376 Electrical Power Systems 14.10 POWER FLOW THROUGH LINES AND SLACK BUS POWER i in the flow of power through the lines. Consig The final step in power flow study in " 0 i connected ae as i and m. The line and transformers at each end can be repre nominal r-circuit, This circuit has a series admittance Yim and two shunt admittan, Yruo as shown in Fig, 14.9. er the i, sented by 18 Yin ag Bus m Busi Fig. 14.9. Tl-representation of a line and transformers connected between two buses. The current supplied by bus i to the line is given by Tim = Tint + Timo= (Vi Vna) Vir + Vi Yino 14101) The complex power supplied by bus i to the line is given by Sim = Pim +j Qim= Vi lim = VE (Vi - Va) yin+ Vi VE yhoo ee 4102) _ Similarly, the complex power fed by the mth bus into the line connecting mth and ith buss is S, Vm (Vm~ Vi) Yin + Vn Vix Yio (14103) = VinYin~ Vn VE Yim + V2 Yo Thus, power flow through all the lines c; in_the lis ss po ‘an be calculated. The power loss in the Connecting ith and mth bus is given by the algebrai tal transmisiet Toss is the sum of losses over al gebraic sum of Sim and Spi, The total n the lines. The slack i 'd by summing flows on the lines terminating atthe slack bus, \ CUS POWeF is calculated by 14.11. DECOUPLED LoaD FLOW METHODS a poe ran operating in steady-state, there is a strong interdependence betwee ae powers and voltage soe, isles: Similarly, there is a strong interdependence between in voltage magnitude ae tS: Thus teal power changes, (A'P) are less sensitive © bn reactive power changes (Ang) ain Sensitive to change in bus voltage angles. Simi! to change in voltage paca ya, 128 sensitive to changes in angles and are mainly ye Be in vollage magnitude, In other words the coupling ipaeee active power P * ‘Scanned with CemScannerry re Load Flow Analysis a7 pope 0 tude V1 is relatively weak. Simila pycounling: bel este magni LV it as pirelvseeaey imilarly, the coupling between reactive power {bus voltage phase ange 1S Ao weak. weak coupling is utilized in the development ol \j load flow (DLE) method in which P is decoupled from AV and Q is decoupled fn 48. With these assumptions Eq. (14.9.5) is reduced to f Ap] _[H 0 oa [to =|FL (ULL) wvhere the matrices N and M are neglected, Equation (14.11.1) is the decoupled equation which tin be expanded as (a PI= (HI [48] =e(14,11.2) AlvI wat syr | -(14.11.3) We have already proved the following relations : Lig = Hix = Vi Ve Yin sin (6; ~ 5x — On) (14.114) Hu=—Qi- Bu Vt (14.1.5) (14.1.6) eH and L Li=Qi- Bu Vi We can solve Eqs. (14.1.2) and (14.1.3) simultaneously at each iteration. ratices are updated in each iteration using Eqs. (14.11.4), (14.115) and (14.1.6), In order to have faster convergence, the following method is used : () Perform each iteration by first solving Eq, (14.11.2) for 46. (i) Use the updated value of 8 in making and then solving Eq. (14.113) for AIVL. The decoupled load flow (DLF) method requires Jess memory in storing the Jacobian as ‘onpared to the Newton-Raphson method. However, the time required per iteration of the DLF ™athod is practically the same as that of NR method. In DLF method more number of iterations ® required for convergence because of the approximations made in it. Ke Ne FAST DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW (FDLF) METHOD te case of fast decoupled load flow (FDLF) method following approximation’ 8 M evaluating Jacobian element. further cos (6)~8 sin (5-5 (1412.1) Gu sind < Bu a Qi< BVP “these assumptions, the Jacobian elements now become 42) Has La=-V;V, Bu i oan Lic=-ViVe Bix i#k (14.123) Hi=— Bul ViP ~~ _— ‘Scanned wih CemScanner378 Electrical Power Systems Equation (14,11.2) and (14.1.3) can be written as [AP] = [Vi Vi Bal (4 5] (14.124) » [ALVI [AQ)=[Vi Ve B all Wr] +(14.12.5) where B’x and Bx are the elements of [- Bix] matrix We can obtain further decoupling and simplification as follows : (a) Neglect from [B”] the angle shifting effects of phase shifters. (b) Neglect from [B’] the representation of those network elements that affect reactive power flows, that is, shunt reactances and transformers’ off-nominal in-phase taps. (©) Dividing Eqs. (14.12.4) and (14.125) by | Vj| and putting | V;!= 1.0 pu in the equations (4) Neglecting series resistance in calculating the elements of [B’). With these assumptions Eqs. (14.12.4) and (14,12.5) are simplified as follows : AP]_op [fa]-wea (1412.6) AQ] _ tpn [ale HAIV w(14.12.7) Its to be noted that in Eqs. (14.12.6) and (14.12.7) both (B’] and [B”} are real, sparse. and have the structures of [H] and [L] respectively. Since they contain only admittances, they are constant and do not change during successive iterations. They are to be evaluated only once and inverted only once during the first iteration, They are then used in all successive iterations. Equations (14.12.6) and (14,12.7) are solved alternately using the most recent voltage values This method is very fast and converges very reliably in two to five iterations. The accuracy is fairly good even for large systems. It is found that a good approximate solution is obtained after first or second iteration. 14.13 DC LOAD FLOW METHOD Consider bus i connected to bus j over an impedance of Zy. The active power flow is given by y= sin (5-8) (413) where Vi = Vi /8) W= V5 Let us make the following simplifying assumptions : Xjz by Co Xy> Rp Viz 1.0 pu Viz 1.0 pu sin (6-8) = §- § ‘Scanned with CemScannerLows Peer Aragp act a Hn catenin ay 8 xk Pye My = By Br) an can be written in matrix form as ae (21 (8) ()= 18)" 1] 4 (8)= (XT (PI {B] matrix is an (n 1)x(n—1) matrix for an n-bus system. The di ! elements of the [2] matrix can be obtained by adding the se ‘onnected to bus i and by setting them equal to the negated series suse §, respectively. The linear Eq. (14.13.4) can be solved by using matrix meth roximate method of calculating the real power flows by solving first for the bus nown as the de load-flow method, in contrast with the exact nonlinear solution, which nas the ac solution. The de load-flow method is very fast because of the linear mation made. This method is useful to perform a large number of load-flow runs needed prehensive contingency analysis on large scale power systems. ‘414 COMPARISON OF LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS METHODS ¢ of @ particular method of load flow analysis depends upon the size of the system, f convergence, simplicity, computer memory, etc. ‘trantayes of Gauss Seidel (GS) Method 1 Itcan be easily programmed. 1 The solution technique is simple. 2 Computer memory requirements are smaller. It takes Jess computational time per iteration. “stations of Gauss-Seidel Method . |. The rate of convergence is slow and therefore, larger number of iterations are required. The GS method would take hundreds of iterations to converge if @ system with several hundred buses were to be analysed. ; 2 The number of iterations increases directly with the number of buses in the system. 5 This method is sensitive to the choice of reference bus. e GS method is used only for the system having small number of buses. “ntazes of Newton-Raphson (NR) Method 1 Kewen Rese n owes quadratic convergence characteristic, Therefore, the “convergence is very fast. The nie of herations fare independent of the size of the pean iy a accuracy is obtained nearly always in (wo to three iterations for s Systems, . The NK Method convergence is not sensitive to the csc com * Overall there is a saving in computation time since fewer quired for convergence, lack bus. ber of iterations are ‘Scanned wih CamScanner380 Electrical Powor Systems Limitations of NR Method 1, The solution technique is difficult. 2. It takes longer time as the elements of the Jacobian are to be computed for each iteration, 3, The computer memory requirement is large. ‘The NR method is more complicated than the GS method, however, it has advantages that far outweigh its shortcomings of complexity. It is the most reliable and powerful technique for solving load flow problems. Although a large number of load flow methods are available in literature it has been observed that only the Newton-Raphson and fast-decoupled load-flow methods are most Popular. The fast decoupled load flow is definitely superior to the Newton-Raphson method from the point of view of speed and storage. Example 14.8 A three-bus power system is shown in Fig. 14.10. The relevant per unit line admittances on 100 MVA base are indicated on the diagram and bus data are given in Table 14.2. Form Yius and determine the voltages at bus 2 and 3 after the second iteration using Gauss-Seidel method. Take the acceleration factor @= 1.6. ® @ ~j3 . “4 “5 C a Fig. 14.10. A three-bus power system. >= a Table 14.2 number 2P& Generation eed Bus voltage ead — Pe MW) Oc vA) Pron) Gamay ee 58 V Stack gE On VAD 2 Po a : 0 0 a PQ ° 5 50 25 es . —— 9 60 30 B | Solution Ee We fi St calculate lite the elem, | N= Sum of admittances not the bus admitta i - Imittances of 4 nce matrix Yous. 22 SUI Of all ada oll the elements connetart ee - ‘Scanned wih CamScannerccnaptor 14 Load Flow Analysis 359 Ys=-¥4 Yu=-y! Yis=-yis=J5 ‘the bus admittance matrix is given by Yu Yo Ys Ya Ys] f-ji2 js Yo Yo ¥23 Yas Yos js -j9 Yous= |¥31 Y32 ¥33 Y3q Yas} =| 0 i4 Yar Yeo Yas Yas Yas j2 0 Ys1 Ys2 Ys3 Ysa Yss js 0 Example 14.2 In Example 14.1, if the line between buses 2 and 5 with an impedance j 0.4 is connected, determine the modified bus admittance matrix. The other lines shown dotted are not connected, Solution By addition of one new line between buses 2 and 5, only four elements namely, Y22, Y5s, Yas, Yo are modified, j9-j25=-jlls j9-j25=-jlls ¥55 (now) = Y55 01a) + Y50 = Ys=— yas =J2.5 = Yoo Therefore, the modified bus admittance matrix is given by ~j12 5 0 j2 is js -jus ja o §25 Yous= | “0 74 -j733 3.33 0 7) O0 = j333-j933 4 G5 j2s 0 4 -flls. gamle 143 In Example 14.1, if the lines between buses 3 and 5, and 1 and 5 a eae : "mie the modified bus admittance matrix. The line between buses 2 and 5 is ol lution enon of two lines between buses 3 and 5, and 1 and 3 we have to modify only seven Famely, Yi, ¥33, ¥55, Yai, Yiay Yas, ¥s3- yest lt 23 j0.01 Yi on = Yun (ou + y13 =—j 12—j 100=—j 112 S3t00n = Yaa oun +13 +9: %5 nom = ¥55 (old) + Yas =-j 9-j 20 B*~yi3=7 100= Yu ; -j 100; ‘Scanned wih CamScanner360 Electrical Power Systems -j112 j5 J 100 is 5 9 ja acres Yius= | (100 j4 — -j127.33 73.33 2 j2 0 73.33 33. jd is 0 520 ~j29 Example 14.4 Determine Yous for the 3-bus system shown in Fig. 14.3, The tine si, impedances are as follows : Line (bus to bus) Impedance (pu) 1-2 0.06 +j 0.18 13 0.03 + j 0.09 23 0.08 + 0.24 Neglect the shunt capacitances of the lines. Solution ' : Zp 7008 +) 009 es 2 006+ j 0.18 = +96-J5 Fig. 143. doo, B= 213 00347009 = 333~J 10 1 1 , does pone = 125-375 Yu=yrtyn, 1.66 -j5+3.33-j10=5~j15 Yo=yr+)23= 66 ~j5+ 1.28 ~ 73.75 =2.91 ~j8.75 Yas = y23 + yg = 1.25 ~J3.75 +3.33-j10=4.58 -j 13.75 Y2=-yn = 1.664j5=¥y ~YB=~ 1.25 473.75 = Yyp ~Y3=~3.334j10= Yay S-j1s ~1664+j)5 3.334; : 33 + 10 You= |-166+)5 291-7875 ~ 1.25 43.75 ~3334j10 -1.254)3.75 4.58 ~j 13.75 aritt Example 14.5 In Example 14.4, each li i = 75.0 pu. D the motifed bus advan Tine has a total shunt admittance of - 5.0 P! Solution Fig. 14.4 shows the 3-bus 5 cae stem where the shunt admittances of the line are at dE For the line between buses 1 and 2, the total shunt admittance = ye+y For the line between buses 1 and 3, the total shunt admittance =yatyo For the line between buses 2 and 3, the total shunt admittance = ye+)/= ‘Scanned wih CamScannerLoad Flow Analysis 361 cooper 4 Hi vy Hh @ Zi Fig. 14.4, i i in Yous are When we consider the effect of shunt admittances, only the diagonal elements in Yo, modified. We have Ya=Yb=Ye= Yd =Ye==—j25 Yuen) = Fir old) + Yat Ye = G = 15) + (-j5)=5 520 Ya(om = Yor oto) + Yat Ye = 2.91 ~j8.15—j5=2.91 —J 135 ¥53 (new) = ¥33 (old + Yo + Yy = 4.58 —j 13.75 -J 5 an 18.75 i -1664j5 -3.334J Yous = Biciara 391) 135 = 1.25 +j3.75 =3334+j10 -1.25+j3.75 4.58-j18.75 in Fig, 14.5. The line series Prample 146 Determine Yius for the 4-bus system shown in Fig. 14. Pedances are as follows : Line (bus to bus) Impedance (pu) te (bus to bus) Impedance (pu) 12 0.25 +j1.0 13 0.20+j08 14 0.304j 12 23 0.20+j0.8 3-4 0.15 +j0.6 fe i lines. Saagon” 8 Shunt capacitances of the Yost ___1 z2- 0.254] 1.0 Yost 3 024+j08 Yost t ua 03412 .235 - j 0.94 Fig. 14.5: = 0.294 -j 1.176 = 0.196 -j 0.784 ‘Scanned wih CamScanner362. Electrical Power Systems 1 0.24708 ~ L cu ONS +) 0.294 -j 1.176 ).392 —j 1.568 yue Yusyntystyi 0.235 y+ 1 =~ 0.235 +) 0.94 = Yar Yip=-y3 =- 0.294 +) L176 = Yis=— yrs = 0.196 +) 0.784 = Yar 0.2944) 1.176 = Ya2 =~ 0.392 +) 1.568 Ys 3 Yass yia+ 0.725 -j2.9 0.235 +f 0.94 0,529 - 029447117 - 0.2944) 1.1 — 0.196 +7 0.784 0 Yous = 0.196 — 0.784 + 0.392 -j 235 +) 0.94 116 76 —j 0.94 + 0.294 -j 1.176 + 0.196 - 7 0.784 = 0.725 j 0.94 +0.294-j 1.176 = st yi3 + y34 = 0.294 -7 1.176 + 0,294 -7 1.176 + 0.392 — 7 1.568 = 0.98 -j 3.92 529 - j 2.116 568 = 0.588 —j 2.352 = 0.294 + 1.176 = 0.294 +] 1.176 0.98 -j 3.92 0,392 + 1.568 ~ 0.196 +} 0.784] 0 = 0.392 + j 1.568 0.588 +) 2.352 | Example 14,7 In Example 14.6, each line between buses, 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 has a total shunt admittance of ~ j 0.16 pu. The shunt admittances of the remaining lines are neglected. Determins the bus admittance matrix if the series impedances are the same as in Example 14.6. Solution Fig. 14.6 shows the given system. When shunt admittances are also considered, only the dis elements of Yous are modified. @ Lr Fig. 14.6, @ ‘Scanned wih CamScanner gonalr | Load Flow Analysis 363 J nwt qoua sunt admitiance between buses 1-2 gout shunt acimituane nt admittance between buses 1-3 =yo-+Yy | ¢ between buses 1-4 oval shu eye yam Ye y b= Mf | Ao, Ye Yi (ald) + 3Y Vir (oth Yat Yory Yas en) = (0.725 -j2.9) +3 ( 20.725 ~j 3.14 | | Yao new) = Y22 old) + Yd = 0.529 ~j 2.116 + (-p046) = 0,529 ~ j 2.196 ¥33 new) = Yaa (old) += 0.98 - j 3.92 ~ 4 (0.16) =0.98-j4 j 0.16) Yau new) = Yas (out) + Yk = 0.588 ~j 2.3: = 0.588 ~j 2.432 (0.725 -{3.14) (0.235 +J 0.94) (0.294 +) 1.176) 0.196 + 0.784) (0.235 +) 0.94) (0529-2196) (-0.294 +/ 1.176) 0 (0.294 +] 1.176) (-0.294+j 1.176) 098-54 (- 0.392 +} 1.568) (-0.196 +) 0.784) 0 (0.392 +/'1.568) (0.588 - j 2.432) Yous = "4 STATIC LOAD FLOW EQUATIONS (SLFE) s of an n-bus system is From the | tate nodal current equations, the total current entering the ith bu: | or ——- 04.4.1) oy, 7 | 1 Vi/8: 5 Ya = Yu Ou | © Yu Vi 2(Be+ Ow oe tet e Omplex power injected into the ith bus is Sieg 1+4Q= Vili ata 1S Vi28; Pit] Qi= Vi Yin Ve (i= 5x — 8 kel ‘Scanned with CemScannereo" 364 Electrical Power Systems Separation of real and imaginary parts gives n Vi, Yau Ve c0s (8-51-08) P= 12g 1445) kel Qi= Vi D, Ya Ve sin (8;~ 5: — 8) f=1,2,.40 (14.4.6) kel Equations (14.4.5) and (14.4.6) are called static load flow equations (SLFE). Equation (14.4.5) gives n real power flow equations. Similarly, Eq. (14.4.6) gives reactive power flow equations. Thus, Eqs. (14.4.5) and (14.4.6) represent 2n power flow equations. At each bus we have four variables Pi, Qi, Vi and 8; resulting in total of 4n variables. In order to find a solution it is necessary to specify two variables at each bus. Thus the number of unknown variables is reduced to 2n. The solution of these remaining 2n variables is done by numerical methods because Eqs. (14.4.5) and (14.4.6) are nonlinear. No exact analytical solution of nonlinear equations is possible. These equations may be solved by iterative techniques which employ successive approximations eventually converging upon a solution, Before the advent of digital computers these trial and error techniques were tedious and time consuming. However, today these methods find widespread applications for solving Joad flow problems. The iteration procedure involves an initial assumed value for each of the unknown independent variable. These numerical values are substituted in the original equation to obtain a new set of corrected values of these independent variables. The second set is used to find the third corrected set. The process is repeated. Each calculation of a new set of variables is called an iteration. The iteration is continued until the unknown values converge within required limits. 144.5 METHODS OF LOAD FLOW SOLUTION {A large number of iterative methods using both Yous and Zpue are available in liter desirable features of an ideal load flow method are as follows : (1) High speed, that is, fast convergence (2) Minimal storage (3) Simplicity and ease of programming a al (4) Reliability for ill-conditioned system such as systems having junctions of very el low series impedances, long EHV lines, large series capacitances, series and compensation. These factors affect the convergence. esatt No single load flow method satisfies all these requirements. In practice, all a ie of e not required simultaneously in all situations. A compromise is to be made in U particular method. ature. The 14.6 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD USING Yous From the nodal given by a ste is current equations, the total current entering the th bus of an #-bUS * ‘Scanned wih CamScannerCHAPTER 16 Symmetrical Faults 46.1 INTRODUCTION Normally, a power system operates under balanced conditions. Under abnormal (that sf conditions, the system may become unbalanced. If the insulation of the system fails at any po or if two or more conductors that normally operate with a potential difference come in cont with each other, a short-circuit, or fault, is said to occur. ‘The contact may be a physic m2 ‘one, or it may occur through an arc. ‘A fault may occur on a power system due to a number of reasons. Some of the cor causes have their origins in natural disturbances like lightning, high-speed winds, ¢ ie earth tremors, snow, frost etc. Generators, transformers, and other protective switchgeat fail due to insulation breakdown. There may be accidental faults such as falling of @ tree a line, vehicles colliding with supporting structures, airplane crashing with the line, bids sont line. Sometimes sabotage also results in creating faults. Contamination of insulators ma} ay result in a fault. Wind and ice loading may cause insulator strings to fail mec Deterioration of insulation due to ageing and over loading of underground cables ress" circuits, Sometimes small animals like rats, lizards, etc. enter switchgeat to creat fl Faults may occur at different points in a power system. However, here we vil Pry concemed with faults on transmission lines. Faults that occur on a transmission line ane classified as follows : 1, Three-phase short circuits 2. Unsymmetrical faults. Three-Phase Short Circuits ft fen 1° ie ort cireuited to each other and Le 4 the sense that the system bee off curs rarely but it is most sevel A ‘Scanned wih CemScanner7 e . Symmetrical Fauts 495 ig largest mine thes! currents. For this reason, the balanced short-circuit calculati a ions are oli ¢ large currents to be used to determine the rating of the circuit ee peter gsmmetrical Faults rical faults involve only one or two phases. For unsymmetrical faults, voltages and me unbalanced and each phase is to be treated individually for calculation purpose is concerned with symmetrical three-phase short-circuit faults. The analysis of | faults is discussed in Chapter 18, r Unsymme caents bec! ‘is chapter asymmetrical 2 EFFECTS OF FAULTS ults can damage or disrupt power systems in several ways. Faults give rise to abnormal operating conditions, usually excessive voltages and currents at certain points on the system, Large voltages stress insulation beyond their breakdown value while large currents result in erheating of power system components. Sustained overheating may reduce useful life of the equipment. Sometimes faults lower system voltages below their permissible limits. Faults can cust the three-phase system to become unbalanced with the result that three-phase equipment operates improperly. Sometimes faults block the flow of power. Faults can cause system to become unstable. Hence, it is necessary that, upon the occurence of the fault, the faulty section should be disconnected as rapidly as possible in order that the normal operation of the rest of ihe system is not affected. If this is not done, the equipment may be damaged and the power sply is disrupted. The relays should immediately detect the existence of the fault and initiate cituit breaker operation to disconnect the faulty section. 183 PURPOSE OF FAULT ANALYSIS Fault analysis is also known as short-circuit study or short-circuit analysis. A fault analysis ‘cludes the following: . ey determine the values of voltages and currents at different points of the system during ie fault. : Determination of the ratings of the required circuit breakers. Selection of appropriate schemes of protective relaying. — the purpose of fault analysis is to save the system from abnormal conditions within imum time, 4 SIMPLIFYING ASSUMPTIONS Ate ‘come, fault calculations involve much labour and time. In practice, the following simplifying L = made in the analysis of faults : : (that ie empaous machine model is represented by a constant-voltage source behind 07), tran Series with) a proper reactance. This reactance may be subtransient reactance imac tansent reactance (X,), or synchronous reactance at steady state (X,) If we are "ale we to determine current immediately after the fault we take subtransient reactance ‘ange’ YiSh {0 determine the fault current after about 3 to 4 cycles we use transient ‘Scanned wih CamScanner406 Eloctrical Power Systems n . In the transformer models, the shunt elements that account for magnetizing Current ang core losses are neglected. : ; 3. All transformers are considered to be at their normal taps. “4. Yn the transmission-line models the shunt capacitances are neglected. 5. All series resistances in generators, transmission lines, and transformers ‘are neglected, This assumption is usually made for hand calculations. With this assumption, the power system network will contain only reactances, and therefore, the system can be represented by its most simplified reactance diagram, However, if the calculations a to be made with the help of a digital computer, this assumption is unnecessary, Load impedances are neglected and therefore, the prefault system is unloaded. In other words, the power system network becomes open circuited. Hence we neglect the normal Joad currents (that is, prefault currents). With the system network open, all the prefault bus voltages will have the same magnitude and phase angle. Therefore, in per unit analysis, all prefault voltages in the network including the prefault voltage at the fault point can be taken as 1.0/0° pu. This is commonly known as flar profile. When the prefault currents are also to be considered, we shall use superposition principle, These assumptions result in considerable simplification in calculations without seriously affecting accuracy. Actually the results obtained are on the safer side. a 16.5 THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Thevenin's theorem may be stated as follows : A linear network N consisting of sources and impedances can be replaced at any pair of terminals a-b by a simple equivalent network consisting of a voltage source Vr in series with an impedance Zr. The source voltage Vr is the voltage across the terminals a-b when they are open circuited. The series impedance Zr is the network impedance as scen from the terminals a-b when all the sources are replaced by their internal impedances. The voltage Vr is called the Thevenin voltage and the impedance Zr is called the Thevenin impedance. The equivalent circu consisting of Vr in series with Zr is known as Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Thevenin's theorem is very useful in fault calculations. Usually we have to determine the network impedance as seen from the fault point. In most cases Thevenin voltage Vr is assumed to be 1.0 per unit. 16.6 SHORT-CIRCUIT CAPACITY, SCC The short-circuit capacity (SCC) of a bus of a network is defined as the product of He magnitudes of the prefault voltage and the post fault current. The short-circuit capacity i #9? known as the fault level. iscct$ Wilt VA (1669 where Vo = prefault voltage in volts Tr = post—fault current in amperes. ‘Scanned wih CamScannernapter 16 Symmetrical Faults 407 For a solid fault the fault impedance Zy= 0 and the fault current is given by Vr oa «(16.6.2 Ip Zr (16.6.2) shee Vr= Thevenin’s voltage per phase in volts Zp=Thevenin's impedance in ohms. In our case, Vr= V’, therefore — VAlphase (16.6.3) ISCChg=1¥rilel=—F Si : Wehave Zrpu=Zr—s (16.6.4) Vb sihere Sp= base voltamperes in VA Vs= base voltage in volts 2rpa= Thevenin’s impedance in per unit. If Vr is chosen as base voltage, Vr= Vp. Therefore, Eq, (16.6.4) may be written as S Zrpu= ae (16.6.5) RLS (16.6.6) 2r Zrpw Combination of Eqs. (16.6.3) and (16.6.6) gives ISCC I g= 5% VA per phase (16.6.7) 2rpu 1 (kV) is the phase voltage in kV, then from Eq, (16.6.3) 2 Isce hng= ae MVA/phase Total ISCC I for all the three phases is given by 2 'SeChg=31scch » = eeDeL MVA Vr is the tine voltage in kV, then (kVrhr= V3 (KV A)p : ‘ «(16.6.8) (16.6.9) ‘Scanned wih CamScanner408 Electrical Power Systems Combination of Eqs. (16.6.8) and (16.6.9) gives (VAD vA 6619 ISCChe= Ze We can also write Eq, (16.6.10) as (St (S8C)r9= G* MVA 166.1 where (Ss)s@ is the total three-phase MVA- / Equation (16.6.11) shows that the fault level (SCC) can be found if the total per unit impedance from the voltage source to the fault is known. ‘The fault current (short-circuit current) can be found as follows : V3 Vu Ip x 10° = short-circuit MVA in all the three phases ++. (16.6.12) where Vip is in volts and J in amperes. 146.7 PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING SHORT-CIRCUIT VOLTAMPERES AND SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT For calculating the short-circuit voltamperes Ssc and the short-circuit current Isc the following procedure is used : 1, Draw a single-line diagram of the complete network. On this diagram, indicate the rating, voltage, resistance, and reactance of all generators, transformers, transmission lines, loads, etc. 2. Select a common base Sp (kVA or MVA) and convert all impedances to per-unit values on the same voltamperes base Sp. 3. Corresponding to the single-line diagram of the network, draw the reactance (or impedance) diagram showing one phase of the system and the neutral. On this diagr™. indicate all the per-unit resistances and per-unit reactances of the components calcul in step 2. 4. Calculate the total per unit impedance from the source to the fault point by cit analysis. This may involve series-parallel combination, star-delta or dels transformations. It should be noted that this total per unit impedance is the Theve®” impedance of the network as seen from the fault point. 5. Determine the fault MVA (short-circuit MV, ircuit cure) from Eqs. (16.6.11) and (16.6.12), ‘A) and fault current (short-ci 16.8 STAR-DELTA AND DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATIONS nd. ’ . we redelta 2 trans used in network reduction. From circuit ier ; ected to a given terminal is equal t0 the Praia same terminal divided by the sum of ith reference to Fig. 16.1 : ‘Scanned wih CamScannergage 18 ‘Symmetrical Fauts 409 AOY 7 2221 A Tat Eat h Zi2 223 ZZ = Zy=2) +234 ATastgti = BH AtB+T Zu Zo Bu ————— Zs =Z3+Z\+—— Dayar crea 2 alae a7 Fig. 16.1. Star-delta transformations. 169 TRANSIENT IN A SERIES R-L CIRCUIT Consider a series R-L circuit to which a sinusoidal voltage is suddenly applied by closing a ssich $ as shown in Fig. 16.2. Let the applied voltage be given by v= Vp sin (ot +a) (16.9.1) R i ‘ Wr : al t (a) (b) Fig. 16.2. (a) Series R-L circuit (b) Voltage waveform. When the switch $ is closed we can write the voltage equation by KVL as VRtyLsy i+ La (16.9.2) Ri +4 = Vn sin (or +0) en (692) Tis the instantaneous current. Equation (169.2) can be solved by # number of methods. ‘olution consists of two parts, namely, letedp --(16.9.3) ; . i the I this equation ig is called the natural response and is the general ee = iba ppreoUS equation (input set to zero). The component iy is called the forced resp i cular solution of Eq. (16.9.2). °M circuit theory R ab + (16.9.4) ‘Scanned with CemScanner410 Electrical Power Systems where & is an arbitrary constant (0 be determined from initial conditions. is given by The forceg tsp ‘Ping ip 3B sin (w+a-9) l69 where Z= VR + (@L)" and g=tan ‘The complete solution (total response) is therefore given by 81 vq tipeke & +7 sin (t+ a-9) (1698, The initial conditions are applied to the total response. In our case the initial conditions a those existing at the time of closing the switch. Since the current is zero just before closing tz switch, the initial conditions are i=Oatr=0 Putting these values of i and f in Eq. (16.9.6) we get o= ke? + M2 sin (0+a-<) which gives oS sin(a-@) Substituting the value of k in Eq. (16.9.6) we obtain ia Ym g Vn -£ an i= F sin (or + a- 9) -F sin (ag) € ey 6 Equation (16.9.7) shows that the current i has two components : 1. The steady-state component (forced response) if given by i628 yal y="z sin (t+ a-9) 2. The exponentially decaying transient component (natural response) ix give" by a 98) ina Bsn (a-get! Al The component iz Current wave will be symmetrical about 1 1s an unpredictable amount of offset am. time axis. However, if the swite! ol nent will be a maximum, and the first PO K value of the final steady-state current. is ‘Scanned wih CemScanner364 Electrical Power Systems Separation of real and imaginary parts gives Pi= Vi, Vir Vi c0s (6: ~ 8k - 8) kel walls i= Vi, Yue Vesin (8 8x- On) FL 2 allt, ke Equations (14.4.5) and (14.4.6) are called static load flow equations (SLFE). Equsy (14.4.5) gives n real power flow equations. Similarly, Eq. (14.4.6) gives 1 reactive power f equations. Thus, Eqs. (14.4.5) and (14.4.6) represent 2n power flow equations. At each by have four variables P;, Qi, Vi and 8; resulting in total of 4n variables. In order to find a sol it is necessary to specify two variables at each bus. Thus the number of unknown variables reduced to 2n. The solution of these remaining 2n variables is done by numerical mats because Eqs. (14.4.5) and (14.4.6) are nonlinear. No exact analytical solution of nonlinear equations is possible, These equations may be sche! by iterative techniques which employ successive approximations eventually converging up: solution. Before the advent of digital computers these trial and error techniques were teins and time consuming. However, today these methods find widespread applications for soit: load flow problems. The iteration procedure involves an initial assumed value for each of unknown independent variable. These numerical values are substituted in the original equstt to obtain a new set of corrected values of these independent variables. The second set is uel to find the third corrected set, The process is repeated. Each calculation of a new set of vars is called an iteration. The iteration is continued until the unknown values converge"? required limits. 14.5 METHODS OF LOAD FLOW SOLUTION {A large number of iterative methods using both Your and Zur are available in literate: ™ desirable features of an ideal load flow method are as follows : (1) High speed, that is, fast convergence (2) Minimal storage (3) Simplicity and ease of programming a ans, ‘ as si (A) Reliability for ill-conditioned system such as systems having junctions of VeFY we low series impedances, long EHV |i Cs ; 5 ines, large series itances, series compensation. These factors affect the convergence, No single load flow methiod satisfies all the not required simultaneously in all situations. A compromis: be made in f y ions. ise i eel promise is to C # sf : . feats se requirements. In practice, all HS ice 14.6 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD USING Yous is From the nodal current equati a ae Cquations, the total current entering the th bus of an bY y | ‘Scanned with CamScannercog 4 Load Flow Analysis 365 maar Vit Yeo Vat os + Yin Vn= Yu Vi 14.6.1) ist The complex power injected into the kth bus is 5.2 Petj Ox= Vel (14.6.2) re complex conjugate of Eq. (14.6.2) gives Shs Pej Qe= Vik (14.6.3) 1 . a= Pej 0 (14.6.4) k Elimination of Jk from Eqs. (14.6.1) and (14.6.4) gives Yeu Vit Yin V2 +... + Vik Viet + Yin Vn “4 (Px-j Qe) ..-(14.6.4a) h ‘Therefore, the voltage at any bus k where Px and Qx are specified is given as Ot > Ye Vi (14.6.5) ist tek Equation (14.6.5) is the heart of the iterative algorithm. At bus 2, Vpe oh] P2122 _ yoy vy — Yas Va — Yan Vo (14.6.6) Yn| Va AL bus 3, Vye | Pai 3 _ yyy yy — Yao Va Yas Va = — Yan Vn (17.6.7) Ys3{ V3. For kth bus the voltage at the (r+ 1)th iteration is given by kd n De wry Yu YW? (14.6.8) jake 'n the above equations, the quantities Pk, Qe Yix and Yi are known and do not vary during Neration cycle. Let us define (14.6.9) eC (14.6.10) ning and then used in every iteration. Gs Qk fap k= 2,3, 00 Yee Dut Pi for b=2,3, 000 jet,Qream (except i#h) i values of C, and Dur are computed in the begin! Ves computer time considerably. ‘Scanned wih CemScanner366 Electrical Powor Systems For Ath bus the voltage at the (r-+ 1th iteration can be written as mt A urn Sy pat? Y du? een wey ieee n (14.6.1) Yow? k= 2,3 a isk yes 0? 14.6.1 Computation for Load Buses /s Let us assume that all the buses are of P-@ type except the slack bus which is of V-5 type. Let bus | be designated the swing bus. Since the voltage at the slack bus is fixed in magnitude and phase, it does not vary during iterative procedure and there is no iteration involved for ths bus, The solution begins with bus 2. ‘The iteration procedure is as follows : ) 1. Assume initial values of load bus voltages and angles for generator bus voltage (except for the slack bus). Let the assumed values be V9, WP, VO. ‘The superscript (0) indicates an initial approximation, Calculate V4) in terms of the initial assumed voltages as follows : wan [ae — Yay Vi ~ Yan VO 0. — Yon “ (14.6.3) v Q: Yo} (v)* 3. When the corrected value of V5! is determined, we determine V5", The corrected value of V4" is then substituted back into the Eq. (14.6.13) in place of V*. Thus a new corrected value of V2 is obtained. This process is continued for a specified number e iterations. It should be noted that the last iteration may not give the correct value of V since the correction is also dependent upon other assumed voltages. 4, Using the corrected value of the voltage from step 3 and other voltages we perform calculations for bus 3. Here also we perform several ite we have done for bus 2. 5. We then go to buses 4, 5, 6, ..., etc. and continue the same procedure all buses have been considered and we have obtained a new set of the values o! voltages in the network. f 6. Repeat the iteration process from step 1 to step 5 until the difference AV in old i" new values of bus voltages for all the buses of the network (except the slack bY) within a specified limit of tolerance, The iterations process is then said t0 converse = a solution. Let the iteration count be denoted by r. Then the magnitude 0! voltage at bus k between two consecutive iterations is given by wl 6 lave 21-1 assumed values of srations aS ‘eration until f iteration unt! values of all DIS ‘Scanned wih CemScannerLoad Flow Ani rar all P-Q buses the criterion for convergence is | AV: 1 < al values of € range from 0.01 to 0.0001 € where e is the tolerance level. 14s2 Computation for PV Buses ara PY bus, P and | VI are specified and Q and 6 are unknown. At the Ath bus, the voltages itude is to be maintained at a specified value | Vil. The values of Q and § are to be ed in every iteration, 7 - From Eq, (14.6.42), Qx=-Im| Vid Yu Vi +(14.6.15) i= symbol Im means ‘the imaginary part of. If kth bus is the PV bus the following procedure is used : The revised value of Qx is found from Eq. (14.6.15) by substituting most updated values of soltages on the right hand side. Thus, for (r+ 1)th iteration we have Of? =—1m| (PY DY va WP + PD Ya MP (146.16) ist revised value of 5, is found from Eq. (14.6.8) as follows : af) =angle of V+? kel " - Pe-jor*? Yai yron_yy Ye yo (4.6.17) = angle of | “$= - ‘ Sale, De ZT For a PV bus the upper limit Qmax and lower limit Onin of Q to hold the generation vars ‘thin limits is also given, That is Qe (min) < Qe < Qk (max) Therefore, the calculated Of* is checked for limits of Qi, that is Qk (min) < OL *” < Qk (max) ASE" is within its limits then calculate new yey ing Vel and 8 for the magnitude a N= 1Vy ip and Fetain the phase angle 8°" and move (0 the next bus. et > Oe imany, then put Of? = Okina Now we find the new value of Cr and treat = Ih bus as PO bee and continue the computations similar to a Tore (PQ) bus. 1 QF <0, nny, then Quin is taken as the reactive power at us that is, -(14.6.18) we(14.6.19) sw value of Cy and use Eq, (14.6.1) to calculate and phase angle of V4. Now put N Ot? = Ox nin oy We find the new value of Cr and treat the Mth "ued as in case of a PQ bus. On iiss ESS ‘Scanned with CemScanner bus as PQ bus. The computation is thenver 968 Electrical Power Systems The flow chart for a load flow study using Gauss-Seidel method is given in Fig. 147 Ve the buses are numbered as follows : 1 slack bus 3, -m PY buses n PQ buses 14.6.3 Acceleration Factors In the Gauss-Seidel method, a large number of iterations are requited t0 arrive at the speci (desired) convergence. The fate of convergence can be increased by the use of acceleatin after each iteration. The acceleration factor is a multipher ta factor to the solution obtained ' enhances correction between the values of voltage In two successive iterations, For the ih bas let V4" = value of voltage at the rth iteration Vi? = value of voltage at the (r+ 1th iteration Wid.dimoee = accelerated new value of the voltage at the (r+ I)th iteration 7 = iteration count accelerating factor frets then Setierane = Vi" + LV Thus, after calculating V/*" at (r-+ 1th iteration we calculate the new estimated bus volugt Vic Bien and this new estimate replaces the calculated value Vi'*"'. Different accelea'st factors may be used for real and imaginary components of the voltage. That is. if ¥; is resohed into real and imaginary components as Viz ais) bi and if @ and fi are the acceleration factors associated with a, and & then ab sclera = a8? + laf” — af") Biscteraices = 81" +B [BI — Bi The choice of a specific valve of acceleration factor depends upon the system parenelt ‘The optimum valve of & usually lies in the range 1.2 ; a vale 1.6 is widely used in practice. 186 1.2 to 1.6 for most systems, bat 2 14.7 NEWTON-RAPHSON (NR) METHOD erat on for solving a set of simultaneous nontinear equations in Let the # equstions in m unknowns be Alam. fein, ae! AG ‘Scanned wih CamScannerLoad Flow Analysis 14.1 INTRODUCTION Load flow (or power flow) analysis is the determination of current, voltage, active power, and reactive voltamperes at various points in a power system operating under normal steady-state or static conditions. Load flow studies are made to plan the best Operation and control of the existing system as well as to plan the future expansion to keep pace with the load growth. Such studies help in ascertainin ig the effects of new loads, new generating stations, new lines and new interconnections before they are installed. The prior information serves to minimize the system losses and to provide a check on the system stability. The mathematical formulation of load flow problem results in a set of algebraic non-linear equations. A lot of calculation work is involved in the solution of these equations. Hand computations are very tedious and time consuming. Earlier load flow studies were made by s¢ network analysers (analog computers). Digital computers, accuracy and quicker operation, because of greater flexibility, economy have practically replac load flow problems. ed network analysers for the solution of 14.2 LOAD FLOW PROBLEM Load flow studies are performed to calculate the magnitude and phase angles of voltages ate buses, and also the active power and reactive voltamperes flow for the given terminal or bus conditions. The following variables are associated with each bus or node : 1, Magnitude of the voltage, | Vj. 2. Phase angle of the voltage, 8). Active power Pj. magi tive voltamperes Qj. types of buses or nodes are identified in a power system network for load flow studies 354 aa ‘Scanned wih CamScannercaptor 14 Load Flow Analysi each bus two variables are known (specified) and two a w sifcation depends upon the specified variables, ‘The byce d {) Swing Bus or Reference Bus or Slack Bus Voltage magnitude | Vil and phase angle 8; are specified for this bus. ‘This bus is first to respond pa changing load condition. © to be determined, ‘The bus are classified as follows 0) Generator Bus or Voltage-Controlled Bus or PV Bus Here | Vil and P; are specified. Often the upper thase angles of the voltages (©) Load Bus or P-Q Bus Here the active power Pj and reactive Voltamperes Qj are specified, Buses with neither generator nor load may be considered where P)=Qi=0. If any bus in a power system network has both load and generator, then load is generally treated as negative generation, and lower limits of Q are also specified. The and the reactive powers are to be determined, as load bus Table 14.1 ssows the types of buses and the associated known and unknown variables, Table 14.1 Bus Typ: s for Power Flow Anal: Bus type Specified variables Unknown variables Reference bus or slack bus Vil, 8 PA Oi Generator bus or voltage P,AViL i, 8; controlled bus or PV bus Load bus or PQ bus Pi, i IVil, 8 One of the generator buses is selected as the reference bus for the reason given below : The losses in the system remain unknown until the load flow solution is complete, It is for Wis eason that one of the generator buses is made to take the additional real and reactive powers ‘0 supply the transmission losses Pz, and Qu. This bus is, therefore, known as the slack or swing 1 Since the voltages throughout the system must be close to 1.0 per unit, the voltage at the ck bus is assigned to be 1.0 per unit. The voltage of the slack bus is taken as reference and therefore its angle § is equal to zero, Generally, the bus connected to the largest generating Station is selected as the slack bus. The slack bus is usually numbered as bus 1. In load flow studies single-phase representation with positive-sequence network is used since Power system is usually balanced under normal conditions of operation. load flow problem is divided into the following steps : '. A suitable mathematical network model to give relationships between voltages, powers, and reactive voltamperes is formulated. % Powers, vars, and voltages are specified at various buses. ssc given ns founa 3. Numerical solution of the load flow problem subject to the restraints given in a ‘© give the bus voltages: of * Flow of power and vars is found in all the Fines of the network, ‘Scanned with CemScanner386. Electrical Power 8) 14.3. BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX You stem network ( and a static C4 and operating, 1. 14,1) consisting of to generating sg icitor connected 6 load bus 3. We shy under balanced conditions, Consider a small power transmission fines, one load that the network is symmetrical ~ Transmission lines 20 Fig. 14.1. Powor system notwork for power flow. We are interested in the steady-state solution of the network shown in Fig. 14.1. This 1 three-node network, We can write the node voltage equations as N= Qnty) Vi-yia Vaya Va =~ y12 Vi + (12 +23) V2—y23 Vs ~1=—yat Vi~ yas Va-+ (a1 + y23 + y30) Va In matrix form NY lyatys yn ~yi vi a =! yi Ona +y23) ~y23 V2 ~hy | -ys ~y23 O31 +y32+y30)] | V3 It is to be noted that all injected curren re ts are ative The above equations can be when ac Positive and extracted currents are negati' a Yn Ya Ys] [vy L=|Ya Ye Yas} | yy “A [Yn Ye ral yy where Yui =yy2+y13; Yn = * AREY + YI35 ¥33= yyq 4. = a1 + oa Yo=Yor=-yi2; Yas= ¥yy oa Yiehne 32 ie elements Y; ing the ditse.j0 ot |i Yan, Yaa forming the diagonal tems are called self admittances. Tes! admittance of a node x is e qual to the sum of i , admittances of all the elements connected 1°"; x. In general, the diagonal element Y, 1 , n of the i ix i : admittances of all the elements connected Pane . Menace mms. i ae " That is, Yop =Ypt +Ypa +... +Ypn Where Ypy is the admittance of the clement Connected between the bi a ¢ ¢ buses p and q. ‘Scanned with CemScanneror 14 Load Flow Analysis g57 she elements Yi2, Via, Y3 cadmittances. Yaa Yan, Yoo forming the off. diagonal terms are called mutual Yos=Ya=—yos 3 Y= Y= ym It is to be noted that all mutual admittance terms have a sraiagonal term of the bus admittance matrix is equal to th Sonnected between node p and node g, That is, Yoq=—Ypq For a network having n nodes (buses for each node, can be written as negative sign, In general, the he negative of the admittance ) excluding ground, a set of following equations, one N=YuVi+ Yio Vat... + Yin Va = Yo Vi + Yo2 Va +... + Yon Va In= Yo Vi + Yno Vo +... + ¥nn Va These equations can be written in matrix forms as ny [Yn Yi. Ye] PV hy |¥r Ye... Yon] [Ve (143.1) Th Wave ¥ea) ee) Yor (EV In a more compact form Tous = Your Vius +=(14.3.2) qh (14.3.3) where Ibys= bus current vector = h (14.3.3) In vi V2 ++(14,3.4) Vous = bus voltage vector = 2 Vn Yu Ya Yin Yo Yoo Yon (14.3.5) Yous = bus admittance matrix = or : Yat ¥n2 Yon i nodal current Bus voltages are measured with respect to ground. Eq. (1 a a “Ballon, Wis a vector equation consisting of n scalar aa s admittance matrix cannot be TIME Power system elements have mutual coupling, the noe of mutual coupling between fo directly by inspection of the one line diagram. In Paes tVenvcan| be {terme from WET systern elements the inspection method fails. In reece power system elements exist theoretic @pproach. However, the mutual coupling bet ‘Scanned with CamScanner358 Electrical Power Systems : ing in parallel for a long distance. But this Coupling : i ni 7 only in case of transmission lines runn noses the mutual coupling can be ignored andy ; also weak. Therefore, for all practical pu formed by inspection method. Advantages of bus admittance matrix Vous ey eeeles Tallow The main advantages of the bus admittance matrix Yous 2 1. Data preparation is simple. 2. Its formation and modification is easy. ; : 3. Since the bus admittance matrix is a sparse matrix (that is, most Of its elements Ps zero), the computer memory requirements are less. For a large power system Tore ths 90 per cent of its off-diagonal elements are zero. This is due to the fact that in Power system networks each node (bus) is connected to not more than three nodes in gener! and an element Ypq exists only if a transmission line links nodes p and g. Example 14.1 Determine Yous for the five-bus system shown in Fig, 14.2. Assume that the lines shown dotted are not connected and the shunt admittances at the buses and mutual couplings between the lines are neglected. Solution yos zn Fig. 14.2. 12+)23=-j5—j4 3 = ya +yyq J4-j333= 4733 ~J4=~j9.33 ME y3q= 73,33 ‘Scanned with CemScanneruct 4 Load Flow Analysis 959 Yas =~ Yas = y Yue Yis= ‘phe bus admittance matrix is given by Yi Ye lis Ya is is j2 js You Yo Yas Yu Yas =j9 0 0 Yes Yo Yar Yas Yas Ys] = i4 j3330 Yar Yar Yas Yar Yas 0 ~§933 j4 st ter Ney Yee es 0 0 j4 -j9 Example 14.2 In Example 14.1, if the line between buses 2 and 5 with an impedance j 0.4 is connected, determine the modified bus admittance matrix. The other lines shown dotted are not connected. Solution By addition of one new line between buses 2 and 5, only four elements namely, Yo2, Ys, Ys) are modified. ae joa Y22 (ol) + Y25 =-j 9-J 2. f2. ¥5s (ota) + Ys2=—-j 9 -. Yos =~ yas =j 2.5 = Ys2 Therefore, the modified bus admittance matrix is given by =j12 5 0 j2 is gS -jus j4 0 j2s You = | 0 §4 0-733 j3.33 0 j2 0 j333 -j933 0 4 G5 j25 0 jf -jls Example 14.3 In Example 14.1, if the lines between buses 3 and 5, and 1 and 3 are connected, “ermine the modified bus admittance matrix, The line between buses 2 and 5 is not connected. Solution 8 addition of two lines between buses 3 and 5, and 1 and 3 we have to modify only seven ments namely, Yi1, Y3x, ¥ss, Yat, Yass Yas, Ys3- yet. z3° 70.01 Yi (new) = Yin (oid) + 13 = J 100; w= 5 j12-j100=-j 112 Yaa (new) = ¥53 (ols) + 13 +35 = —j 7.33 —j 100-j 20=-j 127.33 ¥5S (new) = ¥ss ois) + Y3s=-j 9-j20=-j 29 Ya=-yi9=j 100= Ya; Yas=—yas=j 20= Ys ‘Scanned wih CamScanner380 Electrical Power Systems Limitations of NR Method 1. The solution technique is difficult. : / 2. It takes longer time as the elements of the Jacobian are to be computed for each iteration, 3. The computer memory requirement is large. The NR method is more complicated than the GS method, however, it has advantages that far outweigh its shortcomings of complexity, It is the most reliable and powerful technique for solving load flow problems. Although a large number of load flow methods are available in literature it has been observed that only the Newton-Raphson and fast-decoupled load-flow methods are most popular. The fast decoupled load flow is definitely superior to the Newton-Raphson method from the point of view of speed and storage. Example 148 A three-bus power system is shown in Fig. 14.10. The relevant per unt line aamitances on 100 MVA base are indicated on the diagram and bus data are given in Table Form Yous and determine the voltages at bus 2 and 3 after the second iteration using Gauss-Seidel method. Take the acceleration factor &= 1.6. ® @ | ws eo ott T Fig. 14.10. A three-bus power system. Table 14,2 Bus Type Genere number ei orale Load Bus voltage bead Bas vote ca Sevan “RL anwy 9, (VAN OV pu deg I 1 Slack 2 2 0 P 2 PQ 25 15 50 ° \” ’ Be PO 0 0 60 7 2 2 Solution We first calculate the elements of the bus adm; admit i Yin = sum of admittances of all the ett Yi : elements connect Yra= sum of all dmittances connected to bus 2 ~ d to node (bus) J sumof all admitances connected to bus 3 = 1352275 b9 =-(-j3)=j3 ‘Scanned with CemScanneroe Load Flow Analysis 381 (admittance connected between nodes 2 and 3 — (admittance connected between nodes 1 and 3) i Tre bus admittance matrix is given by Yu Yo Ys} f-i7 73 4 You=| Yor Yor Yas} =| J3 -i8 js Yu Ya2 Ys j4 j5 J9 Sow we shall calculate bus powers. The powers for load buses are taken as negative and shoe for generator buses as positive. At bus 2, Pye POSTE = THO = 0.5 pu o3= BozOt = BS =-0.10 pu At bus 3, Py Rea PLe 0 --0.60 pu y= 22-01. 9-0 = -0.30 pu The voltage at bus & at the (r+ )th iteration is given by verde [Pea Oe yy, yD. Yer VED Yin Yu| (vPy First eration Weare given that Viz 1.02/0° 7 VP) =1/0° for k=2,3,.-- Voltage at bus 2 is given by [Pj Pe ae @ yivi-Yos v9 | Ya} vey a=) | =0.25+j 0.1 ; j a, = 3) (1.02/07) -u5isi0] =i ava ) (1.02./0°) 1 1 ; =e j j -j5)=—z (0.25 - 7.96) ja 0.25 + 0.1 -j 3.06 -j 5) ae! 57.96) ae = 0,9955 /= 1.799° = 0.995 —j 0.0312 AV =yQ) yl = 0.995 =) 00312 - (I +0) =- 0.005 ~J 00312 ¢ ae value of V$ is given by War = VP 4.0.0 VS. = (1-4) 0) + 1.6 (0.005 -j 0.0312) sates uaa = 0,992 -j 0.0499 ‘Scanned with CemScanner382 Electrical Power Systems The voltage at bus 3 is given by VO =F] oye Fv Pa v9 | aa] (V! oer (/4) (1.02 +0) —j 5 (0.992 ~j 0.0499) (14+j0) 1 eine ame caesar ee ra a 8.781 /-95.55° ; ae '—5.55° = 0.971 -j 0.0943 9790° 0.9756 /— 5.55° = 0.971 —j AVS? = v4 —v =0.971 -j 0.0943 - (1 +70) =— 0.029 —j 0.0943 V8lacey = V9 + 1.6. A V4 = (1 +) 0) + 1.6 (— 0.029 — j 0.0943) = 0.9536 - [0.150 The voltages at the end of first iteration are Second iteration The voltage at bus 2 is given by vi= mae Ya Vi— Yes w| “Tis rifts ~ G9 (02 +4 0)— G5) (0.9536-] ost __1_ | 0.26926 /158.2° ~-j8 [ 0.9932 /2.88° = 0.125 /90° [- 0.2463 +j 0.1132 -j 7.868 — 0.7545] = 0.125 /90° (~ 1.0008 —j 7.7148) = (0.125 /90°) (7.7794 /- 91.39) = 0.9724 /- £-7.39° = 0.9643 —j 0.125 ~j 3.06 ~ j 4.768 - 0.7545 “075! AVE =VP)— vi). = (0.9643 —j 0.125) - (0.992 -j0,0499) =~ 0.0277-1" Vee (ace)= V4? + 0: (A VP?) = (0.992 ~ j 0.0499) + 1.6 (~ 0.0277 - j 0.0751) =0.9477 -j 017 The voltage at bus 3 is given by v9) = se Yau Vi ~ Yao ve 0.6 +/ 0.3) -j0. 17) ~ G4) (1.02 + 0) - G5) (0.9477 1 -j9 (meee —j 0.01509)" ‘Scanned with CemScannerLoad Flow Analysis 383 1 [0.67082/15343° gag 4.75 | 7968467R99° 1 P08 J4-7385 ~ 085 - [0.5652 + j 0.4040 ~ j 4.08 ~ 4.7385 ~0.85] 1 8.5327 /- 99.58 — (1.4152) 8.4145) = ote ge © 1182-841 ) 9/90 B17 = 0.93496 ~ j 0.1573 ),93496 — j 0.1573 (0.9536 ~ j 0.1509) = 0.9481 /—9. ayeeve— ve Voce) = yy +a(A ve) = 0.9536 ~} 0.1509 + 1.6 (~ 0.01864 ~ 0.0064) Te bus voltages at the end of second iterations are given by vf= 1024/0 VF" = 0.9477 - § 0.170 V4) = 0.92377 ~j 0.16114 0.01864 ~j 0.0064 = 0.92377 ~j 0.16114 EXERCISES Develop the equations for real and reactive bus powers. is equal to the sum of admittance directly 0 the negative of the sum Show that a diagonal clement of a Your Cemected to that bus and an off-diagonal clement is equal t T admitances directly connected between the buses, What are the advantages of Yaus Ove" Zou? Detive equations for elements of Jacobian using polar coordinates. sampace the performance of Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods for White Explain the method of formation of Yas Gi . the significance of load flow analysis in a power system? / agg ssiation of various types of buses in a power system for load flow studies. Y the classification. nt the computational posedure for toad ow slain usin lain system contains all types of buses. the computational procedure for load flow ins all types of buses. * flow chart for a toad flow study on x power system iodification is made in the flow chart to account for PY Raphson method. How docs. the joad flow g Gauss-Seidel method solution using Newton-Ra study using Newton- for PV buses? ‘Scanned wih CamScanner368 Electrical Powor Systoms ‘The flow chart for a load flow study using Gauss-Seidel method is given in Vip, 149, Hep the buses are numbered as follows : : i=1- slack bus i=2,3,...,m PV buses i=m+1,m+2,...n PQ buses 14.6.3 Acceleration Factors In the Gaus Seidel method, a large number of iterations are required to arrive at the specific! (desired) convergence. The rate of convergence can be increased by the use of accelerate factor to the solution obtained after cach iteration. The acceleration factor is a multiplier ba enhances correction between the values of voltage in two successive iterations, For the ith bus let V4? = value of voltage at the rth iteration Vt) = value of voltage at the (r+ Ith iteration Ve ee drerateay = accelerated new value of the voltage at the (r+ 1)th iteration r= iteration count @ = accelerating factor then Widethieraey= Vi? +0 [V9 — V4} Thus, after calculating V+" at (r+ 1)th iteration we calculate the new estimated bus vols Viz decried) and this new estimate replaces the calculated value VI"), Different acceler factors may be used for real and imaginary components of the voltage. That is, if Vis es into real and imaginary components as Viz arti bi and if o and B are the acceleration factors associated with a; and 6; then ab ictbieaed) = af? + 08 fal! *? — af?) BY etbrerated) = BY? + B [ft ? — H1?) ‘ J 1 The choice of a specific value of acceleration factor depends upon the system PAM ‘The optimum valve of usually lies in the range 1.2 to 1.6 for most systems, 1.6 is widely used in practice. 44.7. NEWTON-RAPHSON (NR) METHOD J ee ; : in oP This is an iterative technique for solving a set of simultaneous nonlinear equations in number of unknowns. Let the # equations in n unknowns be Si (41: fA Gix, qat ‘Scanned wih CamScanner370 Electrical Power Systems In general, fil, aay Fh "gq5 Assume initial values of unknowns as X= 1), SMP AD eee ‘These values are not far from the actual solution, Let AX°= An, An, At be the corrections, which being added to the initial guess, give the actual solution f+ Anal + An, Expanding these equations by Taylor's theorem we get Bf) gg 4{ 2) (20s «higher oe $ 34) lan + “15 ss | Xq + higher order term: Xn tAtd=y FEN 2 om (ans asda) + Ais I is to be noted that the partial derivatives of fi with respect 0 24,82, ....te ate eva the solution estimates x{, x8, ...,.x8, Since our initial estimate is close to the true solution # neglect higher order terms. Equation (14.7.4) can be written in matrix form as Jn vector matrix form Eq. (14.7.5) can be written as Af=J ax quate oe ‘eat yrecnats of partial derivatives known as the Jocobiga maysix or simply Jb” ig it ate 4 . it initial guess for x, That ig PS SOlUMA vector Of mismatches of the function’ * Afen~fAaPa®, 22) AN is the column vector of connection terms 4.74 - axe eat eeerA Unrarized relationship between the errors Af and the © fiat : ‘ation for AX is obtained by using any sutable 45,42 Ag. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerLoad Flow Analysis 371 raptor 14 siving 2 set of linear algebraic equations, Equation (147.6) gives AN, that i sarin on te The comection is added to the initial guess to 6 the first iteration, pe next beter solution is obtained as follows Wea +d a+ An Wet Aan In general, for the (r+ 1)th iteration feMet gag The iteration process is continued until the errors Afi, Af toerance. At the end of each iteration, the Jacobian J is re-evaluated. safe are lower than a specified 148 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD FOR LOAD FLOW SOLUTION ton-Raphson method. The first d method uses the polar There are two methods of solution for the load flow using jes, while nethod uses rectangular coordinates for the ona {SHETHS PAS co inate method is widely used The eGistion Tor the complex power at node # in the polar form is g Equtions (14.4.5) and (14.4.6) give the active and reactive powers at by Convenience, fet us reproduce these equations. en in Eq. (14.4.4). i. For the sake of 1+4= VY VANE 2148.1) int =D Ve Yay 1G, - 61 - Ga) (14.8.2) re) ; N48. Pos (V; Vi Ya) cos (6 ~ 8: ~ 8a) (1483) ter 5 (14.8.4) 12 (Ve Ya) sin (8, ~ 5s ~ OW) mm "Ruations (14.8.3) and (14.8.4) can also be written as . & (14,8,3a) PLE VV, Yucos Ou + (Ve Vi Fa) cos (0 -&- 8a) tet tet ) A148 4a) nV Vy sin @, + (Vi Ve Ya) sin (8; ~ Be ~ Bit 7 get bai ‘Scanned wih CamScanner372 Electrical Power Systems We have Af=J AX lls If A Pi= Pi(sp)— Pi(cal) then {=1,2,...,n, i#slack and if A Q;= Qiesp)— Qitcan then i=1,2,...,m, i#slack, i# PVbus where the subscripts sp and cal denote the specified and calculated values respectively ten fy (14.8.5) can be written as (23}-[t i] [27] 489 The off-diagonal and diagonal elements of the sub-matrices H, N, M and L are determined by differentiating Eqs. (14.8.3) and (14.8.4) with respect to & and | V1. Off-diagonal elements of H Hy an. ViVe Yiesin (6)-64-On), ik (tts Diagonal elements Hud S.-W vie Vasin (6 -6,-6) fa . kel kel Using Eq. (14.8.4a), we have oP; Dg 3877 (Qi+ Vi Yirsin (- 6) i Hi=~Qi~ VF Yusin Oy =- 0;— Bu V3 889 The off-diagonal and diagonal elements of N are given by P, 0 z Ve Vi Vi cos (8; 8 ~ 8x) ofits aP, E al) Drv 2M Fircos Oi + D) Ve Vie cos (8; — 8: On) ttt ‘ k=1 kei The off-diagonal and diagonal elements of M matrix are a 43.12) $B Vi Vi Yn cos (80x) for ik es a 3) 50, 3 ge DX Vi Ve Yacos (8-5 - 0x) ae "ket kei ‘Scanned wih CamScannervr are waa Load Flow Analysis 373 ‘The off-diagonal and diagonal elements of L matrix are Vi ¥iesin (8-8: — Oy) for 14k (148.14) a 2V; Yu sin Oi +) Ve Yue sin (8; - 8; 0:2) -(14.8.15) ket kei Iris seen from the elements of the Jacobian that there is no symmetry in the results, Muliplying and dividing by V the voltage magnitude increment A V to bring symmetry in the result we have ap=HadecvS¥ ag=Mas+(vy St Let VN=N' and VL=L’. We can write [23] - IF z| oo Ao\"|m v'| lav In this case it will be seen that Hu=Lx and N'x=-Mu This property of symmetry of elements reduces computer time and storage. Treament of generator buses F lay; Eitertior bus the reactive power Qi is not specified but the voltage magnitude '=A Vis specified. Ho Vevey WiP=v?4v? 2 Sea all generator buses, the variable A Qj is to be replaced by AI Vil, ie elements of M are given by aavin? ; My=2 Vi" | aa 5g =O itk St yy 2 06; The clements of L are given by La=ty,) 20ViD? Vera ‘Scanned with CamScanner374 Electrical Power Systems 14.9 COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE FOR NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD The computational procedure for Newton-Raphson method using polar coordinate js aS fe 1. Form Yous. aeie tes 8 2 initial vel tages |Vil and phase angles 8? for i=2,3 Assume initial values of bus voltag mee he load buses and phase angles for PV buses. Normally Pe the assumed bus yg magnitude and its phase angle equal to slack bus: quantities Vil=1.0, i =0 3. Compute P; and Qj for each load bus from the following equations : Piz, Vi Vi Yu cos (6-8-0) (1434 =I Q:= > Vi Ve Ye sin (8-8 - 8) (1493) = 4. Compute the scheduled errors AP; and AQ; for each load bus from the follox telations A Pi? = Pisp— Pica By sea (1993 4 Of = Qisp- Olean 63, cM A194 For PV buses, the exact value of Qj is not specified, but its limits are known. If te calculated value of Q; is within limits, only A P; is calculated. If the calculated of Qi is beyond the limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed and 4 Q, i calculated by subtracting the calculated value of Q; from the appropriate limit. The tu under consideration is now treated as a load (PQ) bus. 5. Compute the elements of the Jacobian matrix HON ML using the estimated |'V;! and 8; from step 2. 6. Obtain 46 and A1V;! from equation AP) _{a wy} {48 AS so] | vy} lav v “ 7. Using the values of A 8; and A1V; 1 calculated in step 6, modify the voltage mem and phase angle at all load buses by the equations of IMME leary lel (r+ () (r) 14.9." HY =a +g? ll 3 Start the next iteration cycle at Step 2 with these modified | Vj! and 6. - Continue until scheduled AP? (0 thin 2s errors A Pf and A Qf" for: are withi tolerance, that is, v 21” for-all load buses APP PY __Qc- Qu _15-25_ = FaseMVA™ 100 ~~ 0-10 PU At bus 3, = SaseMVA~ 100 — The voltage at bus k at the (r+ 1)th iteration is given by wena val =i Qe yy yt. Yun VET ~ Vin vy wey First iteration are given that Vr= 1.02/0° VP = 170° for k=2,3, + The voltage at bus 2 is given by ell — You Vi ~ Yoa ve =0.25+/01 ~ (3) (1.02.0°) - g9+i0] “8 (1 70°)" Aye -j7.96) = 0254) 0:1 -§306-19)= Fj oe _Thes0/_01 799° _ 9.9955 /— 1.799% ose _0908-/00802 87—90° AVS) = v)_ vi = 0,995 -j0.0312- (1 +/ alate value of V$! is given by yi) = 4/0 + 1.66 9) =~ 0.005 - 00312 — j 0.0499 0.005 -j 0.0312) =0.992-J0 ‘Scanned wih CamScanner382 Electrical Power Systems The voltage at bus 3 is given by Qs vi) yg) = wa ¥31 Vi - Ysa =0.6+)03 _ (4) (1.0240) -J 5 0.992- 0048) “oj 3 (1+j 0)" 1 . = hj (6+) 03 -j 408 -j 4.96 - 0.2495) =—F9 (- 0.8495 - 8.74 - ; 9 _ 8.781 /-95.55° © 9/90% AVS) =v Vv) = 0.971 -j 0.0943 - (1 + 0) = 0.029 -j 0.0943 W3iloce) = V9 + 1.6. AVS) = (1+ 0) + 1.6 (— 0.029 —j 0.0943) = 0.9536 - j 0.1508 The voltages at the end of first iteration are vi = 1.02470 ‘V4! = 0,992 - 0.0499 VS) = 0.9536 -j 0.1509 Second iteration The voltage at bus 2 is een by = 0.9756 /— 5.55° = 0.971 —j 0.0943 LP: - ae i ~ Ya Vi—Yo3 V4) chy" = f_co2ssjor = “0150 48 es —j 0.0499" 93) (1.02-+j 0) ~ (5) (0.9536 -j 0.150 ] =—1_]0.26926/158.2° ; ~18| 0.9932 /2.99° ~/ 3.06 ~j 4.768 — 0.7545 =0.125/90° (02468 + 0132 = 0.125 £50" (10008 =} 7.7148 =0.9124/-7.39° =0.9643.-j0.125 AVP =VP VAD <0 9643 Vie acy = V9 + 04(4 VP) = 0.992 -j 0.0499) + / The voltage at bus 3 is given by ) + 1.6 (0.0277 - j 0.0751) =0,9477 -j 0.170 vat [Pi Yas] yar ~ Ya Vi~ Yan ve “al 0.64503 -j (0.9536 ~ j0.01509)° ~ 94) (1.02 +) 0)— 5) 0.9477-j 01D ~ 47.868 — 0.7545] ) = (0.125 790°) (7.7794 /— 97.39") 51 40.125) ~ (0.992 —j 0.0499) =- 0.0277- 0.07: ‘Scanned wih CemScannerare Load Flow Analysis 383 0,67082/153.43° 0.96546 /8.99° = 97-90 ~j4.08 147385085] T7996 0.5652 + j 0.4040 — j 4.08 ~ j 4.7385 - 0.85) — easy —j 9414s) = 85327/= 99.55" = 97-909 ¢ 1,4152 -7 8.4145) = 37a = 0.9481 /—9.55° = 0.93496 — j 0.1573 AV® = Vv — v4) = 0.93496 - j 0.1573 - (0.9536 — j 0.1509) =- 0.01864 - j 0.0064 V8 lace)= V8? + 04 (A V9?) = 0.9536 — j 0.1509 + 1.6 (~ 0.01864 — 0,0064) = 0.92377 ~ j 0.16114 The bus voltages at the end of second iterations are given by VP) =1.02+j0 VP = 0.9477 - j 0.170 Vf = 0.92377 -j 0.16114 EXERCISES + Develop the equations for real and reactive bus powers. ; Show that a diagonal element of a Yius is equal to the sum of admittances directly connected to that bus and an off-diagonal element is equal to the negative of the sum of admittances directly connected between the buses. ~ What are the advantages of Yous over Zpus? Detive equations for elements of Jacobian using 3. Compare the performance of Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson met Solution, Explain the method of formation of Yous. » What is the significance of load flow analysis in a power Give the classification of various types of buses in a powe polar coordinates. thods for load flow 1 system? 1 system for load flow studies. Justify the classificati lassification. / jon usi 5 thod : Slain the computational procedure for load flow solution using Gauss Seidel mei eet i f buses. ; “a compute prs ww solution using Newton-Raphson ‘ Pepin the computational procedure for Toad flo 1od when the system contains all types of buses. . " Using Gauss-Seidel method give a flow chart for a load fw sy on power ston {ving only P-Q buses. What modification is made in the £10 ses? i s the Give a flow chart for load flow study using Newton-Raphson method, How doe: . Method get modified to account for PV buses? ‘Scanned wih CamScanner