonuth sic- known in Numidia "
the Words as the eternal
** Baal was the to whom
carthi," which Plautus rightly renders king." god
by
"
Deos deasque veneror," or, " I we may almost say that most Phoeni-
worship the gods and goddesses," he cians were consecrated soon after
expresses a genuine Phoenician senti- their birth, the names given to them
ment. Baal and Ashtoreth, if origi- being in almost a majority of cases
nally one, were soon divided, were compounded with Baal or Bal.f t Ded-
represented under different forms, and icatory inscriptions are in general ad-
were worshiped separately. El, El- dressed to him, either singly, %\ or in
iun, Sadyk, Adonis, Melkarth, drifted conjunction with a goddess, who is
off from their original moorings, and most usually Tanith. Not unfre-
became distinct and separate gods, quently he is addressed as Baal-Ham-,
sometimes with a local character.! mon, or Baal in the character of the
Dagon,. Eshmun, Shamas, had perhaps Egyptian god Ammon,|||| with whom
been distinct from their first introduc- he is thus identified, not unnaturally,
tion, as had been the Kabiri, and per- since Ammon too was recognized as
haps some others. Thus a small pan- the Supreme God, and addressed as
theon was formed, amounting, even Zeus or Jupiter. IT If
including the Kabiri, to no more than 128. Ashtoreth, or Astarte, is a
about fifteen or twenty divinities. word whereof no satisfactoiy account
127. At the head of all clearly stood has as yet been given. It seems to
Baal and Ashtoreth, the great male have no Semitic derivation, and may
and the great female principles. Baal, perhaps have been adopted by the
" "
the Lord par excellence, was
perhaps
* See above,
sometimes and in some places taken p. 52-57.
t The separate worship of Shamas, or the
to be the sun; but this was certainly
Sun, appears in 2 Kings xxiii. 5, and in Gese-
hot the predominant idea of any pe- nius, p. 119.
riod and it maybe questioned whether
; J Herod, i. 181 ;
Diod. Sic. ii.
9.
Philo Bybi., c. iv.
'

in the original seats of the nation it 14.

Phot. " Bibliothec." cod.
Damasc. ap.
was ever entertained until after the ||

ccxlii. p. 559.
Roman conquest. Baby- As Bel in IT Dan. vii. 9, 13.

lonia was completely distinct from ** Gesenius, pp.

197, 202, 205.
It Eth-baal (i Kings xvi. 31), Merbal (Her-
od, vii. 98), Hannibal, Hasdrubal, Adherbal,
* "
Philo Byblius," c. 5, 8 ;
Damascius Maharbal, are well-known instances.
" "
ap. Phot. Bibliothec." p. 573. JJ Gesenius, Script. Phcen. Mon.," Nos. 3,
" Poenul." Act v.
t Plaut. I. 4, 49, 51, etc.
Moloch became
.J the special god of the Ibid. Nos. 46, 47, 48, and 50.
Ammonites Hadad,
;
of the Syrians.' || !|
Ibid. p. 172.
"
See Gesenius, Scrip. Phoenic. Mon.," TS" Herod, ii. 42 ;
Diod. Sic. i.
13 ;

pi. 21.
'"
De Isid. et Osir," s. 9.
 [130] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
Semites from an earlier Hamitic tion is endorsed and accepted. When
population. Originally a mere name Melkarth
baal-Tsur, is qualified as
for the energy or activity of God, "baal of Tyre," it is not meant that
Ashtoreth came to be regarded by he was the Tyrian form of the god
the Phoenicians as a real female per- Baal, but that he was the special
" "
sonage, a supreme goddess, on a par tutelary lord of the great Phoeni-
-with Baal,* though scarcely wor- cian city. The word Melkarth, as
shiped so generally. In the native already explained, means "king of-
mythology she was the daughter of the city," and the city intended was
Uranos (heaven), and the wife of El, originally Tyre, though Melkarth
or Saturn. t The especial place of her would seem to have been in course of
.worship in Phoenicia was Sidon.J In time regarded as a god of cities gen-
one of her aspects she represented erally and thus he was worshiped ;

the moon, and bore the head of a at Carthage, at Heraclea in Sicily, at

heifer with horns curving in a cres- Amathus in Cyprus, at Gades in
cent form, whence she seems to Spain, and elsewhere.* In Numidia t
have been sometimes called Ashto- he had the title of "great lord " but ;
"
reth KarnaimJ or, Astarte of the otherwise there is little in the Phoeni-
two horns." But, more commonly, cian monuments to define his attri-
she was a nature goddess, "the great butes or fix his character. must We
mother," the representation of the suppose that the Greeks traced in
female principle in nature, and hence them certain resemblances to their
presiding over the sexual relation, own conception of Hercules but it ;

and connected more or less with love may be doubtful whether the resem-
and with voluptuousness. The blances were not rather fanciful than
Greeks regarded their Aphrodite, and real.
the Romans their Venus, as her equiv- 130. That Dagon was a Phoenician
alent. One of her titles was " Queen god appears from many passages in
"
of Heaven and under this title she the fragments of Philo Byblius. $
:

was often worshiped by the Israel- though the Israelites would seem to
ites.H have regarded him as a special Philis-
129. Melkarth has been regarded by tine deity. There are indications, ||

"
.some writers as only another form however, of his worship having been
of Baal." ** But he seems to have as spread widely through Western Asia
good a claim to a distinct personality in very early times and its primitive
;

as any Phoenician deity after Ash- source is scarcely within the range of
toreth and Baal. The Greeks and conjecture. According to the general
Romans, who make Baal equivalent idea, the Phoenician Dagon was a
to theirZeus or Jupiter, always iden-
Melkarth with Hercules ;tt and in * See the inscriptions in Gesenius (pis. 14,
tify
a bilingual inscription, $$ set up by and the coins of Heraclea (pi. 38),
16, 17) :

of Gades (pi. 40), and of Sextus (ibid.} in the

two natives of Tyre, this identifica-
same. On Amathus, see Hesychius and voc.
Malicha.
* See the inscription in Gesenius' collec- t Gesenius, pi. 27, No. 65.

tion, numbered Si (pi. 47), where Baal and \ Especially c. iv. 2, 6, 15.
Ashtoreth are joined together. Compare Judg. xvi. 23 ; i Sam. v. 2-5 ;
I Chron.
x. 10.
Judg. ii. 13 x. ; 6.

t'PhilcTBybl. c. iv. 12. Berosus speaks of an early Babylonian

||

t Kings xi. 5, 33, and compare the god as bearing the name of O-dacon, \vhich
See i

inscription of Eshmunazar. is, perhaps, Dagon with a prefix. Dagon is

Philo Byblius, c. v. I. an element in the name of a primitive Chal-
Gen. xiv. 5.
||
dzcan monarch, which is read as Ismi-Dagon.
1[ Jer. vii. 18 ;
xliv. 25. Asshur-izir-pal couples Dagon with Ann in.
** Kenrick, " Phoenicia," p. his inscriptions, and represents himself an
322.
ft Herod, ii. 44 Philo Bybl. c.;
iv. 19, equally the votary of both. Da-gan is also
etc. found in' the Assyrian remains as an epithet
"
Jt This inscription is given by Gesenius of Belus. (See the Author's Ancient
(pi. 6). Monarchies," vol. i.
p. 614 ; 2d edition.)
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [131] 03

Fish-god,* having the form described in its alternate decline and revival,

by Berosus, and represented "so often
in the Assyrian sculptures a form
resembling that of a fish, but with a
human head growing below the fish's,
and with human feet gro wing along-
side of the fish's tail and coming out
from it."f Fish are common em-
blems upon the Phoenician coins $
and the word Dagon is possibly de-
"
rived from dag, a fish," so that the
temptation to identify the deity with
the striking form revealed to us by
the Ninevite sculptures is no doubt
considerable. It ought, however, to
be borne in mind that there is nothing
in the Scriptural description of the
Philistine Dagon to suggest the idea
that the image which fell on its face
before the ark of the covenant had in
any respect the form of a fish. Nor
do the Assyrian monuments connect
the name of Dagon, which they cer-
tainly contain, with the Fish-deity
(I
whose image they present. That shadowy god compared with those
deity is Nin or Nintis.lf Altogether, hitherto described. In the mythol-
therefore, it must be pronounced ex- ogy he was the child
ceedingly doubtful whether the popu-
lar idea has any truth at all in
it;
or whether we ought not to revert
to the view put forward by Philo,**
whence the myth spoke of his death
and restoration to life; the river of
Byblus was regarded as annually red-
dened with his blood; and once a
year, at the time of the summer sol-
stice, the women of Phoenicia and
" *
Syria generally wept for Tammuz."
; Extravagant sorrow was followed after
an interval by wild rejoicings in honor
of his restoration to life ;
and the ex-
citement attendant on these alterna-
tions of joy and woe led on by almost
necessary consequence, with a people
of such a temperament as the
Syrians,
to unbridled license and excess. The
rites Aphaca, where Adonis ha.d
of
his chief temple,were openly immoral,
and when they were finally put down,
exhibited every species of abomina-
tion characteristic of the worst forms
of heathenism. f
El, whom Philo Byblius iden-
132.
with Kronos,^ or Saturn, is a
tifies
of heaven atid
earth, the brother of Dagon, and the
father of a son whom he sacrificed.
His actual worship by the Phoenicians
not very well attested, but may be
is

that the Phoenician Dagon was a regarded as indicated by such names

"
corn-god," and presided over agri- as Hanni-el, Kaclml (= Kadmi-el),
culture. Enyl (= Eni-el) and the like.|| He is
131. Adonis, or Tammuz, which said to have been identified with the
was probably his true name,ft was a planet Saturn by the Phoenicians TT ;

god especially worshiped at Byblus. and this may be true of the later form
He seems to have represented nature of the religion, though El originally
can scarcely have been anything but
* See Kenrick, " Phoenicia," p. 323 Lay- a name of the
" Nineveh and
; Supreme God. It cor-
ard,
"
Babylon," p. 343 responded beyond
; a doubt to II, in
Speaker's Commentary," vol. p. 201, etc. the
ii.
of the Babylonians, who
t Beros. Fr. 3. i.
system
t Geseniu>, "Script. Phcen. Monumenta,"
pis. 40 and 41.
There is nothing in the original corre- * Ezek. viii. 14.
" " Vit.
sponding to the fishy part," which is given t Euseb. Constantin. Magn." iii.
"
in the margin of the Authorized Version. 55. Compare Kenrick, Phoenicia," vol. i.
"
The actual words are, only Dagon was left p. 311.
to him." The meaning is obscure. \ Philo Bybl. c. iv. 2 :' lUov rov ml Kp6-
" He- 10 and
|[
Sir II. Rawlinson in the Author's vov. Compare 21.
rodotus," vol. i. p. 614 : 3d edition. Philo Bybl. c. iv. 3.
If Ibid. p. 642. Hanni-el occurs in a Phoenician inscrip-
||

** Philo c. iv. 2 Aoy^v, cq ia-l tion (Gesen. p. 133). Cadmil is given as one
Bybl. :

STW:;. Compare 13, where Dagon is said of the Kabiri by the Scholiast on Apollonius
to have discovered corn and invented the Rhodius (i. 917). Enyl is mentioned as a
plow, whence he was regarded by the Greeks king of Byblus by Arrian Exp. Alex." ii.
("
as equivalent to their Zeus Arotrios. 20).
"
*"\ Gesenius, Script. Phoen. Mon." p. 400. TJ Philo Bybl. 1. s. c.
 [132] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
was the head of the pantheon,* and epharvite gad, Adrammelech.* Ad-
the special god of Babel, or Baby- >dus, according to Philo Byblius, was
lon, which is expressed by Bab-il, n a certain sense "kingVw^) of
"the gate of II," in the inscriptions.! he gods."
133. That Shamas, or Shemesh, " the These latter considerations
134.
sun," was worshiped separately from nake doubtful whether the Moloch
it

Baal has been already mentioned. In r Molech, who was the chief
divinity
Assyria and Babylonia he was one of f the Ammonites,! and of whose
theforemost deities.;- J -and his cult vorship by the Phoenicians there are
among the Phoenicians is witnessed ertain indications,! is to be viewed
by such a name as Abed-Shemesh, as a separate and substantive god, or
which is found in two of the native as a form of some other, as of Shamas,
inscriptions^ Abed-She.mesh means r of Baal, or of Melkarth, or even of
"
servant of Shemesh," as Obadiah 1. Molech meaning simply " king "
"
means servant of Jehovah," and Ab- s a term that can naturally be ap-
"
dallah " servant of Allah and is an plied to any " great god," and which
;

unmistakable evidence of the worship nay equally well designate each of

,
of Shemesh by the people who em- he four deities just mentioned.
ployed it as the parallel names are Rites like those of Molech belonged
of the worship, respectively, of Jeho- certainly to El and to Baal and ;

,
vah and Allah, by Jews and Moham- he name may be an abbreviation of
medans. The sun-worship of the Melkarth, or a title the proper title
||

Phoenicians seems to have been ac- of Shamas. The fact that Philo
" sun -im- las a
I

companied by a use of Melich, whom he makes a dis-

ages," of which we have perhaps a inct deity,1F is of no great importance,
||

specimen on a votive tablet found since it is clear that he multiplies the

in Numidia,^" although the tablet it- Phoenician gods unnecessarily and ;

self is dedicated to Baal. There was .noreover, by explaining Melich as

also connected with it a dedication to equivalent to Zeus Meilichios, he
the sun-god of chariots and horses, to tends to identify him with Baal.**
1 which a quasi-divine character at- Upon the whole, Moloch seems
tached,** so that certain persons were scarcely entitled to be viewed as a
from their birth consecrated to the distinct Phoenician deity. The word
sacred horses, and given by their par- A as perhaps not a proper name in
r

ents the name of Abed-Susim, " serv- Plusnicia, but retained its appellative
ant of the horses," as we find by an force, and may have applied to more
inscription from Cyprus.ft It may be than one deity.
suspected that the Haclad or Hadar 135. A similarly indefinite char-
of the Syrians $ was a variant name acter attaches to the Phoenician Ba-
of Shamas, perhaps connected with altis. Beltis was in Babylonian my-
"
adir, glorious," and if so, with the * 2 King xvii. 31.
t See i
Kings xi. 7.

\ The names Bar-melek, Abed-melek, and

* See above, p. 47. Melek-itten, which occur in Phcen ician in-
t Sir H. Rawlinson in the Author's " He- scriptions (Gesenius, pp. 105, 130, 135), im-
rodotus," vol. i. p. 613. ply a god who has either the proper name of
" "
\ The Author's Herodotus," vol. i. PP Moloch, or is worshiped as the king."
631-634. Diod. Sic. xx. 14; Porphyr. "De Ab-
"
Gesenius, Script. Phcen. Mon." pi. 9. stinentia," ii. 56; Gesen. "Script. Phcen.
H This is given in the margin of 2 Chron Mon." p. 153.
xiv. 5 and xxxiv. 4, as the proper translator Melkarth is frequently abbreviated in the
II

of khammanim^ which seem certainly to Phoenician inscriptions, and becomes Mel-

have been images of some kind or other. kar, Mokarth, and even Mokar. Hesychius
IF Gesenius, "Script. Phoen. Mon." pi. 21. says that at Amathus Hercules \vas called
** See 2
Kings xxiii, n. Malika,
tt Gesenius, p, 130, and pi. n, No. 9. J Philo Bybl. c. iii. 9.
** Since he calls Baal Zeus Belus
tj Found under the form of Adodus it (c. iv.
Philo Byblius (c. v. i
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [133] 55

thology a real substantive goddess, Phoenician remains set before us.

quite distinct and separate from Ish- He was the especial god of Berytus
tar,Gula, and Zirbanit;* but Baallis \\Bdnii)* and had characteristics
in Phoenicia had no such marked which attached to no other deity.
character. We hear of no temples of Why the Greeks |

should have identi-

Baaltis; of no city where she was fied him with their Asclepias or
specially worshiped.! The word ^Escuiapius,t is not clear. He was
does not even occur as an element in the youngest son of Sadyk, and was a
Phoenician proper names, and if in youth of great beauty, with whom
use at all as a sacred name among Ashtoreth fell in love, as she hunted
the Phoenicians, must almost cer- in the Phoenician forests. The fable
tainly have been a mere epithet of relates how, being frustrated in her
Ashtoreth,t who was in reality the designs, she afterward changed him
sole native
goddess. Lydus expressly into a god, and transported him from
states that Blatta, which is (like earth to heaven. % Thenceforth he
Mylitta) a corruption of Baalti, was was worshiped by the Phoenicians
" a name to Venus the Phoe- almost as much as Baal and Ashto-
given by
nicians." reth themselves. His name became
136. Saclyk again, whom we have a frequent element in the Phoenician
meiuioned as a distinct deity on the proper names and his cult was
;

strength of statements in Philo Byb- taken to Cyprus, to Carthage, and to

lius and Damascius, scarcely ap- Other distant colonies.
j|

pears as a separate object of worship, 138. With Eshmun must be placed

either in Phoenicia or elsewhere. the Kabiri, who in the mythology
The nearest approach to such an ap- were his brothers, though not born ||

pearance is furnished by the names of the same mother.lT It is doubtful

Melchi-zeclek, and Adoni-zedek,1T whether the Kabiri are to be regarded
which may admit of the renderings, as originally Phoenician, or as adopt-
" "
Sadyk is my king/' Saclyk is my ed into the religion of the nation
lord." Sadyk has not been found as from without. The word appears to
an element in any purely Phoenician be Semitic ** but the ideas which
;

name much less is there any distinct

;
attach to it seem to belong to a wide-
recognition of him as a god upon any spread superstition, ft whereby the
Phoenician monument. are told We discovery of fire and the original work-
that he was the father of Eshmun and ing in metals were ascribed to strong,
the Kabiri ** and as they were cer-
; misshapen, and generally dwarfish
tainlyPhoenician gods we must per-
"
*See Darnascius ap. Phot. liibliothec."
haps accept Sadyk as also included
among their deities. From his name '

t This is done by Philo of Byblus (c. v. 8),

we may conclude that he was a per- by Damascius (1. s, c.), by Strabo (xviL 14),
sonification of the Divine Justice. and others.
\ Damascius,
137. Eshmun
s. c.
is, next to Baal, -1,

Eshmun-azar, whose tomb has beew

Ashtoreth, and Melkarth, the most found at Sidon, is the best known instance;
clearly marked and distinct presen- but the Phoenician inscriptions give also
tation of a separate deity that the Bar-Eshmun, Han-Eshmun, Netsib-Eshrnutj,
Abed-Eshmun, Eshmun-itten and others.
(See Gesenius, ''Script. Phoen. Mon.".p.
* See above, p. 61. 136.)
" "
t Philo makes her a queen of Byblus 11 Damascius, 1. s. c. ; Philo Byblius, c. v.

(c. v. 5), but says nothing of her worship 8.

there. T Philo Bybl. c. iv, 16.

J See Kenrick's " Phoenicia," p. 301.

** See above, p.
150. Mr. Kenrick ques-
"De Mensibus," i. 19. from kabbir
tions the derivation (" Egypt of
I)
Philo Byblius, c. iii.
13; c. iv. 16; Herodotus," p. 287) ;
other but almost all
etc. Damasc. Phot. " JJibliothec." writers allow it.
ap. p.
" Notes on
ft See Mr. Kenrick's the Ca-
ITSee Gen. xiv. 18, and Josh. x. i. biri," in the work above mentioned, pp. 264-
** Philo 14 5 c. iv. 16.
Byblius, c. iii. 287.
56 [134] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

deities, like Phthah in Egypt, Hepha- Whether it determines the

aspect of
istos and the Cyclopes in Greece, Baal to that of a " sun-god " may be
Gav the blacksmith " in Persia, and
' ;

questioned,* since the original idea

the gnomes in the Scandinavian and of Ammon was as far as possible re-
Teutonic mythologies. According to mote from that of a solar deity.t
Philo Byblius * and Damascius,t But, at any rate, the constant connec-
{he Phoenician Kabiri were seven in tion shows that the two gods were
number, and according to the Scho- not really viewed as distinct, but that
liast on Apollonius Rhodius,$ the in the opinion of
Phoenicians the
names of four of them were Axierus, their own Baal corresponded
to the
Axiokersus, Axiokersa, and Cadmilus Ammon of the Egyptians, both alike
or Casmilus. Figures supposed to representing the Supreme Being.
represent them, or some of them, are Tanith has an important place in a
found upon Phoenician coins, as espe- number of the inscriptions, being
cially on those of Cossura, which are given precedence over Baal himself. $
exceedingly curious. The Kabiri She was worshiped at Carthage, in
were said to have invented ships ; || Cyprus, by the Phoenician settlers
and it is reasonable to regard them at Athens and elsewhere but we
|j ;

as represented by the Pataeci of have no proof of her being acknowl-

Herodotus,1[ which were pigmy fig- edged in Phoenicia itself. The name
ures placed by the Phoenicians on the is connected by Gesenius with that of

prows of their war-galleys, no doubt the Egyptian goddess Neith,1T or

as tutelary divinities. The Greeks Net but it seems rather to represent
;

'compared the Kabiri with their own the Persian Tanata, who was known
Castor and Pollux, who like them as Tanaitis or Tanai's, and also as
presided over navigation.** Anaitis or Aneitis to the Greeks.
Besides their original and native Whether there was, or was not, a re-
deities, the Phoenicians acknowledged mote and original connection be-
some whom they had certainly intro- tween the goddesses Neith and Ta-
duced into their system from an ex- nata is perhaps open to question ;

ternal source, as Osiris, Ammon, and but the form of the name Tanith, or
Tariith. The worship of Osiris is Tanath,** shows that the Phoenicians
represented on the coins of Gaulos,tt adopted their goddess, not from
which was an early Phoenician settle- Egypt, but from Persia. With re-
"
ment and " Osir (=Osiris) occurs
; gard to the character and attributes
not unfrequently as an element in of Tanath, it can only be said that,
Phoenician names, $-t where it occupies while in most respects she corre-
the exact place elsewhere assigned sponded closely with Ashtoreth, whom
to Melkarth, and Ashtoreth.
Baal, she seems to have replaced at Car-
Ammon is found under the form thage, she had to a certain extent a
Hammon in votive tablets, but does more elevated and a severer aspect.
not occur independently it is al- ;
The Greeks compared her not only
ways attached as an epithet to Baal.
* This was the
opinion of Gesenius
* Philo Bvblius, c. v. 8. ("Script. Phosn. Mon." p. 170); but his
t Damascius, 1. s. c. arguments upon the point are not convincing.
" t See above, p. 19.
t Schol. ad Apoll. Rhod. Argonautica,"
i.
915. \ See Gesenius, pp. 168, 174, 175, 177;
" "
See Gesenius, Script. Phoen. Mon." pi. Davis, Carthage and her Remains," 1. s. c.
39. Gesenius, p. 151. Compare p. 146,
||
Philo Byblius, c. iii. 14. where the true reading is possibly Abed-
T[ Herod, iii. 37. Tanith.
** Horat. " Od." Ibid. p. 113.
i.
3, 2 ;
iii.
29, 64. ||

tt Gesenius, pi. 40, A. 1 Ibid. pp. 117, 118.

** " Tanath "is the natural
J| Ibid. pp. 96, no, 130, etc. rendering of the
Phoenician word, rather than " Tanith," and
Ibid. pp. 108, 1 68, 174,
" i7> J 77> and
Davis, Carthage and her Remains," pi. opp. is preferred by some writers. (See Davis,
p. 256. "Carthage and her Remains/' pp. 274-276.)
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [135] 57

to their Aphrodite, but also to their the systematic offering of human vic-
Artemis,* the huntress-deity, whose
1

tims, as expiatory sacrifices, to El and

noble form is known to us from many other gods. The ground of this hor-
pure and exquisite statues. It may rible superstition is to be found in
be suspected that the Carthaginians, the words addressed by Balak to Ba-
* " Wherewith shall I
dwelling in the rough and warlike laam come be-
Africa, revolted against the softness fore the Lord, and bow myself before
and effeminacy of the old Phoenician the high God ? Shall I come before
cult, and substituted Tanath for Ash- Him with burnt offerings, with calves
toreth, to accentuate their protest of a year old? Will the Lord be
against religious sensualism.! pleased with thousands of rams, or
140. It seems to be certain that in with ten thousands of rivers of oil?
Phoenicia itself, and in the adjacent Shall I give my firstborn for my trans-
parts of Syria, the worship of Ash- gression, the fruit of my body for the
toreth was from the first accompanied sin of my soul?" As Philo Byblius
As at Baby- "
with licentious rites. expresses it,f It was customary
lon, $ so in Phoenicia and Syria at among the ancients, in times of great
Byblus, at Ascalon, at Aphaca, at calamity and danger, that the rulers
Hierapolis the cult of the great of the city or nation should offer up
a
Nature-goddess tended to encourage the best beloved of their children, as
dissoluteness in the relations between an expiatory sacrifice to the aveng-
the sexes, and even to sanctify im- ing deities and these victims were
:

purities of the most abominable de- slaughtered mystically." The Phoe-

scription." Even in Africa, where nicians were taught that, once upon a
||

an original severity of morals had time, the god El himself, under the
prevailed, and Tanith had been wor- pressure of extraordinary peril, had
"
shiped as a virgin with martial attri- taken his only son, adorned him with
"
butes," and with severe, not licen- royal attire, placed him as a victim
tious, rites," 1F corruption gradually upon an altar, and slain him with his
crept in and by the time of Augus- own hand. Thenceforth, it could not
;

tine ** the Carthaginian worship of but be the duty of rulers to follow the
" "
the celestial goddess was charac- divine example set them and even ;

terized by the same impurity as that private individuals, when beset by

of A'ihtoreth in Phoenicia and Syria. difficulties, might naturally apply the
141. Another fearful blot on the lesson to themselves, and offer up
religion of the Phoenicians, and one their children to appease the divine
which belongs to Carthage quite as anger. We have only too copious ev-
much as to the mother-country,! t is idence that both procedures were in
Phoenicians. Por-
* In a bilingual inscription given by vogue among the
the Phoenician Abed-Tanath be- phyry declares? that the
Phoenician
Gesenius,
comes in the Greek " Artemidorus." Anaitis history was full of instances, in which
" the Persian
people, when suffering under
or Tanata is often called Arte- that
mis." (See Plutarch, "Vit. Lucull." p. 24;
" great calamity from war, or pestilence,
Bochart, Geographia Sacra," iv. 19; Pausan.
iii. 16, 6, etc.)
or drought, chose by public vote one'of
"
t See Davis's Carthage," p. 264; Hunter, those most dear to them, and sacri-
" Two hundred
Religion des Karthager," c. 6. ficed him to Saturn."
J Herod, i. 199.
noble youths were offered on a single
Herod, i. 105 Lucian, " De Dea Syra," c.
;
after the victory
ix. ;
Euseb. "Vit. Constantin. Magni," iii. 55. occasion at Carthage,
||Twistleton, in Smith's "Dictionary of of Agathocles. Hamilcar, it is possi-
ble, offered himself as a victim on the
the Bible," vol. ii. p. 866.
"
IT Kenrick, Phoenicia,"
p. 305.
** Augustine, " De Civitate Dei," 5i. 4.
tt See Diod. Sic. xx. 14, 65 Justin, xviii. * Micah vi. 6, 7.
;

6; Sil. Ital. iv.

765-768; Dionys. Hal. 38; i. t Philo Bybl., c. vi. 3.
" " De
etc. Compare Gesenius, Script. Phocn. | Abstinentia," ii. 56.
Mon." pp. 448,449,453; and Davis, " Car- Lactant. " Inst." i. 21, quoting Pescen-
nius Festus.
thage," pp. 296, 297.
58 [136] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD,
* :

entire defeat of his army by Gelo.

called batyli, were dedicated to the
When Tyre found
unable to re- various deities,* and received a cer-
itself
sist the assault of Alexander the tain qualified worship, being regarded
Great, the proposition was made, but as possessed of a certain mystic virt-
overruled, to sacrifice a boy to Sat- ue, f These stones seem occasion-
urn, f Every year, at Carthage, there ally to have been replaced by pillars,
was at least one occasion, on which which were set up in front of the tem-
human victims, chosen by lot, were ples, and had sacrifices offered to
publicly offered to expiate the sins of them.i The pillars might be of
the nation. $ metal, of stone, or of wood, but were
142. And private sacrifices of this most commonly of the last named
sort went hand in hand with public material, and were called by the Jews
ones. Diodorus tells us, that in the asherahs, " uprights." At festive ,

temple of Saturn at Carthage, the seasons they seem to have been

brazen image of the god stood with adorned with boughs of trees, flowers,
outstretched hands to receive the and ribbons, and to have formed the
bodies of children offered to it. central object of a worship which was
Mothers brought their infants in their of a sensual and debasing character.
arms and, as any manifestation of An emblem common in the Assyrian
;

reluctance would have made the sac- sculptures is thought to give a good
rifice unacceptable to the god, stilled idea of the ordinary appearance on
them by their caresses till the mo- such occasions of these asherahs.
ment when they were handed over to Worship was conducted publicly
144.
the image, which was so contrived as in the mode usual
in ancient times, and
to consign whatever it received to a comprised praise, prayer and sacrifice.
glowing furnace underneath it. In- The* victims offered were ordinarily
scriptions found at Carthage record animals, though, as already shown,
||

the offering of such sacrifices. ||

human were not infrequent.
sacrifices
They continued even after the Roman It was usual to consume the vic-

conquest and at length the procon-

;
tims entirely upon the altars. ^[ Liba-
sul order to put down
Tiberius, in ations of wine were copiously poured
the practice, hanged the priests of forth in honor of the chief deities,**
these bloody rites on the trees of their and incense was burnt in lavish pro-
own sacred grove. If The public ex-
hibitions of the sacrifice thenceforth * Philo Bybl. c. iv. 2 Damasc. ap Phot.
;
"
ceased, but in secret they still contin- Bibliothec." p. 1065; Hesych. ad voc.
ued down to the time of Tertullian.** TicurvAog. It has been proposed to explain
the word btztulus as equivalent to Beth-el,
143. The Phoenicians were not idol- " House of God," and to regard the Phoeni-
aters, in the ordinary sense of the word ;
cians s believing that a deity dwelt in the
that is to say, they did not worship "
stone. (Kenrick, Phoenicia," p. 323, note
images of their deities. In the tem-
t The
original batuli were perhaps aero-
ple of Melkarth at Gades there was liths,which were regarded as divine, since
no material emblem of the god at all,
they had fallen from the sky.
with the exception of an ever-burning \Philo Byblius, c. iii. "7- On the pillar-
of the Phoenicians, see Bunsen,
fire, ff Elsewhere, conical stones, worship
"
Egypt's Place in Univ. History," vol. iv. pp.
208-212.
* See the story in Herodotus (vii. 167). Asherah is commonly translated by
" Vit. Alex.
t Quint. Curt. Magn." iv. 15. "grove" in the Authorized Version; but
j Silius Ital. iv. 765-768. its true character has been pointed out by
"
Diod. Sic. xx. 14. many critics. (See Speaker's Commen-
" " Ancient Mon-
Gesenius,
|| Script. Phoen. Mon.," pp. tary," vol. i. pp. 416, 417 ;

448, 449. An inscription given by Dr. Davis archies," vol. ii. p. 8 ; 2cl edition.)
" De Dea
(" Carthage and her Remains," pp. 296, 297) Lucian,
|| Syra," 49.
"
refers to the public annual sacrifice. If Gesenius, Script. Phosn. Mon." pp. 446,
"
I Tertull. " Apologia/' c. ix. 447 ; Movers, Das Opferwesen der Kartha-
** Ibid. ger," p. 71, etc.
t Silius Ital. ** Philo c. iv. i.
\ ii.
45. Bybl.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [137] 59

fusion.* Occasionally an attempt criptions, partly because these inscrip-

was made to influence the deity in- tions are almost all of a single type,
voked by loud and prolonged cries, being short legends upon tombs, .

and even by self-inflicted wounds and partly from the fact that the Etruscan
mutilation. f Frequent festivals were language has defied all the efforts
held, especially one at the vernal equi- made to interpret it, and still remains,
nox, when sacrifices were made on for the most part, an insoluble, or at
the largest scale, and a vast concourse any rate an unsolved, problem. We
of persons was gathered together at are thus without any genuine Etrus-
the chief temples. $ Altogether the can statements of their own views
religion of the Phoenicians, while upon religious subjects, and are
possessing some redeeming points, forced to rely mainly upon the re-
as the absence of images and deep ports of foreigners, who looked
upon
sense of sin which led them to sacri- the system only from without, and
fice what was nearest and dearest to are not likely to'have
fully understood
them to appease the divine anger, it. It is a further disadvantage that
must be regarded as one of the lowest our informants write at a time when
and most debasing of the forms of the Etruscans had long ceased to be
belief and worship prevalent in the a nation, and when the people, hav-
ancient world, combining as it did ing been subjected for centuries to
impurity with cruelty, the sanction of foreign influences, had in all proba-
licentiousness with the requirement of bility modified their religious views
bloody rites, revolting to the con- in many important points.
science, and destructive of any right 146. There seems to be no doubt
apprehension of the true idea of God. that their religion, whatever it was,
occupied a leading position in the
thoughts and feelings of the Etruscan
" With
nation. Etruria," says a mod-
CHAPTER VI. ern writer, " was an
religion all-per-
vading principle the very atmosphere
THE RELIGION OF THE ETRUSCANS. of her existence a leaven operating
on the entire mass of society, a con-
"
Hetrusci, religione imbuti." Cic. De Div. stant
pressure ever felt in one form
1.42. or other, a power admitting no rival,

145. THE religion of the Etrus- all-ruling, all-regulating, all-requir-

"
cans, or Tuscans, like that of the ing.* Livy calls the Etruscans a
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, is race which, inasmuch as it excelled

known to us from the notices in the art of religious observances,

chiefly
of which have come down ,to us was more devoted to them than any
it

in the works of the classical writ- other nation." f Arnobius says that
Greek and Latin. It how- Etruria was " the creator and par-
ers, has,
ent of superstition."! The very
ever, the advantage of being illustrated
more copiously than the Phoenician by name of the nation, Tusci, was de-
monuments and other works of art rived by some from a root, thuein^
found in the country, the productions "to sacrifice," or "make
offerings
"
of native artists works which in to the gods that were the
as if

some chief occupation of the people.

respects give us a considerable
On While famous among the nations of
insight into its inner character.
the other hand, but little light is * Dennis, " Cities and Cemeteries of Etru-
thrown upon it
by the Etruscan in-
ria," vol. i. Introduction, p. xlix.
t
"
Gens ante omnes alias eo magis dedita
* Virg. "^En."i.
415. religionibus, quod excelleret arte colendi
"
t i King xviii. 26, 28 ; Lucian, De Dea eas," Liv. v. i.
" De Arnob. " Adv. Genres,"
Syra," 50 ; Plutarch, Superstitione," \ vii.
"
p. 170,0. Servius, Comment, in Virg. ^n." x. 1.
"
J Lucian, De Dea Syra," 49. 257.
60 [138] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

antiquity for their art, their commerce, can religion, but only as a title of
and their warlike qualities, the Etrus- honor, or at most as a recognition of
cans were above all else celebrated a superiority in rank and
dignity on
for their devotion to their religion, the part of this god, who was primus
and for " the zeal and scrupulous inter pares, the
presiding spirit in a
care with which they practiced the conclave of equals.
various observances of its rites and 149. Next to Tina came Cupra, a
ceremonies." * goddess, who appears to have also
147. The objects of worship were borne the name of Thalna orThana.*
twofold, including (i) Deities proper, The Greeks compared her to their
and (2) the Lares, or ancestral spirits Hera, and the Romans to their Juno,
of each family. The deities proper or sometimes to their Diana, who was
may be divided into three classes :
originally the same deity. Like Tina,
first, those whose sphere was the Cupra had a temple in every Etruscan
heaven, or some portion of it sec- ; city, and a gate named after her.f It
ondly, those who belonged more is thought
by some that she was a
properly to earth; and thirdly, those personification of light, or day $ but ;

of the infernal regions, or nether this is uncertain. Her name, Thana,

world, which held a prominent place looks like a mere variant of Tina, and
in the system, and was almost as much would seem to make her a mere fem-
in the thoughts of the people as their inine form of the sky-god, his comple-
" Amend " was in the ment and counterpart, standing
thoughts of the to him
Egyptians. f as Amente to Ammon in the Egyp-
148. The chief deities of the tian, or as Luna to Lunus in the
Heaven were the following five Tina, : Roman mythology. A similar rela-
or Tinia, Cupra, Menrva, Usil and tion is found to have subsisted be-
Losna. Tina, or Tinia, whd was rec- tween the two chief deities of the
ognized as the chief god,$ and whom Etruscan nether world.
the Greeks compared to their Zeus, 150. The third among the celestial
and the Romans to their Jupiter, deities was Menrva, or Menrfa, out of
seems to have been originally the whom the Romans made their Mi-
heaven itself, considered in its en- nerva. She enjoyed the same privi-
tirety, and thus corresponded both in leges in the Etruscan cities as Tina
name and nature to the Tien of the and Cupra, having her own temple
Chinese, with whom it may be sus- and her own gate in each of them.
pected that the Etruscans had some Mr. Isaac Taylor believes that origin-
ethnic affinity. Tina is said to have ally she represented the half light of
had a special temple dedicated to his the morning and evening, and even
honor in every Etruscan city, and in ventures to suggest that her name
"
every such city one of the gates bore signified the red heaven," and re-
his name. He appears to have been ferred to the flush of the sky at dawn
sometimes worshiped under the ap- A and sunset. slight confirmation
||

pellation of Summanus, which perhaps is afforded to this view

by the fact
meant "the supreme god."|| We that we sometimes find two Menrvas
must not, however, take this term as represented in a single Etruscan work
indicative of a latent monotheism, of art. IF But we scarcely possess suf-
whereof there is no trace in the Etrus- ficient materials for determining the

* Smith, " *The name Cupra is known to us only

Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Geography," vol. i. p. 865. from Strabo ("Geograph." v. p. 241).
t See above, p. 33. Thalna is found on Etruscan monuments.
" Cities and
t Dennis, Cemeteries," vol. i. t Servius,.!. s. c.
" " Etruscan "
Introduction," p. i Taylor, ; J Gerhard, Gottheiten der Etrusker," p.
Researches," p. 132. 40; Taylor, "Etruscan Researches," p. 142.
Servius,
" Comment
"
m
Virg. ^En." i. 422. Servius,
"
1. s. c.

il Max Miiller, Science of Religion," p. ||

Etruscan Researches," p. 137.
376. TF/^.p. 138.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [130] 61

real original character of this deity. Hermes of the Greeks, and the Ve-
1

It was probably foreign influence that nus, Aurora, and Mercurius of the
brought her ultimately into that close Romans. Of these Turan is the most
resemblance which she bears to Mi- frequently found, but chiefly in sub-
nerva and Athene' on the mirrors and jects taken from the Greek mythol-
vases, where she is represented as ogy, while Thesan occurs the 'least
armed and bearing the aegis.* often. According to one view, the
151. Usil and Losna, whom we have name Turms is the mere Etruscan

ventured to join with Tina, Cupra, mode of writing the Greek word
and Menrva as celestial deities, ap- Hermes,* the true native name having
pear to nave been simply the Sun and been Camillus or Kamil.t It does
the Moon, objects of worship to so not appear that any of these three
many ancient nations. Usil was gods was much worshiped by the
identified with the Greek Apollo Etruscans. They figured in the my-
(called Aplu by the Etruscans),
and thology, but lay almost outside tlie
was represented as a youth with bow religion.
and arrows. f Losna had the cres- 154. The main character in which
cent for her emblem, $ and was fig- the gods of heaven and earth were
ured nearly as Diana by the Romans. recognized by the Etruscans was that
152. Next to Usil and Losna may of rulers, signifying,
and sometimes
be placed in a group the three ele- executing, their will by means of thun-
mental gods, Sethlans, the god of fire, der and lightning. Nine great gods,
identified by the Etruscans themselves known as the Novensiles, were be-
with the Greek Hephaistos and the lieved to have the power of hurling
Latin Vulcan Nethuns, the water- thunderbolts, and were therefore held
;

god, probably the same as Neptunus in special honor.$;

Of these nine,
and Phuphlans, the god of earth and Tinia, Cupra, Menrva, and Sethlans,
all earth's products, who is well com- were undoubtedly four. Summanus
pared with Dionysus and Bacchus. and Vejovis, who are sometimes
||

Phuphlans was the special deity of spoken of as thundering gods, seem

Pupluna, or (as the Romans called it) to be mere names or aspects of
Populonia.^l He seems to have been Tinia. The Etruscans recognized
called also Vortumnus or Volturntis ;** twelve sorts of thunderbolts, and
and in this aspect he had a female ascribed, we are told, to Tinia three
counterpart, Voltumna, whose temple of them. ||

was the place of meeting where the 155. But it was to the unseen world
princes of Etruria discussed the af- beneath the earth, the place to which
fairs of the Confederation. tt men went after death, and where the
153. Another group of three con- souls of their ancestors resided,
that
sists of Turan, Thesan, and Turms, the Etruscans devoted the chief por-
native Etruscan deities, as it would tion of their religious thought and ;

seem, corresponding more or less with this were connected the bulk of
closely to the Aphrodite, Eos, and their religious
observances. Over
the dark realms of the dead ruled
* Dennis, "Cities and Cemeteries," vol. i. Mantus and
Mania, king and queen
Introduction, p. li. of Hades, the former represented as
t Taylor, "Etruscan Researches," p. 143.
" an old man, wearing a crown, and
J Lanzi, Saggio della Lingua Etrusca,"
vol. ii. p. 76. with wings on his shoulders, and bear-
"
Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries," vol. i.

Introduction, p. liv.
* Taylor, "Etruscan Researches," p. 149.
" t So' Callimachus ap. Serv. in Virg. yEn.
H Taylor, Etruscan Researches," p. 141 ;
" Diet, of Greek and Rom. xi. 1.
Smith, Antiqui- 543.
" "
ties," vol. i.
p. 865. Varro,
\ De Ling. Lat." v. 74 Plin. H. ;

"
'IT Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries," vol. ii. N." ii.
53; Manilius ap. Arnob. "Adv.
p. 242. Gentes," iii. 38.
** Ibid. vol. i. Introduction, p. liii. Plin. 1. s. c. ;
Amm. Marc. xvii. 10, 2.

Jt Liv. iv. 23, 61 ; v. 17, etc. ll

Senec. " Nat. Quasst." ii.
41.
62 [140] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

ing in his hands sometimes a torch, seem to act under his orders, and in-
sometimes two or three large nails, flict such tortures as he is pleased to
which are thought to indicate " the in- prescribe.
evitable character of his decrees."* 156. It must be supposed that the
Intimately connected with these dei- Etruscan conceived of a judgment
ties, their prime minister and most after death, of an apportionment of
active agent, cruel, hideous, half hu- rewards and punishments according
man, half animal, the chief figure in to desert.* But it is curious that the
almost all the representations of the representations in the tombs give no
lower world, is the demon, Charun, in clear evidence of any judicial process,
name no doubt indentical with the containing nothing analogous to the
Stygian ferryman of the Greeks, but Osiricl trial, the weighing of the soul,
in character so different thatit has the sentence, and the award accord-
even been maintained that there is no ingly, which are so conspicuous on the
analogy between them.t Charun is monuments of Egypt. Good and evil
"
generally represented as a squalid spirits seem to contend for the pos-
and hideous old man with flaming session of souls in the nether world ;

eyes and savage aspect but he has, furies pursue some, and threaten them
;

moreover, the ears, and often the or torment them good genii protect ;

tusks of a brute," with (sometimes) others and save them from the dark
"
negro features and complexion, and demons, who would fain drag them
" an- to
frequently wings," $ so that he the place of punishment.t Souls
swers well, cloven feet excepted, to are represented in a state which seems
the modern conception of the devil." to be intended for one of ideal happi-
His brow is sometimes bound round ness, banqueting, or hunting, or play-
by snakes at other times he has a ing at games, and otherwise enjoying
;

snake twisted round his arm and he themselves $ but the grounds of the
;
:

bears in his hands almost universally two different conditions in which the
a huge mallet or hammer, upraised, departed spirits exist are not clearly
as if he were about to deal a death- set forth, and it is analogy rather than
stroke. When death is being inflicted strict evidence which leads us to the
"
by man, he stands "
by, grinning with conclusion that desert is the ground
savage delight when ;
he comes on which the happiness and misery
naturally, he is almost as well pleased are distributed.;

he holds the horse on which the de- 157. Besides Charun and his name-
parted soul is to take its journey to less attendant demons and furies, the
the other world, bids the spirit mount, Etruscan remains give evidence of a
leads away the horse by the bridle or belief in a certain small number of
drives before him, and thus con-
it genii, or spirits, having definite names,
ducts the deceased into the grim and a more or less distinct and pecul-
kingdom of the dead.|| In that king- iar character. One of the most
dom he is one of the tormentors of clearlymarked of these is Vanth, or
guilty souls, whom he strikes with his Death, who appears in several of the
mallet, or with a sword, while they sepulchral scenes, either standing by
kneel before him and implore for the door of an open tomb, or prompt-
mercy. Various attendant demons ing the slaughter of a prisoner, or
and furies, some male, some, female, otherwise encouraging carnage and
destruction. Another is Kulmu,
* Dennis, "Cities and Cemeteries," vol. i.

Ivi. * So Dennis and others but there is a want

Introduction, p. ;
"
De Charonte Etrusco," of distinct evidence upon the point.
:tAmbrosch, "
quoted by Dennis, vol. ii. p. 206. t Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries," vol. ii.
" Cities and
t Dennis, Cemeteries," vol. ii. pp. 193-198.
" Cities and
p. 206. \ Dennis, Cemeteries," vol. i.
Ibid. p. 207. pp. 444-446-
" Cities " Etruscan
H Dennis, and Cemeteries," pp. 193, Taylor, Researches," pp. 106-
194. 102. (For the scenes referred to, see Micali,
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [141] 63

"god of the tomb," who bears the
fatal shears in one hand and a
funeral torch in the other, and opens
the door of the sepulchre that it may
receive into it a fresh inmate.*
third being of the same class is
Nathuns, a sort of male fury, rep-
resented with tusk-like fangs and
hair standing on end, while in either
hand he grasps a serpent by the
middle, which he shakes over
avengers, in order to excite them to
the future, immediate or remote, to
warn men against coming dangers, to
suggest modes of averting the divine
anger, and thus to save men from
A evils which would otherwise have
come upon them unawares and ruined
or, at any rate, greatly injured them.
Men were taught to observe the signs
in the sky, and the
appearance and
flight of birds, the sounds which they
uttered, their position at the time,
and various other particulars they ;

the highest pitch of frenzy, f were bidden to note whatever came

158. In their worship the Etrus- in their way that seemed to them un-
cans sought, first of all and especially, usual or abnormal, and to report all
to know the will of the gods, which to the priests, who thereupon pro-
they believed to.be signified to man nounced what the signs observed por-
in three principal ways. These were tended, and either announced an in-
thunder and
lightning, which they evitable doom,* or prescribed a mode
ascribed to the direct action of the whereby the doom might be postponed
heavenly powers the flight of birds,
;
or averted. Sometimes the signs re-
which they supposed to be subject to ported were declared to affect merely
divine guidance and certain appear- individuals but frequently the word
; ;

ances in the entrails of victims went forth that danger was portended
offered in sacrifice, which they also to the state and then it was for the ;

regarded as supernaturally induced or priesthood to determine at once the

influenced. To interpret these indi- nature and extent of the danger, and
cations of the divine will, it was nec- also the measures to be adopted under
essary to have a class of persons the circumstances. Sacrifices on a
trained in the traditional knowledge vast scale or of an unusual character
of the signs in question, and skilled to were commonly commanded in such
give a right explanation of them to cases, even human victims being oc-
all inquirers. Hence the position of casionally offered to the infernal dei-
the priesthood in Etruria, which was ties, Mantus and Mania, t whose
" an all-dominant
hierarchy, maintain- wrath was impossible
to appease in
it

ing its sway by an arrogant exclusive way. Certain books

any less fearful
claim to intimate acquaintance with in the possession of the hierarchy,
the will of heaven, and the decrees of ascribed to a half divine, half human
fate." $ The Etruscan priests were personage, named Tages,$ and hand-
not, like the Egyptian, the teachers of ed down from a remote antiquity, con-
the people, the inculcators of a high tained the system of divination winch
morality, or the expounders of esoter- the priests followed, and guided them
ic doctrines on the subjects of man's
relation to God, his true aim in life,
* The Etruscans
and his ultimate destiny they were ;
recognized a power of
F"ate, superior to the great gods themselves,
soothsaj'ers, who sought to expound Tinia and the others, residing in certain " I)i
"
Involuti," or Di Superiores," who were
"
Monument! Inediti," pi. Ix. and Des the rulers of both gods and men (Senec.
;
" "
Vergers, L'Etrurie et les Etrusques," pi. Nat. Qucest." ii.4i).
* "
xxi.). Ibid. p. 94. t Especially to Mania (Macrob. Satur-
"
t Taylor, Etruscan Researches," p. 112. nalia," i. 7). Human sacrifices are thought
"
\ Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries," vol. i. to be represented in the Etruscan remains
Introduction, p. xxxix. (Dennis, "Cities and Cemeteries," vol. ii. pp.
Cic. " De Divinatione," i. p. 41, 42 ; 190, 191).
Senec. " Nat. Onaest." ii. 32 Diod. Sic. v..p.
; .
t Lydus, "De Ostentis," 27 ; Cic. " De
316 Dior.ys. Hal, ix. p. 563 Aulus Cell. iv.
; ;
Div." ii.
23 ;
Ovid. "Metamorph." xv. 553-
>f
5; Lucan, Phars." i. i, 587, etc. 559, etc.
6,4 [142] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
in their expositions and surrounded by smaller chambers, in
require- is
'ments. which the dead repose. On the roof
159. Among sacrificial animals we see carved in stone the broad
were included the bull, the ass, and beam, or roof-tree, with rafters imi-
perhaps the wolf,* though this is dis- tated in relief on either side, and even
puted.
The victim, brought by an imitations of the tiles. These .cham-
individual citizen, was always offered bers contain the corpses, and are
by a priest, and libations usually furnished with all the implements,
accompanied the sacrifice. Unbloody ornaments, and utensils used in life.
offerings were also not unfrequently The tombs are, in fact, places for the
presented, and were burnt upon the dead to live in. The position and
altar, likethe victims. f surroundings of the deceased are
160. A
general survey of the Etrus- made
to approximate as closely as
can remains has convinced the most possible to the conditions of life.
recent inquirers, that the public wor- The couches on which the corpses
ship of the gods in the temples, repose have a triclinial arrangement,
which were to be found in all Etrus- and are furnished with cushions
can cities, by sacrifice, libation, and carved in stone and imitations of ;

adoration, played but a very small easy-chairs and footstools are care-
part in the religious life, of the nation. fully hewn out of the rock. Every-
" The
true temples of the Etruscans," thing, in short, is arranged as if the
"
it has been observed, were their dead were reclining at a banquet in-
tombs." $ Practically, the real ob- their accustomed dwellings. On the
jects of their worship were the Lares, floor stand wine-jars and the most ;

or spirits of their ancestors. Each precious belongings of the deceased

house probably had its lararium^ arms, ornaments, and mirrors?
where the master of the household hang from the roof, or are suspended
offeree* prayer and worship every on the walls. The walls themselves
morning, and sacrifice occasionally. are richly decorated, usually being
||

And each family certainly had its painted with representations of festive
family tomb, constructed on the model scenes we see figures in gayly-em-
;

of a house, in which the spirits of its broidered garments reclining on

ancestors were regarded as residing. couches, while attendants replenish
" The tombs
themselves," we are the goblets, or beat time to the music
" are exact imitations of the of the
told, pipers. Nothing is omitted
house. There is usually an outer which can conduce to the amusement
vestibule., apparently appropriated to or comfort of the deceased. Their
the annual funeral feast from this a spirits were evidently believed to in-
:

passage leads to a large central cham- habit these house-tombs after death,,
ber, which is lighted by windows cut just as in life they inhabited their
through the rock. The central hall houses."
161. The tombs were not perma-
* Dennis, " Cities and Cemeteries,"' vol. nently closed. Once a year at least,.,
ii. pp. 189, 190. perhaps 'Oftener, it was customary for
f Dennis, "Cities and Cemeteries," vol.
t,he surviving relatives to visit the
ii. p. 191.
" Etruscan' resting-place of their departed dear,
J Taylor, Researches," p. 40.
On the
Roman lararium, which is be- ones, to carry them offerings as tokens
lieved to have been adopted from the Etrus- of affectionate regard, and solicit their
cans, see an article in Dr. Smith's "Diction- favor and protection. The presents
ary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," pp.
brought included portrait-statues, cups,
667, 668, 2d edition.
In the Theodosian Code it was provided
|j
dishes, lamps, armor, vases, mirrors,
that no one should any longer worship his gems, seals, and jewelry.f Inscrip.
tar with fire (" nullus 'Larem igne venere-
* " Etruscan
tur"), or, in other words, continue to sacri- Taylor, Researches," pp. 46-
fice to him. (See Keightley's "Mythology," 48-
p. 470.) \ Ibid. pp. 271, 306, etc.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [143] 65

tions frequently accompanied the offer- lost arises from the blows and wounds
|

ings and these show that the gifts inflicted by demons, the doctrine of
; I

were made, not to the spirit of the future rewards and punishments loses
tomb, or to the infernal gods, or much of its natural force, and is more
to any other deities, but to the per- likely to vitiate than to improve the
sons whose remains were deposited in moral character. The accounts which
tiie sepulchres.* Their spirits were we have of the morality of the Etrus-
no -doubt regarded as conciliated by cans are far from favorable ;* and it
the presents and, practically, it is may be questioned whether the vices
;

probable that far more value was at- whereto they were prone did not -re-
tached to the fostering care of these ceive a stimulus, rather than a check,
nearly allied protectors than to the from their religion.
favor of the awful gods of earth and
heaven, who were distant beings,
dimly apprehended, and chiefly known
as wielders of thunderbolts. CHAFFER
162. As a whole, the Etruscan re-
ligion must be pronounced one of the RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS.
least elevating of the forms of ancient
" The Greek
belief. It presented the gods mainly religion was the result of the
under a severe and forbidding aspect, peculiar development and history of the Gre-
cian people." DoLLiNUEK,/ew'a</ Gentile,
as beings to be dreaded and propiti- j
'

vol. i.
p. 6S.
ated, rather than loved and wor-
a
163. THAT "in general the Greek
shiped. It encouraged supersti-
tious regard for omens and portents, religion may be correctly described
which filled the mind with foolish as a worship of Nature ; and that most
alarms, and distracted men from the of its deities corresponded either to
performance of the duties of every-day certain parts of the sensible world, or
life. It fostered the pride and vanity to certain classes of
objects compre-
of the priestly class by attributing to hended under abstract
notions," is a
them superhuman wisdom, and some- remark of
Bishop Thirlwallf in which
thing like infallibility, while it demor- most critics at the present day will ac-
alized the people by forcing them to
quiesce with readiness. Placed in a re-
cringe before a selfish and arrogant gion of marked beauty and variety, and
hierarchy. If it diminished the nat-
sympathizing strongly with the material
ural tendency of men to overvalue the world around
him, the lively Greek
affairs of this transitory life, by placing saw in the
objects with which he was
prominently before them the certainty brought into contact, no inert mass of
and importance of the life beyond the dull arid lifeless matter, but a crowd
grave, yet its influence was debasing of might}' agencies, full of a wonder-
rather than elevating, from the coarse- ful
energy. The teeming earth, the
ness of the representations which it
quickening sun, the restless sea, the
gave alike of the happiness and misery irresistible storm, every display of su-
of the future state. Where the idea
entertained of the good man's final
bliss makes it consist in feasting and and pleasures they had relished in this life
they in the next, but divested of
carousing,! and the suffering of the their expected and enhanced
sting, increased
by capaci-
ties of enjoyment. To celebrate the great
* Without Mr. Taylor's ren- event, to us "so solemn (i.e., death), by feast-
all
accepting
derings of the funereal inscriptions I am of ing and joviality, was not with them unbe-^
j

opinion that he has succeeded in establishing coming. They knew not how to conceive or
!

this point. represent a glorified existence otherwise than

I

"
t See Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries," vol. bv means of the highest sensual enjoyment."
i

"
i.
p. 294 :
They (the Etruscans) believed in (Compare pp. 443-448.) "
the materiality of the soul and their Elysium
I

* See the Author's '

; Origin of Nations
was but a glorification of the present' state i
(No. 25, HUMBOLDT LIBRARY).
of existence the same pursuits, amusements,
"
History of Greece," vol. i. p. 217.
i
:
t
 66 [144] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

perhtiman might which he beheld, nay,
all motion and growth, impressed him
with the sense of something living and
working. He did not, however, like
his Indian brother, deify (as a general
rule) the objects themselves or, at ;
any rate, if he had ever done so, it
besides horses, bulls, and dogs, of im-
mortal breed and peculiar attributes,
nonsters of strange lineaments and
'
combinations Gorgons, and Hy-
dras, and Chimaeras dire' and be-
sides 'gentile and ancestral deities,'
and peculiar beings whose business
'

was in a remote past, of which lan- t was to

co-operate or impede in the
* he
guage alone retained the trace ;
various stages of each trade or busi-
5)
did not, in the times in which he is ness.'
really known to us, worship the storm, 164. Numerous additions might be
or the sun, or the earth, or the ocean, made to this list. Not only
had each
or the winds, or the rivers, but, by the mountain chain and mountain-top a
power of his imagination, he invested separate presiding god or goddess,
all these things with personality. Dut troops of Oreads inhabited the
Everywhere around him, in all the dif- mountain regions, and disported them-
ferent localities, and departments, and selves among them not only was ;

divisions, and subdivisions of the phys- there a river-god to each river, a Si-
ical world, he recognized agencies of nois and a Scamander, an Enipeus and
unseen beings endued with life, voli- an Acheloiis, but every nameless
tion, and design. Nature was peopled stream and brooklet had its water-
for him with a countless multitude nymph, every spring and fountain its
of such invisible powers, some inhab- naiad wood-nymphs peopled the ;

iting the earth, some the heaven, some lades and dells of the forest regions ;

the sea, some the dark and dreadful re- air-gods moved in the zephyrs and the
gion beneath the earth, into which"the breezes each individual oak had its ;

sun's rays could not penetrate. Of dryad. To the gods proper were
such beings," as Mr. Grote observes,! added the heroes, gods of a lower
" there were numerous
varieties, and grade, and these are spoken of as
"
many gradations both in power and thirty thousand in number, guardian
attributes there were differences of daemons, spirits of departed heroes,
;

.age, sex, and local residence, relations, who are continually walking over
both conjugal and filial, between them, earth, veiled in darkness, watching
and tendencies sympathetic as \vell as the deeds of men, and dispensing
*
repugnant. The gods formed a sort weal or woe."
of political community of their own, 165. It is this multiplicity of the
which had its hierarchy, its distribu- objects of worship, together with their
tions of ranks and duties, its conten- lively active personality, which forms
tions for power, and occasional revo- the first striking feature of the ancient
lutions, its public meetings in the Greek religion, and naturally attracts
:

agora of Olympus, and its multitudi- the attention of observers in the first
nous banquets or festivals. The great instance. Nowhere have we such a
'Olympic gods were, in fact, only the multitudinous pantheon. Not only was
most exalted among an aggregate of the multiplicity of external* nature re-
quasi-human or ultra-human person- flected in the spiritual world as in a
ages daemons, heroes, nymphs, epon- mirror, but every phase, and act, and
ymous genii, identified with each circumstance of human life, every
river, mountain, cape, town, village, quality of the mind, every
attribute
-or known circumscription of territory, of the" body, might be, generally was,
personified, and became a divine be-
* Zeus
may have been once Dyaus,
" the
ing. Sleep and Death, Old Age and
sky" (Max Muiler, "Chips from a German
Workshop," vol. ii. p. 72) but the word very
;
* Thirlwall, " History of Greece," vol. i. p.
early "became a proper name" and desig- "
nated a person. 235. Compare Hesiod, Works and Days,"
"
t History of Greece," vol. i.
.pp. 4 6 3~4 1.
250.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [145] 67

Pain, Strength, Force, Strife, Victory, nates of ^Eolus, the Hours, handmaids
Battle, Murder, Hunger, Dreaming. of Aphrodite, etc. Fourthly, we may
Memory, Forgetfulness, Lawlessness, name the more shadowy gods and
Law, Forethought, Afterthought, goddesses, Night, Day, Ether, Dawn,
Grief,
Ridicule, Retribution, Recklessness, Darkness, Death, Sleep, Strife, Mem-
Deceit, Wisdom, Affection, Grace, ory, Fame, Retribution, Reckless-
were gods or goddesses, were pre- ness, etc., who do not often appear
sented to the mind as persons, and as deities except in poetry, and are
had their place in the recognized perhaps rather personifications con-
Theogonies,* or systematic arrange sciously made than real substantive
ments of the chief deities according divinities. Finally must be mentioned
to supposed relationship and descent. the monstrous births ascribed to cer-
Similarly, the facts of Nature, as dis- tain divine unions or marriages, e. g. y
tinct from her parts, were personified the Cyclopes, and Centimani, the off-
and worshiped, Chaos, Day, Night, spring of Earth and Heaven (Gsea
Time, the Hours, Dawn, Darkness, and Uranus) the Harpies, daughters ;

Lightning, Thunder, "Echo, the Rain- of Thaumas and Electra, one of the
bow, were persons persons, just as Oceanidae the Gorgons and Grasse.
;

much as Zeus and Apollo " t though children of Phorcys and Ceto Chry- ;

not, perhaps, so uniformly regarded saor and Pegasus, born of the blood of
in this light. Medusa, when she was slain by Perse-
166. Another leading feature in the us Geryon and Echidna, sprung from
;

system is the existence of marked Chrysaor and Callirrhoe Orthros, ;

gradations of rank and power among the two-headed dog of Geryon, born
the gods, who fall into at least five of Typhaon and Echidna Cerberus, ;

definite classes,! clearly distin- the dog of Hades, with fifty heads ;-

guished the one from the other. First Scylla and Charybdis the Lemasan ;

and foremost come the Olympic dei- Hydra, the Sphinx of Thebes, the
ties, twelve in number, six male and Nemean Lion, the Dragon of the
six female, but not as a rule con- Hesperides, the Centaurs, the Chi-
nected together in pairs Zeus, Pose- msera, etc., etc.
idon, Apollo, Ares, Hephaestus, Her- 167. The chief interest naturally
mes, Hera, Athene', Artemis, Aphro- attaches to the gods of the First Order,
"
dite, Hestia, and Demeter. Next in those commonly denominated Olym-
order are the great bulk of the gods pic ;" and, in a work like the present,
and goddesses, Hades, Dionysus, some account must necessarily be
Cronus, Uranus, Hyperion, Helios, given of the twelve deities who con-,
Nereus, Proteus, ^Eolus, Leto, Dione*, stituted the Olympian council.
Persephone, Hecate, Selene', Themis,
Harmonia, the Graces, the Muses, ZEUS.
the Fates, the Furies, the Eileithyice,
the Oceanids, the Nereids, the 1 68. At the head of all, occupying

Nymphs, the Naiads and the like. a position quite unique and unlike
In the third rank may be placed that of any ether, stood the great
the deities who act as attendants Zeus. |
Zeus is " the God, or, as he is-
on the greater gods, and per- called in later times, the Father of the
form services for them, Iris, the mes- gods and the God of gods. When
senger of Jove, Hebe*, his cup-bearer, we ascend to the most distant heights
Kratos and Bia, the servants of Heph- of Greek history, the idea of God, as
aestus,! Boreas, Notus, etc., subordi- the Supreme Being, stands before us
"
as a simple fact." * Zeus," said an
* Hesiod, " " is the beginning Zeus
Theogon," 11. 114-264; Apol- ancient poet, ;

"
lodorus, Bibliotheca," i. 1-6. the middle out of Zeus have all things
;
"
t Grote, History of Greece," vol. i. p. 2.

J Ibid., pp. 14, 15.

See yEschyl. " Prom. Vinct." sub init. * Max Mullet " Chips," vol. ii. p. 148.
 [146] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
ijeen made." Zeus was "the lord of and the suppliant are under his pe-
the upper regions, who dwelt on the culiar protection ;
the fence that en-
summits of the highest mountains, closes the family
dwelling is in his
gathered the clouds about him, shook keeping; he avenges the denial and
the air with his thunder, and wielded the abuse of hospitality. Yet even
the lightning as the instrument of his this greatest and most glorious of be-
wrath. From elements drawn from ings, as he is called, is sub-
these different sources his character, ject, like the other gods, to
pas-
a strange compound of strength and sion and frailty. For, though se-
weakness, seems to have been formed cure from dissolution, though sur-
by successive poets, who, if they in passingly beautiful and strong, and
some degree deserved the censure warmed with a purer blood than fills
'of the philosophers, seem at least not the veins of men, their
heavenlj
'to have been
guilty of any arbitrary frames are not insensible to pleasure
fictions ; while, on the other hand, by and pain they need the refreshment
;

establishing his supremacy they in- of ambrosial food, and inhale a grate-
troduced (?) a principle of unity into ful savor from the sacrifices of their
'the Greek polytheism, which was not worshipers. Their other affections
perhaps without influence on the correspond to the grossness of these
speculations of the philosophers animal appetites. Capricious love
themselves, though it exerted little and hatred, anger and jealousy, often
on the superstitions of the vulgar. disturb the calm of their bosoms ;
The Olympian deities assembled the peace of the Olympian state might
are
round Zeus as which he be broken by factions, and even by
his family, in
maintains the mild dignity of a pa- conspiracies formed against its chief.
triarchal king. He assigns their sev- He himself cannot keep perfectly aloof
bral provinces, and controls their from their quarrels he occasionally
;

authority. Their combined efforts wavers in his purpose, is overruled by

cannot give the slightest shock to his artifice, blinded by desires, and hur-
nor retard the execution of his ried by resentment into unseemly
jpower,
will;
and hence their waywardness, violence. The relation in which he
pven when it incurs his rebuke, can- stands to Fate is not uniformly rep-
hot ruffle the inward serenity of his resented in the Homeric poems, and
soul. The tremendous nod, where- probably the poet had not formed a
with he confirms his decrees, can distinct notion of it. Fate is gener-
neither be revoked nor frustrated. ally described as emanating from his
As his might is irresistible, so is his will, but sometimes he appears to be
>visdom unsearchable. He holds the no more than the minister of a stern
golden balance in which are poised necessity, which he wishes in vain to
the destinies of nations and of men ;
elude." *
from the two vessels that stand at his 169. And Zeus bears to man the
threshold he draws the good and relation of "father." Each mortal
evil gifts that alternately sweeten who has a supplication to make to
and embitter mortal existence. The him, may address him as 2> K-a-ep,
"
eternal order of things, the ground God (our) Father." He bears, as
of the immutable succession of events, one of his most usual titles, the des-
"
is his, and therefore he himself sub- ignation of Father of gods and
mits to it. Human laws derive their men." As St. Paul says,f quoting a
sanction from his ordinance earthly Greek poet, "we are his offspring."
;

kings receive their scepter from his The entire passage where these words
hand he is the guardian of social occur is remarkable, and very instruc-
;

rights he watches over the ful- tive on the Grecian idea of Zeus.
;

fillment of contract's, the observance * Thirlwall

"History of Greece," vol. i.
of oaths he punishes treachery, ar-
;
pp. 217-219.
rogance, and cruelty. The stranger t Acts xvii. 28.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [147]

With Zeus begin we

44 no mortal voice
let and requires material suste-
fiber;
Leave Zeus unpraised. Zeus fills the haunts nance.
of men,
According to some of the
The streets, the marts Zeus fills the sea, myths, he was born in time accord- ;

the .shores, ing to all, he was once a god of small

The harbors everywhere we live in Zeus. power. Heaven had its revolutions
We are his offspring too friendly to man, in the Greek system and as the sov-
;

He gives prognostics; sets mn to their

:

toil ereignty of Olympus had passed from

By need of daily bread tells when the land
: Uranus to Cronus, and from Cronu:
Must be upturned by plowshare or by to Zeus in former times, so in the fut-
spade ure it might pass, and according to
What time to plant the olive or the vine
What time to fling on earth the golden grain. some, was doomed to pass, from Zeus
For He it was who scattered o'er the sky to another.* Nor was he without
The shining stars, and fixed them where they moral defect. A rebellious son, a
are
Provided constellations through the year, husband, not always a kin$ faithless
To mark the he presented to the moral con-
seasons in their changeless father,
course. sciousness no perfect pattern for man's
Wherefore men worship Him the First imitation, but a strange and monstrous
the Last
combination of wickedness with high
Their Father Wonderful their Help and
Shield."* qualities, of weakness with strength,
of good with
fe evil.f
'

170. A
pantheistic tinge.' pervades
this description ; but still in parts it POSEIDON.
approaches to some of the most beau-
tiful and sublime expressions of Holy 172. Poseidon is reckoned as the
Writf presents Zeus to us as
It second of the Olympic gods, rather
omnipresent, beneficent, worthy of as being, in the mythology, the brother
perpetual praise, our father, our help of Zeus, than from any superiority of
and defense, our support and stay. his own over the rest of the Olympi-
It sets him forth as "wonderful," or ans. $ He is viewed as especially
"
rather " a mighty wonder f^7 a 6ai ua \ the god of the sea, and is worshiped
a being beyond our power to com- chiefly by maritime states and .in
prehend, whom we must be content to cities situated on or near the coast;;
reverence and admire. It recognizes but he has also a considerable hold
him as having hung the stars in the "
upon the land, and is earth-shak-
blue vault of heaven, and having set ing" and "earth-possessing," quite as
them there " for signs, and for seasons, decidedly as sovereign ruler of the
and for days, and years." It calls seas and ocean. His worship is
him "the First" and "the Last" ancient, and in many places has given
the Alpha and the Omega of being. way to an introduction of later arid
171. Such is the strength of Zeus, more fashionable deities.
,
It has

according to the Greek idea but traces of a rudeness and roughness

;

withal there is a weakness about that are archaic, and stands connected
him, which sinks him, not only be- with the more grotesque and barba-
low the " Almighty " of Scripture, rous element in the religion. " Among
but even below the Ormazd of the his companions are wild Titans and
Persians. He has a material frame, spiteful daemons," human sacrifices
albeit of an ethereal and subtle
" Prom. Vinct." 11.
"
*yEschyl, 939-959.
* Aratus, Phenomena," 11.
1-15.
" Compare Mr. Gladstone's remarks in his
t
" Homer and the Homeric
Compare "everywhere we live in Zeus
t Age," vol. ii. pp.
with " in Him we live, and move, and have 186-190.
our being " (Acts xvii. 28) the provision of J Poseidon claims in the
"
Iliad," an au-
constellations with Gen. i. 14 the term thority within his own domain independent
"Wonderful" with Isa. ix. 6 "the First, of Zeus ("Iliad," xv. 174 et seqq,}, but exer-
the Last" with Rev. i. 8, u, etc. "their cises no right of rule over any other god.
" "
Help and Shield with Psa. xviii. 2 xlvi. i, Curtius,
; History of Greece," vol. i. p.
etc. 56.
 70 [148] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
are offered to him ;
horses are buried rior
alive in his honor ; Polyphemus the
.Cyclops, whom Ulysses punishes, is
his son and his offspring generally
; APOLLO.
are noted for huge size and great cor-
poreal strength.* It has been main-
tained that his cult was of foreign
origin, having been introduced among
the Greeks by the Carians,t or by the
Libyans $ but there are no sufficient
; of the ancient Greeks.
.grounds for these refinements, or for
separating off Poseidon from the bulk
of the Olympic deities, admittedly of
native growth, and having a general
family resemblance. If Poseidon is
cast in a ruder and rougher mold
than most of the others, we may ac-
count for it by the character of his
element, and the boisterousness of
sailors, who were at all times his prin-
cipal worshipers. Poseidon's rough-
ness is compensated for by a solidity
and strength of character, not too
common among the Grecian deities
he is not readily turned from his pur-
pose ;
blandishments have
upon him failure does not discour- capable." f
;
.age him he is persistent, and gener-
; 174. Apollo
ally, though not always, successful.
His hostility to Troy, arising from his
treatment by Laomedon, conduced
greatly toward that city's destruction,
and the offense which he took at the
decision of Erechtheus led to the final
overthrow of that hero's family. On
the other hand, his persecution of
Ulysses, on account of the chastise-
ment which he had inflicted on Poly-
phemus, does not prevent the final re-
turn of that much-enduring wanderer
to Ithaca, nor does his opposition
succeed in hindering the settlement
of ./Eneas, with his Trojan compan-
ions, in Latium. For grandeur and
sublimity of character and position
Poseidon cannot compare with Zeus,
whom, however, he sometimes ven-
tures to beard in respect of moral
;
conduct he is in no way Zeus's supe-
* Horn. " xi.
Odyssey,"
505-520.
" The Carians in-
t Curtius, vol. i.
p. 298 :
troduced [into GreeceJ the worship of the
Carian Zeus, and of Poseidon."
\ Herod, ii. 50; iv. 188.
Hom. "Iliad," xv. 175.
: in respect of intellectual eleva-
tion he falls decidedly below him.
173. The conception of Apollo as
the sun is a late form of Hellenic be-
and must be wholly put aside
lief,
when we are considering the religion
Apollo seems
to have been
originally, like Zeus, a
representation of the one God, origi-
nating probably in some part of Greece
where Zeus was unknown,* and sub-
sequently adopted into the system prev-
alent in Homeric times, and in this
system subordinated to Zeus as his son
and interpreter. Compared with Zeus,
he a spiritualized conception.
is Zeus
is the embodiment of creative
energy
and almighty power Apollo of divine:
prescience, of healing skill, and of
musical and poetic production. "
In
; Apollo Hellenic polytheism received
its harmonious completion, and the
little effect loftiest glorification of which it was
rises on the vision of
one familiar with Greek antiquity as
almost a pure conception, almost an
angelic divinity. To a form of ideal
beauty, combining youthful grace and.
vigor with the fullest perfection of
manly strength, he added unerring
wisdom, complete insight into futurity,
an unstained iife,-t the magic power
of song, ability and will to save and
heal, together with the dread preroga-
tive of dealing out at his pleasure de-
and death. Compassionate
struction
on occasions as Mercy herself, he
shows at times the keen and awful
seventy of a destroying archangel.
Ekebolos, "striking from afar," he
speeds his fatal shafts from his unfail-
ing bow, and smites whomsoever he
will with a death-stroke which there is
no escaping. Never offended without
cause, never moved by caprice, he
* Curtius
suggests Lycia or Crete (" His-
tory of Greece," vol. i. p. 59).
t Ibid.
\ See this point discussed in Mr. Glad-
stone's " Homer and the Homeric Age " (vol.
ii. pp. 106-111).
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [149] 71

works the will of Zeus in all that he which equals at any rate, if it does
does, dispenses retributive justice, and not transcend, the highest ideal of
purifies with wholesome fear the souls divinity that has hither to been elabo-
of men. Partaker of all the counsels rated by unassisted human wisdom.
of his father, and permitted to use his
discretion in communicating them to ARES.
the denizens of earth, he delivers his
oracular responses from the various 176. It has been well said that Ares
"
spots which he has chosen as his is the impersonation of a passion."
special abodes, and, though sometimes That combative propensity, which man
his replies may be of doubtful import, possesses in common with a large
seldom sends away a votary unsatis- number of animals, was regarded by
fied. The answers which he gives, or the Greeks, not only as a divine thing,
at any rate is supposed to give, deter- but as a thing of such lofty divinity
mine the decisions of statesmen,* and that its representative must have a
shape the course of history. War and place among the deities of the first
peace, treaties and alliances, are made class or order. The propensity itself
and unmade, as the Delphic and other was viewed as common to man with
" wars
oracles inspired by him advise and ; the gods, and as having led to
the course of Hellenic colonization is in heaven," wherein all the greater
almost entirely determined by his de- deities had borne their part. Now
crees.t that peace was established in the
175. Poet, prophet, physician, harp- Olympian abode, it found a vent on
er, god of victory and angel of death earth, and caused the participation of
in one, Apollo is always on the side the gods in the wars carried on among
of right, always true to Zeus, and not mortals. Ares was made the son of
much inferior to him in power. It is, Zeus and Hera, the king and queen
perhaps, a fanciful analogy which has of heaven. He was represented as
been traced between him and the Sec- tall, handsome, and active, but as
ond Person of the Christian Trinity ;$ cruel, lawless, and greedy of blood.
but the very fact that such an analogy The finer elements of the warlike
can be suggested is indicative of the spirit are not his. He is a divine
pure and lofty character of the god, Ajax,* rather than a divine Achilles ;

and the position which he occupies in

* Herod, vii.
140-143. the Olympian circle is low.
t Ibid. iv. 150-159; v. 42, etc. Apollo
\ Friedrich says :
" This triad of
Zeus,
and Athene are both entitled to give
Athene, and Apollo bears an unmistakable him their orders and Athene scolds ;

analogy to the Christian Trinity of Father, him, strikes him senseless, and wounds
Son, and Holy Ghost Zeus answering to God
:

him through the spear of Diomed.f

the Father, Athene to the Holy Ghost, and
Apollo to the Son of God, the Declarer of the
His worship is thought to have been
will of his Heavenly Father" ("Die Realten derived from Thrace, $ and to have
in der Iliade und Odyssee," part iii. pp. 635 been introduced into Greece only a
and 689). Mr. Gladstone came independently
" little before the time of Homer.
|
It
to the same conclusion, and says In Apollo:

are represented the legendary anticipations of was at no time very widely spread, or
a person to come, in whom should be com- much affected by any Grecian tribe
bined all the great which God the
offices in or state, the conception being alto-
Son is now made known man, as the Light
to
of our paths, the Physician of our diseases,
the Judge of our misdeeds, and the Conqueror *Mr. Gladstone says, "not so much an
and Disarmer, but not yet Abolisher, of Ajax as a Caliban" ("Homer and the Ho-
death " (" Homer and the Homeric Age," meric Age," vol. ii. p. 228) but is not this too
;

vol. ii. p. 132). Professor Max Miiller, on harsh a view, even of the Homeric conception
the other hand, thinks that " it seems blas- of Ares?
phemy to consider the fables of the heathen tHom. "Iliad," v. 885-887; xv. 110-142,
world as corrupted and misinterpreted frag- etc.
" and
ments of a divine revelation once granted to | Dollinger, Jew Gentile," vol. i. p. 88.
" "Homer and the Homeric
the whole of mankind (" Chips from a Ger- Gladstone,
man Workshop," vol. ii.
p. 13). Age," vol. ii.
pp. 229-231.
.2 [150] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

gether too coarse to attract the sym- thing to lighten the seriousness of ex- s

pathies of a refined people.

'
istence, to provoke occasionally a
*'
burst of that inextinguishable laugh-
HEPH^STUS. which life in so sublime
ter," without
an atmosphere would be intolerable.
177. Hephccstus is the god of fire, The marriage of Hephaestus to Aphro-
and especially of fire in connection dite is conceived in the same spirit.
with smelting and metallurgy. He There was a keen sense of humor in
dwells in Lemnos, where he habitually the countrymen of Aristophanes and ;

forges thunderbolts for Zeus, and the combination of the clumsy, lame,
occasionally produces fabrics in metal and begrimed smith with the Queen
of elaborate and exquisite construc- of Beauty and Love pleased their sense !

tion. Among the most marvelous of of the ludicrous, and was the fertile .

his works are the automatic tripods of source of many an amusing legend.
"
Olympus and the bronze maidens, The Lay of the Net," wherewith De-
whom he has formed to be his attend- modocus entertains both gods and
ants on account of his lameness. He men,* is a sufficient specimen of this
isthe armorer of heaven, and provides class of lively myth, and shows that
the gods generally with the weapons the comic features of ill-assorted mar-
which they use in warfare. The pe- on which modern playwrights
riage,
culiarity of his lameness is strange and have traded so freely, were fully appre-
abnormal, since the Greeks hate de- ciated by the Greeks, and were sup-
formity, and represent their deities posed well-suited to provoke the gods
generally as possessed of perfect phys- to merriment. The modern moralist
ical beauty. It has been accounted will regret this unworthy represen-
for on the supposition that he is a Gre- tation of divine beings ;j but it is
cised Phthah,* introduced from Egypt, quite in accord with the general char-
directly or indirectly,! and that his de-
acter of the Greek religion, which
formity is a modification of Phthah's reflected back upon deity all that was
presentment as a pigmy with the lower weak, as well as all that was strong, in
limbs misshapen. But the features man.
common to Hephaestus with Phthah HERMES.
are few; the name of Hephaestus is
probably of pure Greek etymology,
178. Hermes is the impersonation
connected with V"*? and ^alvu arid, on
of commercial dealings, and hence a
the whole, there would seem to be no
evidence that Hephaestus is a foreign god who gives wealth and increase, a
god of inventive power, and a god of
god more than any other. Rather, it tricks and thievery. He is "the
is characteristic of the many-sidedness
of the Greeks, and consequent upon
Olympian man of business," $ and
therefore employed in embassies and
the anthropomorphism which makes
commissions, and even sometimes in
the Olympic community a reflection of
the simple carrying of messages. As
earthly things, that there should be " the
some-
ti&Tup edwy, giver of comforts,"
even in this august conclave
he secures his votaries all manner of
thing provocative of laughter, a dis-
worldly prosperity. He is industrious
cord to break the monotony of the and
inventive, constructs the seven-
harmony, an element of grotesqueness stringed lyre before he is a day old,|
and monstrosity. Hephaestus in the afterward invents the
pan's-pipes,
Olympic halls is like the jester at the
court of a medieval monarch, a some- * Horn. "
Odyss." viii. 266-366.
" Homer and the
t Homeric Age," vol. ii.
* Sir G. Wilkinson in Rawlinson's " Herod- pp. 461-463-
otus," vol. ii. p. 139, note (^cl edition). J Dollinger, "Jew and Gentile," vol. i.
p. 74,
t Mr. Gladstone regards him as introduced Horn. " Odyss." viii. 335. Compare
" Il-
from Phoenicia (" Homer and the Homeric iad," xiv. 490.
"
Age," vol. ii. p. 255). ||
Horn. Hym. Merc." 1. 16.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [151] 73.

and, ultimately becomes a god of nally Era, "the Earth;"* but this
wisdom and learning generally. His idea was soon lost sight of, and in
thievishness must be taken to show Greek mythology, from first to last,
that commercial fraudis pretty well as she is quite other than the
principle
ancient as commerce itself, and that of mundane fecundity, quite a differ-
" the "
good old times were not, as ent being from the oriental earth-
sometimes represented, an age of in- goddess, called indifferently Cybele',
nocence. It has been said that he is Dindymene', Magna Mater, Rhea,
more human than any other Olympian Beltis, Mylitta, etc. Hera is, pri-
god; and that "he represents, so to marily, the wife of Zeus, the queen of
speak, the utilitarian side of the hu- the Olympic court, the mistress of
man mind," * being active, energetic, heaven. She is " a reflected image
fruitful in resource, a keen bargainer, of Zeus," t and exercises all her hus-
a bold story-teller, and a clever thief. band's prerogatives, thunders, shakes
His admission into the number of the Olympus, makes Iris her messenger,
Olympians is the strongest possible gives her orders to the Winds and the
indication of the inferiority of the Sun, confers valor, and the like. As
moral standard among the Greeks. the personification of maternity, she
The special regard paid to him by the presides over childbirth and the Eilei- ;

Athenians is, however, perhaps the thyias, her daughters, act as her minis-
mere consequence of their addiction ters. She does not present to us an
to the pursuits of commerce. elevated idea of female perfection,
179. Hermes is commonly repre- since, despite her exalted rank, she
sented as a youth just attaining to is subject to numerous feminine in-
manhood. The wings which adorn firmities. Mr. Grote notes that she is
his head and ankles indicate the ce- "proud, jealous, and Mr.
bitter."^
lerity of his movements. His cadu- Gladstone observes that she is pas-
ceus is perhaps the golden rod of sionate, wanting in moral elevation,
wealth given to him by Apollo in ex- cruel, vindictive, and unscrupulous.
change for the lyre. It represents Her mythological presentation was
also the staff commonly borne by certainly not of a nature to improve
heralds, and in this point of view had the character of those women who
white ribbons attached to it, which in might take her for their model since, ;

later times became serpents. Some- although she was possessed of certain
times he holds a purse in his hand, to great qualities, passion, fervor, strong
mark his power of bestowing riches. affection, self-command, courage,
180. The six female Olympic deities acuteness, yet she was, on the whole,
'Hera, Athene, Artemis, Aphrodite', wanting in the main elements of fe-
Hestia, and Demeter have now to male excellence, gentleness, softness,
be considered. tenderness, patience, submission to
wrong, self-renunciation, reticence.
HERA. She was a proud, grand, haughty,
powerful queen not a kind, helpful, ;

iJSi.
The anthropomorphism which persuasive, loving woman. The my-
was so main an element in the Greek thology of Greece is in few points
religion made it requisite that mother- less satisfactory than in the type of
hood, as well as fatherhood, should
be enthroned in the Olympic sphere,
* See Mr. Gladstone's " Homer and
that Zeus should have his consort, the
heaven its queen, and women their Homeric Age," vol. ii. p. 190. Others sug-
gest a connection with heros, herus\ hera, and
representative in the highest celestial so with the German herr and our sir.
position. Hera was, perhaps, origi- t
" Homer and the Homeric
Age," vol. ii. p.
194.
"
j
"
History of Greece," vol. i.
p. 50.
Homer and the Homeric Age," vol. ii. Homer and the Homeric Age," vol. iLi
p. 242. pp. 190-196.
T4 [152] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
female character which it exhibits at tion, and a support and stay for feeble
the head of its pantheon. souls in the spirit world, where they
had otherwise little on which they
ATHENE. could place any firm reliance. The
universally-received myth of Mentor
182. If Hera
below the level of
is and Telemachus acted as a strong re-
female excellence which we might enforcement to the power of con-
have expected refined heathens to science, which the young Greek felt
have represented in a chief goddess, might be the voice of Athene speak-
Athene' is above the level. She has ing within him, advising him for his
a character which is without a flaw. true good, and pointing out to him
Originally, as it would seem, a con- the path of honor and duty. Athene's
scious impersonation of the divine special connection with Athens and
wisdom, and therefore fabled to have Attica added much to her import-
sprung full-grown from the head of ance in the Greek religious system,
Zeus, she became a distinct and sub- since it brought the best minds and
stantive deity very early at a date, most generous natures of Hellas pe-
and was recognized as the " goddess culiarly under the influence of a
of wisdom, war, polity, and industrial thoroughly high and noble religious
art."* Homer places her, together conception.
with Zeus and Apollo, on a higher
platform of divinity than the other ARTEMIS.
deities,f and makes her even oppose
Zeus when he is in the wrong, thwart 183. Artemis is altogether a shad-
him, and vindicate right and truth in owy divinity. She is a " pale reflec-
his despite^ It has been said that tion of her brother,"* Phcebus
she is " without feminine sympathies Apollo, whose attributes she repro-
the type of composed, majestic, duces in a subdued form, being, like
"
and unrelenting force and this is him, majestic, pure, chaste, a minis-
;

so far true that she has certainly little ter of death, and a dexterous archer.
softness, absolutely no weakness, and Nothing is peculiar to her except her
not many distinctly feminine charac- presidency over hunting, which deter-
teristics. But she was recognized, mined her general presentation to
like her Egyptian counterpart, Neith, the eye by the Greek artists. She
as the goddess of good housewifery, embodied and personified that passion
patronizing handicraft, and expert for the chase which was common to
*'

at the loom and spindle," no less the Hellenes with most energetic
||

than as the wise directress of states- races. It was supposed that she
men and warriors. Undoubtedly, the dwelt mainly upon earth, haunting
atmosphere in which she removed the forests and the mountains, dressed
was too cold, calm, and clear for her as a huntress, and accompanied by
ever to have attached to herself any her favorite hounds. Her connection
very large share of human sympathy with the moon was an after-thought ;

but she exercised an elevating influ- in the Greek mythology, as was that
ence on the nobler spirits of both of Apollo with the sun. It arose

sexes, as combining the three attri- mainly from the fact that hunters, to
butes of purity, strength, and wisdom be successful, had to commence their
in the highest possible degree, and so operations by night, and needed the
furnishing at once a model for imita- light of the moon in order to make
their arrangements.
* " Homer and the Homeric Age," vol. ii.

184. The Artemis of Ephesus was

p. 59.
t Horn.
"
Iliad," ii.
371 iv. 288 ; vii. 132,
;
the embodiment of a different idea.t
"
etc. ; Odyss." iv.341 xvii. 132, etc.
;
" viii.
* " Homer and the Homeric Age," vol. ii.
J Iliad," 30-40.
"
Grote, History of Greece," vol. i.
p. 47. P- 143-
"
U Ibid. t Grote, History of Greece," vol. i.
p. 48.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [153] 75

She took the place of the great Asi- and texture and combination of rare
atic Nature-goddess Cybele, Rhea, charms, graced the splendid cham-
Magna Mater, Beltis, Mylitta and bers of the Olympian court nothing
had nothing in common with the Ar- so ravishing had ever presented itself
temis of Hellas proper but the name. to the vision of painter or poet. But
" Her the beauty was altogether physical,
image, shaped like a mummy,
was of black wood the upper part of
; sensuous, divorced alike from moral
the body was ornamented with the goodness and mental power. Silly
breasts of animals, the lower with and childish, easily tricked and im-
* She was a mere
figures of them." posed upon, Aphrodite is mentally
impersonation of the principle of fe- contemptible, while morally she is
"a
cundity in nature Pantheistic odious. Tyrannical over the weak,
deity, with more of an Asiatic than cowardly before the strong, frail her-
Hellenic character." f self, and the persistent stirrer up of
frailty in others, lazy, deceitful, treach-
APHRODITE. erous, selfish, shrinking from the least
touch of pain, she repels the moral
185. Aphrodite is the antithesis sentiment with a force almost equal
and in some sort the
complement, of that wherewith she attracts the
to
Athene. She is the impersonation of animal nature.
lower Hence the
all that is soft and weak and erring Greek cannot speak of her without
in female nature, as Athene is of all the most violent conflict of feeling.
that is high and pure and strong He is drawn to her, but he detests
Goddess of beauty and love, not, how- her he is fascinated, yet revolted he
; ;

ever, of love in its more elevated form, admires, yet he despises and con-
but rather of sensual desire, she was demns ;
and his condemnation, on
received by the Greeks probably from the whole, outweighs his admiration.
an Asiatic source, but so transmuted He calls her
and Hellenized as to have become,
" A goddess verily of many names
when we first meet with her, a com-
Hellenic Not Cypris only, iDut dark Hades, too,
pletely national divinity.! And Force resistless, and mad, frantic Rage,
in the whole character of her beauty, And sheer untempered Craving, and shrill
she is well described by a living Eng- Grief."*
lish poet in her passage which is
eminently classical : He allows, but he rebels against her
power over him he protests even
;
"
Idalian Aphrodite beautiful, when he surrenders himself and ;

Fresh as the foam, new bathed in Paphian

hence, on the whole, Aphrodite exer-
wells,
cises a less corrupting influence in
With rosy slender ringers backward drew
From her warm brow and bosom her deep Greece than might have been antici-
hair
pated. That the pantheon should
Ambrosial, golden round her lucid throat contain a goddess of the kind was of
And shoulder from the violets her light
course to some extent debasing. Bad
:

foot
Shone rosy white, and o'er her rounded form, men could justify themselves by the
Between the shadows of the vine-branches, divine example, and plead powerless-
Floated the golden sunlight as she moved."
ness to resist a divine impulse. But
their conscience was not satisfied
Nothing so lovely in form and color ;

they felt they sinned against their

* " and thus, after all, the
Dollinger, Tew and Gentile," vol. i. p. 86. higher nature ;

t Ibid. moral standard was not very seri-

\ Mr. Gladstone takes a^ different view. of the
He regards the Aphrodite of Homer as ously affected by the existence
scarcely a divinity (" Homer and the
Greek Cyprean goddess among the Olympic
Homeric Age," vol. ii. pp. 244, 245). But to deities.
me it seems that, even in Homer, her char-
acter is as thoroughly Greek as her name.
" xxiii. (cd. Brunei:).
See Tennyson's CEnone,"
11. 170-178. Sophocl. Fragm.
70 [154] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
HESTIA. r
-Q
,
portmen without toil. She made the
Greeks acquainted with the growing
186. Hestia is still more shadowy of cereals, the operations of tillage
than Artemis. She is in part the fem- and bread-making. Moreover, as
inine counterpart of Hephaestus, the agriculture was " the foundation of
goddess of fire but she is principally all social and political ordinances,
;

the impersonation of the sacred char- and inseparably connected with the
acter of each hearth and home, introduction of peaceable and orderly
whether domestic, tribal, or national. ways of life, Demeter, under her title
Hestia presided over the private of 'Thesmophoros, was the ennobler
hearths and homesteads of all Greeks, of mankind, the founder of civilization
over the Prytaneia of cities, and over and lawgiving." She was thus more
the altars kept ablaze in the temples in Greece than she was in Asia. Her
which were centers of confederacies. position in the greatest of the myste-
She invested them with a sacred char- riesthe Eleusinian was probably
acter, watched over them, protected owing to this double function, this
them. Her personality was but combination of a Nature-goddess with
slightly developed. Still she seems a deity of law and order, the power
to have been regarded as possessing, that led man on from the simple no-
to a remarkable extent, the qualities madic condition to all the refinements
of holiness and purity and thus to and complications of advanced polit-
;

have practically maintained in Greek ical life.

.

domestic life a high and pure stand-

" These were the
ard, such as has scarcely been much prime in order and in might ;

exceeded Christians.
among She was The rest were long to tell, though far re-
nown'd,
fabled to have vowed perpetual vir- Th' Ionian gods, of Javan's issue held
ginity ;
and it is clear that, together Gods, yet confess'd later than heav'n and
with Athene' and Artemis, she upheld earth,
Their boasted parents: Titan, Heav'n's
among the Greeks the idea of virginal first-born,
purity as a transcendental phase of With his enormous brood, and birthright
life, a moral perfection whereto the seiz'd
best and purest might not only aspire, By younger Saturn he from mightier Jove,
:

His own and Reah's son, like measure

but attain, as the result of earnest en- found :

deavor. So Jove usurping reign'd : these first in

Crete
DEMETER. And Ida known thence on the snowy top
;

Of cold Olympus rul'd the middle air,

187. Demeter, the "Earth-Moth- Their highest heav'n ;
or on the Delphian
er," was an Original Greek concep- t
cliff,

tion, corresponding to one common Or in Dodona, and through all the bounds
Of Doric land or who with Saturn old
among the Oriental nations, the con-

******
;

Fled over Adria to th'Hesperian fields,

ception personified by Maut in Egypt, And o'er the Celtic roam'd the utmost isles.
Beltis or Mylitta in Babylon, Cybele
in Phrygia, etc. The earth on which Nor had they yet among the sons of Eve
man lives, and from which he derives Got them new names ;
till wand'ring o'er the
the food that sustains him, was viewed earth,
Through God's high suff 'ranee for the trial
as a kind and bountiful parent the of
man,
nurse, the feeder, the supporter, the By falsities and lies the greatest part
sustainer of mankind. Personified as Of mankind they corrupted to forsake

a goddess, she demanded the wor-
ship and gratitude of all, and was
hence a universal deity, though spe-
cially honored in certain places. In
the Greek religion JDemeter was
closely connected with agriculture,
since the. earth in Greece did not sup-
God their Creator, and th' invisible
Glory of Him that made them to transform
Oft to the image of a brute, adorn'd
With gay religions full of pomp and gold,
And devils to adore for deities;
Then they were known to men by various
names,
And various idols through the heathen
world."
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 1155] 77

188. Among the deities external to in the Dionysia; and with men intel-
the Olympic circle, the most important and the witnessing of
lectual contests,
were Dionyes, Leto, Persephone, and them, held the place of the rude rev-
Hades or Aidoneus. Dionysus is gen- els elsewhere too common. Still the

erally admitted to have been derived influence of Dionysiac worship on

from" an Oriental source. The word
probably meant originally "the judge
of men/'* and referred to a special
function of the god, who was thought
to pass sentence on the departed when
Greece generally must be regarded as
excessively corrupting, and Dionysus
must be viewed as, next to Aphrodite',
the most objectionable of the Greek
divinities.

they reached the other world. 190. Leto, or Latona, as the Ro-
189. Essentially, however, Dionysus mans
called her, when they adopted
was the god of inebriety, the deifica- her into their pantheon, was, on the
tion, of drunkenness, as Ares was of contrary, one of the purer and more

violence, and. Aphrodite of sensual elevating influences. She is the wife

desire. He was viewed as the crea- of Zeus by a title quite as good as that
tor of the vine, or at any rate as its of Hera,* and is a model of motherly
introducer into Greece; the teacher love and wifely purity. Separate and
of its culture, and the discoverer of peculiar function she has none, and it
the exhilarating properties of its fruit. is difficult to account for her introduc-
The worship of Dionysus was effected tion among the Olympians. Perhaps
by taking part in his orgies, and these she is to be regarded as ideal woman-
were of a furious and ecstatic charac- hood. Silent, unobtrusive, always
ter, accompanied with exciting music, subordinating herself to her children,
with wild dances, with shrieks and majestic, chaste, kindly, ready to help
cries, and sometimes with bloodshed. and tend, she is in Olympus what the
Both men and women joined in the Greek wished his wife to be in his own'
Dionysiac rites, the women outdoing home, her very shadowiness according
the men in the violence of their frenzy. with the Greek notion of womanly per-
" Crowds of
females, clothed with fection. t Mr. Gladstone suggests that
fawn-skins, and bearing the sacred she is a traditional deity, representing
thyrsus, flocked to the solitudes of the woman through whom man's re-
Parnassus or Cithseron or Taygetus, demption was to come $ but there ;

during the consecrated triennial pe- scarcely seems sufficient foundation

riod, passed the night there with for this view, which is not supported
torches, and abandoned themselves by any analogies in the mythologies
to demonstrations of frantic excite- of other nations.
ment, with dancing and clamorous in- 191. Persephone', the Roman Pro-
vocation of the god. The men yielded serpine, was the queen of the dead ;

to a similar impulse by noisy revels far more than her shadowy husband,
in the streets, sounding the cymbals Hades, the real ruler of the infernal
and tambourine, and carrying the im- realm. She was represented as se-
age of the god in procession." t verely pure and chaste, even having
Every sort of license and excess was become a wife against her will, and as
regarded as lawful on these occasions, awful and terrible, but not cruel. She
and the worship of the deity was in- occupied no very important post in
complete unless the votary reached the religion, since her sphere was
an advanced stage of intoxication. wholly the nether world, which only
Dionysiac festivals were fortunately
not of frequent recurrence, and were * Hesiod that she became the wife of
not everywhere celebrated in the same Zens before says
Hera (" Theogony," 11. 918-221).
way. At Athens women took no part t Compare the line, of Sophocles
"O '

woman, silence is the woman's crown."

* See the "Transactions of the Society of (Ajax, 1.
293.)
" Homer and the Homeric Age," vol. ii.
Biblical Archaeology," vol. ii. pp. 33, 34. \
"
t Grote, History of Greece," vol. i. p. 26. P- 153-
78 [156] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

very slightly engaged the attention of hurried through in a perfunctory man-

the Hellenes. Hades, or Aidoneus, ner.
had a high rank, as the brother of 193. Practically, the religious wor-
Zeus, and in some sort his co-equal ship of the Greeks consisted mainly
;

but he was as shadowy as the realm in attendance on festivals which might

over which he presided, and to most be Pan-Hellenic, political, tribal, or
Greeks was simply magni nominis -um- peculiar to a guild or a phratria.
bra "the shadow of a great name," Each year brought round either one
which they must reverence when they or two of the great panegyrics the
heard it, but not a deity who to any festivals of the entire Greek race at
extent occupied their thoughts, or re- Olympia and Delphi, at Nemea and
ceived their worship.* It would be the Isthmus of Corinth. There were
easy to occupy many more pages with two great Ionic festivals annually, one
the Greek minor deities, but our lim- at Delos, and the other at the Panio-
its compel us to refrain, and to turn nium near Mycale. Each state and
at this point from the objects to the city throughout Greece had its own
character of the worship, and to the special festivals, Dionysia, Eleusinia,
real practical influence of their religion Panathencea, Carneia, Hyakinthia,
upon the Greek race. Apaturia, etc. Most of these were
192. In the main, the Greek wor- annual, and some lasted several clays.
ship was of a joyous, pleasant, and A
Greek had no "Sunday" no
lightsome kind. The typical Greek sacred clay recurring at set intervals, ,.

was devoid of any deep sense of sin on which his thoughts were bound to
thought well of himself did not think be directedto religion but so long a
;

very highly of the gods, and consid- time as a week scarcely ever passed
ered that, so long as he kept free from without his calendar calling him to
grave and heinous offenses, either some sacred observance or other,
against the moral law or against the some feast or ceremony, in honor of
amour-propre of the deities, he had some god or goddess, or in commem-
little he had much to oration of some event important in
to fear, while
hope, from them. He prayed and of- the history of mankind,* or in that of
fered sacrifice, not so much in the his race, or of his city. And these
way of expiation, or to deprecate God's festivals were highly attractive to him.
wrath, as in the way of natural piety, Generally they were joyful occasions
to ask for blessings and to acknowl- from first to last, celebrated with
edge them. He made vows to the music, and processions, with gymnas-
gods in sickness, danger, or difficulty, tic or orchestral competitions, or with
and was careful to perform his vow theatrical contests. Ordinarily they
on escape or recovery. His house include sacrifice, and feasting upon
was full of shrines, on which he con- the victims sacrificed. Even when
tinually laid small offerings, to secure they were professedly of a mournful
the favor and protection of his special character, like the Spartan Hyakin-
patron deities. Plato says that he thia, the opening days of which were
prayed every morning and evening, days of sadness and of gloom, they
and also concluded every set meal commonly concluded with a more
with a prayer or hymn. But these genial time a time of banqueting
devotions seem not to have been very and dancing. Accordingly, the Greek
earnest or deep, and were commonly looked forward to his holy days as
true holidays, and was pleased to
combine duty with pleasure by taking
* Compare Dollinger, "Jew and Gentile," his place in the procession, or the
" The
vol. i. p. 93 :
people did not troubl^ *
themselves much about Harks, and they saw E.g., the Hydrophoria, kept in commem-
no altars dedicated to him. There was one oration of those who perished in the Flood
image of him at Athens, but he had hardly of Deucalion, the Greek representation of
the Noachical Deluge.
anywhere a regular worship."
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [157] 79

temple, or the theatre, to which incli- When a nation had sinned, human
nation and religion alike called him. sacrifices were not unfrequently pre-
Thousands and tens of thousands scribed the only possible propitia-
^as
flocked to each of the great Pan-Hel- tion * if the case were that of an in-
;

lenic gatherings, delighting in the dividual, various modes of purification

splendor and excitement of the were adopted, ablutions,
fastings, sac-
scene, in the gay dresses, the magnif- rifices, and the like. According to
icent equipages, the races, the games, Plato, however, the number of those
the choric, and other contests. who had any deep sense of their guilt
" These
festivals," as has been well was few : most men, whatever crimes
"
observed,* were considered as the they committed, found the
among
very cream of the Greek life, their gods examples of similar acts,f and
periodical recurrence being expected thought no great blame would attach
with eagerness and greeted with to them for their misconduct. At the
joy." Similarly, though to a minor worst, if the gods were angered by
extent, each national or even tribal their [behavior, a few
offerings would
gathering was an occasion of enjoy- satisfy them, and set things straight,^
ment cheerfulness, hilarity, some- leaving the offenders free to repeat
;

times an excessive exhilaration, pre- their crimes, and so to grow more and
vailed and the religion of the more hardened in iniquity.
;

Greeks, in these its most striking and 195. At the position which the
obvious manifestations, was altogether " mysteries " occupied in the Greek
bright, festive, and pleasurable. religion it is impossible for us, in
194. But, just as sunshine cannot this slight sketch, to do more than
exist without shadow, so even the glance. The mysteries were certain
Greek religion, bright as it was, had secret rites practiced by voluntary
its dark side. Calamities befell na- associations of who
individuals,
tions, families, or individuals, and pledged themselves not to reveal to the
were attributed to an offended god or uninitiated anything which they saw
a cruel fury. A
sense of guilt occa- or heard at the secret meetings.
They
sionally visited those who had com- were usually connected with the wor-
mitted great and flagrant crimes, as ship of some particular god, and con-
perjury, blasphemy, robbery of tem- sisted mainly in symbolical represen-
ples, incest, violation of the right of tations of the adventures and circum-
asylum, treachery toward a guest- stances connected with the god in the
friend, and the like. A
load under mythology. They contained nothing
these circumstances lay upon the con- that was contradictory to the popular
science all the horrors of remorse religion, and little that was
; explana-
were felt avenging fiends were be- tory of it. The various mysteries had
;

lieved to haunt and torture the guilty each its own apparatus of symbols and
one, who sometimes earnestly sought formularies, by which the mysta knew
relief for a term of years, and sought each other, as freemasons do but ;

in vain. There were, indeed, rites of they only vaguely hinted at any theo-
expiation appropriate to different oc- logical dogmas or opinions. The
casions most sins could be atoned Greek greatly affected these secret
;

for in some manner or other but the rites ;

and it is said that but few
;

process was generally long and pain- Greeks were not initiated in some
"
ful t and there were cases where the mystery or other.
;
Their attrac-
persistent anger of the fierce Erinyes tion lay in their veil of secrecy, trans-
could not in any way be appeased. * Even as' late as the time of Solon,
Epi-
menides prescribed a human sacrifice at
* "
Doliinger, Jew and Gentile," vol. i. p. Athens. "
238. t Plato, Republic," ii.
17.
^t
See the "Eumenides" of ^Eschylus,
where Orestes, however, "
is at last purged of Dollinger, Jew and Gentile," vol. i.
p.
his guilt. 193-
80 [158] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

parent though it was, in the variety of case has sprung up the careful in- ;

feelings brought into play by lively vestigation which has been made of
"
dramatic representations, in the rapid the " origines both of Greece and
transition from anxiety and suspense Rome has shown, first, that the two
to serenity and joy, the combination nations were but remotely connected
of all arts and artistic enjoyments, in race, and secondly, that their re-
of music and song, the mimic dance, ligious systems were markedly and
the brilliant lighting- up, and effective strikingly different. Any review of
decoration." * It can scarcely, how- the religious systems of the ancient
ever, be said that the mysteries exer- world that is attempted at the present
cised any salutary or elevating influ- day, necessarily and as a matter of
ence on the Greeks generally. The course, treats separately the religion
moral conduct of the initiated was no of the Hellenes and that of the Ro-
better than that of others; and Plato mans and we are thus bound, be-
;

thought that participation in the Ele- fore our task can be regarded as com-
usinia served only to strengthen and plete, to append to the account which
make a man secure in jinrighteous- we have already given of the Hellenic
ness.f religious system a chapter on the
"
Religion of the Ancient Romans."
197. Following the method which
we have hitherto for the most part
CHAPTER
VIII. pursued, we propose to consider,
first, the objects of worship at Rome,
RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS. and secondly, the character and pe-
culiarities of the worship which was
"
Sua cuique religio civitati, nostra tiobis." paid to them. We may note, en pass-
CICERO, Pro Flacc. 28.
.
ant, that the religion was a polytheism,
in its general character similar to that
196. TIME was, and not a very dis- of Greece, but
distinguished by its
tant time, when it was regularly Incul-
comparatively scanty development of
cated on the youthful mind in our pub-
the polytheistic idea in respect of Na-
lic schools and other great educational
ture and the parts of Nature, and its
establishments, that one and the same
alike in
ample development of that idea in
religious system prevailed connection with human life, its actions,
Italy and Greece, among the Romans and phases.
and the Hellenes; two branches, as parts, The
198. great gods (Di majores)
it was thought, of a single
original of Rome were
Such as
" always regarded as
people. phrases classical
" twelve in number, though at different
the religion of the
mythology," " periods of Roman history the enu-
Greeks and Romans," the deities of meration of " the twelve " would have
the classical nations," were frequent
been different. If we go back to the
alike on the lips of teachers, and in
very earliest almost pre-historic
the language of authorized text-books
time, we may perhaps name the
;

the Grecian divinities were spoken of ** "

of the
following as the twelve
almost universally by their (supposed)
primitive system Jupiter, Juno
equivalent Latin names and the
been
;
(= Diana), Minerva, Mars, Bellona,
youth would have considered
Ceres, Saturnus7~ Ops, "Her-
Vesta,
who should have
offensively pedantic Mercurius, Neptune. A few
cules,
hesitated to render "iipi by "Juno," words must be said concerning each
or ^fifjrrjp by "Ceres." But within of these.
the last twenty or thirty years a more
jus-t appreciation
of the facts of the JUPITER.

* " 199. The Jupiter (jv- PATER), or

Dollinger, Jew and Gentile," vol. i. p. 196. " Father
t
"
Republic," ii. 6 (quoted by Dollinger, Jove," of the Romans bore
p. 200). a real resemblance to the Greek Zeus,
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [159] Bi

with whose name he is etymologically which some have considered him, he

identical.* The idea of paternity, was at any rate a great god t

attached to his name in ordinary par- highest conception of deiti/Whieh

lance, implied the same notion which ever reached by the Rom
we find in the Hellenic system, viz.,
"
that he was the father of gods and JUNO.
"
men (hominum sator atque deorum,
Virg.). He had a temple from the 200. Juno is a mere female
Jupiter,
very earliest times on the Capitoline possessing no substantive or separate
hill, where he was worshiped in character, unless it be that of a spe-
combination with Juno and Minerva, cial protectress of women, and more
and a High Priest, the " Flamen particularly of matrons. She stands
Dialis," who maintained his cult with to Jupiter as Fauna to Faunus, Luna to
perpetual burnt sacrifice. Originally, Lunus, Amente to Ammon. She pre-
there must have been in the concep- sided especially over marriages and
tion of Jupiter a latent monotheism births, being invoked as
; Lucina,"
*

"
but long before the first settlement or she that brings to light," when
was made by any Latins in Italy, this the birth drew nigh, and as " Pro-
idea seems to have evaporated and nuba" when marriage approached.
;

to the Romans of the earliest times Identical with Diana originally

(for
whereof we have any trace, Jove was Diana is to A/df as Juno to z^f), she
no more than one god out of many f came gradually to be considered a
the god, especially, of the air, the distinct and separate deity the dis-
sky, the firmament who sent down tinction becoming a contrast in the
lightning from above, gave rain, di- later times, when Diana was identi-
rected the flight of birds, and (as Ve- fied with the Grecian Artemis. As
"
Jovis) impregnated the atmosphere Jupiter was the king," so Juno was
" "
with fevers and pestilence. He was the queen of heaven (regina ca>li
the acknowledged head of the Roman or cceloruni). She was invoked
pantheon, only preceded sometimes tinder many names besides those
in solemn invocations $ by Janus, already mentioned. She was
"
"the spirit of opening," who neces- Virginalis," as protecting maidens ;
"
sarily presided over beginnings of all Matrona," as the patroness of
kinds. A sort of general superintend- married" women " Opigena," " help- ;

ence over human affairs was assigned giving and " Sospita," " preserv- ;

to him he was viewed as punishing ing," as general aider of the female

;

impiety in general, and perjury in par- sex. great festival was held in A
ticular he knew the future, and could her honor every year on the ist
;

reveal it ;
he guarded the rights of of March, which was called Matro-
property, and was viewed as a sort of nalia, and was attended by all Roman
guardian deity of the Roman people matrons, who regarded her as at her
and state. He has been called, "the pleasure either giving or withholding
"
genius of the Roman people but ; offspring. It was perhaps an accident
this conception of him is too nar- which gave Juno the presidency over
row. He was money, the Romans having found it
certainly much more
than that. If not the
" convenient to establish their first mint
universal lord,"
in the vicinity of her temple on the
* Both names are, of course, allied Capitoline hill, where she was wor-
closely
to the Sanskrit " Dyaus," " heaven," or " the "
" shiped as Juno Moneta, or Juno
sky." (See Max Muller, Science of Re-
the admonitress."
ligion," p. 172.)
t This is applied in the ordinary append-
"
age to his name, Optimus maximus," "the MINERVA.
"
best and greatest (of the gods).
J Liv. viii. 9
" 2oi. Minerva, though worshiped
Mommsen, History of Rome." vol. i.

p, 176, E. T. n common by the Etruscans and the

82 [160] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Romans, appears by the etymology army invisibly but really present

of hername to have been essentially who hurled his spear at the foe, struck
a Latin deity. She is the goddess of terror into them, disordered their
mind (metis) and memory (memini, re- ranks, and gave to his worshipers the
u
miniscor) the thinking, calculating, victory. Practically ousting Jupiter
inventive * Her from the regards of men, he became
power personified."
"
worship was closely connected with Marspiter* (Maspiter, Father Mars,"
that of Jupiter and Juno, the three the god to whom alone they looked
j

together forming the Capitoline Triad, for protection). The first month of
|

who alone had temples on that hill in the year was dedicated to him, and
j

the early times. In the great lectis- thence took the name which it bears
|

ternium called epulumjovis, the images in most modern European languages.

!

of the three were brought out and The great muster-ground of the peo-
I

feasted together. Minerva was the pie before they went out to war
!

" "
patroness both of the fine arts and of became the Campus Martins and ;

the various handicrafts the goddess war itself was sometimes designated
of sculptors, painters, musicians, poets, by his name, as intellectual ability was
.physicians, weavers, dyers, carpenters, by that of Minerva. As marching at
smiths, etc., etc. Each man regarded the head of Roman troops, he was
his talents as coming especially from called Gradivus, as avenging them
j

her and as success in war is the fruit upon their enemies, Uttor. Like Ju-
;
|

of prudence, perseverance, contriv- piter, he had his High Priest

I
the
ance, stratagem, as much as of courage
"
Flamen Martialis " whose business
and sheer brute force, Minerva was it was to present to him burnt offer-
in one respect f a war-goddess, and ings. He had also attached to his
j

represented with a helmet, shield, and worship from very ancient times a col-
I

coat of mail. The of known as Salii

chief festival cele- lege
priests
1

"
brated in honor of Minerva was the dancers "), who performed war-
Quin quatrus or Quinquatria, which dances in his honor, clad in ar-
|

lasted five days from the iQth of mor, and carrying the sacred shields
March to the 2^d. supposed to have fallen from
heaven, and called ancilia. The wolf,
MARS. the horse, and the woodpecker were
sacred to him. great festival was A
202. In Mavors or Mars we have held in his honor at the beginning of
"the central object, not only of Ro- each year, commencing on the ist
man, but Italian, worship in gen- March.
"
eral -the real
$ main object of
public religious regard throughout the BELLONA.
greater portion of the peninsula.
Originally, perhaps, Maurs (Mors), 203. Bellona, or Duellona,f stood to
" the Mars
killing god," and therefore, like as Juno to Jupiter, except that
Siva the Destroyer, attached to no there was no etymological connection
special department of human life, he between the names. She was the
came by degrees to have the most de- goddess of war (be Hum or duelling
structive of human occupations, war, was spoken of as the wife or sister of
assigned to him as his especial field, Mars, and had a temple in the Cam-
and to be regarded as the god who pus Martius, where the ceremony of
went out to battle at the head of each proclaiming war was performed. A
college of priests, called Bellonarii,
* Schmidt, in Dr. Smith's " Diet, of Greek conducted her worship, and were
and Roman Antiquities," vol. ii. p. 1090. bound, when they offered sacrifice in
"
t So Mommsen, History of Rome," vol.
i. p. 175, E. T.
* Liv. viii. 9.

J So Momir:S2n, " History of Rome," vol. t Fabretti,

"
Corpus Inscr. Italicarum," p.
i. p. 175, E. T. 3 2 3-
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
her honor, to wound their
or legs, and either to offer up upon
her altar the blood which flowed from
their wounds, or else to swallow it
themselves. The 24th of March was
especially appointed for these cere-
monies, and for this reason was known
"
in the Roman calendar as the day
"
of blood (dies sanguinis). Bellona
was represented as armed with a
bloody scourge,* and was solemnly
invoked in dangerous crises by gen-
erals on the battle field, t
VESTA,
204. Vesta, identical with the Gre-
cian Hestia (* EGTEO), was an ancient
goddess, whose worship the Latins
brought with them into Italy from
their primitive settlements in the far
East. In her earliest conception, she
was the goddess of the
ing (vas, vasana, Sanskr.) generally
but, according to Roman ideas, it was
the national, rather than the domestic,
hearth over which she presided. Her
temple was one of the most ancient in
Rome. It lay at the northern foot of
the Palatine hill, a little east of the
Forum, and was in the immediate vi-
cinity of a sacred grove, also dedi-
cated to Vesta. The regular worship
of the goddess was entrusted to a col-
" which did not give to Liber, or to Po-
lege of six women, known as Vestal
Virgins
"
( Virgines Vestales), whose
special duty it was to preserve the sa-
cred fire upon the altar which repre- that of Demeter, whose peculiar rites
sented the national hearthstone, and
not to allow it ever to be extinguished.
They dwelt together in a cloister (atri-
um) a little apart from the temple,
under the presidency of the eldest
sister ( Vestalis maxima) and under the
superintendence and control of the
college of Pontifices. Besides watch- res, as a general deity of agriculture,
ing the fire, they had to present offer-
to Vesta at stated and to hook in his hand, and with wool about
ings times,
sprinkle and purify the shrine each
morning with water from the Egerian
spring. A festival was held in honor 830.*Fabretti, "Corpus
of the goddess annually on the Qth of
* " JEn."
Virgil, viii. 703 ; Lucan,
vii. 569.
t Liv. viii. 9; x. 19.
[161J
own arms June, at which no man might be pres-
ent, but which was attended by the
Roman matrons generally, who walked
in procession with bare feet from the
various quarters of the city to the
temple. There was no image in the
temple of Vesta, the eternal fire be-
ing regarded as symbolizing her suf-
ficiently.
CERES.
205. A
god, Cerus, and a goddess
Cerie, are found to have been wor-
* and
shiped by the early Italians it ;
is a reasonable conjecture that these
names are connected with the Latin
"
Ceres." The Latin writers derived
that word either from gero or creoft
and considered that it was given to
mark that the deity in question was
the "bringer," or "creator" of those
fruits of the earth on which the life of
human dwell-
man mainly depends. According to
:
some, Ceres was the same as Tellus ;
but this does not seem to have been
the case anciently. Ceres was the
goddess of agriculture, and was con-
nected from a very early date with
Liber, the Latin Bacchus, the god of
the vineyard. That Ceres should
have been one of the "great divini-
ties," marks strongly the agricultural
character of the early Roman state,
mona, any such position. The wor-
ship of Ceres merged after a time in
were imported either from Velia or
from Sicily.
SATURNUS.
206. Saturnus was properly the god
of sowing, but was regarded, like Ce-
and was represented with a pruning-
his feet. His statue was made hollow,
Ins. Italic." pp. 829,
t Varro (" De Ling. Lat." v. 64), and Cic-
ero (" De Nat. Deor." ii. 26), derive it from
" Phars." Servius Comm. ad
gero : (" Virg. Georg." i.
6), and Macrobius (" Saturn." i. 18) from
84 [162] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
and was filled with olive oil, signifi- three goddesses were to the Latin
" fatness " and mind distinct, Tellus being a personi-
cant of the fertility
which he spread over the land. His fication of the earth itself, Ceres of
festival, the Saturnalia, held in De- the productive power in nature, which
cember, from the lyth to the 24th, brings forth fruits out of the earth,
was a sort of harvest-home, commem- and Ops of the human labor without
orative of the conclusion of all the la- which the productive power runs to
bors of the year, and was therefore waste, and is insufficient for the suste-
celebrated with jocund rites, mirth, nance of human life.
and festivity, an intermixture of all
ranks upon equal terms, and an inter- HERCULES.
change of presents. The temple of
Saturn at Rome stood at the foot of 208. The near resemblance of Her-
the Capitoline hill, and was assigned cules to Heracles led, almost neces-
to a remote antiquity, though with sarily, to the idea, everywhere preva-
variations as to the exact date. It lent until recently, that the two gods
was used as a record office, and also were identical, and that therefore
as the public treasury, which was re- either Hercules was an ancient deity
garded as mainly rilled by the produce common to the Latins with the Hel-
of agricultural industry. The identi- lenes before the former migrated into
fication of Saturnus with the Grecian Italy, or else that he was an importa-
Cronus was a foolish fancy of the tion from Greece, introduced at a
Hellenizing period, the truth being comparatively late period. Recently,
"
that there is no resemblance what- however, the etymological connection
ever between the attributes of the two of the two names has been question-
deities." * ed, and it has been suggested
* that
Hercules is, like Ceres, and Saturn,
OPS. and Ops, and Mars, and Minerva, a
genuine Italic god, quite unconnected
207. With Saturn must be placed with Heracles, who is a genuine Hel-
Ops, who was sometimes called his lenic divinity. The root of the name
wife, and whose worship certainly Hercules has been found in hsrcus
" a fence " or "
stood in a very close connection with (epxi) enclosure,"
his. Ops was
properly the divinity whence hercere or arcere, " to ward off,"
but as " " shield."
of field-labor
(opus, opera) ; keep back," Hercules,
such labor is productive of wealth. whose worship was certainly as an-
Ops came to be also the goddess of cient at Rome as that of any other
" the
plenty and of riches, and her name is deity, would thus be god of the
the root-element in such words as enclosed homestead," and thence in
"
opimus, opulcntus, inops, and the like. general the god of property and
She was generally worshiped to- gain." f He was regarded as presid-
gether with Saturn, and had temples ing over faith, the basis of the social
in common with him but still she; contract, and of all dealings between
had her own separate sanctuary on man and man, and hence was known
the Capitoline hill,t where honors as Deusfidi-us, " the god of good faith,"
were paid to her apart from any other who avenged infractions of it. In the
deity. Her festival, the Opalia, fell early times he seems to have had no
on December i9th, or the third day of temple at Rome but his Great Altar ;

the Saturnalia, and was thus practi- in the cattle-market was one of the
cally merged in that of the god of agri- most sacred sites in the city $ oaths ;

culture. Ops, like Ceres, is some- were sworn there, and contracts con-
times confounded with Tellus, but the
* Mommsen, "
History of Rome," vol. i.
* Schmidt, in Smith's " Diet, of Greek and p. 174.
Roman Biog." vol. iii.
p. 726. t Ibid.
t Liv. xxxix. 22. | See Liv. i. 7 ; ix. 29.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [103] 85
.

eluded nor was it unusual for Roman however, fully established in the sec-
;

citizens to devote to it a tenth part of ond century of the Republic,* when

their property, for the purpose of ob- it was united with that of Mercury,
taining the god's favor, or for the the mercantile deity. In later times
fulfillment of a vow. The worship of he had an altar in the Circus Flami-
Hercules was not exclusively Roman, nius, and a temple in the Campus
not even Latin, but Italic. He was Martius. A festival was held in his
"reverenced in every spot of Italy, honor, called Neptunalia, on the 23d
and had altars erected to him every- day of July, which was celebrated
where, in the streets of the towns as with games, banquets, and carousals.
well as by the roadsides." * The people made themselves booths N

at this time with the branches of trees f :

MERCURIUS. and feasted beneath the pleasant

shade of the green foliage. Roman
t

209. Mercurius was the god of com- admirals, on quitting port with a fleet,/
merce and traffic generally. As trade were bound to sacrifice to Neptune,
was not looked upon with much re- and the entrails of the victims were
spect at Rome, his position among the thrown into the sea. After the Greek
" "
great gods was a low one. He mythology became known to the Ro-
had no very ancient temple or priest- mans, Neptune was completely identi-
hood, and, when allowed the honor fied with Poseidon, and became in-
of a temple in the second decade of vested with all his attributes. Amphi-
the Republic, f his worship seems to trite became his wife, and the Nereids
have been regarded as plebeian and his companions. t
of an inferior character. Connected 211. In succession to the twelve
"
with it was a "guild of merchants $ deities of the first rank may be placed
(collegium mercatoruni), called after- the following important groups i. :

"
ward, Mercuriales," who met at the The gods of the country Tellus, or :

temple on certain fixed days for a relig- Mother Earth Silvanus, god of the
;

ious purpose. The cult of Mercury woods Pomona, goddess of orchards ;

;

was, like that of Hercules, very widely Flora, goddess of flowers Faunus ;

diffused but it was affected chiefly (" favoring god "), presiding over
;

by the lower orders, and had not much flocks and herds and Vertumnus, ;

hold upon the nation. god of the changing year (verto). 2.

The State gcds Terminus, god of :

NEPTUNUS. the boundary Census, god of the

;

State's secret counsels Quirinus, ;

210. The Latin Neptunus is reason- god of the Qtiirinal and of the Qui-
ably identified with the Etruscan rites, or Roman people and the ;

Nethuns, who was a water god, wide- Penates, gods of the State's property
ly worshiped by that seafaring people. (penus). 3. The personifications of
The word is probably to be connected abstract qualities Pietas, goddess of :

with the root nib or nip, found in V/TTTW, piety Fides, of faith Spes, of hope
; ; ;

v<7r7//p, xtp-vtp-a, x- T. 1- There is not Pax, of peace abroad Concordia, of ;

much trace of the worship of Neptune peace at home Libertas, of liberty ;

;

at Romein the early times, for Livy's Fortuna, of good luck; Juventas, of
identification of him with Census, youth Salus, of health Pudicitia, of
|| ; ;

the god honored in the Consualia, modesty Victoria, of victory; Cupid, ;

cannot be allowed. We
find his cult, god of desire Pavor, of fright Pal-
; ;

lor, of paleness; and the like. 4.

* Mommsen, 1. s. c. The Nature gods Ccelus, Terra, Sol, :

t Liv. ii. 27.

" Lunus, or Luna, ^sculanus, Argen-
t Niebuhr, History of Rome," vol. i. p.
589, note, E. T.
" Etruscan *Liv. v. 13.
Taylor, Researches," p, 138.
U Liv. i. 9. t Hor. Od. iii. 28, 10.
86 [164] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.

tinus, etc. And 5. The

divinities that of Quirinus upon the Quirinal.
introduced from Greece Apollo, Bac- '"Hie former Salii Palatini had the
:

chus, Latona, Pluto, Plutus, Proser- charge ofthe ancilia, or sacred shields,
pine, Castor, Pollux, yEsculapius, Pria- one of which was believed to have
pus, /Eolus, the Fates, u.e Furies, etc. fallen from heaven, and to be fatally
212. To this brief sketch of the connected with the safety of the
chief objects of worship among the Roman State. In the great festival
ancient Romans, it follows to add of Mars, with which the year opened,
some account of the character of the they marched in procession through
worship itself. the city, bearing the ancilia on their
213. The worship of most of the shoulders, and striking them from
gods was specially provided for by time to time, as they danced and sang,
the State, which established paid with a rod. The Salii of Quirinus
priesthoods, to secure the continual Salii Collini or Agonales were a less
rendering of the honors due to each. important college. Their duties con-
The highest order of priests bore the nected them with the worship of
name of Flamines, which is thought to Quirinus, who is believed by some to
mean " kindlers of fire," * />., offerers have been the Sabine Mars,* and with
of burnt sacrifice. The Flamines the festival of the Quirinalia. Like
were of two classes, Majores and the other Salii, they no doubt per-
Minores, the former of whom were formed war-dances in honor of their
always taken from the patrician order. patron deity. third collegium, or A
These were the Flamen Dialis, or priestly corporation of high rank, was
"priest of Jove," the Flamen Mar- that of the six Vestal Virgins, at-
"
tialis, or priest of Mars," and the tached, as their name implies, to the
Flamen Quirinalis, or " priest of Quiri- worship of Vesta, and regarded with
rms." Among the Flamines Minores, peculiar veneration, as having vowed
many of whom were of late institution, themselves to chastity in the service
we find those of Vertumnus, Flora, of the nation. Other collegia of some
Pomona, and Vulcan. f The Flamen importance, but of a lower rank, were
was in each case the principal sacrific- that of the Fratres Arvales, a college
ing priest in the chief temple of the of twelve priests attached to the cult
god or goddess, and was bound to be of Ceres, who celebrated a festival to
in continual attendance upon the her as the Dea dia (divine goddess)
shrine, and to superintend the entire in the early summertime and that of ;
"
worship offered at it. In addition to the Luperci, or wolf-expellers," a
-

the Flamen, or in his place, there was shifting body of persons, whose chief
attached to all temples a collegium, business it was to conduct the Luper-
or body of priests, which might con- calia, a festival held annually on the
sist of all the male members of a par- 1 5th of February, in honor of Luper-
ticular family, as the Potitii and cus, or Faunus. The Sodales Titii
Pinarii,$ but was more commonly a had duties similar to those of the
close corporation, limited in number, Fratres Arvales and the Flamines ;

and elected by co-optation, *>., by the Curiales, thirty in number, offered

votes of the existing members. sacrifices for the preservation of the

214. Among the most important thirty curies of the original Roman
of these corporations were the two people.
collegia of Salii, or" dancing priests," 215. From these collegia of priests,
which were attached to the temple of we must carefully distinguish the
Mars upon the Palatine hill, and to learned corporations, "colleges of
sacred lore," as they have been
* Mommsen,
"
History of Rome," vol. i.
p. who had no priestly duties,
called, f
1 7.5-
"
and ho special connection with any
r Ennius ap. Varronem, De Ling. Lat."
* Mommsen,
viL 44 vol. i.
pp. 87 and 175.
| Liv. i.
7- t Ibid. pp. 177, 178.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [165] 87

particular deity. There were four could quit Rome, no site for a new
principal colleges of this kind those temple could be fixed on, unless the
of the Pontifices, the Augurs, the Augurs were present, and pronounced'
Fetials, and the Duumviri sacrorum. that the birds gave favorable omens.
216. The Pontifices, originally four In war, they watched the feeding of
(or five, if we include the pontifex
the sacred chickens, and allowed or
maximus), but afterward raised to forbade engagements, according as
nine, and ultimately to sixteen, had the birds ate greedily or the contrary.
the general superintendence of relig- Divination from celestial phenomena,
ion. They exercised a control over especially thunder and lightning, was,
all the priests, even the Flamens. at a comparatively late date, added lo

They were supposed to be thoroughly their earlier functions. As their du-

acquainted with all the traditions ties enabled them to exercise a veto
with regard to the appropriate worship upon laws, and very seriously to in-
of each divinity; to understand the fluence elections, the office was much
mysteries of numbers, and to be sought after by candidates for polit-
ical power, and was regarded as one
deeply versed in astronomy whence
they settled the calendar, determin- of the highest dignities in the State.*
ing when each festival was to be held, 218. The Fetials, a college of
and what days were fasti or nefasti, i.e., (probably) twenty persons, were the
days suitable for the transaction of living depositary of international law
business, or the contrary. All prod- and right. All the treaty obligations
igies and omens had to be reported of Rome and her neighbors were
to them ;
and with them it lay to de- supposed to be known to them, and
termine what steps should be taken to it was for them to determine when a
appease the gods in connection with war could be justly undertaken, and
each. They had to furnish the proper what reparation should be demanded
formula on all great religious occa- for injuries. Not only did they fur^
sions, as the dedication of a temple,* nish the forms for demanding satis-
the self-devotion of a general,! and faction, f declaring war,$ and making
the like. There was no appeal from peace, but their own personal inter-
their decisions, unless in some cases vention was requisite in every case.
to the people and they could enforce Invested with a sacred character, they
;

obedience by the infliction of fines, were the intermediaries employed by

and, under certain circumstances, of the State in making complaints, pro-
death. claiming war. and seeing that treaties
217. The Augurs, originally four, were concluded with the proper for-
like the Pontiffs, and raised, like them, malities. In the conclusion of such
first to nine, and later to sixteen, were engagements they even acted as
regarded as possessed especially of veritable priests, slaying with their
the sacred lore connected with birds. own hands the victims, by -offering
Augural birds were limited in number, which a sacred character was given to
and were believed to give omens in treaty obligations.
three ways, by flight, by note, or by 219. The Duumviri sacrorum were
manner of feeding. The Augurs the keepers, consulters, and inter-
knew exactly what constituted a good, preters of the Sibylline books, a col-
and what a bad, omen in all these lection of pretended prophecies,
ways. They were consulted when- written in Greek, and no doubt derived
ever the State commenced any im- from a Greek source. They were,
portant business. No assembly could as their name implies, a collegium of
be held, no election could take place,
no war could be begun, no consul
* Cic. De ii. 12.
Leg.
1 Liv. i.
32.
* Liv. i, 46, \Ibid.
t Ibid. viii. 9 ;
x. 28. Ibid. i.
24.
 88 [160] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
two persons only,* and in the early
times were required 10 be Romans of
a very high rank. As such persons,
not unfrequently, were very ignorant of
the Greek, the State furnished them
with two slaves well acquainted with
the language. It was customary to
ther, the State showed a constant
sense of religion by the position which
it
assigned to augury, and the con-
tinual need of
" "
taking the auspices
on all important civil occasions. In
declaring war, religious formulas were
used in conducting it, the augurs, or
;

consult the Sibylline books in case of their subordinates, were

frequently
pestilence, or of any extraordinary consulted in bringing it to an end
;

prodigy, and to follow scrupulously and establishing peace, the fetials had
the advice which they were thought to to be called in, and the sanction thus
give in reference to the occasion. secured to each pacific arrangement.
220. Such were the learned colleges The great officers of the State were in-
of ancient Rome. Though exercising ducted into their posts with religious
considerable political influence, they solemnities, and were bound to attend
never became dangerous to the State, and take their part in certain proces-
from the circumstance that they sions and sacrifices. In times of dan-
could in no case take the initiative. ger and difficulty the State gave orders
Their business was to give answers to for special religious ceremonies, to
inquirers ;and, until consulted, they secure the favor of the gods, or avert
were dumb. Private persons as well their wrath.
ras public officers might appeal to 222. The religion of the mass of
jtheiii
;
and calls were frequently made the people consisted principally in
on them to bring forth their secret four things i. Daily offerings by
:

knowledge into the light of day by the each head of a household (^paterfa-
magistrates. But it was of their es- milias) to the Lares of his own house.
-.serice to be consultative, and not in- The Lares were viewed as household

itiative, or even executive bodies. gods, who watched over each man's
Hence, notwithstanding the powers hearth and home, each house having
which they wielded, and the respect its own special Lares. In theory they
in which they were held, they at no were the spirits of ancestors, and their
time became a danger to the State. chief, the Lar f amiliaris, was the spirit
Sacerdotalism plays no part in Roman of the first ancestor, the originator of
"
history. Notwithstanding all their the family but practically the ances-
;

.zeal for religion, the Romans adhered tral idea was not prominent. In re-
with unbending strictness to the prin- spectable houses there was always a
"
ciple, that the priest ought to remain lararium,* or lar-chapel," containing
completely powerless in the State, the images of the Lares and each re- ;

and, excluded from command, ought, ligious Roman commenced the day
.like any other burgess, to render with prayer in this place, accompany-
-obedience to the humblest magis- ing his prayer, upon most occasions,
:trate."f with offerings, which were placed be-
221. The public religion of the Ro- fore the images in little dishes (pafellce).
mans consisted, mainly, in the observ- The offerings were continually re-
ance by the .-State of its obligation newed at meal-times; and on birth-
'(religio) to provide for the cult of days and other days of rejoicing the
certain traditional deities, which it did images were adorned with wreaths,
by building temples, establishing and the lararia were thrown open.
priesthoods, and securing the continu- 2. Occasional thank-offerings to par-
.ance of both by endowments. Fur- ticular gods from persons who thought

*The office was subsequently expanded in- * The Emperor Alexander Severus had
to that of the decemviri sacris faciundis, who two lararia, and included among the Lares
ultimately became quindecimviri. of the one, Abraham. Orpheus, Alexander
" the Great, and Christ; among those of the
t Mommsen, History of Rome," vol. i.
p.
180. other, Achilles, Cicero, and Virgil.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [167] 89

they had been favored by them. the Sadducee, he thinks that God re-
These were carried to the temples by wards and punishes men, as He does
the donors, and made over to the nations, in this life his thoughts ;

priests, who formally offered them, rarely turn to another; and if they
with an accompaniment of hymns and do, it is with a sort of shiver at the
prayers. 3. Vows and their perform- prospect of becoming a pale shade,
ance. To a particular favor haunting the neighborhood of the
obtain
from a god supposed to be capable of tomb, or dwelling in the cold world
granting it, a Roman was accustomed beneath, shut out from the light of
to utter a vow, by which he bound day.
himself to make the god a certain 224. If the Roman religion may be
present, in case he obtained his desire. said to have had anywhere a deeper
The present might be a temple, or an character than this to have been
altar, or a statue, or a vase, or any mysterious, soul-stirring, awful it
other work of art, but was almost al- was in connection with the doctrine of
ways something of a permanent char- expiation. In the bright clime of Italy,
acter. The Roman, having made his and in the strong and flourishing Ro-
vow, and got his wish, was excessively man community, intensely conscious
scrupulous in the discharge of his of its own
and vigor, the gods
life

obligation, which he viewed as of the could not but be regarded predomi-

most binding character. 4. Attend- nantly as beneficent beings, who
ance at religious festivals the Car-
showered blessings upon mankind.
But occasionally, under special cir-
mentalia, Cerealia, Compitalia, Con-
sualia, Floralia, Lemuralia, Luper:cumstances, a different feeling arose.
calia, etc. This attendance was in no
Earthquakes shook the city, and left
sense obligatory, and was viewed great yawning gaps in its streets or
rather as pleasure than duty squares; the Tiber overflowed its
the
banks, and -inundated all the low re-
festivals being usually celebrated with
games (Ju //) and other amusements.gions that lay about the Seven Hills ;

223. Upon the whole, the Roman pestilence broke out, destroying
religion, as compared with others, thousands, and threatening to carry
and especially with that of the Greeks, off the entire people; or the fortune
strikes us as dull, tame, and matter- of war hung in suspense, nay, even
of-fact. There is no beauty in it,, no turned against the warrior nation.
play of imagination, and very
the At such times a sense of guilt arose,
little mystery. It is "of earth, and pressed heavily on the con-
earthy." Its gods are not great sciences of the Romans they could ;

enough, or powerful enough, to im- not doubt that Heaven was angry with
press the mind of the worshiper with a them they did not dare to dispute
;

permanent sense of religious awe- that the Divine wrath was provoked
they do not force the soul to bow by their sins. Then sacrifice, which
down before them in humility and in Rome was generally mere thank-
self-abasement. The Roman believes offering, took the character of atone-
in gods, admits that he receives bene- ment or expiation. The gods were
fits from them, allows the felt to require a victim, or victims ;
duty of
gratitude, and, as a just man, punctu- and something must be found to con-
ally discharges the obligations of his tent them something of the best and
religion.* But his creed is not ele- dearest that the State possessed.
vating it does not draw him on to What could this be but a human sacri-
another world it does not raise in fice ? Such a sacrifice might be either
him any hopes of the future. Like voluntary or involuntary. Enhanced
by the noble quality of patriotic
* Note the idea of self-abnegation, a single victim suf-
obligation as predomi-
nant in the word " religion," from re and lego ficedmore especially if he were of
" "
) to bind or " tie." the best and noblest a young pa.tri-
00 [168] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
clan of high promise, like Marcus was also, in part, the cause of those
Curtius,* or an actual consul, like profound moral convictions which dis-
the Decii.f Without this quality tinguished the Romans among ancient
there must be several victims either nations. They were deeply impressed
a sacred and complete number, like with the reality of moral distinctions,
the thirty, once offered annually at and convinced that sin was in all cases
the Lemuralia, whereof the thirty rush followed by suffering. The stings of
dolls thrown yearly into the Tiber conscience received increased force
were a reminiscence, or else an in- and power from the belief in a Divine
definite number, such as the gods agency that seconded the judgments,
themselves might determine on, as conscience, and never failed" to
of
when a " ver sacrum " was pro- punish offenders.
* 1

claimed, and all offspring, both of 226. It is not the object of the
men and of sacrificial cattle, pro- present work to trace the changes
duced within the first month of open- which came in course of time over the
ing spring (Aprilis), were devoted to Roman religion, or even to note the
death and sacrificed to avert God's corrupting influences to which it was
wrath from the nation. $ exposed. The subject of "Ancient
"
225. The mythological fables in Religions is so large a one, that we
which the Greeks indulged from a have felt compelled to limit ourselves
very early date were foreign to the in each of our portraitures to the pre-
spirit of the Romans, who had no sentation of the religion in a single
turn for allegory, and regarded the aspect, that, namely, which it wore at
gods with too much respect and fear the full completion of its* natural and
to invent tales about them. No tra- national development. To do more,
ditional accounts of the dealings of to trace each religion historically from
the gods one with another gave a its first appearance to its last phase,
divine sanction to immorality, or pre- would require as many chapters as we
vented the Romans from looking up have had pages at our disposal. The
to their divinities as at once greater influence of religions upon each other
and better than themselves. The is a matter of so much difficulty,
moral law was recognized as an ac- delicacy, and occasional complexity,
cepted standard with them, and its that it would necessitate discussions
vindication whenever it was trans- of very considerable length. An ex-
gressed rested with the deity within haustive work on the history of relig-
whose special sphere the offense was ions would have to embrace this am-
conceived to fall. Hercules avenged ple field, and must necessarily run to
broken faith Ops and Ceres punished several volumes. In the present se-
;

the lazy cultivator ill-conducted ma- ries of sketches, limited as we have

;

trons incurred the anger of Juno been as to space, we have attempted

;

the violation of parental or filial duty no more than the fringe of a great
fell under the cognizance of Jupiter. subject, and have sought to awaken
Whenever conduct was felt to be the curiosity of our readers rather
wrong, yet the civil law visited the than to satisfv it.
misconduct with no penalty, the dis-
pleasure of the gods supplemented the
legal defect, and caused the offender
in course of time to meet with due CONCLUDING REMARKS.
punishment. on this
Their belief
227. IT has been maintained in
head was, in part, the effect, but it the " Introduction " to this
work, that
the time is not yet come for the con-
* Liv. vii. 6. " Science of
; struction of a Religion,"
t Ibid. vi . 9; x. 28.
\. Fe6tus, sub voc. "Ver sacrum,"
See
and compare Liv. xxiii. 9, 10; xxxiv. 44; * Hor. Od. iii. 11. Tibull. Carm.
2, 31, 32 ;

Servius ad Virg. /En. vii. 796, etc. i.

9, 1. 4.
 THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. [169] 91

and that the present need is rather to been rendered untenable, if not hence-
accumulate materials, out of which forth impossible. Judaism stands out
ultimately such a science may perhaps from all other ancient religions, as a
be evolved. Still, the accumulation thing sui generis, offering the sharpest
of materials naturally suggests certain contrast to the systems prevalent in
thoughts of a more general character; the rest of the East, and so entirely
and the spirit of the Baconian phi- different from them in its spirit and
losophy does not forbid the drawing its essence that origin could not
its

of inferences from groups of phe- but have been distinct and separate.
nomena even while the greater por- 230. Thirdly, the sacred Books of
tion of the
phenomena are unknown the Hebrews cannot possibly have
or uninvestigated. While, therefore, been derived from the sacred writings
we abstain from basing any positive of any of these nations. No contrast
theory upon a survey of religions can be greater than that between the
which is confessedly incomplete, we Pentateuch and the " Ritual of the
think that certain negative conclusions Dead," unless it be that between the
of no little interest may be drawn even Pentateuch and the Zendavesta, or
from the data now before us and ;
between the same work and the Vedas.
these negative conclusions it seems to A superficial resemblance may per-
be our duty to lay before the reader, haps be traced between portions of
at any rate for his consideration. the Pentateuch and certain of the
228. In the first place, it seems myths of ancient Babylon but the ;

impossible to trace back to any one tone and spirit of the two are so
fundamental conception, to any innate markedly different, that neither can
idea, or to any common experience be regarded as the original of the
or observation, the various religions other. Where they approach most
which we have been considering. nearly, as in the accounts given of
The veiled monotheism of Egypt, the the Deluge, while the facts recorded
dualism of Persia, the shamanism of are the same, or nearly the same, the
Etruria, the pronounced polytheism religious standpoint is utterly un-
of India, are too contrariant, too ab- like.*
solutely unlike, to admit of any one 231. Fourthly, the historic review
explanation, or to be derivatives from which has been' here made lends no
a single source. The human mind support to the theory, that there is a
craves unity but Nature is wonder- uniform growth and progress of re-
;

fully complex. The phenomena of ligions from fetishism to polytheism,

ancient religions, so far as they have from polytheism to monotheism, and
been investigated, favor the view that from monotheism to positivism, as
religions had not one origin, but sev- maintained by the followers of Comte.
eral distinct origins. None of the religions here described
229. Secondly, it is clear that from shows any signs of having been de-
none of the religions here treated of veloped out of fetishism, unless it be
could the religion of the ancient He- the shamanism of the Etruscans. In
brews have originated. The Israelite most of them the monotheistic idea is
people at different periods of its his- most prominent at the first, and grad-
tory came, and remained for a con- ually becomes obscured, and gives
siderable time, under Egyptian, Baby- way before a polytheistic corruption.
lonian, and Persian influence ;
and In all there is one element, at least,
there have not been wanting persons which appears to be traditional, viz.,
of ability who have regarded "Juda- sacrifice, for it can scarcely have been
"
ism as a mere offshoot from the by the exercise of his reason that man
religion of one or other of these three
peoples. But, with the knowledge * Compare above, pp.
25-26; and see the
that we have now obtained of the re- Author's
Essay in "Aids to Faith." Essay
ligions in question, such views have vi., pp. 275, 276.
 2 [170] THE RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
came so generally to believe that the satisfy the inborn necessity of an ac-
superior powers, whatever they were, knowledgment and reverence of the
would be pleased by the violent death Divinity by the deification of material
of one or more of their creatures. nature for even in its obscuration
;

232. Altogether, the theory to which the idea of the Deity, no longer recog-
the facts appear on the whole to point, nized, indeed, but still felt and per-
is the existence of a primitive religion, ceived, continued powerful ; and, in
communicated to man from without, conjunction with it, the truth struck
whereof monotheism and expiatory home, that the Divinity manifested it-
sacrifice were parts, and, the gradual self in nature as ever present and in
clouding over of this primitive revela- operation."* The cloud was darker
tion everywhere, unless it were among and thicker in some places than "in
the Hebrews. Even among them a others. There were, perhaps, races
worship of Teraphim crept in (Gen. with whom the whole of the past be-
xxxi. 19-35), together with other cor- came a tabula rasa, and all traditional
ruptions (Josh. xxiv. 14); and the ter- knowledge being lost, religion was
rors of Sinai were needed to clear evolved afresh out of the inner con-
away polytheistic accretions. Else- sciousness. There were others which
where degeneration had free play. lost a portion, without losing the
" A dark cloud stole over man's
orig- whole of their inherited knowledge.
inal consciousness of the Divinity There were others again who lost
;

and, in consequence of his own guilt, scarcely anything but hid up the;

an estrangement of the creature from truth in mystic language and strange

the one living God took place man, symbolism. The only theory which
;

as under the overpowering sway of accounts for all the facts for the
sense and sensual lust, proportionally unity as well as the diversity of An-
weakened, therefore, in his moral cient Religions, is that of a primeval
freedom, was unable any longer to revelation, variously corrupted through
conceive of the Divinity as a pure, the manifold and multiform deterio-
spiritual, supernatural, and infinite ration of human nature in different
Being, distinct from the world, and races and places.
exalted above it. And thus it followed
inevitably, that, with his intellectual
horizon bounded and confined within
Dollinger, "Jew and Gentile," vol. L p.
the limits of nature, he should seek to 65.
 INDEX.
The reference is to the paragraphs.

Aratus quoted, 169 Bridge of the gatherer, le- Mantus and Mania, 155
Asherahs, 143 gend of, 89 Menrva, or Menrfa, 1 51
ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONI- Bunsen's list of Egyptian Tina, or Tinia, 148
ANS: Deities, 11 . Usil and Losna, 151
Astral Deities, 57-63 Elemental gods, 152
Belief in a future life, 66 Creation, legend of (Berosus), Genii, or spirits, 156
Deities :
69 Lares, the, 160
Anata, or Anat, 56 Novensiles, the, 1 54
Anu, 44, 45 Dagon, etymology of, 130 Priests, 158
Asshur, 40-43 Darius, sculptures on the Sacrifices, 158
Bel, 45, 46 tomb 84 of, Superstition, 146, 162
Bilat, 56 Degradation of religion, 232 Tombs, 156, 1 60
Dav-kina, 56 Deluge, legends of, 46, 70, 71 Worship, 158
Gula, or Anunit, 56 Dualism of Iranians, 77, qi Etymologies :

Hea, or Hoa, 45, 46 Ahura-Mazda, 78-80

II,or Ra, 39 EGYPTIANS, ANCIENT :
Angro-Mainyus, 79, 80
Ishtar, 61, 62, 73 Belief in a future life, 30 Baal, 120
Merodach, 58, 59 Classification of deities, 9 Babylon, 132
1
Nebo, 62 Dead, treatment of the, 30 Dagon, 130
Nergal, 60 Deities :
Melchizedek, 122
Nin, or Bar, 57, 58 Ammon, 13 Pharaoh, 17
Shala, or Tala, 56 Khem, 13 Sennacherib, 50
Shamas, 51-54 Kneph, 14 Eusebius, Extracts from
"
Sin, 47-50 Neith, or Net, 19 Evangelical Preparation,"
Vul, 55 .
-
Osiris, 18 on Phoenician Religion, 118
Lesser gods, 63 Phthah, 16
Legends :
Ra, 17 Fire, Discovery of, 138
Creation (Berosus), 69- Animal gods, 25, 26, 27
70 Nature gods, 22 GREEKS, ANCIENT:
Deluge, 71-72 Malevolent gods, 23 Deities :

Descent of Ishtar into Moon gods, 21 Aphrodite, 185

Hades, 73 Sun gods, 20 Apollo, 173
Izdubar, 61 Bunsen's list of, II .
Ares, 176
War in heaven, 68 Wilkinson's list of, Artemis, 183
Polytheism, 36-38 n n. Athene, 182
Prayers, 65 Embalming, 30 Demeter, 187
Sacrifices, 65 Evil, belief in, 34 Dionysus, 189
Superstitions, 67 Hymns, 33 Hades, 191
Temples, 64 Polytheism, 9 Hepiiasstus, 177
Triads, 42-55 Priests, knowledge of, 33 Hera, 181
Worship, 64, 65 Sacrifices, 28 Hermes, 178
Astronomers, conjectures of, Temples, 28 Hestia, 186
I Theological system of edu- Leto, or Latona, 190
cated classes, 32-35 Persephone, 191
Baal, etymology of, 122 Tombs, 30 Poseidon, 172
Babylon, etymology of, 132 Triads, 24, 35 Zeus, 1 68
Balak quoted, 141 Trinity, supposed doctrine Lesser Gods, 165
Belief in a future life : of 35. Classification of, 166
Assyrian and Babylonian, Worship, 27, 28 Festivals, 193
ETRUSCANS :
Hymns, 192
Egyptian, 29 Belief in a future life, 155, Joyousness of Worship,
itruscan, 155, 156 !5 6 192
Iranian, 90, 91 Deities : Legend of the " Lay of the
Roman, 223 Charun, 155 Net," 177
hanskritic Indian, 115 Cupra, 148 Nature Worship, 163
04 [172] INDEX.

Mysteries, 195 Milton quoted, 187 Resurrection of the body not

Polytheism, 163 Moloch, or Molech, 134 held by the Iranians, 90
Prayers, 192 ROMANS^ ANCIENT :

Sacrifices, 194 'OZnone," quotation from, Belief in a futurelife, 223

Vows, 192 185 Capitoline Triad, the, 200
Worship, 163, 189 Classification of Deities,
Parsees, 76 198
Hebrews, origin of religion Philo Byblius, works of, 118 Collegia : the
of, 229 Philologists, comparative, Augurs, 217
Henotheism, 48, 103 views of, i Duumviri sacrorum,
Hittites or Khita, the God of, PHOENICIANS and CARTHA- 219
34 GINIANS: Fetials, 218
Hymns : Asherahs, 143 Pontifices, 216
Egyptian, 33 Babylon, etymology of, 132 Flamines Curiales, 214
Iranian, 76, 85, 92 Bastyli,143 Fratres Arvales, 214
Sanskritic Indian, 112, 115 Balak quoted, 14 1 Luperci, 214
Deities : Salii Collini, or Agon-
Idzubar, legend of, 61 Adonis, or Tammuz, ales, 214
IRANIANS: 3 ' Salii Palatini, 214
Belief in a future
A'
Ammon, Sodales Titii, 214
life, 89 139
Dead, treatment of the, 97 Ashtoreth, or Astarte, Vestal Virgins, 214
Deities : 128 Deities:
Ahura-Mazda, So Baal, 127 Ceres, 205
Ahuras, the, 82 Baaltis, 135 Hercules, 208
Angro-Mainyus, 81 Dagon, 130 Juno, 200
Amesha-Spentas, the, El, 132 Jupiter, 199
82 Eshmun, 137 Mars, 202
Devas, the, 82 Kabiri, the, 138 Mercurius, 209
Dualism, 77, 91 Melkarth, 129 Minerva, 201
Elemental worship, 93 Moloch, or Molech, Neptunus, 210
Fire-worship, 93, 98 134 Ops, 207
Gathas, extracts from, 92 Osiris, 139 Saturnus, 206
Early home of, 74 Sadyk, 136 Vesta, 204
Homa, or Haoma, cere- Shamas, or Shemesh, Abstract qualities, gods
mony of, 85 J
34 of the, 211
Hymns, 76, 85, 92 Tanith, or Tanath, 139 Country, gods of the,
Industry, 87 Etymology of names, 121, 211
Legend of the Bridge of 125 Grecian Gods, 211
the gatherer, 89 Festivals, 144 Nature gods, 211
Magism among the, 93-96 Licentiousness, 140 State, gods of the,
Morality, 91 Original worship monothe- 211, 213
Parsees, 76 istic, 122-126 Lares, 222
Position of man in cosmic Pillar worship, 143 Di majores, 198
scheme, 85 Polytheism, 120 Expiation, doctrine of, 224
Prayers, 85 Sacrifices, 141-144 Festivals, 222
Priests, Magian, 94, 96 Sun-Worship, 133 Flamines, the, 213
Purity,
86 Temples, 143 Hymns, 222
Religion not idolatrous, 83, Worship," 131, 140, 148 Moral law recognized, 225
"
96 Poenulus of Plautus quoted, Prayers, 222
Resurrection, 90 126 Priests, 213, 221
Sacrifices, 85, 93 Polytheism :
Religion, character of, 223
Veracity, 88 Assyrian and Babylonian, Sacrifices, 224
Water-worship, 93 State religion, 219
Worship, 93-98 Egyptian, 9 Thank offerings, 222
Winged 83 circle, Greek, 163 Vows, 222
Zendavesta, the, 76 Phoenician, 120 Worship, 213, 222
Zoroastei", 75 Sanskritic Indian, 99
Ishtar, descent of, into Hades, Prayers : Sacrifices :

73 Assyrian and Babylonian, Assyrian and Babylonian, 66

65 Egyptian, 29
" of the Net," legend
Lay of, Greek, 192 Etruscan, 158
177 Iranian, 85 Grecian, 194
Roman, 222 Phoenician and Carthagin-
Magism, 93-96 Sanskritic Indian, 112 ian, 141-143
Melchizedek, etymology of Roman, 224
122 Religion, history of, 3, 5 Sanskritic Indian, 113
Mesa, inscription of, 124' Science of, 4, 227-232 SANSKRITIC INDIANS:
Metals, origin of working in Origin of, 227 Belief in a future life, 115-
133 Degradation of, 231 117
 INDEX, [173] 95

Deities :
Prayers, 112 Etruscan, 156, 160
Agni, 105 Priests, in Trinity, supposed Egyptian
Dyaus, 108 Sacrifices, 113 doctrine of the, 35
Indra, 104 Soma plant, no
Mitra, 104 Vedic poems, extracts from, War in heaven, legend of, 68
Nature gods, 106 116 Wilkinson's list of Egyptian
Prithivi, 108 Worship, 111-114 deities, n n.
Soma, no Superstitions :
Worship :

Surya, 107 Assyrian and Babylonian, Assyrian and Babylonian,

Ushas, 106 67 64
Varuna, 104 Estruscan, 146, 162 Egyptian, 27, 28
Vayu, 108 Etruscan, 158
Lesser gods, 109 Temples :
Grecian, 163, 188, 189
Fire-worship, 105 Assyrian and Babylonian, Iranian, 93-98
Henotheism, or Katheno 64 Phoenician and Carthagim-
theism, 103 Egyptian, 28 ian, 131, 140
Hymns, 112, 115 Phoenician and Carthagin- Roman, 213, 222
Libations, 113 ian, 143 Sanskritic Indian, 1 1 i-i 14
Mantras, in Teraphim, worship of, 232
Offerings, 113 Tombs :
Zendavesta, the, 76
polytheism, 99-103 Egyptian, 30 Zoroaster, 75

CONTENTS.
TASK
INTRODUCTION ,
I

CHAPTER I. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS 2

CHAPTER II. THE RELIGION OF THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS 13

CHAPTER III. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT IRANIANS 28

CHAPTER IV. THE RELIGION OF THE EARLY SANSKRITIC INDIANS 38

CHAPTER V. THE RELIGION OF THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS 48
CHAPTER VI. THE RELIGION OF THE ETRUSCANS 59
CHAPTER VII. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 65
CHAPTER VIII. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS So

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 9

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