EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY OF BASE- AND PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS IN THE CIRCUM-PACIFIC REGION DURING THE LAST 25 YEARS Ricuarp H, Siurror, METAL MINING AGENCY OF JAPAN 1995PREFACE Mineral resources bave played an essential oe in the lives of human beings for thousands of years. In order fo us to'secure and improve our present fe styles for fare generations a sable, heap soppy of mineral resources is este, In thi espet prospecting for meal resources mst continue However, the search for mie sources is an uncertain an high risk economic civ in that thee is no assurance of discovering an ore deposi In Japan there isan old saying thatthe probly of ining an ore deposit is "tes na howsand”. Increases nthe efficiency of xporaton can esltn reduced risk and belp o achieve the ulate gal of relatively stable and cheap supply of metal. [As the search for ore deposits is, in general, associated with increasingly higher costs, improvements inthe effceny with which exploration is eared out become paramount. Modern exploration stateges mus now also combine and apply the bes technology available based on the construction of detalledand reliable mineral deposit models. The bass ofthe development ofthese toss isthe secrete and thorough compton of information fom individual mineral deposi Increases in the guantiy and complexity of available geological infomation concerning deposits terefore neces te ned fo periodically compiled reviews. Such informations often acumalted for use within the confines of companies which unfortunately results in important and potentially ef data going published ‘Atthe Mea Mining Ageney of apan (MAD, as pat fou mineral exploration sap, we are continuing to collect and make public sich information. As prof our programme, we recently comission Dr, Ricard illto, a consutng geologist with extensive experience and knowledge of the exploration fr ore deposits in tbe Pacific Rim egon, o compile and review the moe recent explorton and discovery histories of major bas- and preciou-metal deposi in that eon. Is Doped that tis wil bea valuable source of information and nell to people who are planing or conducting searches for mineral deposits around the word 1995 Mineral Resources Information Center Metal Mining Ageney of JapanCONTENTS SYNOPSIS INTRODUCTION 1 PORPHYRY COPPER/COPPER-MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS, 1. Quebrada Blanca, Chile 2. Colts Chile 3.MM, Chile “4 Euan, Chile 5 Zaldvar, Cie 6. Los Plantes, Chile IL EXOTIC COPPER DEPOSITS 1. Bt Tesoro, Chile 2. Damian Chile II PORPHYRY COPPER-GOLD/GOLD DEPOSITS |. aj de La Alamter, Argentina 2 Mare-.obo, Chie 3. Refugio, Chile 4. Goonumbla, New South Wales, Australia . 5.0k Ted, Papua New Guinea 6. Graber, Indonesia 7. Ba Biju, Indonesia 5. Far Southeast, Philipines IV. BRECCIA-HOSTED GOLD-SILVER/GOLD DEPOSITS: 1, Montana Tunnels, Montana, U.S.A. 2. Moun Leyshon, Queensland, Australia 5. Kuston, Quceasland, Ausalia Page B 6 ” ” 8 a a 24 26 2 20 2 3a » ‘V. SKARN AND CARBONATE-REPLACEMENT GOLD/COPPER-GOLD DEPOSITS 1.Crown Jewel, Washington, U.S. 2. Forde, Nevada U.S.A. 3. Cove, Nevada, U.S.A 44 Candelaria Chile ‘VI. SEDIMENT-HOSTED (CARLIN-TYPE) GOLD DEPOSITS 1. ert Canyoo, Nevada, U.S.A 2-Twin Cech, Nevads US. A 3, Goldsrike, Nevada, U.S. A 4. Gold Quay, Nevada U.S.A 5 Pipeline South Pipeline, Nevada, U.S.A. 6 Lone Tre, Neva, U.S.A 7. Archimedes, Nevada, S.A 8. Meso, Indonesia ‘VIL. HIGH-SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL GOLD-SILVERSCOPPER DEPOSITS 1. Paraie Peak Nevada, U.S.A, 2. Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic 3. Yanscooha, Pon 4. LaCoipa, Chile 5-Ellndio, Chile 6. Nevada, Chile ‘VILL. LOW-SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL GOLD: SILVER DEPOSITS 1. MeDonai, Montana, U.S.A 2 Sleeper, Nevad, U.S.A, ‘ 3. McLaughlin, California, U.S.A, 4. Round Mount, Nevada, U.S.A 5. Burg, Nevada, U.S. 6. Mesquite, California, U.S.A, 7 Kori Koll, Bolivia 8. Cero Vanguanin, Argentina 9. Misia, Papua New ies 10-Ladolam,Papus New Gunes 11. Porgera, Papua New Guinen 12. Ketan, Indonesia 13. Gunung Pongkor, Indonesia 14. Bishi Japan aEoR RB a st se * saages & 8 8 1s 1” *0 #1 B “4 86 88 o 93 95IX. VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULPHIDE DEPOSITS |. Eskay Ciek, Bish Columbia, Canada 2. Haller Tasmania, Austalia ‘X. METAMORPHOGENIC GOLD DEPOSIT 1. Macs New Zealand XI. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 1. Commies discovered 2. Counties wth discoveries, 2. Depositiscoverers 4 Historia background to discoveries S.Discovey sites 6. Discovery methods 11 ost-sisovery exploration methods 5. Baplorsion ime 9, Crit actos for success XIL TOWARDS AN EXPLORATION STRATEGY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES: °7 %” 102 to 103 13 103 tot 105 108 us 1 na us 46 u7SYNOPSIS SYNOPSIS ‘This report describes the exploration and discovery histories of 54 major base- and precious- ‘metal deposits around the Pacific rim over the last 25 years (1970-98). The discoveries are considered to be representative and to include all those of world-class deposits, Fach case history places the discovery in a historical context and summarizes the geological, geochemical and geophysical work ‘undertaken prior to discovery, followed by that completed through to production. The time frames and ‘organizational aspects of the exploration programmes are emphasized along with any special “twist Each case history is prefaced by the background geology, including tonnage and grade data, and concludes with a brief summary, ‘The report deas with porphyry coppertmolybdenum and copper-gold/gold deposits, exotic copper deposits, breecia-hested goldtsilver deposits, contact-metasomatic gold and copper-gold deposits, sediment hosted (Carlintype) gold deposits high and low-sulphidation epithermal goldtsilver deposits, voleanogenic masse sulphide deposits and a single metamorphogenic gold deposit. Copper and gold are the principal commodities considered, The deposits are located predominantly in the western U.S.A. and Chile, but also include examples from Indonesia eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea, Argentina, New Zealand, Bolivia, Canada, Dominican Republic, Japan, Peru and the Philippines, Metallogenic, politco-economic and regulatory reasons for this geographical dstibution of discoveries are assessed, ‘The contributions to discovery of major and junior companies, government and international agencies and prospectors are discussed. The notion that corporate structure influences exploration success also warranis comment. The discoveries are analyzed from the standpoint oftheir locations With respect to known mineral districts or occurrences and whether the mineralization is exposed or ‘concealed. The roles of different geological, geochemical and ggophysical methods as well as other factors in both the discovery process and post-discovery exploration are appraised. Drilling techniques ‘are summarized. The times required to make the discoveries and then to bring them into production ‘are calculated and analyzed. Three key factors in exploration success are proposed. A final synthesis ofthe general conclusions reveal a straightforward strategy for future discovery of base- and precious-metal deposits inthe circum-Pacific region. Ths strategy could be elaborated by incorporation of arange of state-of-the-art techniques, although these are thought unlikely to change tadically the successful discovery methodology in years to come,INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION ‘This report reviews the case histories of exploration and discovery for a representative selection of base- and precious-metal deposits in the circum-Pacific region. Medium-size to large deposits, ‘including al the giants and boranaas, are selected for consideration and small deposits and uneconomic “technical successes" are ignored. Discoveries of extensions to ore at operating mines are excluded mn type is radically different. ‘This study focuses on the technical aspects of exploration programmes leading to discovery ‘unless the mineralizat (defined normally asthe discovery drill hole) as well as the ongoing exploration through to reserve definition, Deposit geology is summarized only briefly for background purposes, and any details are described only in o far as they are critical tothe exploration histories, No effort is made to assess the ‘contributions to discovery of specific individuals orto analyze the exploration strengths and weaknesses of corporate entities. Nor ae land acquisition procedure, drilling technology, sampling and analytical techniques, ore-reserve calculation, metallurgical testing, environmental permitting, infrastructure provision, project funding, corporate philosophy or legal machinations addressed specifically, unless they are considered fundamental to specific case histories Published sources of information are used ‘nd cited wherever possible, although much privately supplied information combined with dhe wite’s ‘own experience and perceptions inevitably colour the conclusions, ‘A tabulated summary of salient aspects of the pre- and post discovery exploration histories (Tables 1 and 2) ofall the selected deposits is then used asa basis to draw some general conclusions of potential utility for planing future exploration programmes in the citcum-Pacific region. Contrast in exploration approach between different climatic and physiographic provinces and between different deposit types are assessed. ‘The deposits selected were all discovered and subjected to their main periods of exploration during the last 25 years (1970-95), although an appreciable number were identified first as prospects during earlier times, Recent discoveries, many not yet in production, are emphasized in order to highlight “any changes in discovery techniques during the period under review. In general, these relatively modem discoveries are or may be documented better than those of pre-1970 vintage as well as having been ‘made with the availability of mast of the geological, geochemical and geophysical techniques in use today. Nevertheless, some of these techniques underwent improvement or innovation during the 25 ‘years under consideration, a period that also saw the introduction of computers to Facilitate data manipulation, Consequently, the ore-deposit types represented reflect, to a large degree, collective corporate philosophies and, hence, world commodity prices during the last 25 years By the same foken, some iscoveries during this period, such as deeply concealed porphyry molybdenum deposits in the western ULS.A. (e.g, Pine Grove, Utah and Mount Hope, Nevada), were rendered uneconomic by dramatic falls in the prices of contained metals, and therefore are excluded from consideration. TechnicalsRODUCTION innovation also influenced the deposit types sought, as exemplified by acid-leachable copper deposits amenable to the solvent extraction-clectrowinning (SX-EW) process and low-grade gold deposits treatable using heap-leach cyanidation, ‘The 54 deposits analyzed (Fig, 1) are dominated numerically by those of porphyry copper-gola’ gold, low-sulphidation (adularia-sericte) epithermal goldsilver and sediment-hosted (Carlin) gold «types. However, porphyry copper/copper-molybdenum, exotic copper, high-sulphidation (aci-sulphate) cpithermal goldésilver,skarm and carbonate-replacement gold/copper- gold, breccia-hosted gold-silver? gold, voleanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) and metamorphogenic (slate belt) gold deposits are also represented, Most deposits are Mesozoic or Cenozoic in age although those in the eastern Australian and southern New Zealand parts ofthe circum-Pacific belt are Paleozoic.serRopuCTION Fig.1. Maps fhe westem and eastern pats of the circum Pacific region to show the location and types of bas and me se FAR &) SOUTHEAST = KELIAN 36 une >see 7 sunaNSa BATU s HISHIKARI ry) 8 JoRGERA LADOLAM o Mf Sie ISIN Je ki0sTON s mi oun LEYSHON [ASDONUMBLA soe weuLvenS) a MACRAES Porphyry Cu-AWAU Breccia-hosted AWAU-AG @® Sediment-hosted Au @ Low-sulphidation epithermal Au/AU-Ag \Voleanogenic massive sulphide = ‘Metamorphogenic Au asta depot ected fr desciptionINTRODUCTION JEWEL MCDONALD y SS MONTANA TUNNEL tS (JERRITT CANYON, ‘GOLDSTRIKE/ GOLD QUARRY) SLEEPER FoRTITUDE| cove: PARADISE PEAK Porphyry Cu-Motu = Exotle Cu 4 Porphyry Cu-AuiAy © Brecciachosted AWAU-AG ‘uesRapA aLancal (© Skam and carbonate-oplacement ESCONDIDA ZALOIYAR, Au-AgiCu-Au © Seciment-hostee AU 1k High-sulphidation epithermal Au/AU-Ag ELINDIO Los pevaanes® 2 Low-sulphidator epithermal AWAU-Ag = Voleanagenic massive sulphide 4 Motamorphogenic Au 'YANACOCHA oeI. PORPHYRY COPPER/ COPPER-MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS 1. Quebrada Blanca, Chile Geological background Quebrada Blancs ie a hihvaltade porphyry copper molyidenum deposit oeated approximately 250 {ertouea ofthe porto guque eastern Chik. The flpont sa component ofthe ee-eminent ae Eocene aly Ovigoene porphyry copper el The aeration, both ‘esata ae seri, ad accompanying sulphide ‘mineralization af ose by equigranuar ire etuded by auarta monzonte porphyry which io. af ut Dy Dacemineral quartz ad feldspar porphyry dykes and ‘yeothermalbeccas, Before mining, thes rocks wee arly conceaied beneath a thin vener of Miocene Piedmoot gravels (Hunt et a, 1983), "The ovebody comprise a chaleoite enrichment blanket, averaging 8D min hikes and totalling 89 lion tonnes at 13 Co, whi oven by 1001 of then, emt ached eapping an! under by at east 500 milion omnes of hypogeneprotore averaging abot osscu Exploration and discovery ‘Minor amounts of oxide copper were exploits fiom shallow diggings at Quebrade Blanc, probably Alnng the fist decade ofthis cetury-The property was ‘ecognized sa porphyry copper sytem by gelopss of the Chile Exploration Company, Anaconda’ subsidiary In chile in 1987 daring ground Follow-up of «regional tore colar photography survey probably be istever ted for exploration purposes (unt etal 1983) The ‘Company staked the property and appreciated the Sipergens evcen peat. ut neve cated ox any ‘ding, Quebrada Blanes passed ost contol in 1971 (ia result of the expropriation of Anaconda’ assets Chie. ‘The Instituto de Investigaciones Geologicas (Chilean Geological Survey) carried out geological (feochemical and geophysical indoced polarization) Fries t Quetta Blanca dong 197374 and; based on the result, the sate mining agety, CODELCO-Cle (hile single coe ole 1975. The hoe inerseted ‘bout 12 of hale evichment averaging 139 % ‘Gantt wa ter proved to have ut arial part f the avicheat Blanks (Hunt ta 1983) Te 1975. the Superior Oi Falconbridge group was furnished with previous data on Quebrada Blanes and ‘became intrested in the property. In 1977, orien investent pram, enabling a1 share ofthe pot the ead, na signed with the Chilean goverment The groups newly formed Chilean subsidiary, Compania ‘Minera Explradora Dot ne, commenced geologka tok t Quebrada Blanca in late 1976 and, les thn oe Joa, colaed heist dil Ne which encountered ‘bm ot high grade chncoets enrichment averaging 2.17 % Cy and 0.01 9 Mo (Hunt et a, 198. Following diet mapping t 1:10.00 scale mre eile ssl and alteration maping and leached Capping interpretation were cared cu ver OUTOppieg puro the Quebrada Banca alteration zoe (Hun ea, 1983), The lesched-capping study involved limonite mapping, eeocbemical analyse for Cu, Mo, Ab, Ag and yfedeerminaion of uk eration assemblages based fn thin section and X-ray difaton determinations and ‘tis of let sulphides. Reliet sulphides were studied jn 500 surface samples, The elit sulphides in leached ‘appngs te those that esaped supergene oxidation (nd, Commonly also chaloocite enrichment) because of ‘noapelation, generally by qua The relict sulphies ‘Seen nt poin-oumtd in polished sections under titimmersion wang ahi power microscope, Zones with {Spevahechleopri boritelpytit ratios indicted byte sulphate are those wi potentially suet Speen copper hve wndergoesaperzte "ret of overay tea of 1.2000 was prepared foc allt peopl parameter mapped and determined {ting oir sample at Quebrada Blancs, namely ok Upper structure, mogateopi and microscopic alteration ‘Socmblages, monte spe quart veil varices (A.B {nd D; Gustafon and Ban, 1975) and abundance relict. ‘Mipaige proptinns and abundance and geochemical nates "Ths ata bate was then wsed 10 predic the sition ofthe concealed chalcoct enrichment blanket hd fence. he its frail ling. Hut etal (1983) Sd Hunt (1985) stated hat coincident zones of intense (Gur wining Kiet verprneby seetialeation fd copper teaig rect sulphides (especialy borite) tied ath best inats of te high rade 1) copper niche. These parameters were he principal ies for siting dil les. "Te enrichment blanket was delimited by the end of 1982 onthe basis of 180 cre holes fom surface and ‘fom aero openings fr atta of ney 44,000 sn The underground opeings, 2.6 in cnnel peat the thse ofthe enrichment blanket and 12 raises, wereconsuucte rom mid1975 onwards ote geological nt {xade comin and. rvide blk mecalaical samples. "Amarked decline n world copper prices im 1983 rendered the Quebrada Blin depos uneconomic ing fulpide Notation asthe ecvery retod andthe eure ‘war motbale. The Super Oil Company was absorb by Mobil Oi, which in ‘984 decided t abandon the project. Hence Quebrada Blanca reverted to # Chilean bovernment agency. the Empresa Nacional de Minria CENAMD, which in 1988 offered the deposit for nteratioa ender Teter was won By Comino, an ‘Quebrada Blancas convo led now by the Cominco Tsk ‘roup, Sociedad Minera Pudshuel (SMP) and ENAME Eomnco-Teck undertook litle addtional exploration ‘werk, but i commission ndced-poariaion survey. (Chargesblity anomalies were receded over the pyc fing oh rebody. Metric testwerk sing SMPs Thin Layer Bacterial aap excngechaalog) anda te feasibility stay were cared out i 1990-9, and the deposit entered production as an open-pil, SX-EW ‘pation in 1998 Summary ‘A period of 20 yea separated Fst ecogaition of ‘he Quads Blanca clournomalyon aerial photoes TE cremaon ‘BLANCA Monctezums) Wal I ~ @ Porphyry copper deposi @® Exc’ic copper deposit FORPHYRY COFFER/ oem. ou vabastM DarOSrTS adh evn discover ofan niche porphyry copper eposic Seventeen more years then wero pas before the depot prodoced its fis copper. Detaled geological ‘mapping and interpretation ofthe leached capping Were nsrumenal in precise delimitation ofthe enichment Market an probably coast one of te mos complete studies ofthis Ked ever undertaken atthe exploration sage 2. Collahuasi, Chile Geological background “The Colas distri, # km cst of nd upto 50 rm igher in clvation than the Quebrads Blanca copper ‘epost Go above: Fig. 2), cots te Rosai and Una hye) copper molydenum deposits aswel a high Sulpiatoncoppersiver (Rosario Podeosa) and copper sol (La Grade) vein nd low-sulphidation manganese Fh ver veins Fig. Dick ea, 1994). The deposits, tls part ofthe late Eocene-ealy Oligocene copper belt ile, are centred on two discrete porphyry EASTERN LiWiT OF EXPOSED LEACHED Gaprne Veins FRosisitvity 2000 ohm-metre contour Fe.2 Loci uy per nd ke epost inte Qaeda Bas nd Calabasas, Chie owing he postion ‘tress lows genet yh Rao sd Una poy cope sss an the sie of he Ua covery hole Taken "rom unpaid handout raed hy Compas Minera Dt Ines de Cait, ah aon,‘rorpwrny comes commen MOLYBDENUM DEPOTS stocks emplaced into Peemo-Triasicandesitic and thyelievlcanic rocks. ostminera faulting caused disruption ofthe Rosario sytem, the hall daplaced pat of which may be represeted by the La Grande coppergod vein stem fad tsocited quartz-alnite alteration. Veneers of “Miocene piedmont raves cover pars ofboth the Rosario 2 jin stems, andthe same formation Sh west of the Rosario deposit s host to exotic oxide copper ttneratzation m Huingsintpa (ig 2). The lea hin (vl at Une are oven by TOm of late Miocene a Flow tut. which conceals essetally all the laches Copping located dite above the enrichment Banke “The Rosario deposit comprises at Test 1,000 ion omnes averaging 1 % Cu and 0.025 % Mo wing Toas's Cu cutofl mos oft hypopene but ncoting a Small volume 8) of oxidized and enriched oe, fa Contrast, Uji i an enriched orebody In which the Chaleoite blanket, compesing 158 milion tonnes ‘Sreaging 1.6 Cay runny at est 00 aii tonnes of 081% Casing 206 % Cu cuff (De Beer {Su Dick, 194), Te unroded pa ofthe Hung ‘roi epost smal by Chilean standars ( Below), Shicontaies abou milion tonnes averaging 955 Co, {Nthough tcl oxide sources inthe istic amount 083, iilion tones averaging 13 SC. Te global resource 1B the Coleuas ditt employing 30.4% Cu cutoff i cepted tobe 3100 milion tonnes which average 082 Bb Exploration and discovery “The Collahunsi district was exploited a source cofcoppet by the nc nd oh 188050 1930s, Bish ha Pench companies ae estimated t have produced SH,.000 tonnes of and cobed copper ore cotaiing 8 Su 180 gh Agand2 gt Ae ote bonis, hah foliation veins at Poderosa and La Grande (De Beer “nd Dich 1938), The diet was Chile's premier copper Fe a pentceaion| ‘h geologist from Chile Exploration Company, anaconda) recommended the copper potential of CCllahas nthe Tae 1980s, but he Company id ot ecome lnvelved for several reasons, including the omple and Tenure situation Thi vas sved in 1978 ‘aber Compania Exploradora Dota Tes (Superior Oi Falconbridge group), which was exploring the Teishbouring Quebrada Blanca deposit an was farar teith the results of Anaconda's earlier inspection, onolated and acquied the Collahus claims ‘Gesogia work by Compa Explradora Dos nes ring 19-79 ested inecopion ofthe porPAT oppor character ofthe aleration zope centred onthe Rone deposit a ofthe exposed, marginal paso he ‘jin sytem (tun, 1988), Surface geological work ove the Rowrio aeration zone was inhibited by atin cover Sluslus aswel ashe Miocene gravels, hough rocks ‘Shserved in merous 01 pis and mine dumps proved Snctive. The porphyry coppeaiaon ofthe Rosi “eration was determined ty recognizing samples of {jue pore totic andesite, A and B veins ad Shatcocite enriched pyritie D veinlets (Hunt, 1988), ‘Typical ppt copper veil ays were also observed yometing od min workings. Bulldozer ences were Taeto permit geological mapping Hunt, 1985), The xpos leached capping st Ujina was studied sing he ‘Eh technigues a those employed at Quebrada Blan (Ger above). “A deling programe comprising more than 60 core holes commenced at Rosario in mid1979, The fis ole toured €# mof cso enchment rang 198 ‘Cu and 0.014 % Mo underlain by hyposene ‘etalon tht increased in grade downvazdsto>1 ou Hn, 1985), The driliag defined the principal Components of the Resario deposit, including the ‘perimpose,high-erade Rosai vein ie coninstion ofthe previously exploited Podeross vein), and broadly Sutined the eariched and much gr hypogene pars of the orebody (ot, 1985). The exo copper depot at aingimipa Fig. 2) was alo drilled of However, he four coe hols drilled in he exposed pars ofthe ina System, oe of which failed reach the top of spies, {ld not intersect any appreciable chalet erichment ‘The Compania Exploradora Dota Ines programme at Colles was terminated prematurely in 1984 by Mobi Dis decision o dispose of Super Oils mineral ase Tn 1985, a joint-venture wo explore further the Citas! dsc was formed by Chevron, Shel and Falconbridge under the ame of Corpatfa Minera Da Ther de Colla Unt 1990 te pater concentrated {heieforts on surface abd underground dailling of he torntevich Resto ven because the igh grades seemed tour economieptetal ea tne of ow copper pre. However, an inadequate resource and bad ground ‘tions at Rosario combined wit ase in copper rcs ‘Stowe tention onthe Resse orp comer deposit tnd he rest ofthe Colauas dst, neluding Ui Defaton dling ofthe Rosario porphyry copet epost by Compa Minera Dota Ines de Clb was Combined with gasogial reappraisal ofthe rest ofthe Colla’ Sst, or bic purpose panels reliance Svar placed on slit nage nterettonand geopysis (Dick eal, 1993), The combined LANDSAT-SPOT {rage Interpretation sided nppesiation ofthe Tims of the Rosario and Una poepyy systems and therfore felped to define areas to be covered in 1991 by [tromagnetic a inde polarization surveys. Roughly 150 ine kn of induced-polarization coverage was‘obtained using dipok lengths of 00 m for penetration ‘600 m, A circular induced-polarization anomaly. ‘Sharacteried by hgh chargeatliy and low resis, was generated over he Rosato porphy cope stem, {Ind simular one encompass the expoted pat of th Uji leached capping and he zea concealed by posto ignimbrite for 3 Kio te east (Fig 2: Dick tal, 1993). Resistive of 1% Cu, was els "ou to post-minerl gimbrtea the very eof the bedrock outerap beeause of the favourable serietic, emai and einod character ofthe leached capping. AL that me te dicovery site was beyond the limits ofthe Induced polarization survey. Once the survey was ‘Competed the euling zone of ow ess, merece {se espose 10 igh veinet menses, helped to guide {he dalling campaign that defined the Ujin enschnent ‘blanket Beneath igambete cover Dick eta, 1993). ‘Afr completion ofthe definition drilling programme a Using shaft was unk to enable sampling ‘tthe eachmen biel for metalogcl purposes. Ak tempi, lotation aeration Fs planned by the curent partes a Compatfa Minera Dota Ines de Colahuss, Falconbridge and Mirco 10 recover coppe rom the Uji earchmeat bet by la 1998, although he oxide fore inthe dst, cing that om he Hungate ‘xe epost wl be proessd in an SX-EW plant (De Beer and Dick, 199), The lng ten fare ofthe dst wil depend on hypegene or om the Rosario deposi Summary Although te Collahuasi district was a major producer of ven copper ore a early athe at ceniy, the existence of porphyry copper systems was not recognized until 118 Fourteen more years then elapsed efor he two porphyry copper deposits tRosrio and ‘jin were fly defined. Geologial interpretation, especialy ofthe aration ad leached capping, played ‘a imponant ole indecpheing the structurally complex ‘nd purty covered Class disc, pd ested in tbe ‘ig ofthe discovey holes at both deposits Relatively Tate inthe exploration stay, ap induced-poarzation sure ofthe entire defined prominent chargesbity and resistivaty anomalies colacident wth bth porphyry Copper systems athos overthe eancealed Ujina depot proved very useful selection of il ites. ORTH ComPER/ COMMER MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS 3. MM, Chile Geological background “The MM (Mansa Min) copper deposits locates ‘beneath about 5m of pedmont vel some Sk south ofthe Chuguicamata porphyry coper deposit Fig. 3) Tike Chagucamats, MM i pat ofthe Inte Eoceneeatly (Oligocene porphyry copper beltof aterm Chie. ‘The eebodysanelongc, serpy inclined. bul ‘ody, some fk ong, which i delimited eastwards By the Wes fault a major post minea, sinistal strike-slip structure ithe eal, 1994. The copper mineralization is present in grandiorite which intruded andesite flows ‘of posible ate Cretaceous ape. Typical porphyry copper Imerlizton sociated wit serie aeration against the West faults juxtaposed wenvarde with enargite, bownice and other high-sulphalation sulphides components of advanced agli and eric alteration (Silo eta, 1994). The MM deposit isan assembly of fault tices, wich were considered originally tobe the ‘ult wesen prt of the Chaqicamata deposit (i. 3; Alves ot al, 1980; Alvarez and Miranda, 1991); however, dssiilaritee between the geological characteristics of Chaguicamats and MM suggest an ‘rig position thats even arte north Siitoe et a 1988). Sopereene onan and ewichent are developed relatively wey, and he higher grade mineralization, ‘wih Cu, comprises erage bore and associated Sulphies (Silt et al, 1994). The geological escurce EMM eat ea 600 milion ones a'>1 Cu toa dep 91,000 m Exploration and discovery ‘Sulphide copper mineral zation atthe northern extremity ofthe MM epost was discovered in 1967 by {he Chile Exploration Company te Cian subsidiary ‘ofthe Anaconda Company, which was then the owner ‘and operator of the Chaguicamasa deposit The discovery ‘esuled from on ofthe oles Fg 3) in a condernation ‘rogram designed to serize aarp ste propose for Mina Sur (fomerty Ext. rhe investigation of his copper accuence by the Chuquicamata Division of CODELCO-Chile the ‘utent owner and operator of Chuquicamata and Mina ‘Sr was cand cuit 1978, whenan inde polarization _soptyscal sey was followed by shallow dling The ‘rll es defined ater unineresing ver ike body of ‘copper mineralization, perhaps I milion tonnes at 2 % (Ca aeng the western side ofthe Wes ful (Alvarez and Miranda, 1991), Further exloriyn at MM was defeted until 1990-92 when an extensive programme (approximately 35,000 m) of dep core dling WasALANA om ig Lesion at he MM copper deat, Chile, wih repet tathechagacenateine copperans ia Sr en cope “pst Apne eons oney dl leon ‘rrr An ar sw completeito define the MM deposit farther south than the zone dalled italy. Tndsed-polanzation and contlitsource aio imagaetaellrie (CSAMT) geophysical surveys were Conducted ove the gravel covered pediment during the ling canpaig. The rests ofthe induce: polarization Sorvey suggest met hxzons inthe pedmont ravels rather thar the sulphie-ieh MM miperaliration were (ete, vba the CSAMIT survey may have recorded. the deposit, The geophysical sults didnot assist with ‘Sing of dil oles, which wer stepped out southwards ‘hing the evolving geological model constructed Ging ore loging ane the pected ston ofthe Wes full (Fig. 3) as contol. Ye 1998-94, «315-m vera shat (Fig. 3) amd £2250 mf tunel on wo levels Were consraced in the fain oe zone to enable dead underground mapping “nd sapling undegroueldiing ar tlk sampling fr metallurgical purposes. By mid-1995, 7,200 m of Underground deifing were comlcted. Metallurgical esting tnd pe easily sadn ae underway presen. Summary Alihoughthe sorter ifthe MM copes posit sas discovered frist 28 years ao, it wasnt att 1990 that he main porphyry eppe-type mineralization nd assoriaedhigh-sulphidaton ore were die. The ‘ring programme wa conrolel by he elope model erved from core logging. Concealment by gravels precluded the use of geochemistry, and electrical [eons lle to asi the poration programme 4, Escondida, Chile Geological background “The Escondida deposits oad 160 km southeast oft port city of Antofagasta sorter Chil st ality Called Cerro Colorado (ed hil). Escondig x anober epost tat els to define te pe-minent ate Eocene arly Oligocene pore coper bel of northern Chie "The deposits hosted by arly Tetiay andesite soleanie rock, ands cetel os a composite porphyry oa of dion te monaonit composition (Ojeda, 986, 1950), North and orthwest-strking fault ental is Important. Escondida x charseried by aur sb Colour anomaly, which edie toa extensive zone of feldspar destructive alteration wansitional outwards 12 proplitie alteration. The dominance of sence and vanced aril alteration sd slcfiaton a surface ‘oezes that clave) sallow pars porphyry oper Sgstem are preservod (Briml et a, 1985, Ot ea, 1985, Ojede, 1986, Alpers and Beha, 1985). The reseace of late mse slide veins, some conning nage supports ths contention (eds 1990) Kesiete ‘eration i ecognied commonly at depth, but is also Seen in outcropping andesite voleanic rocks along the ‘stem side ofthe alerator zone "The Escondide deposit comprises a major, high- rate cleo enrichment bane that 45 x1 iage exter and 200500 m thick (Ota, 1950). The best. tule cnicnen, ing et coppersrades between and 56s conteled by nortwest-strking graben strstre and overlies the highest pradeprotore. The fari:hmet blanket is overain by leached capping, with ‘re copper mineral generally confined to ares fesed by Rescate aeration. ‘The geological resource of enriched ore at Escenid ie 260 million tonnes averaging 1.59% Ca, of which 662 milion tonnes at 2.12% Cu are minesble (Ojeda, 1990) Hypogene copper coments probably venge <0. , but pases ain at east 0.8 Cu whee 200 pp), bat molybenam vals ‘werehigh bd ranged rom {10480 pm (13% 250 pe) (Fig 6.Onizet al, 1985, 1986; Lowel 190, 1991; On, 1985) The fst rine geocemial sul, summed shove, became vale daly ferthe rekhip anomalies sere deine. Representative splits ofthe 310 ck spl wee submited, slong with their comesponding geacherical ‘ales, to a consulting geologist for leashed-capping interpretation. The prognosis was no promising, and ‘Predicted wealy enriched prt sulphides arelatvely allow depths. The procers of supeleching neat surface timonite removal during apr scent aie sroundwate, was proposed by Ont ea (1985, 1986) ‘nd Lowell (1950, 1991) to explain the failure ofthe leaced-capping interpreation to predit he existence of the calcite banat Nevertheless. appeal Hema fer chalcites peseat inthe Esconida capping (Apes id Brill, 1989), but the mechanical removal of sae 4,0) Ro ‘CERRO pa COLORADO'S ceano (9, COLORADO ‘CHICO 87 Exploration shaft A cennos Sd del SURESTE IS 712 FF” ode chip Mo anomalies >50 ppm © Rotary hole: Fig. Rockchip (alain) molybdenum gaichenia ores inte Eco Zar en Cavite the positon fees intr be a Exon 6 he Gacoery oe and th eploration shat the ene of the high rte eacbment Mund), Tate fom Ont a 38s. limonite trom surface rok by san blasting on windy ays andthe rduction of nace rock exposure case ‘of sural accumulation c saline enootation (cha) ‘hinders ecagiton Fil mapping of shallow tenes ‘ater tha simply examinaion of hand samples ole tsurac is equi to sprite prope the ingens hematite ‘Reconaisancegeclgia nd aleraion mapping of teenie dsc was eared oo unde cotati 1981 and defined he ory sticks, sce teraton ears nd stvctral cons. Outopping cope mineralization was observed tobe esc to exotic cryroalla in an ralered doit yk, alhoogh subsequent uldozer cats ‘revealed minor rocharitt depts 20m (Ort, 1995). The decision o dil et the Escondido Zalerar ‘rea was ake inca 198] te basi of the exploration ‘esl chained in parcuar the zonal geochemical ed Aeration patterns, preserce of peripheral veins, high ‘molybdenum geochemistry tod pray hema eae apping (One ot al, 198%, 1986, Lowel, 1990, 1991, (Ot, 195). The rs five ay hoes, 150101801 dep sd spaced at Im terval (6, were celled intheetn te Fig 7 Geological seston show te enishnen: blanket otra Ceo Calon asin te stn ing ‘inpagnascnfda Che Hole Site dare be Tae From Ont eal (1985) Lae (951, allwiated depression petwwen Cero Colorado and Cetra Zalavar, which was percenved a he focus ofthe entre porphyry system. The sul, milypropylc aeration land supergene copper values of <.25 fe, disproved ths hypothesis twas ten decided to st for rotary oles teste sulphide nee beneath leached capping on Certo Colorado (Fig. 6) The fist ofthese was the discovery oe andinrsocted $2 maf 151% Cubeneath 241 mot leached capping (Fig. 7), The oer thee also encountered significant mrcepis of earched sulphide (Fi. 7). ‘The discovery ofthe Escondida deposit was followed immediately by major pogsamme of core 450 pp Cuan >65 ppm Mo) ciacde well, trith the mapped tone of Kscte alteration, and show The eacrting sere aeration tobe ensentaly barren (ig. 9 Maranzana, 1972). The rock-chip samples ‘homalus for Cu and Mo were ll oletd within the Confines ofthe talus anomaly. Tas pioneering study Gf talus-fines geochemistry suggested 1s likely {pplicabliy to anid and semi-arid environments in Chile td elsewhere “Te dling of 10 short core oles at surface as well as undergrad ro four of William Braden’ ais Commenced ler 1969, ag the dtd Boe, which was the fisted uring the alraton an geochemical resus, Alscoveredhypogenechaleopyrite-boate miseraization Sveraging about 08 4 Cu ib K-seate-aleed tonalite, Tn 1970-71, 11 snore shor holes and 1 deeper 250) oes, binging the ltl to“, 100 my, were delled. Grid Grilling, on 200-m centres, was restricted to the tontwesen 15 Sof th Kslcate zone because of acess ‘cubis temmig frm the absence of road. By ey {rien he proystende,s probable resource oF 290 nilion tonnes seraging 08 % Cu and 0.035 % Mo had teen determin! to a depth of 250, No rts wed was underake at Las Peas ntl 1979, when Anaconda South America, owned by ‘Alani Richfield Company, purchased he pope from the local sain owners. Anatoada remapped in peaer ‘deta the Los Peambres deposit rea (Asinson el 1984), onstrated a 22-km acces road an conducted a nso core driling programe and metallurgical studies for ctl expendi of USS66 milion Howeves, the pet aad md conditions to jot lrg (50,000 0 ay) mining operation were not pesca "When Alani ic sol minerals business, Antofagasta Holdings (Lali rou) bought Aaconds' interest in Cie wih view to explting Los Pelamires ‘Savelatiely small underground mie based on he ih trade breccia ore defined by Anaconda, Production at $1000 uduy, using sub-level caving and flotation. Commenced in 1992, wth Midland Bank of the U.K. an {cy Goldstar of South Keres Antofagasta Holdings ‘aj parr sate 1994, Antofagasta increased its Sake in os Felambres to 82.8% (LG International of owe 175 58nd then in ate 1995 104, and staies of mine expansion to 4,000 Uy ae underway cen Summary Los Peumbres was identified and fstinvestgted 81 years ago, tu what ay be considered asthe covery ‘rllhote wasotelled unl 5 years ater The property fatered prodston further 22 Yeas Iter asa modest tderground mine rather tana he inl envisaged large-tonnsge open-pit operation “Tyaneling in 194 povided the fist concrete evidence of Sapersed copper mineralization at Los Pelambves, bat twas systematic slteration mapping. Supported by alsfne and rock-chip geochemistry tha tne the pte ore one for dil esting.‘B.onC corre osrosts II. EXOTIC COPPER DEPOSITS 1, El Tesoro, Chile Geological background ‘The El Tesoro exotic copper deposits oeted in the late Eacene early Oligocene porphyry copper bel of northern Chile, setween the giant Chugucamata and Escondida deposts. However, isan isolated depot lacking an obvious hypogene source, and may ave een detached by faulting from it parent porphyry copper epost “The orebudy comprises serie of shallowly ping, largely mn outeroppng manos tha underlie fea of 45x 2.5km (Fig 10) to stacked manos are prescatia he main central part ofthe depot beneath 9 130m oftarren gravels Fig. 1). The mineralization preset mainly as chryscella and atacamite, which Impregnated the fie acon ofthe host pimont gravel, ‘These gravels ocupya isin bounded tothe east by & strand ofthe Wes fl ane (Fi, 10) slong which oe ‘mineral displacements evidet. Unlike most exotic ‘copper depois in narthere Chile, he mineralization st EL Tesoo is confined to the graves (Fi. 11) rather than Sparing the grave bedrock conc (se belo) “Te geological eserveculind io date at E Tesoro {5 310milion tones averaging 0765% Cutie on 0.3 % Cacutoff Ofte, 6 lion ones grading 1 % Cu 0 % Cu cutoff) are reported abe oper pb Exploration and discovery The outcropping eastern par of the Tesoro epost was worked in atisanl fron fr oxide copper bytwo lea laimownes inthe 1540 One of tem staked ‘the Leonor are Fg 10), immedtly west of te oii EL Tesoro mine, inthe [950s without nering hs pate, ‘who then shot hin to deat during the ensuing dispute “AndtSico Labi perched 49 of he Sores property, which almost completely encircled by the Leonor lain Fg. 13 rom th ets ofthe sesinates ‘lum owner in 1987. Leonor mined unde the cata ofhis daughter. In 958, Lusi clad he Sata Carmen tea whi uous the Leonor propery (Fig 10). rom, 195762, Luke exploited the ner Surface oxide copper ‘mineralizaton as 00m and ple operation an ol the ‘tothe Chuquicamata mine, then operated by Chile Exploration Compan, te Anaconds Companys len subsidy. nite 197, before the dacovery of Escondi (e shove), the Uiah international -Gety Oil oi vesture optioned the Leonor property and staked claims immedi east te Sata Carmen pope Te ont D prams Din ig. 10 Siac mp of te Teor exo coppe depos, (Cle. Igely concede piedmont pasele Te Cah Staton overs sou te pnt shown Sept te tase goup. MAS gg >05% totaly DON otaku res Barren gravel Fig 1. Grae secon trcugh he min cena pi ofthe EX “eso exotic oper depot Chie o stow he wo rakes ras of onde copper mnealzton hots by pido [avls Taken fom Bgl Ming unpub data ‘vemuers completed only thes holes at Leoaor, the ‘emainder ofthe 7,600 of rotary dling (rie 1985) being devoted toh area sutounding the Santa Carmen claims in an aenpo leet the bed source of the exaie copper. The programme was unsccessfal and the option Was aot exercised. On the advice of & ‘consultant the Ls prop drilled 18 riry hes inthe ‘aster pa ofthe Santa Caren propery in 198Sin search ‘ofthe bedrock copper sure, bt aly ow 2rde porphyry copper mineralization wis encountered, In 1988, the dnuptr ofthe origina asasinated claim owner sid he Leour property, and the ne ower started to constr tend witha view to expoting oxide opp ore. In 1980, the Luke poup tested he copperexon corre pero potenti of he Srpees property with 3,000 of ding, (hich indicated th presence of 8 lion omnes of oxide tre. The owner of the Leonor propery was encouraged ty the ering underway onthe contiguous clam block, tnd equested ie dling contractor to complete wo ROS ‘mis ground before demobilsing the equipment {Leonor him owner approached Nia Mining in 1991 with the esl of the two dil oles. Niugii tec intrested and atemped immediatly to uy the 51 of Sores silleonsoledby the eis ofthe rig ‘owner, but the Luksie group foiled the attempt and ‘tcceeded in extending is intrest to 100%. Niugini ‘proceed to dil 6 reverte-ciealtion hoes a 200- Intervals to tst the subsurface potential ofthe Leonor ‘property. An interesting copper fesoutce was indicate, Bathe majority shareholder in Nivgns Mining (Bate Moustain Gold Company) didnot want o become involved in copper mining. Consequently, the Leonor ‘esoutce was solo Equatorial Mining of Atala in 19, Equatorial optioned he Leonor pope o Pacer Dome but when prem cold not be reached wih te ‘Lic proup concerning its Sopresa claims, the option Tapsed in erly 1993 without any deiling having been ‘ied ot Eaton then desided to proceed ave and 5H revere-cirultion Roles for abou 25,000 m were Ailes daring the remainder of 1993. The dling pater Sra lose down 060 1 80 moa ies 5m apart. Dang the dein rogram, the property was mapped andthe ‘ental pat of he copper eesource was modelled by an ‘ute constant as a southwest srending pleochanne ie. 10, "The Luksic group conducted several additonal, campaigns of reverse eclation driling inthe Srpress tnd Santa Caren propeies fom 1990-95 fr aoa of SR.000 m. Atte pres ine, the Laks properties conan 228 millon tonnes grading 0.75% Cu oe about the {uae ofthe ot resoare st l Tesoro “The Beso copper deposits amenable to open- pitextction and testment using SX-EW tecology. but Ivemains uncertain whether the Luksic group and Equi wl ptt develop one single or wo separate mining operations. Summary ‘The Bl Tesoro deposit was he site of sporadic, small cle copper explain for Sve decaes, but the tue size ofthe concealed, down-dip resource was nt feveded until the result of he extensive ding during {he Tat five yeas became avalable. During tha time, rolgial input tothe exploration progimmes has been {elaively minor, Geocheisty and goophysies have nat been employed atl. orth at 0 years oo, th elim sition at “Teor hs ben convlue, wittedepostbelag divided beeen to diferent groups. This sitaton sil revs nds the mot etic for alfecting the poi of ature mining operations. Pve years have pusod already tine the covery ofthe excasive copper mineralization SCE Tesoro, and sl no is development plans have been announced. 2. Damiana, Chile Geological background Damiana isan exotic oxide copper deposi that extends about 4m wes: of the El Salvador porphyry Copper molybdenum deposit (Fig. 12and 13), locale at the southern end of the lte Bocene-eary Oligocene powphyry copper belt” northern Chile. The eopper Ineralzton, hosted by Miocene pledmont gravels an $abjacent andesite bedrock, s principally a shallowly {ping seeks body, Distally, however. te copper Imieralation ends to besome confined paleo channels {the bal gravels, andio be higher in grade. Several ‘copper minerals, most noubly ehysocll and amorphoos ‘copper wad inthe andestic rocks and turquoise inthe [rile presenta impregnation (Rojas and Mit, {O94 Onlya few metres of aren gravels conceal the opps mineralization (Fi 12). The roximal ease edge ofthe exotic copper deposit contains minor amount of Supergene chaleoite, mainly confined to the andesite Teoh, which hat tneton to the maje Et Salvador ‘ring blank conc beseath the leached caping. ‘on Cero Indio Muerto Gigs. 12 and 13; Gustto and Ho, 1975), a Damiana is awaitd, but i believed to exceed 300 tilion ones about 0% Cu. The wsquoise dominated ‘inertia be gravels is oti leachable (Rojas nd Male, 1994), Exploration and discovery Traces of malastite have been observed in the andesite voleaic rock xhued rom Beneath piedmont irmels wee ofthe El Salvador porphyey copper deposit for yearby geoopiesof Cie Exploration Company (Anaconda) and CODBLCO-Chile. However, the trsteneof en exc copper depot the are was at fospected util early 1992, when consulting geologist ‘ros examining aspect of El Salvador geology om beta? ofthe erent omer a operator, CODELCO-Chie “The const reese suggestion, made 1Syeas previously, dha the supergene calcite exploited From the small Qucbrada M open pt at Salvador Fi 13) replaced pyrite, and may have been derived from copper-chargd supergene solutions that drained forwards ding development of the main sepergene rofl in the wpe parts of te EI Salvador depast- Given the coincidence in elevation between the top ofthe (Quebrada M chleoite blanket andthe gravel bedrock ont immedi othe wes the constant suggested further shat he same supergene solutions may have pevpiated ex oxide copper minerals at this contact, Beyond the pysite halo tothe El Salvador system. He roposed tha fe copper suiting of he andes voleanis Could be the expec rot zone of ell ered part of an exotic copper deposit. Shallow deiling to tst the Fig13_ Map ofthe Damiana ext opper deport CN alcoieenrchbent at Quebyace M. The net low econ of supergene copenhagen re shown “Taken om Roa nd Mier 199) “0 EXOTIC COPPER DaFOSITS. Fig 12 View mts wet the pave covered pened etn te Damian exoue oper Seon, Cie. Caro leached eppingconsaing te ‘exotic copper, is Senin the ackgoune Toe al ee seo the pte surface seve Protaras Sie, 192 Inypothesis was proposed. The original predictive model is eproduced a Figue 4 ‘Geologists of the BI Salvador Division of CODELCO-Chile were exploring for eileschable copper inthe dsc, nd used the mass-balance metiod fof Bria et (1985) suggest tht he copper inthe El Salvador enrichment blanket wat less than tha predicied, Although the calculation was likely awed Bocause ofthe impossibility of assigning & mesringtal hypogene grade tothe suphides im the Iithocap that underwent Teaching, «was flt tht the balance ofthe 260 ppm Cu = creek Fi 16 Suis ateatonpaer gp in 1973 (Sloe, 179) be jo de La Alomar apy cope depot, Arge, ‘bined with th 196 ck ep cer ress rn Me Nt ho wae laon bese ta koe ea, {lth Cay, dhe entecy forthe ges Mo geochemical ae ost eget The pons of ec ey ‘YMAD coe oles are 2sampling programme at S0sm cents with analysis for Cur Mo, Ph and Zn Four short ce ble, ling 226 1m, were then die (Pig. 16) 10 reveal porphyry copper ‘mineralization with average grades of 0.38% Cuand 04 IAG; however, core recoveries ere anaceeptly low 5¢50 % oc ls. The preseace of Fslicate alteration and its comeltion withthe bes opp mineralization t Bajo de La Alumbrera were nt recopszed ut 1971 when the prospect was examined bys consulting geolonst, engaged by Plan NOA-I, a coaborative exploration propramsne between Argatne government agencies and the United Nations From 1970 onwards, YMAD continued to dil shallow core holes without any obvious geological ‘atonal nd by 1973, nine a en competed with only ‘des rau lo 1973, te consting polo engaged by Plan NOA-1 prepared a resonmisance geological and leration map of be Bajo de La Aunbrera prospect (Fa 16) an loge te are fom he nie completed oes, ‘Te anomalous roek-chipgenchencal values fr copper were shown coincide reasonably well with he cera ‘esa zoe (Fig 16, which ws recognized poses patches of quartz magnetite leraton Fig 16)comaining fhe highest copper values. However, maximum ‘molybdenum gosbemicl values end tie yond the copper anomaly Fig. 16). An induced-poatization peopl survey was cared ov by Plan NOACI at he me time as the geologieal maprng exercise. ‘Selected eae fom the ea il ols was asseyed for gold, butte results repre by two local abate vaned by an order of magaitude In onder to eslve the confit, 10 selected core samples were shipped 0 & ‘Canadian laboratory. and eight othr assayed between (0.8 and 150 ph Ab. The consant realized that these ‘ales were comparable tos exploited athe soz Panguna porphyry copper-gld mine in Papua New (Guinea and theefrehighlghtede gold potent at Bsjo de La Amer eventhough he ol price was then only UUssLiD perez. rom lt 1973.76, jstematic ling of 42 cone holes wo depts of approximately 300m by Pan NOA-T as designed to est the ental Kiet 20, cluding the Bigtvgrade quacte-magneite part. Mapping, core logging and extensive pevographic studies conned previous geological concusion, especialy the close sociation between Kslcte aeration an hypogene opp and gold mineralization (Goes, 1975; Godens nd Segal de Svetiza 1980), Tsdiling campaign was cowed primal by the mappe terstion pater, nd asl influenced by the geochemical an geophysical Fels. Aa indiatd resource of 100 milion tonnes at {Cu and 07 ght Av was estimaed on the Basis ofthe first U7-hole campaign Following the inital defnition of a potential copper gl orebody at Bajo de La Auber tated {rom the Plan NOA-1 drilling campaign, coatinued. scological and geochemical sides by consultant and University students (eg, Bass and Rochefort, 1980: Guiles, 1982), deiling 28 ational core les, tee of them to depth of 600 m, snd for positive pre feasibility sties by epuabl iternatnal ganizations were undeaken, These actives add fute deta, but {id nt cbnge the veal 1973-74 perception of tea ‘dea Alumbreradopost. Alte tine of low copper ses in he 198052 sal projet for beapeach recovery oF fold from the leached capping over the Bajo ds La ‘Alumbrera sulphide orebody was conceived, bu: not plemented 'A combination of onerous project pre-condions ‘impose by YMAD, te unfivourtble pltico economic climate in Argentina and low word copper peices made the Bode La Alumbrer deposit natactive to foreign ‘ining companies fo nearly 20 years Natu ery 1992, following a publi tender in 1990, was an aquistion sgrerent signed with Itrnatonal Musto Exporaions Ue. of Canada International Musto commenced = feasibilty study by reasaying 10% of the samples baied from 220,000 m of previous core diling an srape depth of 30m. Adionl ered, ining 7400 m in 17 hoes to increase information wa depth of 00m was also cried ou In xy 1994 International “Must sold a 50% stake inthe property to MIM Holdings, ad yet more cove deiling, boning the propel tot ‘hot 36000 m, neared the ore reserve to that sat ‘hoe. nerntional Maso was taken ve ol by North [td and Rio Algom in 1998, and they and MIN. are commencing constriction of large open piflttion pean Summary More thas 26 years hve elapted sready since iscovery ofthe Bajo de La Alumbver porpyey cope old depot, and some 20 year sine an orebody as is obvious because ofthe prominent colour anomaly. The rst stage of defini ailing was conuoled mainly by anunderstanding of alteration zoning and its conta on {he hypogene and supergene copper and god contents. ary recognition ofthe elevated gold content wae rial step in definition of the echo “The depot hasbeen stfed extensively romborh geological and economic standpoints, during is 82 eat Instoyof exploration and appraisal but on reel save economic, poial and mining a reforms combined vo ‘make large sal mine development a alist pa a.RFUVRY coemeR.cotDr GOLD neOstTS 2. Marte and Lobo, Chile Geological background ‘Mart and Lobo are closely spaced porphyry gol Apostate at >, 000 m elevation inthe Marcunga tal some 30k east of Copp norte Chile Both Akos re ceavedon sl i-phase vt popyry socks emplaced into partially eroded andesite statvoleanes of late Miocene age (Vis and Silo, 190, Gold is poset in quart-seine stckworks that, tue thought to have been emplaced with Ksilicate lettin lah mow they ae seit maa th ‘ar overprinted imtermediate agi arsemblage ich in ‘ote (Vila ad Sitios, 1981, Pyrite she principal siphide, although traces of chalcopyrite, borate and ip 17 View o be Mae pope i eo, Cle, for the outhves before mung commence. Tests fhe vanced agile Iithocap give se tote seed” on Re Foreground eg: Bulger rence and dl rons ut he ‘umount cover ch cee pnp El or in ‘Seo pry. aes ann inc 99 molybdenite ar also presen Magnet and emai re importat components ofthe stockwork valet, The remnants of tren advanced age ithesp comping ‘quart lot, bart, sate sulphur and abundat pyrite ‘apes the gold deposit at Marte pie mining (17 Vilvet al, 1991, but the deeper erosion sufeted bythe [Lobe deposi rested in esction of advanced arilie sheration sal overated hyrethemal bess, The deeper erosion evel at Labo is aso thought to be espoile forth nou for ofthe oe (Vila and Site, 1990, “The geological resource at Marte is 46 milion tonnes grading 1.3 gt Au ad that at Lh Allon "onnes of 16 gt Aus both sing 208 it Av et off Vila tnd Silive, 1991) Only 20 or #0 of teas totals underwent supergene oxidation. Silver contents are <0 om. Exploration and discovery The prominent alteration nes a Marte and Lobo were identified in early 1981 during an aerial esonmasance of he Andean Corl of eres Chile In search of ares prospective for Elo vein-ype gold ser deposits (6 below). The overlying programme as cated out by BT Bxplracioes Linda under ‘onrat to Compa Minera Anglo Cominco Limitads, 1530 joi venue betwen the Chilean subse af ‘Anglo American and Cominco Resources Limited. The iteradon zone, slong with ome 200 oes identified uring the eri vecontasance, were considered nity to be of eptermal type and twas oot unl exploration as wel advanced tha the prphyry.type afin of the old mineralization was appesiated (Vila ad ilioe, 1991; Vilaetal, 1991. eer to this expo intinive, oly ative sulphur minealzation was known nha ‘mos ter ars ofthe Marcungs el ‘eile work tthe Marts ad Labo prospect was, accomplished dutiag 1981-82 and, along with a Subsequent exploration activities, was underaker on behalf ofthe joint venture by Minera Anglo American Chile Limitada. Exploration began with geological mapping, rock-chip sampling and talvy-fines se0ctemisy, the Is similar oe technique pioneered the Los Pelambes porphyry copper epost ae above) by Maranzana (1972). Te sul of the fines suey ‘eealed gold anomalies defined by vals of 3200 ppb (fig, 1) an in par, >400 ppb Au, which were shown svegueny to Bethe surface expremons of gold oe ila bd Silite, 1991; ila et a, 1991, Parts ofthe to ‘rebodies ae also mand by talus fines tha yielded moderate 100 ppm) copper anomalies (Fig 1), slong ithislared anomalous ales of arena ead derived from te overinted advanced aril ation,Soil ochemisey was followed a Mate and Lo by construction of approximately 10 km of bullowet tence, which wete subjected to detailed geological ‘mapping and rok chip geochemical sampling. Rests showed that rock hip Values 05 ppm Au coincide well ‘withthe lune snomaies died by the 200 ppb Au ‘sopleh Fig. 18), an tha these rock-cip pod anomalies te ssociated with shee or stckwork gut einlts (Vila and Site, 1991; Viet a, 1991, In late 1982, the downward extension of gold ‘mineralization beneath the surface anomaly at Mare was ‘investigated by means of about 400 m of underground evelopment, which exposed parally ce tly oxidized port caring relaelyhomogeac geld vals of 3 ppm. Column and pltsealehespleach esting of it Samples showed thatthe gods potentially coverble Qy Tavs fines >200 ppd Au Wn) Talus fines 100 ppm Cu @® Pack chips 500 ppb Au ig. 8 Corparion ota ioe Avan Cad ok hip Au ‘ales over be Lobo porphyry a epost, Chile Nate he {lose eaepandnce nemo etl mc and rok op ‘el Taken oo Vina aie 1990), 2s FORPHYRY COMER cot GoLD berosTs sng cyaidaon ‘The gold esuarce a Mae was defined om 1983. 7 ty thee campaigns of ictined dling. Foxy reverse ‘lrculation Holes to about 80 m were drilled fat sad followed by 40 additonal everse-I gt AU mincralizatien (Brown ed "Rayment, 1901), cach comparable tothe fom ofthe Labo epost See above), The Pancho sector cots 8 milion tonnes grating 088 gf Au Peres, 1993), about 20% of these resources ae oxidized Exploration and discovery ‘Thepromioent Regi sleraton ore sarpsingy was not recorded daring the aerial reconnaissance onducted early 1981 on behalf of Compania Miners ‘Anglo Cominco Limitada in northern Chil. The caine ere registred bya lal company, Compatia Minera Refugio which undertook «geological nd rock chip _sscchumiclrecommaissance before offering the eopety ‘Minera Anglo American Che nt jit vente me, Minera Anglo American ook the year option fon the Revusio property in 1985, and commenced ological mapping and tls-fnes geéchercal sampling ‘thick eds definition ofthe Verde, Panchoand Guana ‘mineralized sectors. Vales >100 ppb Avin as fines ulin effcvely the thee mineralized seers Fg 1), although same samples returned high gold asays, vp 1 1S g/t: Grcund-magnetic and VLF surveys were not particulary sucesfl in defining the mineralized zones. ‘venous hyroermal magnet quart tockworking and agilicalteration represen. The rock hp samples lect fom tlldozer trenches and oadcut ceeded 0d valvesup to 1p “GUANACO roomy avsnnt J cope Aun sto J) Poteet ut ig 19 Tats nes gol gochemiry ad porphyry go epee yur skort Rte Cle ‘Taken for Brown sd Rayment (91. ‘The pote geological and geochemical suk led to a programme of shallow (£100 m) dling, compiising 80 reverseciculation and 6 core lle, 500 ppm ig 20_Gescenical aonates recorded aca covert ‘het bedrock sing aor or RAB delgado of he Endeavour () porphyry eoppe-gld depots snd ‘ccuenes that espera Gaommbindse Aa, Taken om Hehe (190), nih sn om Hoop alps, al, 199), More extensive and closer space drilng thea led 'o discovery of addtional porphyry copper centres, inching Endeavour 20, 26,27, 24 aad31 (Fig 20, Endeavour 26 North, the largest of the Gosnumtla epost, was discovered in 1979, and was appraised sing 0 deep (0 900 minced coe les taling 25000, slong wih 3 shallower reversion an cre hes ‘otalling 2.750 m (Hethersay eal, 1990), Soon afterwards, the third deposit, Endeavour 27, was “scored, and assess wth 26 deep inci coe bees (6800 m) and 214 short vere revere-cirulaion, ‘2re and core hoes (7.560 m)(Heithersty et al, 1990) A arid magnetic survey over the Endeavour 22 ‘epost reveated a subtle magnetic low. Therefor, 3 dscwide ound magnet survey wat cared ut with {he resulting anomalies tested by means of supercore ling Ceithersay et al, 1990) Results were generally ‘scouraging, but the yeogramme dl lead to asconey of le Endeavour 3 prospect (Hetersay et 199), Bedrock geochemical sampling ha been shown 28 to be an effective exploration ool for porphyry copper epost in the distri, and even detected ead tnd ne ‘noma ether propyiti idoes in places (Heithersey tal, 1990), Therefore new anomalies were sousht throughout the most prospective au sing rary sat (RAB) hoes died to depts of 30 to $0 m on 40-m enires Hethersay etl, 1990, This programme ad scovery ofthe Endeavour 37 snd 23 Nath deposits ig 20, 1m 1989 afte this RAB programme was completed, low-level aeromagnetic survey was flown over the ena arts of the dstct.Speciieatonsnclded 120-m ine ‘Spacing apd 70-m nai clears Hooper etal ines) ‘The computer-asssted interpretation ofthe results enerated 30 magnetic anomalies with similar sigeatres to those over the known porphyry deposits inthe dt One ofthe first-party targets modeled a magnetic ‘igh imming «cena ow, x beated onthe Endeavour lneament ad is ero snomals copper and pd values in RAB holes late 1992 the magaeti target ad te sociated geochemical anomaly were tested with four ecasion ols, butonly th fintntescted appreciable ophyrtype mineralization, $f mat 10% Chant 1S DUAL, to discover the Badeavour 4 deposit (Hooper ct al, in press). However, seven aren perussion holes ‘ere then drilled before an angled cor hole, th nd of. 1992, confirmed the ells of he fit percussion hole ‘The dificult experienced in ila he nebo resaed fiom displacement of stop poten by alow ange, pos. ‘mineral fault (Hooper eta, ia press). By mid 1993, ower, [2416 m of dling ha dined the Endeavour 48 deposit Hooper et a in pes) Extensive regional inde polarization surveys ‘were ened ou a iferent ines, but the rests proved sifcut to ieterpet and inconclusive, Te problems probably tm fom conductive overburde, vibe dep to bedrock and the generally low sulphide content ofthe deposits eters a, 1990, ‘North Broken Hil Peo (cureny North Limited) and its 20 % partners, Suaitémo Metal Mining and ‘Semitomo Corporation, paced be Goonsmbla deposi, named the Nontiparkes projec, ino production aa gold only operation im mid:1994, Open-pit mines ae i ‘operation tthe Eodeavour 22 and 27 deposits, decline and shaft development ace well vanced forthe Endetour 26 No lock caving mine and mine planning {s ongoing forthe Endeavour <¥ underground ming, Production of gld-baring copper concentrates i de to ‘commence in te 1995, Summary ‘The Guvmunble porphyry coppe-gold depots ‘sulted fom 3 conceptual explerstion programe frVMS deposits, which were a pre-eminent exploration objectivetiophot caren Australia in he 10s. The Aiscovey of the fst deposit ook ix yeas ofpersistent regional geoloical and geochemical wotk, but new ‘iscovers inthe dsvct were sl forticoming 15 yeas Tuer. Seventen year elaped between iil scovery and procucton, Goonumbl isthe oly commercially able pxphyry copper deposi tobe found to date in caster Ausuala,alhough oovrences are numerous “The mest effective exploration techrigre proved to be gecchemical sampling ofthe concealed top of bedrock, niall using an auger and later a RAB rig CContinul systematic exploration and compilition of high-quality geological geochemical nd geophysical ata hase for he dstriet were responsible for sequent -iscoveryof he Endeavour 26 Neth 77 and 8p, Integration ofthis database with he sesult oo evel saeromagttic survey was instrumental io be latest 5. Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea Geological background The Ok Tedi porphyry copger- gold deposit is Jocte in there SlarMountsinrof western Pap [New Guinea. The depostisceated oa Mt Fabian, which |sunderan by a muliple monzonte porphyry sock of Plocen ap emplaced int late Cretaceus to Miocene sedimentary cocks, including a hick imestone member (Bamford, 1972; Rush and Soopers, 950) Most of the hypogene porphyry-type mineralization, averaging between 02 and 04% Ox is Presets velit apd diseinated grains in Kase tered porpyey Bamfor, 1972). Calesiliet sarns ‘onaiing mabe and suphides and up 1025 % Cu ‘ecu inte limestone wallocks. Chalopyite tema ypogene copper mineral A supergene pf nasal well developed forthe opie, developed over Ee orl copper deposit and consists of 13 to 200 m of leached capping undedain by $010 300 m of ehaleoce nsichment (Bamford, 1972), The gold content ofthe leached capping ranges fom 110>3 ph andthe copper content ofthe enchment blanket exceeds 1%, reproduction eserves amounied 1 30 milion tonnes of ached capping averaging 3 pt Ava |S gh Av cutoff Davies et a. 1978), 385 million tonnes of sulphide oe grading 0.67% Cu, 06g Au and 0011 % Moatacat ff of04% Cur! pt Au Rush and Seeger, 1990) and 90 milion tongs of ska oe averaging 125 @ 7agL 40 WR First sightings of Cu-bearing rmagneiite float ig 21S mst latins of their at samples of assivechaepyit-eaing mse ous by Kenacet {olgissin wesem Pars Now Gates in 968 The mates ‘ra cerved omstamtasepeed othe oer dope oca rbn esee ee OTe poy oper ‘Cu and 1.58 gk Au sing the same cutoff grade (Rush and Seges, 150, Exploration and discovery ‘There was no historical mining or mineral exploration in western Papua New Gunes. The fis ‘ecords of copper mineralization in the region wee by toverament parol officers in 1963 and 1967 but no publicity was fotheoming (Davies ea, 1978) in 1968, ‘RennscotExpbrations (Aust) Ply Limited nitted helicopter supported drainage geochemical exploration programme for ory copper deposits in the Western Province of Papes ashi part ofthe county was known before indepenfence in 1978). The Ok Ted porphyry system was fest evidenced by chaleopyit-bearing ‘agri founda rea lst, fs some 4k south of (Ok Tediandthensome 4kmeas Fig, 2; Bamford, 1972) ‘The oat bearing rsinages were showed subsequently contain team sient anomalous with espe coppet (Ganfoud, 1972, The oat was followed tots source, ‘uterps of massive magnetite and sulphides in calcFoRPHvEY COPPER COLD GOLD sess silicate srr, and ed to discovery ofthe Mt. Fubitn orpyey stock it mi-1968. Ine 1969, 16 core oles ‘were drilled to est he skarn copper tinralzation, but Fels wete ater dappoing By Inte 196, the stunted vegetation over Mt. ubilan andthe leacod capping exoned in creck nied ‘nt tanks aroused interest ne M.Fubilan stock ‘sel Bamford, 1972), although fae copper values ‘ere <300ppn (Brooks, 199) neal 196, alco pad cut atthe summit ofthe mourn exposed poptiry laced wth monte quart vines Bamford 1972) The Soc ws mapped anda decision keno dil as scon 2 helicopter stable freignstllston could be contacted (@rooks, 1990. The first hole wacollared in mid 1969 {nd encountered eniched copper inclization grading > 3% beneath 60m of ached apping (Barford. 1973). ‘A majo driling programe was nounted in 1970-71, “uring which 32,860 m of core were recovered fom the ‘Ok Ted porphyry copper deposit A developmen ding programme was planned by Kennet, but was beer ‘executed because of breakdown innegoistons with the government ove the mining ie ard tax regime (Davies tal, 1978) Kenaecot threw fem th Ok Tel project. i995, Following Kennecot’s withdrawal, several ‘ompanies entered int discussione with he goverment and Triako Mines-Buka Minerals proposed a itl go ‘nly operation based on the leached caping bearing ‘mind the rise in he gold price dung the previous dee yeas (Davies et a, 1978). Tike Buka then interested the Broken il Proprietary Company (BHP) the poet, and negotiations betweee BHP ante goverment, stated ‘9 mid-1975, were completed in lt 1976 (Davis et a, 1978) Buka-Triako withdrew and consortium was formed between ssbsiiaries of BHP G73 2). Amoco Minerals (75 &) and Kaperexpiontionseslscalt (2 German group 25), Ore reserves were nreaied ring the nepotation pid esl of a 00-m core ring programme undertaken on teal of te goverment From Inte 1976-ery 1978, 86 oles for total of 24400 m of development drilling in te golcrich capping sod lnderlying sulphide zone were completed by the ononium Rush td Seeger, 190) Some 800 m fats were driven and two shfi (otal 56 m) sunk forthe calleton of leached I % Cu Hole GRS 3 as dled aa steeper angle, but alo intersected wel: Iigealized pop. Tis was flowedty GRS-4 which vas verti! and recovered 600 m of core averaging 1.65 %Cu,esenaly al hypogee, and 14 yt A (Van Nort tal, 18D, By this time it was lear tht high rade ypogene posphyry copper gold mineralization i present i the Graserg stock. Dring was contined with many ote eineton and developmen holes called in eye ‘of underground openings Open pit reduction Began 000 ‘feria at 1989, beau he Eraterg tation mil was ulged This has undergone expansion o 105.000 tay and further major increase nro are moe Summary Discovery ofthe Graber porphyry coppe-zot epost was the culmination of 28 years of progressive ‘expleraon by Freeport inthe Extbers dsr and owesFORPHYRY COPPER-GOLD) GOLD OEROSTS macho be ist recognition there ofeoppermineazaton uring liming expedition some 25 year ear. High rock-enp goa geochemical values obi during the mos recent of several inspections the Grater spect. Gal wae cen wo overcome prejuion concerning ‘he maxinum hypogene grad of porphyry coper depos and leé 10 authorization of exploration dling The ‘Grasbers exploration ease history emphasizes the imporance o reviewing obscure golial erature ap ‘tutions against lind acceptance of widely publicized ‘padetommage mals for oe deposi. 7. Batu Hijau, Indonesia Geological background ‘The Batu Hija porphyry copper gold deposit is ‘uated in step erin nthe southwestern pat ofthe island of Sumtawa, Indonesia. The deposit ypicl of ‘he porphyry copper-gld category, ands centred ob ‘multiple tonal ory tock emplaced ito die and nde voleanies (Meldrum et al, 1994). The copper fd closely associate gold inraiaion i present n 8 ‘ane of quarirsmagretitesockwork vein with Ke Silat alteration (Meldrum etal. 1994). The bass ‘emma ofan advanced arg lihecap ae preserved at the highest elevations Supergene oxidation gives seo flashy malachite stainng of rock utops. uti shallow (5:85 a), Undesying pide erichnent developed only weakly Meldrum ea (1994) reported a reserve of 34 nilion ones averaging 08 6 Cu and 069g Au, wich represent the bigh grade cor ofthe deposit toa depth of (600m. The oa godogial resource comprises 11,200 ralion bf copper an 147 milion om (315.7 tome®) of si Exploration and discovery Loca inhabitants do not appear wo have appreciated the sigifiance of theprominent green coloared rocks at ‘Bau Hijau, and no aisanal prospecting or micing tivities are reported, However, loeal company, CV Kade Gudeng, held the property under KPs (mining Tcenes) fo several eas ad, although no work ses to ave been caid ou, presumably mineral pote plore in indonesia nf 1 1986, « Newmont subsidiary, PT. Newmont ‘Nusa Tenggara, tooc out Conract of Work (COW) Fig.28 BLEG oldand-S0 mesh sam edinerCo aaa tind ring iow p spigot ccs aig te Bats Hie ory copper ele depos, Ions Taken fom Melia ta (198, 202 ppm A we «2000 ppm Cu — 220 ppm ho DY prainage ig 24 Bedok geochemical somali for Au, Cuando nines om enh sampling, Bits Hi porphyry co {etd eos nce Naw oe pesperal prion of Mo wh Fenett Cana A Take om Neral (980. tenements in western Sumbaw andthe neighbouring ‘slapd of Lombok and commenool systema geochemical exploration fo got Ture, 198; Melia etl 1994). ‘The region war not part ofa lnown porphyry copper province, bu was considered tpossess ether gold Potent Drsnage gcchemicl sampling sed the bk each estractable gold (BLEG) technique (see Wood et1990), with one 40 mesh sample weighing approximately 2 kg collecied each 5 10 10 km? (Turner, 1993), Concurrently, £0 mesh stream sediment, panned: concentate and float samples wer taken in onde to broaden th scope ofthe survey. The fist ity BLEG nomi dhe of which were followed-up in deta is otinelade Baus Hijau. This porphyry copper eds {ves seo a second order BLEG responce (10 and 15.3 ‘98 Au) along wih 38 ppm Coin the coesponding 80 ‘mesh stream-sediment samples (Medrum et al, 1998), ‘eatal allow-up drainage sampling in 1989 revealed a ‘em? anomaly Fg. 28), inelding 169 pp Ad in BLE nd $80 pm Ou in teams supe ht orth ofthe isovery outrop (Ture, 1993 elim t 1994), Weakly copper minealied bedrock nd well Imincralized intrusive oat samples were also found (Meldrum tal, 1994) Tn fat as early 1987, Newmont Staff had identified copper suiphies fn done Rost rm ‘eat he sland’ southern cousin creek draining the ‘Bau Hijau aes (Meldrum eta, 1954). ‘When the drainage asomaly (Fig. 23) was followed-up in 190, ater CV Kade Guang KPslpud, the spectacular malachite-ssined ovterops were ‘encountered in an ares of sparse vegetation nthe forest. (enum etal, 1984:cf.Ok Ted, above) The malachite Stang led to Newmont’ choice of Bau Hija (green rock) as name During 1990, the surface extent of the rineralizatio at Bata Hj was outlined by alteration ‘mapping and ridge-and-spur auger geochemistry othe tepof bedrock (Meldamt 1, 1998). A o0e of Kite sleration, measring 20m, consned 100 ppm ‘Guat the top of bedrock, Detailed sampling of 629 "randomly oriented, 5 long wrenches da within this nomalous zone revealed >3,00 ppm Cu and 30.2 ppm ‘Au (Fig. 28) over the upper paso the Baty aul “Molyenum values define an anal rad the opp: sol ore Fig. 24. Bao de Ls Alambrea above). ‘A programme of oe diag, 1,000min 2 holes, commenced in mid-1991. Twenty ofthe holes were ‘ertcal and riled ona 150-6 200-m grid to generate the resource esate quoted shove (Melum tal 1988), Geological and geochemiel mdelingof the Ba jas epost, along with deiling (eurenty 106 cor hoes, 5000) continues, and Newmont preenly isengaged in Feasbty stuaies. Summary ‘The Bau ja porphyry copper gold deposit war discovered five years into & well-planned regional *xperation programme for gold. Although an elemento serendipity may be perceived (Van Leeuwen, 1994), ‘cee was the Fes of BLE gold an stream sediment ‘copper geochemistry combined with leat observation and ORPHYRY COFFER OLD COLD Derostts analysis. Bedrock geochomisty and aeration mapping efned the dil ge with precision. “The Batu Hijau case history underscores the Iimponance of combining th BLEG method witht es streamsediment and flat sampling during drainage secchemica survey, 8, Far Southeast, Philippines Geological background ‘The Far Southeast porphyry copper old deposit is located inthe Mankayan mineral strict of norte anon, Pilippics The discs mae up of tat fur porpyy copper gol systems, which nl bah ih and low-sulpidation eithermal copper-gold snd gold epost. Mostimporant isthe Lepnt part ofthe dist, ‘where the Far Southeast porphyry copper gold deposit is bordered westwatds bythe Lepaniohigh-sulphidation nate god-alver deposit. “The Far Southeast deposi centred onan ovoid, downward-widening quate dociteposphyy sock of Pleistocene age, which eats a Miocene andesitic voleaniclastic sequence (Concepcion sed Cine, 1989; Gara. 1991), Te topo the deposits conceal beneath {650m of coveroeks Chalopynite, bot and associated gold mineralization is part of « Keilicate alteration semble, which grades outwards tough emda tg to propyie alerion (Concepeon and Cinco, 1985, Garcia, 1991. Veais of quae and magne are sbundaat inte ore zone. Advanced agli alteration ‘occurs above the porhyey deposit (Gara, 1991) ‘ars ofthe Mankayan district ae underlain by phretomagmati dateme breccias, which are inte by dace porpyy plugs and dames Silite and Angsles, 1985). One of thse ditemes and anaetocited date ‘oephry plug atleast in part ater than porshyry copper Tornation (Conceeion and Cinco 1989; sce Below), sre presentat Lepant Immediately wet ofthe Far Sutosst Gepost the eastward plnging intersection betwee the shallowly upwardlared contact ofthis disreme and & Steep west-northwest striking fault one localized the Lepant enaras-olddepost (Sitios 1983) The 2-km Tong Lepanto deposit i an inepuar, inclined, pipe by of eco iling abd placement origin aanented with peripheral vin sets (Gari, 1991. The orebody i envelope by siliiicaion, which grades outwards to ‘quartzlunt-kaliste seston, “The Far Southeast deposit possesses a geological resource of 356 million tonnes grading 0.73 % Cu and1.24 gt Av onthe base ofa 1 5 Cu equivalent cutoff (Contepeic and Cinco, 1985). Ata poet economic tof pra of 18% Cuegulvalet te mineable potion 16120 millon tonnes averaging 080 % Cu snd L691 AL Production an reserves fr the Lepanto depesitamcunt to 3Bmilion ones 122% Cu, 35 ph Avan 1 BLAS. Exploration and discovery ‘Copper ac gol were exploited in the Mankayas sic by the Chinese during the Mag dyeasy (13th ‘entry thendigeacus gos and te Spats Formal ‘mining ofthe Lepanto enarpte gold deposit by the Cantabr Filia Company began in 1865, but laste oaly bout 10 years In 1936, Lepanto Consolidated Mining ‘Company tock over the mine and, except for 8 peeiod of “Iapanse control during World Wa has conned ts ‘opertons othe peesent dy ‘During the 1950 an 960s, Lepnto Consolidated si ened te existence of porphyry copper potenti the Mankayan dst, eventhough the Philippines was being recogeieed increasogly a= porphyry copper province. Consequently, i fell to other companies, Mankayan Mineral Development Company and Gold Feld Asa Limited, o demonstrate dating the eal and ‘i197 that porpytype minrallzation exist inthe tds (Silt and Angeles, 1985) However, 1978, Lepanto Consolidated geologists recognized porphyry ‘ype mineralization during re-examination of coe om the deper pars of wo dil oles completed four years tari some kn southeast ofthe Lepanto deposit The ‘ote was assnyed im midI980 and shown 0 contain Gis acest py Cra apa ig 28 The poston proposed in ety 1980 oa high-rate purbyry comer gol deposit concealed Seth nee the {ipo gcipitnin epee copper gave epost, Phikppiner The proposition was Cased on 2 diatteme Imereton fr da pyrocate mcicontaits py oper adage ora) Suseqen ling dered the Far Southeast porphyry cope aepstin the oon ‘shown Taken rom Gold es Asa Li plied pe. a sopeciale copper values. Moreover, in mi8-197, 8 xpanto Consolidated geologist ound copper and gold ichperphyy-ype mineralization s sal thi ramen tn dace procs breccia exposed in 2 small quay above the eastern end ofthe Lepantoorebody Fi. 25), Tenty 1979, an duces polaron survey was ‘ommisioned ove the topographical subdued ae east the Lepato deposi and ested in defation of = ‘ube chargeabiity anomaly some 15m long in 30 fast-vest direction. Io 1980, te snomaly was tsed with ‘wo veri cre oles, andthe second f these, to adept at approximately 1-100 m, intersected low-grade porphyry-tpe mineralization ver the final 200 Nevertheless, the chargeabiity response was cleatly ase hy depereed pyre relatd 1 ah esters exenson fhe high aulpudution epthecnl environment Early in 1980, Lepanto Consolidated gave permission for Gold Fields Asia Limited tinue the [panto area inthe later company’ esonal magpie progremme of the Mankayan dtc. tthe beginning of this programme, a consulting geologist visited Lepasto fom behalf of Gold Fels Asta Limited and was able to ‘amine deep underground exposes andthe quay above the deposit He realized in the quary that he orp ‘Coppel fragment in dai pyroclastic baci a& ‘wll a similar fepmens seen underground (Fg. 25), ‘oniain bioit, magnet, borite and chaleopyie and therefore must ave Been derived fom the cea K este alered prs fa high grade porpyry copped Aeposit Alco he observed the guar) that 1n-anale ‘ros bedding inthe pyroclastic bec sindcatve of an ‘rg a surge deposits, nd that the Beecia may be part. ‘maar ditreme system, This interpretation gained ‘spor fom Lepanto Console mine sections which ‘epicted a marked easvatd steeping ofthe dip ofthe basal contact of the pyroclastic Drecea (Fig. 25). The conclusion was tat the pexphyey coppe-gld Fragments had beea transported upwards during distreme ‘emplacement rom shih rade deposit concealed at depth ‘mediately east of the Lepanto deposit as shown onthe hypothetical setion prepared a the tine (Fig. 25) The Jnfemel porphyry copper gld deposit was recommended strongly to Gold Fils Asis Limited by the consult ‘ropa int vente o-epantoConsliaed nid 1980, However, Inter in 1980, the exploration concept found its way to Lepanto Consolidated and, before the ‘rdf yar, an underground il tad ben pepe in the easerinost Lepano rine workings, onthe e opened 900-m level, and 4 1000-m vertical core hole Commenced. This was the discovery hole, which Interested 0.46 9 Co and OAT git Au over te ial 475, ‘mrandeves higher copper and god res earth to‘The Far Southeast deposit was delineated from 1981-96 by 38,000 m of core ding from underground station, with oles positioned on 100 75m centres. {05% of te Fax Southeast poet vo Galactic Resouces, ‘nd his sake was acquired in 1990 by CRA Lid Father eine fora al of 1,700, was cated out frm 1992-95, mainly in search of extensions to the deposit However the proposed 17,500 Uy, open stoping fletation operation el has not progressed beyond the feasibility sage. ‘Summary ‘The Far Southeast yonpiyy copper old depos s vas discovered beneath 680 m of cover rocks in close roi an pring cpr me. Dovey the first developed in-bowe and he second Fert ‘onbehalf of compestor company. Te et model gained suppor from a chargeaity anomaly, but was soon disproved by dep deiing om sure. The second mods as validated by deep dling fom the exter iit of exiting mine workings. ‘Altbough Far Sota econd only to Grsberg (Gee above) among the word's porphyry copper gold depos, 15 years ve already pasted since ts discovery and sil mine developmen: has ot commenced.IV. BRECCIA-HOSTED GOLD-SILVER/GOLD DEPOSITS 1.Montana Tunnels, Montana, U.S.A. Geological background “The Montane Tunel gositver ic eaddepost istocated nthe roling pat forested county (8,26) ‘eee loca (Wicker Corbi) est 7 i out ost of Helen in Montana, wesem™ U-S: A epost capes te ental part of im? iaveoe whch was emplaced along he faut contct da Resi oanelac rocks of Late Ciaeeous met equcnce of gor ait alow fs ile Ae ae lige etal 1985). Asem ua ae cary des was emplaced spr ofthe mii Bosse ee Ment and the wo nget were iodned ino Te ureme proc to the cessation of breeicton and Theralzaton (ilitoe et a, 1985). eee eciarichin sande Taco nmi of quar attic compestion, whic cons sts a ut atrcks and pees ofthe DouderBatolth ‘oe etal 1985). Foundred meg-bloeks ole ee agit the wal ofthe tee sd within warStipmiaet minerals in the distrome occu" 38 vrcoematons i the resi atx and in sabordinae estas widely pace, nlt-iretonal wilt ae ant tected eps boss of Lae eae soul oc (Silos et al, 1985). A forms of roan avin consis pyre shales, gna, migoe apy ad are lecteunaccompanied ty APE fmangoocsct, siete and minor quar. Clas ins aereimcns of sulphides and gangue minerals a aod Sagmdon to multiple aternaing episodes of fammtion and mineralization. Sevciti alteration ee ceitiged ar oration, Suprgene effects fe mir, wepation extending depts of ely 61 12, ee oil reserve prior © mining was 613 silion ane averaging 096 Bi A, 1209 Ag 067 spas a Po silts eal 1985), which wa Ze fet to 14 pt Aa the metal pies prewaing ca reduction pls exes en 1998 esi eet tonnes averaging 058 ft Av 12.2 #8 AB ee znand 0.22% Poor LOB pt Aw extant 808 the mie formal. Exploration and discovery “The Colorado disc produced vein res of iver ane Ths by. pedo gol rom 1867-1900 an subsequently Blasi a the 19508 (Bacal et a, 1963), et the FicnanaTunels deposi had o sigiiant prodsetion, Mommit owes its name 1 (wo exploratory ats ree tera around 1900, Kaopi (1913) epated 274 a seme a enn te pet mit bat e-sampling fo he 1 ogee edo conf an presi precios mea creme et al, 1985), An ungunnified amount of Star gold, probably derived rom eroded pats fe aca erTomcts deposit was derived since 1864 from tho conks inthe ae “Neroqramme of soil simpling on 8500-200 ig. 26 View ofthe Montane "Tunoelebresce hosted gl Tern eat epost, nn, US Arto te oun rf tne ing, Th (lp adil tes a wie Whveag oft dan reentse te ow sade the Shai asance Toe arene Sheemies the sallow 9 peso rom the cop o! \SBicprnn wes ihe owes i groan ene ‘ht coupe tee 1 ise Te me omg 8 Serta om 9 en ce reared to the satrene Paso LS. 198°(4150-« 60-m) grid was conducted over pat of the Coordin bythe US. Geologie Survey in 1956, ss noted by Beate al. (1963) Azone of anomalous ‘tal alts wat ienifed ote an aren of 700 350, Immodiaely above what snow the Mowtasa Tunnels pi “The samples contained as much 10,000 ppm Za, 3500 ppm Pb, 5.000 ppm Ma and 38 ppm Ag, values that Sppreach hose bind from mineralized eck (Siitoe tal, 1985) gold was not analyzed From 196075, there wat no mining activin tbe Colorado district, although geological mapping, _etchamicl sampling snd induced-poariation surveys ‘rere caed outa parts of porphyry expe exploration programmes mainly over osteropping insusve rocks of "he Boulder Batholith nthe cay 197, Exxon Minerals ‘nd Molscorp dele porphyry copper prospects lca 2 to 4k southeast of Montana Tunels bat cated only tow grade hypogene copper molybdenum mineazation and asl oanage of supergene caichel teil Exxon tested scurgeabty anomaly losaed | km southeast of the Montana Tunnels dateme with deep core hele and ‘encountered snother largely concealed, But poorly ‘mineralized diatene becca, Between 1975 and 1983, seven companies, five of| ‘them majors, conducted explcation fer bulemineable ‘precious metals at Montana Tunnels. la chroologiesl ‘Str, the companies are Earth Resources, Rio Amex Freeport Minerals, American Copper and Nickel (Gutsequnly INCO), US. Mets Expiontion Company, Placer Amex and Amselo, Alf thm drilled he pry exposed sea defined bythe US, Geological Survey's ‘mul-metl sil anomaly which was shown using soit srochemiy tbe gol anomaly swell Dring tulad ‘proximately 14000 m ia 85 hols, 10 of them (Placer ‘Amey with recovery of eae, Te presous- etal potetal ‘ofthe Montana Tunnels propery was recognized tin 19S by Barth Resources which, on withdrawal from ‘mineral exploration, sanctioned congolidation ofthe ‘Montana Tunnels property by newly fred U.S. Metals [Bxplocation Company. The five major companies th explore subsequent at Montana Tunnels dio under Jomeventure agreements with US, Metals Exploration (Company, bt al elcid not proceed snd none tine ‘esd inteest inthe oper In 1983, Centennial Migerals Li, under a sixth Join: ventre agreement with US, Miners Exporton ‘Company, completed a dealed exploration programme {4 Montara Tunels consisting of 16,670 m of reverse= ‘irculation dling ad pilot-ecale metallurgical sting CCenteonial Minerals was the fst company to underake etaled mapping in the Montana Tunnels ares, which laced the mineralization ina peoper selec context {and led to recognition ofits fragmenta Rost rocks Siaeme becia and no a subset olan product ot ” hyarotbernal breccia pipe (Sllitoe ea, 1985). The ltreme underies 3 gray, topographically low ae Gefciet in ook outcrop (Fig 26), and was delimited ‘dries mapping hy Cente! Minerale onslast onthe bss ofthe tiny pices of weathered bec ma jected ‘hom th burrows of ground squirels. “The appraisals of the Montana Tunnels prospect carried oat upto 1983 were prdisted onthe resovey of Precious metals using heap leaching. None of the Companies tat undertook exploration deided to proceed because ofthe relatively ow gold nd iver valves and their poor hep each recoveries rom the largely sulphide oe. The breakthrough came about because the manager of Cente Minerals realized that bulk uate, ith recovery of ine ad lead besides precious metal ight be applicable to the ore frott Montana Tuanels, Metallurgical esting of dil cutings anda bulk sample mined from 4 shallow pit indeed confirmed the ffecivenss of floation with pia recoveries of 89% {old and 50 % silver into doe, 79 nine iat 8 zine ‘Concent, 39% lead ino lead concentrate and 20 % Ser ino lead and te concent being determined he accuracy and reliability ofthe go prades evived fom the various rotary reverse-ccuation and ‘coe ding campaigns at Montana Tunnels wae «bone ‘of contention tateve delayed he ianciag te projet, (Cenzoiat Minerals msintnined ht al resus had been produced with reasonable cae aad, except for hve fom Sall-dameter ore, were unbiased; however, the rly ‘method, employed extensively i diling campaigns financed by U8, Minerals Exploration Company, gave higher gold values over more retried intervals when compared with he reversecculin esl. The average metal grades estimated fom the rotary and reverse Circulation dling results gained support from the ‘nalgtal end metallic! work conducted on the blk ‘sample, which was ealecte fom a typical at ofthe ‘reo that had been apprised sing rd of reverse ‘irulton dil holes spaced only apart. Subsequent extensive reverse 60 years go, although thi atte was asiged to the archives for several decades prio 198. Even then, few people soem to have had mech, confidence inthe deposits future. Drilling Was the ‘prircipal exploration technique for defining the bulk fesouree at Mount Leyshon, with geology and geochemisy paying very subordinate roles teense the Previous mining, sampling and dilng programmes sleady ha defined the target reasonably wel Six years were required rom commencement of dling ofthe Tow rade resource through reduction, 3. Kidston, Queensland, Australia Geological background ‘The Kidston gold deposit i located 260 km ortwest of Townilin the low rolling county (ig 27) of nortern Quetsland,norteaser Assia The ‘epest is contained in an orthmagiate (magmatic: hydethermal breccia pipe of Carboniferous age that Sadist contact between metamorphic ad inrsive rock of Precamian age (Wilson ta, 1986), Dykes of ‘hype composition pre-and pst dtl recention, and conposit tole porphyry stock containing Poe ‘ypemolybdeaum miaeraiation (Baker nd Tallman 1990s ut bythe bresea bus present manly alongside the pp at depth The pipe contains cast of holt and alles, bs surface dimensions of 1300 900m (Fg, 28) and extends downward toa east 500m, ‘God minecalization is hest developed around the rarginof te pipe, especially atte southern (Wie il)nd northern cn (Fig. 2) ans presat inthe breccia ‘matic as well asin et of concen quar filed sete ‘tres within and immediatly out he pe (Wilson a, 1986, Baker and Tullemays, 1990). The gold zone snd asociated sheeted fractreslaten markedly at ‘allow depths and appear to adopt a saucer-tke Configuration (Baker and Tullerans, 1990. The gold ‘occurs with pyrite, pyerhoute and lesser amounts of Sphalerie, chalcopyrite. galena,arsenopyrite and 1990, Ea tration aineralizaion sages, inchodng Kia aleation, are als diserabl, But ave bees Jargely ober by the old stage Bakr and Tales, 1990), Supergne oxidation extends toa depth of about 25m Baker and Tuleans, 1980), ‘Te production ps eserves at Kidston amount 9 ‘94 milion oes averaging 8 gt A Exploration and discovery Gold was ist recorded a Kidston in ate 1907. and diring the nex tre years prota) 20,000 02 ‘of alluvial geld were extracted from gles hat drained ‘he thre low bills marking the besa pipe (Fi. 27 Wis eta 1986, Lews, 190) Arete then Became fociaed onthe quit filed shected frstres round the turin of he pipe, which from 1915-21 were exploited (Dt veros of hallow open cus (Ege 27 and 98). Total Ted ck production ithe cessation of ing a 1849 amounted 0 200,90 tonaes wid an average Bade of 65 [Ae (Wilson etal 1986) "The bulk-mineable potemtial at Kidston was ‘bvious othe Asstt Goverment Geologist in 1910, Fig 27 Vow ooking ortest tebe Kison esi bes old deposit: Queensland. ‘Rusti, before large-sale ound emargn of he ects Pipe and subile vegetation ‘Se ing tom 191321 one ‘p (eotester) ideo he pre mark be Wises Hl we be perton Photograph (sks, 1911, bt was not assessod technically until he ‘eatly 1930s whes Gold Mines of Australia channel Ssnplesine old open ats and ve as consoucted as (Gig 28) A possible resource of 10 milion tonnes a3 [tA was enimated (Baker and Tulemass, 1990), ‘The prospect then lay essentially idle ati 1965 Marge of bess ie a surface ELORIDGE (© Open cut (1915-21) oP At (Gold Mines of Ausrasa1 9905 % corehoie (Anaconsa196667) Q ow argoemasi. Pacers970-9} ig 28 Pan stowing fe ol ope us ats cy oe oes ‘Qaccosiand, Aus. The pncipal resource Is the {ote Wiel probe tees ie, egies tal mang and epost ea. lider ot of te new coer nex Taken ot ews (1998).‘when Anaconda (Australi) In, optioned the propery From 196867, Anaconda cased out geologial mapping, seochemical steamsediment ands sampling, ito {nd round magnetievadiomsncs, VF clecromagnetes nd rade aay and digo iol inde plaation Surveys. The results showed that the bese pipe gave rise to precious and base-metal anomalies inseam Sediments and soils a well distinc resistivity and ‘hargeabliy anomalies (Wis eta, 1986), Fourteen fore hoes were then dele, 11 of them inthe Wise’ Fill tea (Fig. 28) where their loations were influenced by the underground sampling ress bined i 1934 (Lewis 190) Anaconda’ wrk detemied hat the Kidston pl deposits part ofa breci pipe associated with Paleooic ‘hyolitc inrasve activity (sce Bain et al, 1978), but ‘conclued that th probable open ptable resource of 28 nilion omnes a 3.77 pk Au was uneconomic (Lewis 1908). Anaconda relingushed the option in 1967 but scquied tapas or 1974-77, ding which me fre Surface exploration was cared ot an their dling ‘sls were re-evaluated. Although provisional reseries ‘F4 milion omes at 34 gt Au were qt and atonal potential at Wises Hill was also recognized. Kidston ‘emained unconamie atthe prevaling gol price (Lewis, 19908), Placer Austex Phy Lite became intrested in the Kidston prospect in the early 1970, but id not accept ‘Anaconda joint vente on the property Because Aural investment regulations nthe tine mae ont ventures between foreign companies natatve (Levi, 1990). Therefore Placer wated wil 1978 before aking ‘ut aa option onthe property ahd embarking om 8 programme of geological mapping and core dilig. The Previous open-piting, ating and drilling had shown reliably tha the Best go mieriation followed he pipe margin at Wise Hil, so additonal geochemical ana geophysical surveys were not considered necessary ‘Seventen hols 3,108) weee led in the Wie ll, sea using the same incline racial pater employed by “Anaconda (Fig. 2; Lewis, 19803). Te rests expended "ppeciably the god esource a wel a confining the 2,000 m in 145 cone holes had been drilled (Baker and Tallemans, 1990), withthe hotizontal spacing of holes along each section line pyroximating 50m (Mion eta, 1986) By eal 1984, local investors were forthcoming tna nl decision was taken to develop an open-pi, yandation ll peation Mine Sar was in early 1588, Since mining commence, after 13,000 m of ing bas bee completed in $0 ols, has esd ina seis of increases in minabl oe eserves from 37 rilion tonnes grating 186 gft Auto 94 millon tones a 1148 ght Au at end 1994, The lst major increment was announced in eatly 1994 following discovery ofthe viride orebody 2 milion tenes at 125 ph A) wich ‘composes five interconnected les leet 150m below nd around a megublock within te othesstern prt of the pipe (Pig. 28), The discovery stemmed from the cognition that higher-grade gold mineralization was localized preferentially a "kinks" inthe sheeted quart ‘einanalus. The Erie pit rojctad atin th same final sie the Wis’ Hl pi, was commenced in mid 1994 and wilextend min fe vol 2003, Summary An open pit gold mie was developed a Kidston some 7 yeas after te blk peel was st ecopniznd, ‘factemphasizingtatinnorativegolgial thinking was ot factor in jrning the prospect ita amine. Rather the developnent ofthe succes mine t Kon rested from aime increase athe rice of goon word makes ‘combined with provision of the engineering skills and ‘experience needed explo large tonnages of low-grade Nevertheless, notwithstanding the protracted exploration history ofthe Kidston baci, the what lide orebay was covered ony in 194 following 16 years of exploration and mining by Placer and Kedson Gold Mines The early mining and subsequent exploration tivities at Kidston resulted in reliable definton ofthe Wise's Hill mineralized zone, which meant thet seochemisty and geophysics have not played prominent ‘oes in the exploration story: however thas bea shows that bath etniques work effectively at Kidston ‘Once the age tonnage of ow-erade material was Mest at Kids, only fie years were equ bing ‘he mine into peoduction, Nevebeles the constuction riod tel was oly ove yerV. SKARN AND CARBONATE-REPLACEMENT GOLD/ COPPER-GOLD DEPOSITS 1. Crown Jewel, Washington, U.S. AL Geological background “The Crown Feel gold skrn deposit, par ofthe ‘Buckhorn Mountain share system, ogee about Skin ast of Chesnw in Washington stat rhwestern US.A ‘The skar system oecapying about 10k is hosted by Pennsylvanians?) lst and carbonate rocks and andesite flows (Shannon eta, 1990). The system is ‘elated oa done wo grand platon and arociatd ‘kes and sil (Shanon eta, 194) of Late uae ape Skarn is conolled by favourable seairaphic units and fats ‘The sedimentary host ocks were eansformed to sroximal gametnagntie sulphide, intermediate sate. Pyroxene-epidotesulphie and distal pyroxene and horfelsasembags (Shannon etal, 990 Hickey, 1992), Retogradeepidote,atnalite and alte ae abundant Several alteration spe, cling Ks, are reset Inthe pluton Hickey, 1992) Gold cccurs in pats fal ‘skarn assemblages, ro xia da sited shows 4 postive correlation with epidote, magnetite. bismutiate pyboite, cobalt, llundes (Shannon et 1980; Hickey. 1992) aad inthe Southwest zane, txsenopynte. “The Crown Jewel deposit report contain 79 milion tonnes averaging 62 gh Au Exploration and discovery ‘Te Buckhorn Mountain deposit was discovered In 1896 and mined intrmitenty fr ron, copper, eo and silver until 1950 (Hickey, 1992). "The Granby company. which was working properties across the Canadian border, dried a single hole at Buckhorn Mountain is 911, and from 1911-17 small copper and old operations were active in th sea, From 1933 tough the 1940s, gold was exacted from sri pars ofthe sar tr none plac ae 1m rome present Soutestore zone. During the 10, the magnetite deposits a Buckhorn Mount, pareully the Magne mine ares, tacit atetion, but the U.S, Barca of ‘Mines concluded that they were oo smal and oe ich in sulphur o be vabe (Zadok ea 1947) “The ska cropping ot meth of Crown Jewel is stained by copper oxides ad ws dried unsucesflly by Cominco as part of copper programme in 1963, 2 -Hunble Oi in 1971 and Dresser Minerals in 1975 also Aled for copper. he lar reporting the occurrence of {011s 1980, Houston Oil and Minerals compiled the Previously acquired data for Crown Jewel, bt eventually Aidnot option te propery, Homer one of the polos involved inthe compllatn, thea with Crown Resoutes Corporaion,r-evalated the propery i th context ofa stern made own Resouces attempt option the Crown Jewel proper) i 986, but was ol sucess una year Intern 1988, geological maping, sol old geochemistry and ground magnetics were cared ot over the Crowe Jewel property and resulted in the definition of 13 ‘combined goltin-soiinageti anomalies (Shanon ta, 1990) Several ofthese were tested with 13 reverse: ‘irefation and core hols leading to discovery ofthe Crown Jewel gold deposit Magnesite concentrations wee termined a the source ofthe magnetic anomalies St fou ling (23,900 m in 290 hoes), most of reverse irclation, was conducted in 1989 and resulted inthe enon of resource containing aout Stones of gold In 1990, Crown Resources entered into «49/51 (urea 46/4 join vente with Bate Mountain Gold Company on he Crowe Jewel property. The dling of 3,300 m in 298 holes, 6 % of hem revere circulation andthe estore, led nt discovery ofthe Southwest te 200 and increased the contained gold content 020 tonnes. This was followed in 1991 by further diling, 23.700 mn 270 oles, which defied fly the Southwest. te zone" Although sboat 76% ofthe 1991 dling was ‘reverse circulation al aia the Southwest zone revered core The Sodthwest zoe include a shallowly diping, {abular body of sarnsbout 10m thick cootalning >30 {AU the eatize zane contains about 30 tonnes of gold Sveraping $2 pt “The feasibility study for Crown Jewel is now constuction of an open-piUeyanidation operation Is Planned for inte 199697 Summary Although the presence of godin pr ofthe Crowa evel kar system was reasonably wel known ery this ‘century, most exploration frm the 1940s through the 19706 focused oniron and then opp. The god-ich kare sas scovered onlin 988, year tha gol expeaton ‘eas insted. Soi geochemistry and ground magnetics ‘tere the techniques that dened apy the dl args,SKARN AND CARBONATE-REFLACENENT GOLDICOPER-GOLD DEFOSTTS Since discovery teas in eae ariel tps before mie sar. 2. Fortitude, Nevada, U. S.A. Geological background ‘The Fortitude skarn-iype goldver deposit is located in the Batle Mountain mining district 19 kn Saves ofthe own of Bate Moun Nevada, UA ‘The dsr defines te the orignal northwestern iit of ‘the Batle Mount Eureka mineral bel or tend (Reber, 1960 1966, ‘The Forde deposit and oer basen precious ‘meal mineralization nthe tit a elated comely ad senaialy toa weakly K-silcat-alteed granodirte phy stock Fg. 29) of atest Eocene age (Weta et 31, 1986, 1988). The stock was emplaced into thrust faulted sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age, with the Fortitude deposit being hosted hy a Pennsylvanian to Penian limestone ait, “The main Lower Fortude reed i satsbound, Asal eae shar ected atthe are fot, about 600 ‘morhof he Copper Canjon stork, but abun dyke offshoot ined along the nortestiking Virgin fa i. 23; Worruba eta, 986, 1988), The Lower Fora gla silver har grades southwards iat the proximal copper ‘g0ldsiversharn which constated the mined-out West ‘orebody (Fig. 29; Wortuba eta. 1988). The Lower Forte kam srelaivel educed in chemi sense, ' defied bythe high dopside/garnet ato of progade Sara abundant pyre and presence of asenopyie Myers and Meiner, 1991). Most of the orebody consitted euograe skar composod of >10 volume % of pyrtotite dominated slphides, chloe, actnaie sad ‘mortmoillnte (Wotrba etal, 1988). Arsenic Bi and Te ae prominent accompanying elements a Fortitude (Myers and Meine, 1991), “The Fortitude orebody contained 10.3 milion tonnes averaping 696 gh Av and 247 gt Ag 8 of inthe Lower ore zone West of the Virgin aut (Wot tal, 1986 1988) Exploration and discovery Mining inthe Copper Canyon par ofthe Bate Mountain dstit began in 1866, with gold st scored in 1912 (Roberts and Arold, 1965) Following copper ‘mining operations, aval Corporat commenced open. i olsvec mining 1975 an setvity wth contin ‘ody under the corr of Bate Mountain Goi Copan. wRainovKe ig. 28 Map sowing ac zoning rnd he Copper Cayon ios por sak nd epson neo pare the Foe pls sive pont Ned US A Tae trom Worn (980, ‘The single largest gold reba discovered in he district isthe Forde In 1980, ongoitg exploration dling at Copper Canyon was propresing northward rom th sok, wh prompted Duval purchse privately bed ining claims ver what became the erttade deposit and ite enions ‘The exploration drilling was infuenced by knowledge of the metal oning pater arcund the Copper Canyon sock; ctrl Cu-Av-Ag teaugh Au-Ap to peripheral Za-P- ‘Ag Fig. 29). The soning at Copper Canyon as fist documented by Roberts and Arpold (1965) and refine further afer discovery ofthe Tomboy Mine and Northeast Extension glsilverskarn depois Fig. 29) inthe late 1970s (Blake eta, 1986; Theodore al, 1986, Inte 198, two verses core hes lose ia whet is mow elle the Phoeri are, between the Wes one and Fortitude (ig. 2). aerseted srfecus, pyrite ‘ich sulphide mineraizason. This eu romped round ‘magnetic and elecuomagnete survey, along eat west oeig 30 Gioond magnate sory mapt par ofthe Cope ‘Coyon dtcra sw he "bleoe” aga igh over he Sonvenla pyrite ich Lower Force plese hart post, Neva US A Noe a terpenes (atcaur mare epones Contra 9 paras. “ake om Woes ea 988) Ties spaced 200m apart, over an are noth ofthe stock ‘The magnetic results showed aproninet high defined by2 10250-psma closure Pig. 30; War etl, 1988, {vertical ore hole was stdin eay 1981 to test the Fishest magnetic values and intersect 28 maverasing 8 iA beneath 109 m of uamineralized rocks the tdscovery ofthe concealed Lower Foti oreboy. The magnetic response ts de to Bodies of replacement Dyrhotte, which constitutes upto 50 volume % ofthe Fetograde sen in places (Wows et ly 1988). The Fest ofthe electromagnetic survey belped fo locate faults, but id no detec theo. Rockchip geochemical data is availble fr the area north ofthe Copper Canyon sock Theodore and Blake, 1975), but std not contibote diel 1 the Fonte diacovery because the ores concaled eneats ‘minim of 45m of largely baer sedentary rocks However levted Av, Asad BI vale ia samples taken from te Virgin al adobe ful and actares inthe Foritade are, maybe considered as leakage anomalies {fom the underlying crc (Wotrbs et a. 1988. "Acampo of 2200 manly rotry del oles 1981-82 was pide byte magnetic somal and ined se Fortitude orbody nae 1984, ater pre-production ‘Sipping and mining ofthe Upper Ferttude oe zone the First tomer Forde oe was trucked tthe CIPCTL ml Durig ts ight year, he Upper snd Lower Fortitude te ones pede 2.1 milion of gld and 97 milion trot sive, which approaches bathe Bale Mountain ret otal ‘Continved dling out ofthe Foti open pit inthe Phounis aa Fig. 9) bas resulted in efntion of ‘lowe gde share esure comprising 17 milion tomes {rading 146 pt Au (ate Mountain Gold Company. ‘npublisbed handout, 198) Bane Mountain Gold plans toexplt the Phoenix resource ltr hs decade Summary “The discover ofthe Fortitude goldstverskara deposit was oe ofthe outcomes of detailed geological work and commited exploration at Bate Mountain, a Irate mining src, over apciod of >20 years. The beological ties ae ine example of co-operation fevecen ising company anda government geological survey (08 references cited above) ‘Geologically instigated exploration drilling followed by aground magnetic survey was instrumental Inthe direct discovery of Fortitude, which was & ‘Completely “bind oreboly overlain by an vineaizd Sedimentary rock package x cncaled characte layed ‘iscovery Jor more than century, including 25 years of Tange sale mining activity, but id nat prevent openpit ‘mine develope in les tan fou years 3. Cove, Nevada, U.S. A. Geological background “The Cove goldsiver deposit is siuated about 0 ‘km southwest ofthe tows of Bate Mountain in Nevada, teste S.A. The depos part ofthe MeCoy mining {dstac, which is 25 kr south-southwest ofthe Bate “Mountin dite (eee above). The McCoy skan gold ‘deposit only about 13 km Southwest of Cove. The mineralization at Cove i hostea by asic sedimentary cocks, which fe imsed by sills and dyes of pranodirte and quarts monzonte porphyry of aesEocene age The upper or zone isin linestone, whereas thelower re zneis in conglomerate, anton, hvestone and dolomite (Emmons and Coyle, 1988; Kuyper ea. 1991 Much ofthe Cove ahs vel unconormably by up to 180 of gust nie ae tt,which wat deposited some Sy afer mineralization Exanons eed (Coys, 988; Emmons and Eng, 1995. "The upper re zone exten om surface ta depth of out 120 mand enti oxidized. The diem older ores prerenin argilived and manganese impregnated Limerione that le replaced partially by asperoid (Emmons and Cope, 1988; Kayser eta, 19910) ‘Artenic, Sb and Hg ae atomalous (Eons and Eng 1995) Incontas the lower or ons, wih separated from te upper one by S040 60 8 oF weakly ineraied rocks exten to depths of >500 mand s sulphiic. Te fulphides occur ax'veins and replacements inthe fedimentay rocks, and include pyrte, bse-metal fulpides and varity of Sb and Seberng sulphate Inasoiton with enc aeration (Emmons an Coyle, 1988 Kayper eta, 19a). The Cove mineralization may be considered as amore distal roduc of te McCoy stock, ‘ith which the McCoy gold skar isrelated closely (Kuyper etal, 199la;Enons and Bag 1995) ‘The orignal end-1987 geolgied reserve st Cove as shout 60 milion tonnes with grades of 22 gh Av and {oft Ag immons and Cole, 1988, whereas tbe end 1988 peoven and probe reserve was SI milion tonnes uD gh Av and 86 ght AS Exploration and discovery Go wa discovered inthe McCoy mining iti in 191, but production through to he erly 1930s was nly 300 kg (Kuypr et al, 19918) Nofurber atv took place in the dsc tthe mi 1960s, which 07 the sta of a succession of exploration vents, Gr for copper and then fr god by Bear Creck Mining. Summa Corpatin, Houston Oi and Minerals Cxporaton, Got Fields Mining Corporation and Teaneco Minerals (Emmons and Cope, 1988). Summa rediscovered the McCoy goid shan in eal 197s und afer aseies of Ailing programmes by the above mentnned companies, tently it was punto rodton by Tene nett 1986. At that time, the MeCoy orebody reportedly ‘conned 28 milion tonnes a 3.1 ft Au(Kuype. 198), “Tenneco’ mining interests were seguir by Bcho Bay Mins in te 1986, At the beginning of 1986, Teaneco began -ystemaic exploration ofthe Tease sedimentary rocks inthe McCoy strict. progrmme hat was cotinaed er ‘he Echo Bay acquisition. The programme was iiiaed ‘lt collection of approximately 50 steam sediment ‘amples fom a U-k aes ound the MeCoy depot, 4s Fig. 31 aida geoctemil anomaly ove te exposed ta te Cave utente hots plea dean, Nev USA Takeo tom Bean sl Cope C88) ‘clase of seven anomalous samples, coming (om 151072 ppb Avas well asanomalous Ag. As Sb Fig and “T, were recorded inthe Cove area (Emmons and Coyle, 1988), Follow-up geological mapping and rock-cip sampling revealed ocarences of asperod, manganoan limestone and altered felsic dyke rock, which contained gold values up o oe grades (Emmons and Coyle, 198 In late 1986, a soil geochemical survey was ‘conducted over the aed area at Cove. Atta of 147 Samples fhe B oC horizons were collected on a 00+ (G0) «200-1 60m) gr nd delined dtinc Au- ‘Ag-As anomaly (Emmons and Coyle, 1988). The coberet 100 ppb Au anomaly measured 850m long and 30:0 180m wide apd contained eight samples with 1 to 2.6 ppm Au (Fig. 3). The >1,000 pp As anomaly was Coincident, whereas the silver anomaly (1-213 ppm) ‘vera oly is eaters prt Emmons and Coyle, 198), “Ths geochemical response represented the exposed part ‘of the upper are 2one at Cove, but much of he deport vas concealed beneath the post mintal ash low tu unit. Before the er of 1986 seven bulldozer enches were cut across the soil geochemical anomaly, and all reported between 03 and 3 git Au, One eneh returned Ds maveraging 12g Auandanaier 40m at 58 BAR (Emmons and Coyle 1988) Dring commenced atthe beginning of 1987 with 25 shallow revers-ccultion holes on 100-0.) gi. The frst hole intersected SS mwithO8 gt Auand 90 ght Ag, and 23 of them were ‘mineralized appreciably. After the dilling of 7 more oles, which include intersections of 25 a 76 BAB and 8 gh Agand [dma 56 pt Asan 1780 gh Ap the Cove discovery was annoureed (Emmons abd Coyle 1988). A propramme of development driiag was hon