Diesel particulate filter

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A diesel particulate filter (top left) in a Peugeot

Off-road - DPF installation

A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate

matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine.[1][2]

Contents

 1Mode of action
 2History
 3Variants of DPFs
o 3.1Cordierite wall flow filters
o 3.2Silicon carbide wall flow filters
o 3.3Ceramic fiber filters
o 3.4Metal fiber flow-through filters
o 3.5Paper
o 3.6Partial filters
 4Maintenance
 5Safety
 6Regeneration
 7See also
 8References
 9External links

Mode of action[edit]
Wall-flow diesel particulate filters usually remove 85% or more of the soot, and under
certain conditions can attain soot removal efficiencies approaching 100%. Some filters
are single-use, intended for disposal and replacement once full of accumulated ash.
Others are designed to burn off the accumulated particulate either passively through the
use of a catalyst or by active means such as a fuel burner which heats the filter to soot
combustion temperatures. This is accomplished by engine programming to run (when
the filter is full) in a manner that elevates exhaust temperature, in conjunction with an
extra fuel injector in the exhaust stream that injects fuel to react with a catalyst element
to burn off accumulated soot in the DPF filter, [3] or through other methods. This is known
as filter regeneration. Cleaning is also required as part of periodic maintenance, and it
must be done carefully to avoid damaging the filter. Failure of fuel injectors or
turbochargers resulting in contamination of the filter with raw diesel or engine oil can
also necessitate cleaning.[4] The regeneration process occurs at road speeds higher
than can generally be attained on city streets; vehicles driven exclusively at low speeds
in urban traffic can require periodic trips at higher speeds to clean out the DPF. [5] If the
driver ignores the warning light and waits too long to operate the vehicle above 60 km/h
(40 mph), the DPF may not regenerate properly, and continued operation past that point
may spoil the DPF completely so it must be replaced. [6] Some newer diesel engines,
namely those installed in combination vehicles, can also perform what is called a
Parked Regeneration, where the engine increases RPM to around 1400 while parked,
to increase the temperature of the exhaust.
Diesel engines produce a variety of particles during combustion of the fuel/air mix due
to incomplete combustion. The composition of the particles varies widely dependent
upon engine type, age, and the emissions specification that the engine was designed to
meet. Two-stroke diesel engines produce more particulate per unit of power than
do four-stroke diesel engines, as they burn the fuel-air mix less completely. [7]
Diesel particulate matter resulting from the incomplete combustion of diesel
fuel produces soot (black carbon) particles. These particles include tiny nanoparticles—
smaller than one micrometre (one micron). Soot and other particles from diesel engines
worsen the particulate matter pollution in the air and are harmful to health. [8]
New particulate filters can capture from 30% to greater than 95% of the harmful soot.
[9]
 With an optimal diesel particulate filter (DPF), soot emissions may be decreased
to 0.001 g/km or less.[10]
The quality of the fuel also influences the formation of these particles. For example, a
high sulphur content diesel produces more particles. Lower sulphur fuel produces fewer
particles, and allows use of particulate filters. The injection pressure of diesel also
influences the formation of fine particles.

History[edit]
Diesel particulate filtering was first considered in the 1970s due to concerns regarding
the impacts of inhaled particulates.[11] Particulate filters have been in use on non-road
machines since 1980, and in automobiles since 1985. [12][13] Historically medium and heavy
duty diesel engine emissions were not regulated until 1987 when the first California
Heavy Truck rule was introduced capping particulate emissions at 0.60 g/BHP Hour.
[14]
 Since then, progressively tighter standards have been introduced for light- and heavy-
duty roadgoing diesel-powered vehicles and for off-road diesel engines. Similar
regulations have also been adopted by the European Union and some individual
European countries, most Asian countries, and the rest of North and South America.[15]
While no jurisdiction has explicitly made filters mandatory, the increasingly stringent
emissions regulations that engine manufactures must meet mean that eventually all on-
road diesel engines will be fitted with them.[14] In the European Union, filters are
expected to be necessary to meet the Euro.VI heavy truck engine emissions regulations
currently under discussion and planned for the 2012-2013 time frame. In 2000, in
anticipation of the future Euro 5 regulations PSA Peugeot Citroën became the first
company to make filters standard on passenger cars. [16]
As of December 2008 the California Air Resources Board (CARB) established the 2008
California Statewide Truck and Bus Rule which—with variance according to vehicle
type, size and usage—requires that on-road diesel heavy trucks and buses in California
be retrofitted, repowered, or replaced to reduce particulate matter (PM) emissions by at
least 85%. Retrofitting the engines with CARB-approved diesel particulate filters is one
way to fulfill this requirement.[17] In 2009 the American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act provided funding to assist owners in offsetting the cost of diesel retrofits for their
vehicles.[18] Other jurisdictions have also launched retrofit programs, including:

 2001 - Hong Kong retrofit program.[19]

 2002 - In Japan the Prefecture of Tokyo passed a law
banning trucks without filters from entering the city limits. [20]
 2003 - Mexico City started a program to retrofit trucks.[21]
 2004 - New York City retrofit program (non-road).[22]
 2008 - Milan Ecopass area traffic charge – a hefty entrance
tax on all diesel vehicles except those with a particulate
filter, either stock or retrofit.[23]
 2008 - London low emission zone charges vehicles that do
not meet emission standards, encouraging retrofit filters.[24][25]
Inadequately maintained particulate filters on vehicles with diesel engines are prone to
soot buildup, which can cause engine problems due to high back pressure. [4]
In 2018 the UK made changes to its MOT test requirements, [26] including tougher
scrutiny of diesel cars. One requirement was to have a properly fitted and working DPF.
Driving without a DPF could incur a £1000 fine.[27][28]

Variants of DPFs[edit]

Cordierite Diesel Particulate Filter on GM 7.8 Isuzu

Unlike a catalytic converter which is a flow-through device, a DPF retains bigger

exhaust gas particles by forcing the gas to flow through the filter; [2][29] however, the DPF
does not retain small particles and maintenance-free DPFs break larger particles into
smaller ones.[citation needed] There are a variety of diesel particulate filter technologies on the
market. Each is designed around similar requirements:
 1. Fine filtration
2. Minimum pressure drop
3. Low cost
4. Mass production suitability
5. Product durability
Cordierite wall flow filters[edit]
The most common filter is made of cordierite (a ceramic material that is also used as
catalytic converter supports (cores)). Cordierite filters provide excellent filtration
efficiency, are relatively inexpensive, and have thermal properties that make packaging
them for installation in the vehicle simple. The major drawback is that cordierite has a
relatively low melting point (about 1200 °C) and cordierite substrates have been known
to melt during filter regeneration. This is mostly an issue if the filter has become loaded
more heavily than usual, and is more of an issue with passive systems than with active
systems, unless there is a system breakdown.[2][30]
Cordierite filter cores look like catalytic converter cores that have had alternate channels
plugged - the plugs force the exhaust gas flow through the wall and the particulate
collects on the inlet face.[31]
Silicon carbide wall flow filters[edit]
The second most popular filter material is silicon carbide, or SiC. It has a higher
(2700 °C) melting point than cordierite, however, it is not as stable thermally, making
packaging an issue. Small SiC cores are made of single pieces, while larger cores are
made in segments, which are separated by a special cement so that heat expansion of
the core will be taken up by the cement, and not the package. SiC cores are usually
more expensive than cordierite cores, however they are manufactured in similar sizes,
and one can often be used to replace the other. Silicon carbide filter cores also look like
catalytic converter cores that have had alternate channels plugged - again the plugs
force the exhaust gas flow through the wall and the particulate collects on the inlet face.
[2][32]

The characteristics of the wall flow diesel particulate filter substrate are:

 broad band filtration (the diameters of the filtered particles

are 0.2–150 μm)
 high filtration efficiency (can be up to 95%)
 high refractory
 high mechanical properties
 high boiling point.[32]
Ceramic fiber filters[edit]
Fibrous ceramic filters are made from several different types of ceramic fibers that are
mixed together to form a porous medium. This medium can be formed into almost any
shape and can be customized to suit various applications. The porosity can be
controlled in order to produce high flow, lower efficiency or high efficiency lower volume
filtration. Fibrous filters have an advantage over wall flow design of producing lower
back pressure. Fibrous ceramic filters remove carbon particulates almost completely,
including fine particulates less than 100 nanometres (nm) diameter with an efficiency of
greater than 95% in mass and greater than 99% in number of particles over a wide
range of engine operating conditions. Since the continuous flow of soot into the filter
would eventually block it, it is necessary to 'regenerate' the filtration properties of the
filter by burning off the collected particulate on a regular basis. Soot particulate burn-off
forms water and CO2 in small quantities amounting to less than 0.05% of the
CO2 emitted by the engine.[2]
Metal fiber flow-through filters[edit]
Some cores are made from metal fibers – generally the fibers are "woven" into a
monolith. Such cores have the advantage that an electrical current can be passed
through the monolith to heat the core for regeneration purposes, allowing the filter to
regenerate at low exhaust temperatures and/or low exhaust flow rates. Metal fiber cores
tend to be more expensive than cordierite or silicon carbide cores, and are generally not
interchangeable with them because of the electrical requirement. [2][33]
Paper[edit]
Disposable paper cores are used in certain specialty applications, without a
regeneration strategy. Coal mines are common users – the exhaust gas is usually first
passed through a water trap to cool it, and then through the filter. [34] Paper filters are also
used when a diesel machine must be used indoors for short periods of time, such as on
a forklift being used to install equipment inside a store. [2][35]
Partial filters[edit]
There are a variety of devices that produce over 50% particulate matter filtration, but
less than 85%. Partial filters come in a variety of materials. The only commonality
between them is that they produce more back pressure than a catalytic converter, and
less than a diesel particulate filter. Partial filter technology is popular for retrofit. [36]

Maintenance[edit]
Filters require more maintenance than catalytic converters. Ash, a byproduct of oil
consumption from normal engine operation, builds up in the filter as it cannot be
converted into a gas and pass through the walls of the filter. This increases the pressure
before the filter. Warnings are given to the driver before filter restriction causes an issue
with driveability or damage to the engine or filter develop. Regular filter maintenance is
a necessity.[4]
DPF filters go through a regeneration process which removes this soot and lowers the
filter pressure. There are three types of regeneration: passive, active, and forced.
Passive regeneration takes place normally while driving, when engine load and vehicle
drive-cycle create temperatures that are high enough to regenerate the soot buildup on
the DPF walls. Active regeneration happens while the vehicle is in use, when low
engine load and lower exhaust gas temperatures inhibit the naturally occurring passive
regeneration. Sensors upstream and downstream of the DPF (or a differential pressure
sensor) provide readings that initiate a metered addition of fuel into the exhaust stream.
There are two methods to inject fuel, either downstream injection directly into the
exhaust stream, downstream of the turbo, or fuel injection into the engine cylinders on
the exhaust stroke. This fuel and exhaust gas mixture passes through the Diesel
Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) creating temperatures high enough to burn off the
accumulated soot. Once the pressure drop across the DPF lowers to a calculated value,
the process ends, until the soot accumulation builds up again. This works well for
vehicles that drive longer distances with few stops compared to those that perform short
trips with many starts and stops. If the filter develops too much pressure then the last
type of regeneration must be used - a forced regeneration. This can be accomplished in
two ways. The vehicle operator can initiate the regeneration via a dashboard mounted
switch. Various signal interlocks, such as park brake applied, transmission in neutral,
engine coolant temperature, and an absence of engine related fault codes are required
(vary by OEM and application) for this process to initiate. When the soot accumulation
reaches a level that is potentially damaging to the engine or the exhaust system, the
solution involves a garage using a computer program to run a regeneration of the DPF
manually.

Safety[edit]
In 2011, Ford recalled 37,400 F-Series trucks with diesel engines after fuel and oil leaks
caused fires in the diesel particulate filters of the trucks. No injuries occurred before the
recall, though one grass fire was started.[37] A similar recall was issued for 2005-2007
Jaguar S-Type and XJ diesels, where large amounts of soot became trapped in the
DPF In affected vehicles, smoke and fire emanated from the vehicle underside,
accompanied by flames from the rear of the exhaust. The heat from the fire could cause
heating through the transmission tunnel to the interior, melting interior components and
potentially causing interior fires.[38]

Regeneration[edit]

Metering pump for Diesel or additive injection, 3 L/h at 5 bar

Diagram of the regeneration

Hino truck and its selective catalytic reduction (SCR) next to the DPF with regeneration process by the late fuel
injection to control exhaust temperature to burn off soot. [39][40]

Regeneration is the process of burning off (oxidizing) the accumulated soot from the
filter. This is done either passively (from the engine's exhaust heat in normal operation
or by adding a catalyst to the filter) or actively introducing very high heat into the
exhaust system. On-board active filter management can use a variety of strategies: [9]

1. Engine management to increase exhaust temperature

through late fuel injection or injection during the exhaust
stroke
2. Use of a fuel-borne catalyst to reduce soot burn-out
temperature
 3. A fuel burner after the turbo to increase the exhaust
temperature
4. A catalytic oxidizer to increase the exhaust
temperature, with after injection (HC-Doser)
5. Resistive heating coils to increase the exhaust
temperature
6. Microwave energy to increase the particulate
temperature
All on-board active systems use extra fuel, whether through burning to heat the DPF, or
providing extra power to the DPF's electrical system, although the use of a fuel borne
catalyst reduces the energy required very significantly. Typically a computer monitors
one or more sensors that measure back pressure and/or temperature, and based on
pre-programmed set points the computer makes decisions on when to activate the
regeneration cycle. The additional fuel can be supplied by a metering pump. Running
the cycle too often while keeping the back pressure in the exhaust system low will result
in high fuel consumption. Not running the regeneration cycle soon enough increases the
risk of engine damage and/or uncontrolled regeneration (thermal runaway) and possible
DPF failure.
Diesel particulate matter burns when temperatures above 600 °C are attained. This
temperature can be reduced to somewhere in the range of 350 to 450 °C by use of a
fuel-borne catalyst. The actual temperature of soot burn-out will depend on the
chemistry employed. The start of combustion causes a further increase in temperature.
In some cases, in the absence of a fuel-borne catalyst, the combustion of the particulate
matter can raise temperatures above the structural integrity threshold of the filter
material, which can cause catastrophic failure of the substrate. Various strategies have
been developed to limit this possibility. Note that unlike a spark-ignited engine, which
typically has less than 0.5% oxygen in the exhaust gas stream before the emission
control device(s), diesel engines have a very high ratio of oxygen available. While the
amount of available oxygen makes fast regeneration of a filter possible, it also
contributes to runaway regeneration problems.
Some applications use off-board regeneration. Off-board regeneration requires operator
intervention (i.e. the machine is either plugged into a wall/floor mounted regeneration
station, or the filter is removed from the machine and placed in the regeneration
station). Off-board regeneration is not suitable for on-road vehicles, except in situations
where the vehicles are parked in a central depot when not in use. Off-board
regeneration is mainly used in industrial and mining applications. Coal mines (with the
attendant explosion risk from coal damp) use off-board regeneration if non-disposable
filters are installed, with the regeneration stations sited in an area where non-
permissible machinery is allowed.
Many forklifts may also use off-board regeneration – typically mining machinery and
other machinery that spend their operational lives in one location, which makes having a
stationary regeneration station practical. In situations where the filter is physically
removed from the machine for regeneration there is also the advantage of being able to
inspect the filter core on a daily basis (DPF cores for non-road applications are typically
sized to be usable for one shift - so regeneration is a daily occurrence). [41]

See also[edit]
 Air pollution
 Selective catalytic reduction
  Smog
 Ultra-low sulfur diesel

References[edit]
1. ^ Tom Nash (May 2003) "Diesels: The Smoke is
clearing", MotorVol.199 No. 5, p. 54, Hearst Business Publishing Inc.
2. ^ Jump up to:              Emission Technology: DPF - Diesel Particulate
a b c d e f g

Filters, Axces.eu
3. ^ Jong Hun Kim et al. (November 2010) "NO2-Assisted Soot
Regeneration Behavior in a Diesel Particulate Filter with Heavy-Duty
Diesel Exhaust Gases", Numerical Heat Transfer Part A Vol.58 No.9
pp.725–739, Chonbuk National University,
Korea doi:10.1080/10407782.2010.523293
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c "DPF Maintenance" (January 2010) HDT Trucking Info
5. ^ "Diesel dilemma" (7 Nov 2011) BBC News
6. ^ "DPFs reduce diesel soot emissions by 80% but they're not suitable
for everyone" (5 December 2013) The Automobile Association
7. ^ "Study: 'Clean fuel' not always successful" (March 1, 2011) UPI
NewsTrack, Vancouver, British Columbia
"Canadian researchers say a program by one of the world's largest
cities [New Delhi] to switch its vehicles to clean fuel has not
significantly improved emission levels."
8. ^ [1]
9. ^ Jump up to:    Barone et al. (August 2010) "An analysis of field-aged
a b

diesel particulate filter performance: particle emissions before, during,

and after regeneration", Journal of the Air & Waste Management
Association Vol. 60 No.8 pp. 968-76 doi:10.3155/1047-3289.60.8.968
10. ^ DPF - Diesel Particulate Filters, Axces.eu
11. ^ Vincent D. Blondel: Recent Advances in Learning and Control, p.
233, Springer Science & Business Media, 2008, ISBN 9781848001541
12. ^ Diesel Particulate Regeneration
13. ^ ""Advanced Diesel Particulate Filters And Systems For Exhaust
Cleaning", Huss LLC"  (PDF). Archived from the original(PDF)  on
2014-09-06. Retrieved  2014-09-05.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b Bahadur et al. (2011) "Impact of California’s air pollution
laws on black carbon and their implications for direct radiative
forcing", Archived 2014-09-06 at the Wayback MachineAtmospheric
Environment Vol. 45 pp. 1162–1167, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, University of California San Diego
15. ^ Worldwide emission standards for diesel vehicles and engines
16. ^ James Scoltock (June 2014) "Diesel Particulate Filter: PSA Peugeot
Citroën was the first to bring in particulate filters to help make diesels
cleaner", Automotive Engineer p. 9
17. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions - Heavy-Duty DECS Installation and
Maintenance". Retrieved  28 October 2011.
18. ^ American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Archived 2014-09-05 at
the Wayback Machine
19. ^ ""Technology from BASF makes Hong Kong's air cleaner" (April 02,
2008) BASF The Chemical Company". Archived from  the original on
September 23, 2015. Retrieved  September 5,  2014.
20. ^ "In Introducing Diesel Vehicle Control"  (PDF). Archived from  the
original  (PDF) on 2012-10-30. Retrieved 2014-09-05.
21. ^ "Cleaning Up Diesel Emissions in Mexico City" (July 12, 2012) EPA
22. ^ "New York City passes diesel emissions rules" (Apr 21, 2005)
FleetOwner
 23. ^ "Milan’s Ecopass To Evolve" (September 2, 2011) Italy Chronicles
24. ^ Low Emission Zone, Transport for london
25. ^ Fit a Filter, Transport for london
26. ^ "Pass Your 2018 MOT - New Rules Regulations
27. ^ "Europe Bans Diesel for Cleaner Air - Fixter Blog". Fixter Blog.
2018-07-12. Retrieved  2018-07-26.
28. ^ "Pass Your 2018 MOT - New Rules & Regulations - Fixter
Blog".  Fixter Blog. Retrieved  2018-07-26.
29. ^ Diesel particulate Matter – Emission Reduction
MethodsArchived 2012-10-17 at the Wayback Machine (2009) Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), U.S. Department of Labor]
30. ^ "Technical Papers" (2013) Corning Environmental Technologies
31. ^ "Cordierite" (2009) Diesel Emission Technologies Inc.
32. ^ Jump up to:    "Silicon Carbide (SiC)" (2009) Diesel Emission
a b

Technologies Inc.
33. ^ "Metal Fiber & Mesh Filters" (2009) Diesel Emission Technologies
34. ^ "Best Practices For Underground Diesel Emissions" - CDC Stacks
35. ^ Technology Guide, DieselNet
36. ^ Jacobs et al. (2005) "Development of Partial Filter Technology for
HDD Retrofit", SAE International
37. ^ "Ford recalls F-150s over tailpipe fire fear" (March 21, 2007) NBC
News
38. ^ "Jaguar S Type XJ diesel particulate filter recall" (22 Mar 2007)
CarAdvice
39. ^ "Hino Standardized SCR Unit". Hino Motors. Archived from  the
original  on 5 August 2014. Retrieved  30 July 2014.
40. ^ "The DPR Future"  (PDF). Hino Motors. Retrieved 30 July2014.
41. ^ Bruce R. Conrad Archived 2006-09-02 at the Wayback Machine,
"Diesel Emissions Evaluation Program - INCO" Diesel Emissions
Evaluation Program Website (May 2006)

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Diesel
particulate filters.

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Categories: 
 Automotive accessories
 Diesel engine technology
 Air filters
 Particulate control
 Air pollution control systems
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