Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Preface

PREFACE
This Site Investigation Manual - 2002 is one of the series of “Design Manuals, Standard
Contract Documents and Specifications” prepared under a credit financing of the
International Development Agency (IDA). The consulting services were provided by the
Louis Berger Group, Inc.
This manual has been developed from current international practice appropriately modified
to take account of local experience and conditions. It is written for the practicing engineer.
ERA formed a Project Working Group charged with evaluating and commenting upon the
draft Manuals and guiding the Consultant on the preparation of the final Manuals. Members
of the Working Group and the Louis Berger Group team for this Manual include the
following:
1. Ato Belaynehe Wolde Selassie
Manager, Design, Research and Network Management Division -Group Chairman
2. Ato Fesseha Taffese
Head, Design and Research Branch - Project Counterpart
3. Ato Fekadu Haile
Senior Advisor to the General Manager - Group Secretary for this manual
4. Mr. Peter Drummond
Road Sector Development Program Advisor to the General Manager
5. Mr. Henry S. Mildenhall
Contract Administration Specialist
6. Mr. Brian S. Barr
Rural Roads Coordinator
7. Mr. Michael S. Nyquist - Louis Berger Highway Design Engineer and Group Project
Manager
8. Mr. Claude Millet - Louis Berger Group Pavement Engineer
Companion Documents and Manuals Prepared under the same service are the following:
1. Geometric Design Manual - 2002
2. Pavement Design Manual Volume I - 2002 (Flexible & Gravel )
3. Pavement Design Manual Volume II - 2002 (Rigid Pavements
4. Overlay/Rehabilitation Manual - 2002
5. Drainage Design Manual Volume I and II - 2002
6. Bridge Design Manual - 2002
7. Standard Environmental Methodologies and Procedures Manual - 2002
8. ERA Standard Technical Specifications - 2002
9. Standard Detail Drawings - 2002
10. Standard Bidding Documents For Road Work Contracts
National Competitive Bidding (NCB) - 2002
11. Standard Tendering Documents For Road Work Contracts
International Competitive Bidding (ICB) - 2002

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Preface Site Investigation Manual - 2002

Appropriate reviews and comments were also provided by agencies and individuals through
ERA's Project Working Group. The Working Group wishes to acknowledge the
contributions made from all other specialists within and outside of ERA in the preparation of
these Manuals and Documents.

The layout of this Manual has been arranged with the following hierarchy:
• Chapter
• Major heading or Section (level one)
• Sub-Section within the major heading (level two)
• Sub-sub-Section within the second level subject matter (level three)

All tables are described by number beginning with one (1) at the first of each Chapter.
Figures are described in a similar manner.

Updates:

This manual will be updated and revised from time to time, as deemed appropriate.
Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to the new
policies or revised law of the land, ERA, or that is mandated by the relevant Federal
Government Ministry or Agency, should be amended and incorporated in the manual as soon
as possible after their date of effectiveness.
Other minor changes, not affecting the whole nature of this manual, may be accumulated and
made periodically. When a change is approved, new page(s) instituting the revisions,
together with the revision date, will be issued and inserted in to the relevant Chapters.

All revisions to the Site Investigations Manual will be made strictly in accordance with the
following procedures:

(1) Any proposed change will be submitted by or through the Head of the Design
(Branch, Division) of ERA.
(2) The proposed change, addition, or deletion will be submitted on a Manual Change
form 1-1(see the attached form) and forwarded with an explanation of its need and
purpose.
(3) If the change is approved, the General Manager will sign the Manual Change form
and return a copy to the Head of the Design (Branch, Division), who will arrange for
the change to be incorporated into the Bridge Design Manual.
(4) The Head of the Design (Branch, Division) will re-issue all effected pages of the
manual showing the proper revision date as shown on the Manual Change form.1-1.

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Preface

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

This area to be competed by the

Head of ERA Design (Branch ,
Division)

MANUAL CHANGE CHANGE NO._____________

(SECTION NO. CHANGE NO.
_____________- ____________

Section
To be
Table Explanation To be deleted
inserted
Figure

Submitted by: __________________ Approved by: ____________________________

Head of Design (Branch, Divisio ERA General Manager

Date: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Manual change Form 1-1

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

Foreword Site Investigation Manual - 2002

FOREWORD
This is the first comprehensive Site Investigation Manual prepared for the use and technical
guidance of design personnel of the Ethiopian Roads Authority and consultants doing Site
Investigation work for the Authority. However, it may also be used as a guide by other
agencies undertaking relevant work in the road sector.

The Ethiopian Roads Authority has prepared this Manual under a credit from the
International Development Agency (IDA) for design of roads in order to standardize design
practices in all ERA design works.

The road network comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate
standards for design, construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of
service. As the length of the engineered road network is increasing, appropriate choice of
methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important.

This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Ethiopia and reflects
ERA’s experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 50 years.

The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by
the concerned bodies with in ERA. However, I will like to emphasize that careful
consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the Manual, and
under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgment in applied
engineering. For simplification in reference this Manual may be cited as “ERA Site
Investigations Manual –2002.”

It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all users with both a standard reference
and a ready source of good practice for the materials investigation and design of roads, and
will assist in a cost effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our
road network.

I look forward to the practices contained in this Manual being quickly adopted into our
operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of our
country.

As this Manual due to technological development and change, requires periodic updating,
comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual as
feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated.

Tesfamichael Nahusenay
General Manager

Ethiopian Roads Authority

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Site Investigation Manual - 2002 is based on a review of the procedures of several
countries. In the selection of the appropriate procedures for Ethiopia, material from these
sources has been gleaned and evaluated to determine the set of procedures most appropriate
for Ethiopia and Ethiopian conditions. Of particular importance were certain TRL studies
making use of data from Ethiopia, as indicated in the list of references. Several American
sources were used, including AASHTO and FHWA, particularly in the text on specialized
studies such as for scour and engineering geophysics.

The authors of the manual are listed in the preface.

A limited number of copies of this manual are available to other organizations and to
individuals with an interest in soils investigations for road design. Inquiries should be made
to:

General Manager
Ethiopian Roads Authority
Post Office Box 1770
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ..................................................................................................................................i
Foreword.............................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................v
Definitions ..........................................................................................................................xi
Abbreviations.....................................................................................................................xv

1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1-1
1.1 Purpose...........................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 Scope..............................................................................................................................1-1
1.3 Application.....................................................................................................................1-1
1.4 Organization...................................................................................................................1-1
1.5 Limitations .....................................................................................................................1-2

2 FEASIBILITY STUDIES .......................................................................................2-1

2.1 General...........................................................................................................................2-1
2.2 Review of Existing Documents .....................................................................................2-1
2.2.1 Materials ..............................................................................................................2-1
2.2.2 Geology ...............................................................................................................2-2
2.2.3 Climatic Zones.....................................................................................................2-3
2.2.4 Topography..........................................................................................................2-3
2.2.5 Vegetation............................................................................................................2-3
2.2.6 Land Regions.......................................................................................................2-3
2.2.7 Office Study Steps ...............................................................................................2-5
2.3 Field Reconnaissance.....................................................................................................2-5
2.4 Foundations of Structures ..............................................................................................2-6

3 PRELIMINARY DESIGN......................................................................................3-1
3.1 Preliminary Design Sampling and Testing ....................................................................3-1
3.2 General ..........................................................................................................................3-1
3.3 Sampling Program: Earthworks and Sugrade Soils .......................................................3-2
3.4 Testing of Soils on New Alignments .............................................................................3-4
3.5 Testing of Subgrade on Alignments of Existing Roads .................................................3-4
3.6 Existing Gravel Wearing Course ...................................................................................3-5
3.7 Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits ..........................................................................................3-5
3.7.1 General.................................................................................................................3-5
3.7.2 Field Investigations and Sampling Procedure .....................................................3-6
3.7.3 Frequency of Sampling and Testing ....................................................................3-7
3.8 Crushed Stone Aggregates (Quarry Materials)..............................................................3-9
3.8.1 General.................................................................................................................3-9
3.8.2 Sampling............................................................................................................3-10
3.8.3 Testing ...............................................................................................................3-10

4 FINAL DESIGN ......................................................................................................4-1

4.1 General...........................................................................................................................4-1
4.2 Earthworks and Subgrade Soils .....................................................................................4-2
4.3 Common Investigations: New Roads.............................................................................4-2

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Table of Contents Site Investigation Manual - 2002

4.3.1 Sampling and Frequency..................................................................................... 4-2

4.3.2 Recommended Tests on Soil Samples ................................................................ 4-4
4.3.3 Classification of the Subgrade Soils ................................................................... 4-5
4.3.4 Treatment Tests (when appropriate) ................................................................... 4-6
4.4 Common Investigations: Existing Roads ...................................................................... 4-7
4.5 Materials........................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.5.1 Existing Pavement Materials .............................................................................. 4-8
4.5.2 Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits ............................................................................... 4-9
4.5.3 Samples of Sand................................................................................................ 4-10
4.5.4 Embankment Materials ..................................................................................... 4-10
4.5.5 Quarry Materials ............................................................................................... 4-11
4.5.6 Water................................................................................................................. 4-13
4.6 Foundations of Structures............................................................................................ 4-14
4.6.1 Soil Rock and Other Problem Conditions......................................................... 4-14
4.6.2 Subsurface Exploration and Testing Programs ................................................. 4-15

5 SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS..............................................................................5-1
5.1 Deep Cuts ...................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.1 Type of Material to be Excavated, Volume and Position of Different Materials 5-1
5.1.2 Water Table and Springs..................................................................................... 5-2
5.1.3 Stability of Slopes ............................................................................................... 5-2
5.1.4 Erosion Control ................................................................................................... 5-2
5.2 Embankments on Soft and Compressible Soils............................................................. 5-2
5.3 Natural Slopes ............................................................................................................... 5-3
5.3.1 Types of Slope Movements................................................................................. 5-4
5.3.2 Factors Contributing to Slope Failures ............................................................... 5-4
5.3.3 Guidelines for Investigations .............................................................................. 5-4
5.3.4 Remedial Measures ............................................................................................. 5-4
5.4 Expansive Soils ............................................................................................................. 5-7
5.4.1 General................................................................................................................ 5-7
5.4.2 Identification ....................................................................................................... 5-7
5.4.3 Classification of Expansive Soils........................................................................ 5-8
5.4.4 Description of problems...................................................................................... 5-9
5.4.5 Design and Construction Considerations ............................................................ 5-9
5.4.6 Mitigation Measures ......................................................................................... 5-10
5.4.7 Additional Considerations................................................................................. 5-12

6 INSPECTION OF BRIDGES FOR SCOUR ........................................................6-1

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Office Review ............................................................................................................... 6-3
6.3 Bridge Inspection .......................................................................................................... 6-4
6.4 Computing Pier Scour ................................................................................................... 6-7
6.5 Example....................................................................................................................... 6-10

7 ENGINEERING GEOPHYSICS...........................................................................7-1
7.1 Use of Data.................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.2 Scheduling..................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3 Seismic Methods ........................................................................................................... 7-3
7.4 Electrical Resistivity Methods....................................................................................... 7-7

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Table of Contents

8 SOILS AND MATERIALS REPORT...................................................................8-1

APPENDICES

A LAND REGIONS OF ETHIOPIA ..............................................................................A1-A35

B. LABORATORY TESTING......................................................................................... B1-B5

C. DCP-OPERATION AND INTERPRETATION .............................................................. C1-C4

D. SAMPLE BORING LOG ................................................................................................D-1

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. R1-R2

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ix

List of Illustrations Site Investigation Manual - 2002

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Organization of Manual ......................................................................... 1-3

Figure 1-2 Site Investigation Flow Chart ............................................................... 1-4
Figure 4-1 Typical Field Book Page, Log of test Pits Metric ................................. 4-5
Figure 5-1 Slope Failures (Adapted from Ref. 12).................................................. 5-5
Figure 5-2 Moisture Content in Expansive Soils .................................................... 5-9
Figure 6-1 Bridge Scour Example......................................................................... 6-10
Figure 7-1 Essential Parameters of Seismic Refraction Method for 2-Layer Case
with Horizontal Boundaries ................................................................... 7-5
Figure 7-2 Time-Distance Plot from Refraction Survey ......................................... 7-5
Figure 7-3 Diagram of an Electrical Resistivity Array ........................................... 7-8
Figure 7-4 Resistivity Anomalies Due to Varying Electrical Resistivity of the
Intermediate Layer of a 3-Layer System ............................................... 7-9
Figure A-1 Land Regions of Ethiopia ......................................................................A-1
Figure C-1 TRL Dynamic Cone Penetrometer ........................................................C-2
Figure C-2 DCP – CBR Relationships.....................................................................C-3
Figure C-3 DCP Test Results...................................................................................C-4

TABLES

Table 2-1 Engineering Categories of Soils in Ethiopia ............................................ 2-4

Table 4-1 Sampling Frequency ................................................................................ 4-2
Table 4-2 Minimum Mass of Sample Required (Soils and Gravels) ....................... 4-3
Table 4-3 Subgrade Strength Class vs. CBRs ......................................................... 4-6
Table 4-4 Sampling Frequency (Soils and Gravels)............................................... 4-10
Table 5-1 Factors that Cause Increases in Shear Stresses in Slopes ........................ 5-6
Table 5-2 Factors that Cause Reduced Shear Strength in Slopes ............................. 5-6
Table 5-3 Features of Expansive Soils-Soil Descriptions ........................................ 5-7
Table 5-4 Expansive Soils-Classification................................................................. 5-8
Table 6-1 Field Classification of Stream Channel Materials ................................... 6-2
Table 6-2 Assessing the Scour Potential at Bridges ................................................. 6-5
Table 6-3 Correction Factor, K1, for Pier Nose Shape ............................................ 6-8
Table 6-4 Correction Factor, K2, for Angle of Attack, θ, of the Flow..................... 6-8
Table 6-5 Increase in Equilibrium Pier Scour Depths (K3)for Bed Condition ........ 6-8
Table 6-6 Limits for Bed Material Size and K4 Values ........................................... 6-9
Table 7-1 Uses of Engineering Geophysics in Geological Investigations of Transportation
Routes....................................................................................................... 7-3

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Table of Contents

Table 7-2 Typical Seismic Wave Velocities of Various Earth Materials................. 7-4
Table 7-3 Electrical Resistivity of Various Earth Materials Usually Encountered
to Electrical Resistivity Surveys............................................................... 7-8

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xi

Definitions Site Investigation Manual - 2002

DEFINITIONS

Aggregate Hard mineral elements of construction material mixtures, for

example: sand, gravel (crushed or uncrushed) or crushed rock.

Bedrock The more or less continuous body of rock which underlies the
overburden soils.

Bench Step in a slope, formed by a horizontal surface and a surface

inclined at a steeper angle than that of the entire slope.

Berm A shelf that breaks the continuity of a slope.

Borrow Area An area within designated boundaries, approved for the purpose
of obtaining borrow material. A borrow pit is the excavated pit in
a borrow area.

Borrow Material Any gravel, sand, soil, rock or ash obtained from borrow areas,
dumps or sources other than cut within the road prism which is
used in the construction of the specified work for a project. It
does not include crushed stone or sand obtained from commercial
sources.
Boulder A rock fragment usually rounded by weathering or abrasion, with
an average dimension of 0.30 m or more.

Capping Layer The top of embankment or bottom of expansion prior to

construction of the pavement structure.

Chippings Stones used for surface dressing (treatment).

Compressive The load per unit area at which an unconfined cylindrical

Strength specimen of soil or rock will fail in a simple compression test.

Consolidation The gradual reduction in volume of a soil mass, resulting from an

increase in compressive stress.

Core A cylindrical sample of hardened grout, concrete, rock, or grouted

deposits, usually obtained by means of a core drill.

Culvert A structure, other than a bridge, which provides an opening under

the carriageway or median for drainage or other purposes.

Cut Cut shall mean all excavations from the road prism including side
drains, and excavations for intersecting roads including, where
classified as cut, excavations for open drains.

Fill Material of which a man-made raised structure or deposit such as

an embankment is composed, including soil, soil-aggregate, or
rock. Material imported to replace unsuitable roadbed material is

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Definitions

also classified as fill.

Foundation Lower part of a structure that transmits the load to the soil or
rock.

Gravel Rounded or semi-rounded particles of rock that will pass a 76 mm

sieve and be retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.

Ground Water That part of the subsurface water that is in the saturated zone.

Lacustrine Deposits Sedimentary material that is laid down in the waters of a lake.

Massif A prominent upland, usually of considerable extent.

Mesozoic The second ear of the fossil record in the geological time-scale,
from 230 to 70 million years ago. It was preceded by the
Palaeozoic and was followed by the Cainozoic era to the present
day. The Mesozoic era comprises rocks of Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous age.

Meta Sediments Metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, i.e. rocks altered in structure

and mineral constituents by the application of heat and pressure
within the earth’s crust.

Mountainous Terrain Terrain that is rugged and very hilly, with substantial restrictions
in both horizontal and vertical alignment.

Obsidian Volcanic glass, formed by the rapid chilling of molten lava,

extruded into water. The rock is black and very brittle.

Project Specifications The specifications relating to a specific project, which form part
of the contract documents for such project, and which contain
supplementary and/or amending specifications to the standard
specifications.

Quarry An area within existing boundaries, approved for the purpose of

obtaining rock by sawing or blasting.

Quartzite A rock consisting entirely of quartz. It is white, very hard, and

shows little or no granular structure.

Quaternary The most recent division of geological time, beginning

approximately 2 million years ago and continuing to the present.
It corresponds roughly with the Ice Ages and the first appearance
of Man. For complex stratigraphic reasons, some geologists
regard the Quaternary as a subdivision of the Tertiary period. In
Ethiopia the Quaternary is represented by recent alluvial
materials, shallow water sediments and associated volcanic rocks,
extensively developed around the periphery of the various
highland regions.

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Definitions Site Investigation Manual - 2002

Reconstruction The process by which a new pavement is constructed, utilizing

mostly new materials, to replace an existing pavement.

Rectilinear A form of drainage pattern in which the streams flow at right

angles to each other, controlled by the joint pattern of the
underlying rocks.

Rehabilitation Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an

existing pavement. This may include overlays and preoverlay
repairs, and may include complete removal and reconstruction of
the existing pavement, or recycling of part of the existing
materials.

Rhyolite An acid igneous rock of the same mineral composition as granite,

but of fine grain. The fine grain is caused by rapid chilling of a
lava flow and the consequent suppression of the growth of large
crystals.

Roadbase A layer of material of defined thickness and width constructed on

top of the subbase, or in the absence thereof, the subgrade. A
roadbase may extend to outside the carriageway.

Road Bed The natural in situ material on which the fill, or in the absence of
fill, any pavement layers, are to be constructed.

Road Bed Material The material below the subgrade extending to such depth as
affects the support of the pavement structure.

Roadway The area normally traveled by vehicles and consisting of one or a

number of contiguous traffic lanes, including auxiliary lanes and
shoulders.

Scarp A slope formed on the exposed ends of a tilted sequence of rocks.

The slope is usually associated with a dip slope, which is
developed on the exposed upper bed in the sequence. Scarp slopes
are usually steeper and more irregular than dip slopes.

Schist A metamorphic rock characterised by a parallel arrangement of

most of its constituent minerals, which are chiefly micas. Schists
are usually soft, easily weathered, and easily split along the plane
of weakness.

Shear Strength The maximum resistance of a soil or rock to shearing stresses.

Stability The condition of a structure or a mass of material when it is able

to support the applied stress for a long time without suffering any
significant deformation or movement that is not reversed by the
release of stress.

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Definitions

Stabilization The treatment of the materials used in the construction of the road
bed material, fill or pavement layers by the addition of a
cementitious binder such as lime or Portland Cement or the
mechanical modification of the material through the addition of a
soil binder or a bituminous binder. Concrete and asphalt shall not
be considered as materials that have been stabilized.

Structural Control of Streams tend to pick out the planes of weakness in rocks, and
Streams therefore tend to be guided along these planes. When viewed
from the air, stream patterns can often be seen to be controlled
over wide areas by the joint pattern of the underlying rocks, by
assuming parallel courses. These stream patterns are good
indicators of the extent of particular rock types.

Subbase The layer of material of specified dimensions on top of the

subgrade and below the roadbase.

Subgrade The surface upon which the pavement structure and shoulders are
constructed.

Tertiary The period of geological time from the end of the cretaceous to
the beginning of the Quaternary, i.e. from 65 million years ago to
about two million years ago. (See Quaternary).

Traps A common name for basaltic lava flows.

Wadi A flat-floored valley with an intermittent stream, characteristic of

arid and semi-arid areas.

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Abbreviations

ABBREVIATIONS

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

CBR California Bearing Ratio

CPT Cone Penetrometer Test

DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority

JRRP Joint Road Research Project

MDD Maximum Dry Density

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

PMS Pavement Management System

RQD Rock Quality Designation

SPT Standard Penetration Test

TCDE Transport Construction Design Enterprise

TRL Transport Research Laboratory

TRRL Transport and Road Research Laboratory

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xvii