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Postgraduate
The research skill factor as attrition
a cause for high postgraduate rate
attrition rate
293
J.K. Ssegawa
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Received 2 July 2007
University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana, and Revised 9 June 2009
Accepted 26 June 2009
P.D. Rwelamila
Graduate School of Business Leadership, University of South Africa,
Pretoria, South Africa

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims in the first part to document experiences encountered in dealing with
challenges facing students embarking on their postgraduate research journey. It gives a brief
background on the consequences for not being able to handle properly the research processes. It also
identifies factors that contribute to postgraduate attrition and long completion periods focusing on the
perceived major contributor to problem – the lack of skills in research on the part of students
especially in the early part of the research process. Second, the paper aims to describe and discuss the
proposed framework for approaching the research project definition and design process in a
systematic and logical manner after formulating a research framework.
Design/methodology/approach – Experience recording method is used by reflecting on the
authors’ supervision experience at honours, masters and doctoral level. A reflection on these
experiences is compared with good practices in research approaches to identify gaps which need to be
addressed. The second part of the paper is used as a building block in producing a fully fledged
research proposal. Two tasks forming the backbone of writing a research proposal at post framework
are at the centre of this paper – developing an outline of literature review and the actual writing of the
proposal.
Findings – It is clearly established that major reasons for the problems facing student researchers
are the lack of hands-on skills in the research process on the part of students especially in the early part
of the research process (research definition and design) and hence the need for a facilitative framework.
The second part of the paper discusses in detail the three main components of the research proposal.
Finally, the paper reveals the “final picture” of the research proposal made out of the three
components, and an emphasis is put on the need to treat the proposal as a plan which is highly likely to
change depending on the research environment forces faced by researchers as they embark on the
research journey in the post proposal phase.
Originality/value – The original value is two-fold. First, there is an opportunity for educators to
identify common problems facing student researchers, hence this information could be used when
supervising student researchers. Furthermore, the student has an opportunity to understand the
dynamics of research approaches and this provides a good base to avoid bad practices. Second, the
paper provides solutions towards overcoming typical problems, and this will help both educators and
student researchers to manage the dynamics of research processes. The proposed research framework
in order to facilitate the research thought process in a more systematic, logical and integrated manner Journal of Engineering, Design and
Technology
is an encompassing recommendation which should be used by educators and research students. Vol. 7 No. 3, 2009
Keywords Postgraduates, Research work pp. 293-322
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Paper type Conceptual paper 1726-0531
DOI 10.1108/17260530910998703
JEDT Part I
7,3 Introduction
Research definition and design are daunting processes for those embarking on their
research process including postgraduate student. Though students are given preliminary
guidance relating to the process through the use of learning modules and workshops in
research methodology, they still encounter difficulties in their research journey. In some
294 situations, you have students who have passed courses with flying colours based on
examinations and feeling confident that the research process is an exact replica, of course,
work assessment. The first shock comes when they try to formulate the major components
of their research topic, i.e. research title, problem, question, objectives and scope. On
presenting their proposal to a research colloquium, they often get perplexed by the
comments from the audience, which indicate that the intended research study is
completely out of focus, is incoherent, illogical and not feasible. Often, this outcome comes
despite hours of reading literature and writing many pages of a would-be proposal. The
outcome of this debacle often results in discouragement and demotivation with regard to
the research process. Many times student get stuck half-way the research journey
resulting in a longer time to complete their degrees, with some abandoning the
qualifications altogether and hence the phenomenon of postgraduate attrition.
This paper proposes a framework that simplifies the research definition and design
in a more systematic, focused, manageable and logical manner. The framework has
been tried on postgraduate students for a period of four years in disciplines of business,
construction and project management at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
Tremendous improvement has been observed particularly in aiding the understanding
and handling of research definition and design phase from a student’s point of view.
The framework also facilitates a simple and structured way of supervising a
dissertation or thesis as seen from a supervisor’s point of view.
The paper first provides a brief background of the impact for not properly
handling the research processes. It then describes and discusses the framework being
proposed to approach the definition and design process. In the process, a hands-on
approach is used where a research topic – safety on building construction sites – is
used to demonstrate its application. An assumption has been made in the discussion
and use of the framework that students are normally conversant with the research
methodology principles. However, it is the piecing together of the research components
that often creates teething problems.

Postgraduate attrition and long completion periods

High postgraduate attrition rates and long completion periods for research-based
degrees have received considerable attention from scholars. The reason for the attention
given to the two problems is the impact they have on students’ lives and the
image created for a university faculty. Smallwood’s (2004) brief description of
Barbara E. Lovitts experience emphasises the issue of attrition. Lovitts left two doctoral
programmes before finishing a third one, in sociology, at the University of Maryland in
1996. Following her doctoral debacle, she too, investigated the attrition phenomenon,
digging deeper into its root causes (Lovitts and Nelson, 2006). However, earlier studies
had investigated the phenomenon and estimated the attrition rate in the USA at
an average of around 50 per cent, i.e. for every ten graduate enrolments only
five complete the dissertation or thesis and graduate (Bowen and Rudenstine, 1992).
Another report, by the Council of Graduate Schools gave the median period of Postgraduate
completion of a doctoral degree as 7.6 years (Denecke, 2005) instead of the minimum four
years often prescribed by most universities (Buckley and Hooley, 1988). Studies have
attrition
indicated that attrition rates varied across the major disciplines, with humanities rate
recording the highest attrition of about 70 per cent as compared to 20 per cent in natural
sciences (UD, 2001; Denecke, 2005). The low attrition rate in sciences was attributed to
the manner in which students interact and bond as a faculty research community 295
especially through laboratory sessions, as opposed to the research isolation found in
humanities.
The reasons for the postgraduate attrition may be grouped into three major themes
namely student deficiencies, inappropriate supervision process and inappropriate
research environment. Some of the factors under these themes are given in Table I.
The proposed framework seeks to address the first theme, student research
deficiencies, particularly lack of research skills. The major observation being that a
student failure to develop a credible and sound research definition and design
exacerbates the problem of attrition and completion time.

The proposed framework

Before a detailed description and discussion of the application of the proposed
framework, a few aspects are worth noting. The proposed framework does not take
away the need to pursue courses in research methodology but augments the
understanding and provides a practical approach to research definition and design.
It does not also deviate from the commonly advocated steps of the research process
shown in Figure 1. It, however, provides an interactive, systematic, focused, integrated
and flexible way of managing the early phase of the research process. While the
illustration in Figure 1 guides a researcher on the steps to follow during the research
process, it does not allow any interaction with the process. To overcome this challenge,
the proposed framework allows, in an interactive and iterative manner, the researcher
to define and refine the major components of the research topic at anytime before
implementation of the research. In order to illustrate its application, an example is

Theme Attrition factors

Student research deficiencies Lack of skills in the research process

Inappropriate supervision process
Inappropriate research environment
Lack of, or exhaustion of funding
Personal problems
Narrow perception of understanding of the research process
Difficulty in identifying a viable research topic
Lack of supervision skills (failure to act as a mentor)
Failure to create supervision time
Failure to find a suitable supervisor
Breakdown of the supervisor/student relationship
High supervision load without corresponding incentives
Lack of research resources
Lack of access to data
Lack of understanding of the need for research in the wider Table I.
community Reasons for failure to
Lack of a collaborative research community complete postgraduate
Lack of research culture in the faculty qualification
JEDT Conceptualize a research problem
7,3

Define research problem by formulating

Research title
296 Research problem statement
Research question(s)
Literature review
Research objective(s)
Propositions/hypothesis
Investigative questions
Research scope

Determine most appropriate research strategy

Identify required data, its source and location
Identify unit of analysis and sampling design
Determine most appropriate data collection design
Determine time lines and cost

Figure 1.
Write research proposal
Generic research design
process
Source: Adopted from Hussey and Hussey (1998); Creswell (1994)

presented and followed through for easy comprehension of the issues. Lastly, though
much emphasis has been put on postgraduate research, the framework is also
applicable to all researchers that follow a methodical research process.
The proposed model shown in Table II is divided into three major components:
(1) research definition (1);
(2) research design (2); and
(3) proposal writing (3),

(the numbers in parenthesis are used for discussion purposes based on the framework
components being proposed). When using the framework a researcher, creates entries
in the blank spaces for each component as it relates to the selected research topic.
The description and discussion of its application follows in the next sections.

Research definition
The definition phase of the research proposal constitutes 11 major activities namely:
(1) conceptualising the research problem (1.1);
(2) identifying the research subject area (1.2);
(3) conducting a literature search (1.3);
(4) formulating a research title (1.4);
(5) defining the research problem by formulating a problem statement (1.5);
1. Research definition
1.1 Conceptualise research problem (FiH)
1.2 Identify research subject area (FiH)
1.4 Formulate research title (FiH) 1.3 Conduct a literature search
1.5 Formulate problem statement (FiH) and review (coupled with
1.6 Formulate research question (FiH) discussions and consultations with
1.7 Formulate research objectives (FiH) supervisor, experts and peers)
1.8 Formulate investigative questions (FiH) Identify conceptual framework
1.9 Formulate research propositions/hypothesis (FiH) to use
1.10 Define research scope (FiH)
1.11 Identify knowledge gap (if applicable) (FiH)
2. Research design
2.2 Determine research strategy (e.g. ethnography, historical, survey, action research, experiment and case studies)
2.1 Down load the 2.3 Identify type of data required, its 2.4 Identify unit of analysis and 2.5 Indicate data 2.6 Indicate 2.7 Determine
investigative questions source, location and determine determine best sampling collecting nature of data time/cost
formulated in 1.8 accessibility strategy method analysis (months/e)
IQ1: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ2: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ3: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ4: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ5: What are the expected (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
conclusions. . .?
IQ6: What are the expected (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
recommendations. . .?
3. Write research proposal
Note: FiH – fill in here
Source: Ssegawa (2003)
Postgraduate
attrition

research definition and

design process
rate

Proposed framework for

297

Table II.
JEDT (6) formulating a research question (1.6);
7,3 (7) formulating research objectives (1.7);
(8) formulating investigative questions (1.8);
(9) formulating research propositions or hypothesis (1.9);
(10) defining research scope (1.10); and
298 (11) where required identifying a knowledge gap (1.11).

Appendix 1 illustrates how the proposed framework is applied using the example stated
in the introduction (safety on building construction sites). However, the next sections
discuss how the framework facilitates the development of the research components.
Research problem and subject area of research. The research process starts with what
Blumberg et al. (2005) called a research dilemma or problem, triggered by a researcher’s
inquisitiveness or investigation need. Buckley and Hooley (1988) noted that the
conceptualisation of the research problem (Item 1.1, Table II) could originate from the:
.
researcher;
.
supervisor;
.
sponsor of research; or
.
a combination of the three for which a refinement may be done by a researcher or
both a researcher and a supervisor.

Once a researcher, has a vague idea of the research problem, they need to determine the
research subject area (Item 1.2) to identify the necessary literature.

Literature review
The proposed framework emphasises that literature search and review (Item 1.3) must
proliferate the entire research definition phase and throughout the entire study (though
not indicated as such on the framework). The reasons for conducting a literature search
are well documented in many literature sources (Cooper, 2006; Leedy and Ormrod,
2005; Hussey and Hussey, 1997). An important point to observe, in relation to the
framework, is the need to conduct a literature search in order to comprehend the depth,
scope and intricacies of the topic of research. In most situations literature review is
about “theory and practice” of the subject matter/area. To augment the literature
review, researchers could consult and discuss their research problem with supervisor,
experts and peers in the area of research.
In the example, the researcher soon found out that the subject area could be “health
and safety in construction”. This determination enabled the researcher to pursue an
embracing yet focused literature search. An analysis of literature showed that a
Masters degree, for example, may not be earned by just looking at accidents on sites,
i.e. the scope was too narrow. Second, it was also discovered that health and safety in
construction is a very big topic to handle, i.e. the scope was too wide. This analysis
helped the researcher to:
.
define the problem;
.
formulate a suitable title; and
.
define acceptable boundaries of the study.
Research title and problem definition. The challenge faced by researchers is to Postgraduate
formulate a plausible title (1.4) which is neither too short to be meaningless, nor too attrition
long to be confusing. In the example illustrated in Table III, several titles were
formulated each being a refinement of the previous. The “suitability test” of the title rate
lies in its brevity, meaning, scope and feasibility as the comments on the various
suggested titles indicate in Table III. The table also shows the iteration power of the
framework as a means of refining any research definition component. 299
In terms of defining the problem statement (1.6), Leedy and Ormrod (2005) noted that
researchers should endeavour to formulate a statement that is carefully phrased such that
it represents a single goal of the total research effort. Blumberg et al. (2005) adds that a
research problem is one that requires a scientific method as a means of solving it. An
example of the definition through iterative effort, and refinement of the research problem:
.
There are indications to suggest that safety practices (are) inappropriate in
country X’s construction sites and are bound to cause accidents to workers.
.
There are indications to suggest that inappropriate safety practices at
construction sites in country X are bound to endanger both workers and the
public.
.
There are indications to suggest that inappropriate safety practices at building
construction sites in country X compromises safety levels of people.
.
There are indications to suggest that lack of appropriate safety practices have
led to the low safety levels at construction sites in country X.

The research problem was framed with a clear angle of the need to investigate
(indications to suggest – the need to follow these indications and to establish their
connections with safety practices).
Research question and research objectives. The formulation and refinement of a
research question (1.6) and objectives (1.7) are treated in a similar manner as with the
two previous components (Items 1.4 and 1.5) except to note a few things.
First, it is entirely up to the researcher to decide how many research questions and
objectives are most appropriate for the study. However, it is recommended that one
research question is most appropriate to act as a singular goal or aim of the study. It is
further recommended that more objectives are necessary to breakdown the problem
being investigated. Moreover, it is good practice to include an objective, which involves
recommendations to serve to purposes. First, to indicate how the shortcomings
identified in the study can be resolved. Second, to indicate the areas that needs further

Proposed research title Comments on the suitability of the proposed research title

Accidents at construction sites Too narrow a scope

Health and safety in construction Construction is a wide activity (building, civil, etc.)
Health and safety at construction sites Scope too broad as it involves two issues – health and
safety
Safety at construction sites Construction sites are of several types, e.g. roads, Table III.
buildings, etc. An example of
Safety on building construction sites The domicile of the research activity (geographical scope) the formulation
Safety on building construction sites This seems to be suitable and refinement of a
in country X research title
JEDT investigations perhaps due to limitations identified by the study. This reminds the
7,3 researcher of the need note the gaps in the actual system studied.
Second, it is also important to mention the purpose of each component in order to
complete the logic of the framework and to link the research definition with research
design phase. A research question is helpful to a researcher to focus on the problem
conceptualised in the early stages of the research definition. Notably some researchers
300 prefer to use the terms research aim or goal instead of research question for achieving
the same study focus. To formulate a research question, a researcher interrogates the
feasibility of the research problem and sets a yardstick of what the result of the study
should be at the end of the study – the answer or solution to the question (problem).
Jones (2003) observed that the research question not only interrogates the novelty and
feasibility of the research problem but also the relevance and likely impact of the study.
On the other hand objectives, spell out what is to be achieved when the research
study is accomplished (Trochim, 2005). Objectives thus guide a researcher on the
various areas to concentrate on during the study. A number of scholars (Carter, 1999)
view them as a breakdown of the problem statement into sub-problems. Another view
is to consider objectives as what is to be achieved at the end of the study in order to
answer the research question. Objectives also provide means of delimiting the research.
Investigative questions. Researchers normally formulate investigative questions to
break down the research objectives. They get closer to the heart of the investigation
through expanding the researchers thought process. Investigative questions must
align to the research objectives such that, at the conclusion of the study and having
obtained answers to each of questions the objectives of the study are clearly achieved.
The linkage between research question, objectives and investigative questions is called
a hierarchy of inquiry as shown in Figure 2 (the linkage can also be extended to
measuring questions contained in a measuring instrument).
The total number of investigative questions generated depends on the nature of the
problem and the ingenuity of the researcher. However, the proposed framework

Research problem

Research question

Research objectives
Hierarchy of inquiry

Research propositions or
Investigative questions
hypothesis

Figure 2. Measurement questions*

Linkage in the hierarchy (*contained in the measuring
of inquiry instrument)
enables the researcher to formulate and refine the investigative questions while Postgraduate
aligning them with the other research components of the previous phase of research attrition
definition. It may be considered trivial to include investigative questions, which seek
the outcome of the literature search, conclusion and recommendation (see Appendix 1 rate
in investigative questions IQ1, IQ5 and IQ6). The authors are of the strong view that
this serves three purposes. First, it makes the researcher focus on time, budget and
outcome. Second, it also ensures that the researcher relates literature review with the 301
study outcomes. Lastly, it also completes the study logic emphasising that no study
should end without a conclusion and recommendations. The proposal suggests that
three investigative question on literature search, conclusion and recommendation
should be generic investigative questions as they encompass majority of research
studies. As a last note and in regard to the proposed framework, investigative question
play a pivotal role in the research design as discussed later in the paper.
Research propositions/hypotheses. Some researchers are more comfortable in dealing
with propositions or hypotheses, than investigative questions, particularly those with
a bias with a quantitative approach. There is no fault in pursuing this approach, which
requires a researcher take certain positions when commencing the study by making
reasonable suppositions, guesses or conjectures about certain aspects relating to the
topic of investigation. As an example, a researcher may assume that safety standards
at national construction sites are below the expected international standards. This is a
research proposition (Item 1.9) which the study results will support or reject when data
are finally collected, analysed and interpreted.
Statistically endowed researchers prefer formulating hypothesis instead of
propositions. In this instance, a hypothesis becomes a statistically testable
proposition. In other words, it is a statement that may be judged as supported or
not supported through statistical testing (Blumberg et al., 2005). Leedy and Ormrod
(2005) further noted that a hypothesis guides a research study in seeking direction
based upon a premise that is held in abeyance until facts are available and have been
interpreted to support or reject the hypothesis. As an example, the above proposition
may be converted to null (H0) and alternative (H1) hypotheses as follows:
H0. The safety levels at building construction sites are of international standards.
H1. The safety levels at building construction sites are not (below) of international
standards.
Literature is abode of discussions relating to the role, nature and techniques of
formulating, testing and interpreting results to support or not support a hypothesis
(Gay and Airasian, 2003) and hence the topic will be left for further exploitation by an
interested reader.
Research scope. Researchers must specifically provide a statement, detailing the
boundaries of their research, i.e. research scope (Item 1.10) or study delimitation
(Blumberg et al., 2005). Though, the information from three components (research title,
statement of the problem and research objectives) when synthesised provides
comprehensive boundaries of the study, it is considered a good and well-respected
practice to provide a specific scope statement that clearly defines the boundaries of the
project. In fact some scholars (Burns and Bush, 2006) add that further clarification is
achieved in the proposal if what is not included (outside the scope) in the study is also
specifically mentioned.
JEDT Knowledge gap. Several aspects may be used to judge a good research study, for
7,3 example, see Phillips and Pugh (1994) for seven-point criteria. However, for
postgraduate work, particularly the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree, the most
important criterion is the contribution to knowledge that the study generates. This is
achieved by identifying the existing knowledge gap (Item 1.11). Howard and Sharp
(1983, p. 177) put it more succinctly that “the study must show a distinct contribution
302 to the knowledge of the subject, show evidence of discovery of new facts and the
exercise of independent judgment”. Therefore, the framework forces the researcher to
identify the knowledge gap or the contribution to knowledge the research ought to
generate.

Research design
The entry of all components of the research definition (Items 1.1-1.11) enables the
researcher to focus on the next phase of the study research design as shown in Table II.
This is the last phase of the development of the research proposal and spells out how
the research study will be conducted (the process). It must be repeated though that
literature search is still an important activity during this phase of the research process.
In addition to literature relating to the research topic, a researcher needs to conduct a
further literature review relating to the principles of the research process in order to
identify the most suitable research strategy for the study.
The proposed framework identifies seven major components (Table II, Items 2.1-2.7)
constituting the research design. These include: downloading of investigative
questions (from Item 1.8) and identifying the major research strategy to be used (2.1);
determine the most appropriate research strategy (2.2); identifying the type of data
(required to answer the propositions/hypotheses), its source, location and accessibility
(2.3); identifying the unit of analysis and selecting elements for the study (sampling
design) (2.4); determining the most suitable data collecting method (2.5); determining
the nature of data analysis (2.6); and determining the time and cost needed for
accomplishing each proposition/hypothesis (2.7). We look at each in turn.
Downloading the investigative questions. According to the proposed framework, a
researcher should fill in the first column by downloading all the investigative questions
formulated in Item 1.8.
Determining the most appropriate research strategy. This activity requires the
researcher to identify the most appropriate research strategy (Item 2.2); to investigate
the greater majority of the operational investigative questions (operational
investigative questions are those, which require field data as opposed to those
which require literature review). Research strategies include, for example,
ethnography, historical, survey, action research, experiment and case studies. The
description, appropriateness and requirements for using each of the mentioned
strategies are discussed in many literature sources (Hussey and Hussey, 1997; Gay and
Airasian, 2003; Leedy and Ormrod, 2005). The emphasis here is that the researcher
must make a decision as to which strategy provides the best way to solve the research
problem. Inevitably, the researcher has to justify the use of a particular strategy and
follow its requirements to the letter. Choosing a particular method may also influence
how data are collected and analysed.
After determining the best strategy for the study, the framework encourages the
researcher to work on each component across the table to complete Items 2.3-2.7. The
components when completed will act as a research design plan and when executed, Postgraduate
fulfil the stated objectives, answer the research question and solve the stated problem attrition
within the stated period and budget.
Identifying required data, source, location and accessibility. A researcher needs to rate
identify the most suitable type of data (Item 2.3) to answer each investigative question
down loaded (Item 2.1). Taking the example of the proposition – The actual practices of
safety standards at building construction sites in country X are below international 303
standards – the type of data required are the safety standards required at a building
construction site (note data may be in any form, opinions, descriptions, figures, etc.).
Once data is identified, a researcher needs to determine its sources, for example,
international standards for construction safety may be prescribed, for arguments sake,
by International Labour Organisation (ILO) where as the actual safety standards will
be investigated and found at each building construction site. There is often a subtle
difference between data source and location. The location of the ILO safety standards
may be on the ILO web site, printed manual found in ILO offices. The actual building
construction standards are located in the various building sites located in the various
parts of a country. By considering the source and location, a researcher should be able
to determine the level of accessibility of data and determine the viability of the study.
Identifying unit of analysis and select the elements for the study. The unit of analysis
are the elements to be studied in the research process and this could be managers,
chemicals, traffic, employees, etc. In the example, it is building construction sites.
The determination of the data required intuitively (Item 2.3) leads a researcher to
consider the unit of analysis (Item 2.4). This aspect emphasises the interrelatedness of
the components being considered, i.e. data influences the determination of the unit of
analysis.
Once the unit of analysis is identified, an appropriate process of determining the
elements to form the study group commences. It begins with the identification of the
sampling frame or a practical population from which the study elements are to be drawn.
Depending on the research strategy chosen, this may be followed by a determination of
the sample size and the actual selection of the elements following an appropriate
sampling strategy. Several sampling designs are available for a researcher to choose
from depending whether the problem requires a probabilistic or non-probabilistic
approach (Saunders et al., 2003) for the description of sampling designs).
Determining the most appropriate data collecting method. The researcher also needs
to make a decision regarding the most appropriate method for collecting data (Item 2.5)
relating to each investigative question. Data collecting methods include observation,
questionnaires, interview, focus groups, document reviews and simulations (Burns and
Bush, 2006). Literature on data collecting methods is ubiquitous and may be found in,
for example, Leedy and Ormrod (2005), Hussey and Hussey (1997) and Burns and Bush
(2006). Therefore, the emphasis here is on the way the framework provides an
integrated manner of making decisions about data collection given its type, sources,
location and accessibility. As an example, a researcher may proceed in two ways in
solving the proposition or hypothesis mentioned before. One option is to go to each
building construction site and take measurements through observations using some
designed structured data sheet for the various aspects identified as good practices
towards safety standards. To get a representative picture of the safety standards at
building construction sites for a particular country, a researcher needs adequate
JEDT resources to cover all sites. The second option may be for a researcher to interview
7,3 personnel (e.g. site supervisors at the various building construction sites in a country)
about the practices of safety standards by the use of a questionnaire. The example
illustrates how a researcher has to grapple with several decisions pertaining to which
strategy is most suitable for the study – in this the case the researcher has chosen the
survey as the most appropriate strategy for the study and has yet to decide whether to
304 collect data using observation or interview.
Determining of the type of data analysis to be conducted. It would also be prudent, if
the researcher thought in advance of how data will be analysed (Item 2.6) to answer the
investigative questions. The analysis depends on the type of data being dealt with and
the research strategy taken. Burns and Bush (2006) provided a general indication of the
major types of data analysis that are worth considering at the proposal stage namely,
content, factor, descriptive, inferential, differential and predictive analysis.
Estimating research resources, time and cost. Apart from the level of ability to
access data, time and resources are the other major determinants for the success of a
research study. That being the case as a researcher goes through the thought process
of creating a research plan the question of the necessary resources and time (Item 2.7)
needed to collect data are determined. The two combine to determine the cost of study
for which an estimate (see last column in Table II) is therefore necessary as a last part
of the framework.

Proposal
It is suggested that when the definition and design phases are completed, well defined,
and formulated, the researcher can then write a robust and an operational research
proposal (Table II, Item 3) which is focused and logically well articulated. The process
of putting together a research proposal is a subject matter of a separate paper following
this one.

Reflection on the integrative capability of the framework

While the framework does not claim to be a panacea of all research problems, there are
noticeable advantages one may benefit from using it. First, if the framework is
developed on one page or two, a researcher can visually inspect the major components
of a research study. This is a difficult thing to do if one is dealing with a multitude of
pages of a developing proposal.
Second, the framework permits the interrogation of flow of the research components
both within the research definition phase (from Item 1.1 to 1.11) and research design
(Item 2.1-27) to ensure there is alignment that addresses the same issue – research
problem. In other words, the framework permits integration of components of the
research definition phase and the design phase so that the researcher visualises them in
a more focused and manageable manner. For example, it is important to revisit the four
steps by using the “research question” to test the flow – does the research question fit
in the “research title”; does it seek an answer to address the problem? by getting
answers to the “research question”; will they fulfil the objectives? Affirmative answers
to these questions should bring certainty to the researcher that the central point of the
research is holding ground. On the other hand, research objectives must be linked to
investigative questions and hence the research design. This ensures that an
appropriate research strategy is selected which in turn influences decisions relating to Postgraduate
unit of analysis, data collection and analysis. attrition
Part II
rate
Introduction
The writing of a research proposal is an exasperating experience for most
postgraduate students. Yet without one, there is no progress to the implementation 305
stage. In addition, a research study is only as good as the quality of the proposal.
A research project is bound to fail before it is even implemented if it is based on faulty
reasoning contained in the proposal. It is imperative therefore, that postgraduate
students grasp the fundamental principles and concepts of writing a research proposal.
While most students may understand the required components constituting a good
proposal, the greatest challenge lies in writing the document in a professional manner.
Examples of the common mistakes and problems encountered by students are
summarised in Table IV.
Part I discussed and described a proposed framework (Appendix 1) for defining and
designing the research process for postgraduate research. The paper emphasised the
attributes of the framework – the ability to manage research definition and design
phase in a more flexible, iterative, logical and integrative manner. This was considered
the first step in formulating a good proposal.
This second part of the paper extends the discussion in Part I, focussing on the
technique of managing the writing of a proposal and provides an insight to the
post-proposal phase. Like the previous part (Part I), a similar approach is taken, not to
deviate from the steps recommended in most research literature (Hussey and Hussey,

Problem Examples

Incomplete proposal Missing components expected of a good proposal (Table VI)

Poorly defined problem Scope too wide or too narrow
Incongruence between any of the research components: problem
statement, title, objective and research question
Lack of argument for the existence of a problem
Poor methodology Unclear relationship between problem and methodology
Lack of understanding of the tenets of the methodology selected
Incomprehensible language Too much jargon or technical vocabulary
Overzealous assumptions which leave reader lost in the espoused
arguments
Too many typographical and grammatical errors
Unstructured document Lack of structure
Confusing headings and sub-headings
Lack of logical flow arising from disjointed sections and paragraphs
Poor formatting Poor text style, margins, and other layout problems
Poor illustration Lack of illustrations
Poor description of illustrations
Lack of captioning and numbering
Poor referencing Lack of consistent referencing and abrogation citation principles Table IV.
Missing citation or references Some of the common
Failure to blend authoritative and new literature sources pitfalls for writing
Plagiarising other people’s work without acknowledgement a research proposal
JEDT 1997; Blumberg et al., 2005) for developing a research proposal. The emphasis here
7,3 though, is being a practical approach to the task. The example used in Part I – safety
at building construction sites – is again adopted here to make the comprehension of
the discussion easier.
The two parts of this paper, therefore, aim at addressing one of the most common
problems in many university faculties around the world namely high postgraduate
306 attrition rates and long completion periods (Buckley and Hooley, 1988).

Bridging the two proposed frameworks

In Part I, it was mentioned that the completion of the entries in the framework
should be done in parallel with a literature search and review. Once a researcher is
satisfied that Part I has reached an acceptable operational level, by completing the
various components of the framework, they should embark on Part II as shown in
Figure 3.
It is highly recommended that Part II should begin with the development of an
outline of the material gathered, analysed, critiqued and synthesised from a literature
search. The outline is developed to facilitate a logical plan of the literature section of
the proposal. This paper discusses mainly the management of the last two tasks;
outline development and the actual writing of the proposal.

Developing an outline of literature review

Literature review, among others, serves to provide a background to the research topic
and provides a means of developing an argument for the existence of a research
problem for which a research study intends to solve. It is highly suggested therefore,

Definition and design framework

Problem definition
Literature search
and review
PART I

Research design

Develop a literature
outline
• Development of safety …
o History, current trends
• Impact of lack….
o statistics
PART II

• Need for safety on …

• Best practices for...
• Indication of safety …

Figure 3. Proposal writing

Linking the two proposed
frameworks in Part I and II
that the material should be structured in a logical manner to achieve the two objectives. Postgraduate
The only systematic way to manage the task is to first develop an outline of the attrition
material to be presented, the outline thus acting as a plan to the writing.
The outline may be developed using an indented work breakdown structure (WBS) rate
technique illustrated in Table V and based on the previous example (safety at building
construction sites).
The WBS technique should be used in conjunction with what Hussey and 307
Hussey (1997) called the “wine glass concept”, where the discussion moves from
the broad to narrow issues of the research topic. This may take the form of, for
example, a discussion of safety issues from a global, regional or national view until it
boils down to a sector of a national economy, e.g. construction. Alternatively, or in
addition, it may be a discussion of a historical outline leading to a contemporary state
of the problem.
A combination of the two techniques facilitates showing the prowess of the
researcher in providing an ordered but yet a critiqued and well-researched argument of
knowledge related to the problem as harnessed from the literature search. It also allows
the researcher to show great appreciation of the relationship that exists between the
wider field of knowledge and the chosen research topic – one of the criteria for judging
postgraduate research work (Phillips and Pugh, 1994).
You cannot hold back emphasising two aspects. First, the flexibility of the two
proposed frameworks: in that even at this juncture, a researcher is at liberty to alter or
modify any component of the problem definition and the research design discussed in
Part I. Second, that proposal writing is also an iterative and not linear process which
may be completed in one clean sweep. Once the outline of the literature review is
completed, a researcher can embark on writing the actual proposal.

Writing a proposal
There are some basic components that make a good research proposal. Table VI
illustrates some of the commonly advocated items of what scholars (Leedy and

Extent of the problem of safety at construction Origins, historical outline

sites Global, continental, national and sectoral outlook
Generic safety standards
Need for safety on in relation to building Risk – financial, liability, production, etc.
construction sites Impact using statistics – number of accidents,
cost, loss of production, etc.
National indications
Best practices for safety standards around the Need for standards, implementation, inspection
world and penalties
Review of legislations, manuals and systems
expected to be found at construction sites
Expected best practices for safety standards in Highlights of the sections of the relevant acts (e.g.
domicile of the study Factory Act) relating to safety standards
Expected systems to implement, monitor, inspect
and resultant penalties for violation Table V.
Review of legislations, manuals, systems and Example of an outline
standards of a literature review
JEDT
Preliminary items 1. Titled page
7,3 2. Table of contents
3. List of abbreviations
4. Lists of tables
5. Lists of figures
6. Lists of appendices
308 7. Research synopsis
Proposal sections 8. Section I: Introduction
Background
Statement of the problem
Research question
Research objectives
Research propositions/hypothesis
Investigative questions
Research scope
Contribution to knowledge
9. Section 2: Review of literature
10. Section 3: Methodology
Investigative questions
Research strategy
Data type, source, location and accessibility
Unit of analysis and selection of study elements (sampling)
Intended data collection method
Intended data analysis
11. Chapter plan and summary
12. Study time frame, resources and cost implication
13. References
Table VI. 14. Appendices
The components of a Additional items 15. Research timetable
good research proposal 16. Research budget

Ormrod, 2005; Patton, 1990; Cooper, 2006) consider make a good proposal. For
convenience, the components are divided into three namely, preliminary items,
proposal sections and additional items (the word section is preferred to chapter, as the
latter is left for use in the final research study report). Each of the three major
components is discussed in the next sections.
It may appear trivial that some time should be allotted for the discussion of what
appears to be a straight forward issue – the preliminary items. However, the
experience has shown that quite a number of students forget or ignore some of the
most fundamental items when submitting proposals. It has not been surprising, for
example, that students produce a proposal without a date or table of contents (or table
of contents but without page numbers). The basic preliminary items of the proposal
include the title page; table of contents; list of abbreviations; list of tables, figures and
appendices, proposal synopsis (see Table VI, Items 1-7). Table VII summarises some of
the salient features expected of each component.
A word of caution is worth mentioning about the proposal synopsis. Despite the fact
that a synopsis is read first, it should be written last. Since the synopsis normally has a
length limit, normally between 250 and 500 words, it should be a cogent summary of
the proposal (Miner and Miner, 2006). The synopsis should briefly state the
 Postgraduate
Title page The style and information pertaining to title page is specified by the faculty
but normally consists of: attrition
Logo and name of the organization rate
Purpose of proposal (fulfillment of PhD, Masters, etc.)
Title of proposal
Name of researcher
Name of supervisor (if required) 309
Date (month and year)
Table of contents The table of contents normally includes:
Decimal headings up to third level but not beyond this otherwise it
becomes clumsy
Page numbers which should be inserted after everything is complete
Lists of tables, figures Each item should have a separate page
and appendices Should be listed sequentially and page numbers mentioned
Page numbers should be inserted after everything is complete Table VII.
List of abbreviations Abbreviations (and their full version) should be listed in alphabetical order, Salient features of the
but not numbered preliminary items

components of the proposed research namely research problem, research question,

and objective, expected outcome of the study and method of conducting the
study-mentioned in two or three sentences.

Sections of the proposal

The major sections of the proposal include the study introduction, literature review,
intended methodology, references, appendices, research timetable and budget (to avoid
confusing these items with those of this paper, the word proposal is prefixed). Before a
discussion of each section commences, some general aspects are noted.
First, a researcher should not lose sight of the fact that the proposal spells out how
they intend to carry out the study. In other words, it is a baseline plan that could vary
on implementation. Second, the language used is that of the future – future tense due
the fact that what is being proposed are future tasks. Third, it is important that the
sections and subsections are well connected and linked to maintain document logic and
reading flow. The connections between components, for example, literature survey
and problem; the problem statement, research question, objectives, research and
hypothesis, should come out very clearly during the discussion. Fourth, these items
could be numbered using, for example, the decimal notation (Lannon, 1986) where the
Introduction is 1, Literature review is 2, Methodology is 3 and so on. The subheadings
within each section could arise thereof, with a recommended maximum hierarchy of up
to three levels (i.e. 1, 1.1 and 1.1.1). Experience has shown that students may have a
hierarchy of headings stretching up to so many levels (e.g. 1.1.1.1) which not only
confuses the reader but even themselves.
Another very important aspect to note is that researcher should be familiar with
aspects that make a document of professional quality both in appearance and in
language. These include, for example, language style (e.g. avoiding gender bias, the use
of spell check and thesaurus to sharpen and use the right vocabulary); format and style
of text (e.g. font style, size, uncontrolled use of italics, bolding, underling, indenting,
bullets, paragraphing, headings hierarchy, character and line spacing); how to present,
JEDT place, caption and discuss illustrations (i.e. table, figure and equations); maintaining
7,3 citation and referencing principles. The authors have often read proposals where
students have dumped illustrations in the text without captioning them,
acknowledging the source, discussing them or even referring to them. In other
instances, a variety of fancy and uncontrolled font styles and sizes and unnecessary
italics and bolding have also been presented.
310 The list of professional writing requirements is quite long and difficult to exhaust
and hence it is not possible to give guidance to all the necessary aspects. It is however,
emphasised that not following professional standards may make a proposal
unreadable, shoddy and inadmissible thus prolonging the completion period. There
are a number of sources that researchers may use to sharpen their writing skills in
many of the mentioned areas, for example, Currie (2005), Swales and Christine (2004)
and The Learning Centre (2006).
The components in Part I of this paper and the literature outline form a bulk of the
material required to complete the writing of proposal sections as discussed next.
Proposal introduction. The introduction section of the proposal should aim at
clarifying the research topic by providing a brief and a hard hitting background to the
research topic in order to arouse interest of the reader and create motivation that the
study is worth undertaking.
It is recommended that the research definition part of the framework in Part I
should be provided in a diagrammatic form (Appendix 2). The diagram should be used
both as a summary and as a means of providing a better way of presenting the
research problem so that the reader can easily comprehend the problem definition.
In addition, the diagram guides the discussion of the following aspects of the
introduction:
.
definition of operational terms;
.
research problem;
.
research question;
.
research objectives;
.
research propositions/hypotheses;
.
investigative questions;
.
research scope; and
.
importance of the research in form of knowledge gap.

The purpose of each item was mentioned in Part I and, therefore, not repeated here
except a comment on the first item – definitions of operational terms. In any chosen
study topic, there are normally key-terms that need defining to create a baseline
understanding for the purposes of clarifying the research problem. An example is
safety standards. Often readymade definitions are available from literature, some
detailed, elaborate and more eloquent than others. While a researcher may quote them,
they may not be suitable to the argument being presented in the proposal leave
alone the research report. Therefore, a researcher needs to dissect and synthesize them,
taking out the strong and relevant aspects in order to construct a working definition for
the study.
 Proposal literature review. The next item in the proposal should be a section on Postgraduate
literature review. While the background in the introduction provides a summary of the attrition
problem, this section provides a critical review of the scholarly work arising from a
literature search relevant to the topic. The outline developed before provides a guiding rate
hand in the completion of this section. The researcher must demonstrate that they have
read the most recent developments in the field and therefore their discussion must be
penetrative and detailed enough to capture the major contemporary arguments. 311
One additional aspect to note here is that researchers should try to state their
position amongst a myriad of arguments normally propounded by scholars in the
literature. It is through this positioning that the researcher may state the existence of a
gap and hence the study’s contribution to knowledge on the topic.
Before leaving the subject of literature review, one important aspect needs to be
highlighted. There are two schools of thought regarding as to how to integrate the
proposal literature review in the document. One school of thought (on which this paper
is based) separates the proposal literature review from the background of the research
problem. The argument for the separation is premised on two aspects, by having a long
literature review makes the background so extensive that there is a possibility of
diluting the “hard hitting element of the background” to the problem. Coupled with this
the possibility of immersing the reader in many pages of literature without hitting the
nail on the head quickly, stating the problem. This may sound like a novel or movie
where the plot unfolds at the end.
The other school of thought is of the strongest opinion that a separation of the
background and proposal literature review violates the wine glass concept. The wine
glass concept requires moving from the general to the specific, by providing a wider
context of the problem and narrowing it down to the problem of research. This makes a
stronger and an unbroken argument for the importance and viability of the proposed
research. This school of thought also contends that the reader may be subjected to
some repetitions of some sort if there is a separation of the background and literature –
as most probably the background comes as a disguised excerpt of the proposal
literature review.
It is important to note that whichever approach is taken no contradiction is made
and the characteristics of an excellent research proposal will not be violated as long as
care is taken to avoid the mentioned pitfalls. A research student must be allowed to
take either of the two approaches depending on the agreement reached with the
supervisor.
Research design or methodology. This section describes how the research study will
be carried out. Students need to read the literature relating to the research philosophy,
process, methods and procedure. It is recommended that a summary of the research
design section of Part I (Appendix 2) should be provided in a diagrammatic form to aid
the discussion of the section.
The discussion should be based on how each investigative question will be solved.
The assumption here is that when the answers to the investigative questions have been
obtained and later combined, the research question(s) should be answered too. Though
it was highly advised in Part I, that there should be an investigative question on the
literature review, conclusion and recommendation, the discussion in this section should
only centre on operational investigative questions. This is because the investigative
JEDT question on literature review is dealt with in the preceding section while conclusions
7,3 and recommendation are dealt with after the field study.
A discussion of each investigative question should be based on a description of how
the following items are dealt with in the study (Appendix 2):
.
overall research strategy;
312 .
identification of data type needed to answer the investigative question; the data
source, location and issues of data accessibility;
. identification of subjects, their population and indication of how data will be
analyzed to solve the investigative questions; and
.
expected time frame, resources and cost.

The word an indication has been used because once the proposal is submitted and
accepted a researcher is expected to develop and expand literature review and
methodology further in order to produce Chapters 2 and 3 as part of the final report as
briefly discussed later.
Chapter plan and summary. The proposal must mention and provide a plan of what
will constitute the main chapters of the final report. A brief and general description of
the content of each chapter is highlighted later.
Proposal references. The researcher needs to present a list of references cited
throughout the proposal. Literature on the purposes, methods and techniques of
managing citation and referencing is ubiquitous, for example, Fisher and Hanstock
(1998), APA (2001) and The Learning Centre (2006). However, a few aspects will be
noted.
First, students should develop a habit of writing the citation followed immediately
by the reference when writing each section of the proposal. Each section or chapter
should have its own references after which they could be cut, pasted and sorted on
completing the writing of the proposal. Too many times, the authors have encountered
situations where students have made citations with no accompanying references,
references without citations, mismatched dates between citations and references or
where students have quoted something from literature but cannot trace the references.
Appendices. According to Miner and Miner (2006), appendices contain information
that is peripheral to the proposal and if included would disorganise the flow of the
proposal. However, for the curious readers their inclusion may complete the picture of
whatever argument or aspect is being described or discussed. In the example – safety
on building construction sites – one may decide to attach some abridged regulations
from the Factory Act, which may have been produced by a relevant government
department to serve as a quick reference to site safety standards. Appendices may also
be used to circumvent the page limitation, if any, which may be imposed on the length
of the proposal. However, appendices must be numbered in a sequential manner, using
letters or numerals, and referred to once in the text and thus not described or discussed
subsequently after the mention.
Next discussion focuses on two important additional items namely the research
timetable and budget (Table VI).
Additional items Postgraduate
For students to produce a research timetable and budget, they must know exactly the attrition
order of events following the proposal and associated resources to fulfil the activities.
Though not the focus of this paper, it was felt that if some light was shed on the rate
post-proposal phase, it would aid the student to formulate a sound and credible
timetable and budget for the research. The next section thus looks at the post-proposal
phase and the additional items. 313
Post-proposal tasks. Once a research proposal has been accepted by the supervisor
(or by the accepting authority) the student embarks on another phase of the research
journey guided by the research proposal. The post-proposal activities are best
described by indicating the deliverables expected as shown in Figure 4.
The post-proposal journey begins by first completing two chapters (Chapters 2 and 3)
of what will be part of the final report. The researcher has to dig deeper in literature
review for the two chapters. The merits of literature review of the subject area have been
already discussed. However, since the proposal contained an indication of the
methodology, Chapter 3 must contain a concrete discourse of the methodology based on
three aspects. First, it must provide the theory and practice of research methodology, in
order for the researcher to demonstrate a clear understanding of the methodology
environment. This provides an in depth analysis of what methods exist and their
practical inference.
For doctoral work, a student may need to go one step further and provide a research
philosophical discourse and relate it to the research problem. This demonstrates that
the student has grasped the ontological and epistemological aspects of the research
process and hence the underlying arguments which the study findings may be
subjected to by the research community. A full discussion of these concepts and views
may be found, for example, in Holden and Lynch (2004).

Post-proposal phase
(Relates to the research timetable and budget)
Methodology & Design

Findings & discussion

Data presentation &

Concl. & Recomm.

of data collecting
Literature review

(piloting and
full study)
collection

Introduction
Data

results

Proposal
Chapter 4
Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 1
Data

Research Figure 4.
deliverables Post-proposal activities
and expected research
deliverables
Source: Ssegawa and Rwelamila (2007)
JEDT Second, the researcher must identify the most appropriate research strategy for the
7,3 problem and provide an argument justifying its use among others. The emphasis
should not only be on the strength of the strategy in solving the problem, but the
researcher must also show the inherent weaknesses and how they will be dealt with in
the study.
Third, the researcher must design and describe the data collecting instrument(s).
314 The description must show how each investigative questions is being addressed and
hence how the research question(s) will be answered too in the instrument. In addition,
the discussion must include how the objectives will be achieved and in order to get a
solution to the research problem.
The completion of Chapter 3 produces an important deliverable for the next task,
the data collecting instrument. The instrument may be piloted in whatever manner,
internally or externally (Cooper, 2006), after which a full blown study is then conducted
to collect data. The next step is data compilation and analysis which may be done
manually or by the use of some appropriate computer software.
The completion of the above tasks leads to the writing of Chapter 4 – Research
results and Chapter 5 – Research synthesis and findings. There is no rule cast in stone
regarding whether there should be two separate chapters (Chapters 4 and 5) or even
more or whether one single chapter is enough to dispense the presentation of results
and discussion of the research findings. The researcher is free to consult the supervisor
or department for preferences. The completion of the two chapters leads to writing
Chapter 6 – Conclusions and recommendations. This is followed by writing Chapter 1 –
Introduction.
The sequence above of writing Chapter 1 last fascinates students but the logic
behind it is simple. One cannot introduce something they are not sure of (including
human beings). It is only after the study is completed that the problem is fully defined,
the method used for solving it is fully understood and the solution itself is fully
comprehended and hence the introduction. A caveat though, is that first, the proposal
forms the bulk of Chapter 1 in the final report. Second, like Chapter 3, where the tense
has to be changed from “will do” to “was done”, in some areas of the proposal the tense
has to be changed too, including some structural re-arrangement to make the chapter
logically flow when reading. A completed report will thus contain the items illustrated
in Table VIII (note that the items on the right are completed first).
It is felt that after understanding the post-proposal research journey a student is in good
position to formulate a realistic research timetable and budget as briefly discussed next.

Items Chapters

Titled binding cover Chapter 1:

Introduction (written last)
Titled page Chapter 2:
Review of literature
Statement of originality and disclaimer Chapter 3:
Methodology
Acknowledgements Chapter 4:
Data analysis and results
Table of contents Chapter 5:
Discussion of findings and their
implications
Table VIII. List of abbreviations Chapter 6: Conclusions and recommendations
Items and chapters of the Lists of tables/figures/appendices References
final research report Synopsis Appendices
Research timetable. Almost all research studies have a time limit, particularly those Postgraduate
intended for postgraduate research degrees. Time is always one of the major attrition
constraints of research and must therefore, be planned and managed wisely.
The framework in Part I, allows a rough estimate of time of the identified research rate
tasks. The research related tasks to be done have been identified in the last section and
what is left is the logical sequence of performing them and an estimate of the duration
of each activity. The product should be a timetable, communicated preferably using a 315
Gantt (or bar) chart as shown in Figure 5 (time shown in the chart is indicative only as
it depends on the nature of study and the researcher’s estimation). The timetable may
be improved, if milestones are added signalling the completion or start of an item and
where appropriate the expected deliverables. This should facilitate the control of study
progress in terms of time.
Research budget. Like time, resources are another constraint for a research study
and it is hardly possible that any form of research can proceed without resources
and/or money. Depending on the type of study and the environment in which the study
is being conducted, some resources may be obtained without direct exchange of money
while others require payments. Whatever the case, a researcher needs to identify the
nature, quantity and the timing of resources needed to complete the activities identified
while producing the timetable. A researcher should then estimate the cost of each
resource and present a budget preferably in a tabular form as illustrated in Table IX.
Where possible all activities should be broken down (as shown in Item 4 in Table IX)
into appropriate details, in order to provide a better estimate and in the end to provide
better resource or money control.

Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusions
A research proposal is a pre-requisite in determining the path towards a successful
research study. The components forming the research proposal constitute the “pieces”
defining the end results toward which the research student effort is directed.
Putting a research proposal together with a clear understanding of its components
and the desired dissertation/thesis at the end can help the research student to avoid a
rather nasty trap: focusing on some parts of the research at the expense of the larger
goal of satisfying the requirements of the study. Since all research activities take place

Activity/month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Literature review- Chapter 2
2. Methodology including designing data
collecting instrument design - Chapter 3
3. Piloting the instrument
4. Conducting the field study
5. Analysing data
6. Writing draft report
7. Supervisor’s review
8. Writing final report Figure 5.
9. Binding report An example of a research
10. Assessment (allow time for examiner) timetable
JEDT
Activity Resource Qty Rate (e) Sub-total (e)
7,3
1. Literature review – Chapter 2 800
2. Methodology – Chapter 3 Library resources
3. Piloting the instrument 1,500
4. Conducting the field study Communication costs 1,000
316 Production costs 500
Research assistant 1,000 2,500
5. Analysing data 1,000
6. Writing draft report 500
7. Supervisor’s review
8. Writing final report
Table IX. 9. Binding of reports 5 copies 1,500
An example of a research 10. Assessment 100
budget Total 7,900

after formulating the proposal are supposed to be informed by the proposal itself,
deliberate and careful consideration must be given to the formulation of every
component of the proposal. The make-up of every component of the proposal must
capture the true underlying needs, which motivate the research undertaking.
Both the students doing the research and the supervisors must be able to use the
proposal as the primary reference document when analysing every phase and every
stage of post-proposal phase. Using the proposal as a central document to control the
research quality and other associated parameters minimizes chances of frustrations
from both parties.
The process of carrying out research happens in a very complex environment and
some of the expectations of the research student could be affected by the dynamics of
forces coming from the research environment. It is in order therefore for the research
student to always revisit the research proposal and make sure that all the expectations
and constructs are still relevant and sound for the final product of the research process.
When it is necessary to make changes, the proposal should be changed or adjusted
accordingly and all the stakeholders must be involved in the process of effecting these
changes (especially the research student and the supervisor).
Postgraduate attrition and long completion periods are a worrying phenomenon.
There are several factors, which contribute to the attrition and the long completion
periods. One of the major reasons for the problems is the lack hands-on skills in the
research process on the part of students especially in the early part of the research
process (research definition and design) and hence the need for a facilitative
framework.
The description and discussion of the proposed framework has highlighted how it
facilitates the research thought process. The flexibility and iterative manner in which it
allows to achieve problem definitions and refinements of the research components
illustrates its versatility, efficiency and effectiveness. Therefore, research definition
and design may be handled in a more systematic, focused and integrative manner.

Recommendations
Although the framework may not be a panacea of all research problems resulting in
attrition and long completion periods, it may nevertheless alleviate the anxiety
experienced by students and ordinary researchers at the research definition and design Postgraduate
phases. If the framework is followed very carefully, a researcher will be able to attrition
understand the research definition environment, and thus be confident to proceed with
the process of putting together a more balanced and robust research proposal. rate
Lastly, it important to remember that translating the defined and designed
components in the framework into an acceptable and a well-written proposal may also
prove to be another challenging task, as clearly addressed in Part II of this paper. 317
References
APA (2001), Publications Manual, 5th ed., The American Psychological Association,
Washington, DC.
Blumberg, B., Cooper, D.R. and Schindler, P.S. (2005), Business Research Methods, McGraw-Hill,
London.
Bowen, W.G. and Rudenstine, N.L. (1992), In Pursuit of the PhD, Princeton University Press,
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1. Research definition
1.1 Conceptualise research problem
1.2 Identify research subject area
1.4 Formulate research title
1.5 Formulate problem statement
1.6 Formulate research question
1.7 Formulate research objectives
1.8 Formulate investigative
questions
1.9 Formulate research propositions P1. The safety regulation for building construction site are below international (or
a
(hypothesis )
1.10 Formulate research scope
1.11 Identify knowledge gap
Notes: aThe example originated from a student in the Department of Civil Engineering at a university who was working on a construction site as part of an industrial training to complete a
Bachelor’s Degree; the student encountered an incident in which a construction worker was electrocuted by a live electric cable while excavating a trench; the student conceptualised the
research problem as accidents on construction sites; for the student, the journey of research had begun, the research thought process had been ignited and a literature search ensued to define
the problem further
used here)
proposed framework
Application of the
using an example (not
Table AI.
Accidents on construction sites
Health and safety in construction 1.3 Literature search and review (coupled with discussions
supervisor, experts and peers)
Safety on building construction sites in country X
Appendix 1
There are indications that the level of safety on building construction sites in below
international standards. Its continued status if left unabated may a cause of
increased accidents for operatives and third parties
Are safety standards on building construction sites within international standards?
O1. Identify international best practices of safety standards on building
construction sites
O2. Evaluate whether national standards and enforcement systems are adequate to
address the issues of safety on construction sites
O3. Evaluate the actual practices of safety standards and determine the associated
safety levels on building construction sites in country X
O3. Provide recommendations for improving safety levels on building construction
sites in country X
IQ1. Internationally, what are the best practices (standards) for safety on building
construction sites?
IQ2. What are the prescribed practices (standards) for safety on building
construction sites in country X? Do they match international standards and are
they enforced? What are the construction sites accident statistics for country
X?
IQ3. What are actual practices of safety on building construction sites in country X?
Are they within acceptable national or international levels?
IQ4. What conclusions should be drawn regarding practices of safety levels on
building construction sites in country X?
IQ5. What recommendations should be proposed for improving safety levels on
building construction sites in country X?
national) standards
P2. The safety regulation for building construction site are not enforced
P2. The safety standards at building construction sites are below international (or
national) standards
The study will examine the issue of safety standards at building construction sites
in country X (or in region Y of country X) in the year 200X
No empirical study has ever been conducted on the nature of practices of safety
standards and the level of safety on construction sites in country X
Postgraduate
attrition
rate
319
 7,3

320
JEDT

Table AII.
2. Research design
2.2 Research strategy chosen: survey
2.1 Investigative questions 2.3 Identification of data type, 2.4 Identification of unit of 2.5 Determination of data 2.6 Determination of the most 2.7 Time
source, location and analysis and selection of collecting method appropriate data analysis and
accessibility study elements method cost
(e.g.)
IQ1. Internationally, what are the Literature review to identify the: Standards Literature search and Content and factor analysis 4 months
best practices (standards) for expected safety standards; and review R2,000
safety on building types and causes of accidents
construction sites? ILO is a possible source of
standards while literature will
provide causes
IQ2. What are the prescribed Relevant department is a possible Standards Literature search and Content and factor analysis but 2 months
practices (standards) for safety source of standards (to check Accidents review identifying the additions and R5,000
on building construction sites accessibility) Structured interview with omissions in country X
in country X? Do they match Interview with staff will provide a some officer(s) of relevant Ratio and descriptive analysis of
international standards and picture of reinforcement department accidents
are they enforced? What are Obtain statistics from department Structure sheet to capture
the construction sites accident accidents (nature and
statistics for country X? frequency)
IQ3. What are actual practices of Make measurements using Use appropriate sampling Structured questionnaire Analysis may most likely involve 4 months
safety on building interviews or from site staff from design to select building ratio, descriptive, comparative, R12,000
construction sites in country Review safety records of each sites for study difference of mean and inferential
X? Are they within acceptable company
national or international
levels?
IQ4. What conclusions should be Analyse results of IQ2 and IQ3 – Articulation of conclusions for each Nil
drawn regarding practices of conclude investigative question (IQ2-IQ3)
safety levels on building
construction sites in country X?
IQ5. What recommendations should Identified gaps found in IQ2 and Articulation of recommendations Nil
be proposed for improving IQ3 by comparing best practices resulting from gaps identified in
safety levels on building (literature review) and study results IQ2-IQ3
construction sites in country X? – recommend
1. Research definition
1.1 Conceptualise research (FiH)
problem
1.2 Identify research (FiH) 1.3 Conduct a literature search and review (coupled
Appendix 2
subject area with discussions and consultations with supervisor,
experts and peers)
1.4 Formulate research (FiH) Identify conceptual framework to use
title
1.5 Formulate problem (FiH)
statement
1.6 Formulate research (FiH)
question
1.7 Formulate research (FiH)
objectives
1.8 Formulate research (FiH)
propositions/
hypothesis
1.9 Formulate (FiH)
investigative
questions
1.10 Define research scope (FiH)
1.11 Identify knowledge (FiH)
gap (if applicable)
2. Research design
2.2 Determine most appropriate research strategy to investigate the major propositions and hypothesis
2.1 Down load the 2.3 Identify type of data required, 2.4 Identify unit of analysis and determine best 2.5 Indicate 2.6 Indicate 2.7: Determine
propositions or its source, location and determine sampling strategy data collecting nature of data time/cost
hypothesis formulated accessibility method analysis (months/e)
in 1.8
P/H1: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
P/H2: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
P/H3: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
P/H4: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
Expected conclusions (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
Recommendations (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
3. Write research proposal
Note: FiH – fill in here
Postgraduate
attrition

design framework
rate

321

Proposed definition and

Table AIII.
 7,3

322
JEDT

Table AIV.
1. Research definition
1.1 Conceptualise (FiH) 1.3 Conduct a literature search and review
research problem (coupled with discussions and consultations with
experts and peers)
1.2 Identify research (FiH)
subject area
1.4 Formulate (FiH)
research title
1.5: Define problem (FiH)
statement
1.6 Formulate (FiH)
research question
1.7 Formulate (FiH)
research
objectives
1.8 Identify (FiH)
knowledge gap
2. Research design
2.1 Formulate 2.2 Determine type of data 2.3 Identify data 2.4 An indication of data 2:5: Indicate nature of 2.6: Determine time/
investigative required and study subjects source and location collection method data analysis cost (months/e)
questions
IQ1: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ2: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ3: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ4: (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
IQ5: What (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
conclusions . . .
IQ6: What (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH) (FiH)
recommendations . . .
3. Write research proposal
Note: FiH – fill in here