Chapter 5

Site Investigation Manual - 2002 Special Investigations

5. SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
Special investigations relate to such items as deep cuts, embankments over soft and
compressible soils, expansive soils and natural slopes.

5.1 Deep Cuts

This paragraph deals with additional considerations regarding cuts if common

investigations for the earthworks and subgrade have revealed particular problems (e.g.
significant rock excavation) and also with considerations regarding the side slopes to be
considered.

Regarding the investigations of deep cuts, it is desirable to conduct specific test pits,
borings, auger probes and/or geophysical investigations, since significant cost overruns
can result from erroneous estimates of rock excavation (as opposed to unclassified or
earth excavation).

The potential for water resurgence in deep cuts should also be investigated.

The stability of cut sections needs to be detailed, including provision of cut-off and
interface drainage, and treatment of other slope stability issues.

When new horizontal alignment is required, or when the vertical alignment is changed,
required new cuts should be designed and existing cuts deepened. It is very important to
avoid rocky cuts whenever possible. At the final design stage, visual inspection of these
areas is required.

If additional, possibly expensive, tests are deemed necessary, such as seismic tests or
drilling, a program should be proposed to ERA for approval, describing the scope, intent,
and price of the tests.

Specific drainage systems must also be designed to protect slopes prone to mud slides
from rainfall runoff.

The following factors should be considered with respect to deep cuts:

• Type of material to be excavated, volume and position of different materials.

• Level and flow of water table and springs
• Stability of slopes
• Drainage and protection against erosion

5.1.1 TYPE OF MATERIAL TO BE EXCAVATED, VOLUME AND POSITION OF DIFFERENT

MATERIALS

The type of material to be excavated influences its suitability as embankment material, as

developed in the section regarding subgrade strength class determination. As indicated
before, it is important to determine the volume of rock, rippable and normal material in
each deep cut. Dynamic penetration and seismic tests may usefully supplement borings
for this purpose (See Chapter 7).

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The depth and degree of weathering may be very variable within short distances.
Laterization may also be present. The determination of the rock level is important not
only to estimate quantities and costs, but also because its interface with the overlying soil
may provide an opportunity for the presence of a perched water table. Springs may also
be a problem, depending on the type of rock and its structure.

5.1.2 WATER TABLE AND SPRINGS

The water table may be permanent, seasonal or perched. In any event, its presence and
characteristics (level, flow, etc.) should be determined, as they influence the stability and
any drainage system which may be required.

Also, the likelihood of springs occurring within the cut should be assessed.

5.1.3 STABILITY OF SLOPES

The complete analytical determination of the stability of a cut section is complex and
beyond the scope of this investigation manual. However, it is worth giving approximate
“rules of thumb”, or guidelines, given by experience, as listed below. It is essential to
remember that these guidelines do not take into account the presence of water or of
external loads. They are also limited to cases of homogeneous masses, and, in the case of
rock, do not account for strong patterns of jointing and their orientation.

Cohesionless sands: 1 (V): 2 (H)

Silty sands and silts: 1 (V): 1 (H)
Eluvial soils (e.g. red friable clays):
1.5 (V): 1 (H) for depths of cuts less than 4 meters
1 (V): 1 (H) for depths of cuts over 4 meters
Weathered rock: 2 (V): 1 (H) to 4 (V): 1 (H)
Sound rock: 5 (V): 1 (H) to 10 (V): 1 (H)
Note: V: Vertical, H: Horizontal

5.1.4 EROSION CONTROL

Erosion control may occasionally conflict with stability requirements. One reason in
cohesive soils is that erosion is less pronounced for steep slopes than for 1 (V): 1 (H)
slopes, as exposure to rainfall decreases. The 1 (V): 1 (H) slopes may be considered for
cuts over 4 to 5 meters depth if planted with grass, otherwise 1.5 (V): 1 (H) slopes may
be more suitable in combination with berms at 4 meters vertical intervals.
Inspection of existing cut slopes is necessary to benefit from local experience.

5.2 Embankments and Compressible Soils

This paragraph deals with additional considerations that may be required for
embankments which are founded on soft and compressible soils. The investigations will
include in-situ static and dynamic penetrometer tests, borings with undisturbed soil
sampling and occasionally field vane tests. In the laboratory, apart from identification

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(classification) tests among which moisture content and organic content determination
will be more extensive than usual, tests will include consolidation tests, unconfined
compression tests, and triaxial tests. The design parameters for stability analysis and
settlement analysis can be derived from these tests.
Failure in bearing also requires consideration in these embankments. Embankments,
when built on weak foundation materials, may be subjected to sinking and spreading
failures, irrespective of the stability of the new overlying embankment material. A simple
rule of thumb based on bearing capacity theory can be used to make a preliminary
estimate of the factor of safety against circular arc failure for an embankment built over a
clay foundation. The rule is (Cheney and Chassie, 1982, Ref. 9):
6c
F.S. =
γ fill × Hfill
where F.S. = factor of safety
c = cohesion of foundation clay
γfill = unit weight of embankment fill
Hfill = height of embankment fill
The factor of safety computed using this rule serves only as a rough preliminary estimate
of the stability of an embankment over a clay foundation and should not be used for final
design. If the factor of safety using this rule is less than 2.5, a more comprehensive
stability analysis is required.
Possible foundation treatment methods for constructing embankments on soft and
compressible soils include:
• Partial excavation
• Preloading with surcharge fills
• Preloading with vertical drains
• Pile-supported embankments
Detailed analysis of these methods is beyond the scope of this manual.
5.3 Natural Slopes
Many projects intersect ridges and valleys, and these landscape features can be prone to
slope stability problems. Natural slopes that have been stable for many years may
suddenly fail because of changes in topography, seismicity, groundwater flows, loss of
strength, stress changes and weathering. Careful and long-term study of a critical slope
along the proposed alignment is required to understand and predict the slope’s behavior.
Progressive failures of natural slopes are most likely due to materials such as clays and
shale. The presence of such materials and their properties should be investigated in slope
studies.

If slope stability problems are identified in mountainous portions of a road project,

protection against mudslides and falling rocks will be required in the area. Such reference
material as TRL Road Notes 14 and 16 (Ref. 10 and Ref. 11) may be consulted in this
respect. If new cuts are necessary, the slope angle needs to be determined by careful
analysis of existing data concerning the rock formation, and comparison to similar
existing cuts.
Specific drainage systems must also be designed to protect slopes prone to mudslides
from rainfall runoff.

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5.3.1 TYPES OF SLOPE MOVEMENTS

Figure 5-1 illustrates the general types of slope failures. Falling and toppling are features
frequently associated with rock slopes, whereas slide, spread and flow are related to soil
slopes.
5.3.2 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SLOPE FAILURES
Slope failures are often caused by processes that increase shear stresses or decrease shear
strengths of the soil mass. Processes that most commonly cause an increase in the shear
stresses acting on slopes are listed in Table 5-1. Processes that most commonly cause a
decrease in the shear strength of slope materials are listed in Table 5-2.
Field explorations should be directed toward identifying these factors and to determine
the severity of each factor in predicting the slope stability.
5.3.3 GUIDELINES FOR INVESTIGATIONS
Slope stability investigations are usually costly. A deep drill hole is difficult and time-
consuming, and still may not provide all the information needed. In this regard, it is
advisable to carry out a preliminary analysis to look for possible controlling features of
slope failures before starting a field investigation program. Once the features that control
the slide are identified, a suitable exploration program can be planned during the final
investigation phase.
The limits of slope failure surface can be approximated by observing the orientation of
trees and electric poles. Leaning trees are often a sign of surface movements. Telephone
poles or electric lines tend to tilt in a slide, which often causes tension or sagging of wires
between telephone or electric poles.
Man-made features such as catchpits, masonry walls and guard rails are usually built in
specific geometric shapes. Any deviations from these shapes would indicate that there
has been a differential movement from which the limits of a landslide can be determined.

5.3.4 REMEDIAL MEASURES

The information obtained from field investigations should be analyzed and compared
with the feasibility studies and laboratory test results. Design parameters should then be
derived to be used in the analysis of possible remedial measures. Remedial measures can
be:

• Removing weight from the upper part of the slope

• Removing all unstable materials
• Flattening slopes
• Benching slopes
• Buttressing with counterberms
• Mechanical stabilization (e.g. rock bolts)

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(i) Forms of falls in rock masses: (a) free fall and (b) toppling by overturning (ii) Slide forms in
soil formations. (a) Single block failed along slope as a result of high groundwater level, or
strength increase with depth in cohesive soils. (b) Single block in homogeneous cohesive soils
failed below toe of slope because of either a stronger or weaker soil boundary at base. (c) Failure
of multiple blocks along the contact with strong material. (d) Planar slide or slump in thin soil
layer over rock. Often called debris slides. Common in colluvium and develop readily into flows.
(e) Failure by lateral spreading.

Figure 5-1: Slope Failures (adapted from Ref. 12)

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Table 5-1: Factors that Cause Increases in Shear Stresses in Slopes

(1) Removal of Support
A. Erosion
1. By streams and rivers
2. By action of waves
3. By successive wetting and drying (e.g., winds, rain)
C. Natural slope movements (e.g., falls, slides, settlements)
D. Human activity
1. Cuts and excavations
2. Removal of retaining walls or sheet piles
3. Drawdown of bodies of water (e.g., lakes)
(2) Overloading
A. By natural causes
1. Weight of precipitation (e.g., rains)
2. Accumulation of materials because of past landslides
B. By human activity
1. Construction of fill
2. Buildings and other overloads at the crest
3. Water leakage in culverts, water pipes, and sewers
(3) Transitory effects (e.g., earthquakes)
(4) Removal of underlying materials that provided support
A. By rivers
B. By weathering
C. By underground erosion due to seepage (piping), solvent agents, etc.
D. By human activity (excavation or mining)
E. By loss of strength of the underlying material
(5) Increase in lateral pressure
A. By water in cracks and fissures
B. By expansion of clays

Source: Adapted from Highway Research Board, 1978. (Ref. 13)

Table 5-2: Factors that Cause Reduced Shear Strength in Slopes

(1) Factors inherent in the nature of the materials
A. Composition
B. Structure
C. Stratification
(2) Changes caused by weathering and physiochemical activity
A. Wetting and drying processes
B. Hydration
C. Removal of cementing agents
(3) Effect of pore pressures
(4) Changes in Structure
A. Stress release
B. Structural degradation
Source: Adapted From Highway Research Board, 1978. (Ref. 13)

Detailed analysis of these methods is beyond the scope of this manual. Depending on the
site conditions, an appropriate method of remediation needs to be adopted.

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5.4 Expansive Soils

5.4.1 GENERAL

Expansive soils are those that exhibit particularly large volumetric changes (shrinkage
and swell) following variations in their in-service moisture contents.

Expansive soils, which usually contain the clay mineral montmorillonite, include
sedimentary and residual soils, claystones and shales. Relatively large areas are covered
with expansive soils such as black cotton soils and red silt clays. These clays have caused
persistent difficulties in road construction and are a relatively common problem in
Ethiopia. The following paragraphs give an outline of the problems associated with these
soils, in order for the personnel in charge of the investigations to be aware of their nature.

5.4.2 IDENTIFICATION

The investigations to identify and to classify expansive soils according to their

expansiveness are presented below:

• Routine Investigations are those carried out during surveys of project

• Extended Investigations include simple additional indicator testing in the laboratory
when expansive soils are suspected
• In-Depth Studies include specialized laboratory testing and is used when extended
investigations show occurrence of expansive soils, and the required countermeasures
have high economic consequences.

Routine investigations are those analyses carried out during normal centerline soils
surveys and site observations, including simple geological and geomorphological
assessments, field reconnaissance, routine indicator tests of Atterburg limits and grading.

Table 5-3 shows information usually collected during a field reconnaissance, with typical
features of expansive soils given in the second column:

Table 5-3: Features of Expansive Soils- Soil Descriptions

Soil Description Typical Features of Expansive Soils

Soil Type More clayey soils are likely to be expansive
Consistency when slightly moist to dry Stiff to very stiff
Consistency when wet Soft to firm and sticky
Structure Typical cracked surface, slick-sided fissures
Color Only a reliable indicator when combined
with local knowledge

Extended investigations are advisable if:

• The results of the field reconnaissance indicate expansive soils, and
• PIw >20%
Where PIw = Plasticity Index tested on fraction <425µm, weighted for the sample’s
actual content of particles <425µm as follows:
PIw = PI x (% passing 425µm)/100

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Extended investigations include simple additional laboratory tests to estimate

expansiveness and shall be routinely employed where special measures against damage
from expansive soils are proposed in the design. Extended investigations include:

• Shrinkage Limit (ASTM D4943-89)

• Calculation of Expansiveness from Formula
• Classification of low/medium/high expansiveness (see Table 5-4)

Expansiveness is calculated from the following formula:

Єex = 2.4 wp – 3.9 ws +32.5

Where
wp = PI x (% passing 425mm)/100
ws = Shrinkage Limit x (% passing 425µm)/100

In-depth studies are carried out where extended investigations have revealed the
occurrence of expansive soils and the required countermeasures are costly. Treatment of
expansive soils has far-reaching economic consequences on major road projects
traversing long sections of expansive soils. Such projects may warrant in-depth studies of
the expansiveness of the soil, including determination of clay minerology. In-depth
studies to quantify swell potential include:
• Oedometer compression test with unloading and consolidation stages
• Determination of swell index from unloading stages
• Calculation of expansiveness from formula relating to swell index below
• Instrumental anaylsis to identify characteristic clay minerology, e.g. X-ray
diffraction, differential thermal analysis, and electron microscopy

For in-depth studies, the formula for expansiveness is:

Єex = 644 Cs – 18.4

Where
Cs = Swell Index determined in accordance with TRL Report No.
PR/OSC/012/93

5.4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

The system for relative classification of expansive soils is given in terms of Єex in Table
5-4:

Table 5-4: Expansive Soils- Classification

Expansiveness Єex Classification

<20 Low
20-50 Medium
>50 High

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5.4.4 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEMS

• Volume changes: expansive soils shrink and crack when they dry out and swell when
they get wet. The cracks allow water to penetrate deep into the soil, hence causing
considerable expansion. This results in deformation of the road surface, since the
expansion and the subsequent heave are never uniform. Furthermore, these volume
changes may produce lateral displacements (“creep”) of the expansive clay, if the
side slopes are not gentle enough. Seasonal wetting causes the road edges to wet and
dry at a different rate than those under the surfacing. This mechanism in turn causes
differential movements over the cross section of the road and associated crack
developments, first occurring in the shoulder area, and subsequently developing in
the carriageway, as indicated in Figure 5-2.

• Bearing capacity: when the moisture content increases, expansion occurs and the
bearing strength of the expansive soil decreases dramatically. The CBR may be
reduced to less than 2 if the soil becomes completely saturated.

• Susceptibility to erosion: when they are or become dry, expansive soils may present a
sand like texture. In this state, they are prone to erosion to a much greater extent than
that normally anticipated from their plasticity and clay content.

Figure 5-2: Moisture Content in Expansive Soils

5.4.5 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS

Some design and construction considerations specific to expansive soils are mentioned in
the following paragraphs, to the extent that they may influence the scope of the
investigations undertaken in the field and the laboratory.

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The measures chosen to minimize or eliminate the effect of expansive soils shall be
economically realistic and proportionate to the risks of potential pavement damage and
increased maintenance costs.

The design engineer may consider the following four main approaches to mitigate or
overcome the problem of expansive clays:
• Avoid expansive clays areas by realignment
• Excavate the expansive clays and replace them with suitable material (backfilling)
• Treat the expansive clays (with lime)
• Minimize moisture changes and potential swelling in the expansive clays.

In addition, some considerations are mentioned further below relative to pavement

selection, embankment side slopes and drainage structures.

5.4.6 MITIGATION MEASURES

(a) Realignment: this solution is possible only if the areas covered with expansive clays
are of limited extent. It is still possible to consider at this stage of design.
(b) Excavation and replacement: this simple procedure effectively eliminates the
problems and is therefore recommended as much as possible. However, backfill materials
are to be obtained from borrow pits, thereby increasing the need for such investigations.
The investigations should focus on minimizing haulage of the materials, and this method
will be economically viable only if suitable backfill material is available in the vicinity of
the road.
It is usually considered sufficient to excavate the expansive soil to a depth of about 1 m
(even if some expansive soil remains under the backfill material, it will be confined and
protected from moisture changes). This may consequently be used for preliminary
estimates of the required quantity of backfill material. Such backfill material should
exhibit strength (CBR) characteristics similar to those of the overlying embankment
materials (preferably at least CBR on the order of 5, i.e. subgrade strength class S3) and
should not be too pervious in order not to act as a drain.
(c) Treatment with lime: Treatment of expansive soils with hydrated lime can give good
results. The addition of 4 to 6% of lime is usually required and provides the following
improvements:
- Reduction of the plasticity index to less than 20
- Considerable increase of the shrinkage limit
- Reduction of the swell to negligible values
- Increase of the CBR to a minimum of 10 (after 7 days cure) and 15 (after 28 days
cure), with corresponding improvement of the subgrade strength class.
- Modification of the particle size distribution (by agglomeration of the clay particles),
the final grading being similar to that of a silt.

This treatment is, however, costly, in particular because it is necessary to treat a

substantial thickness of soil (minimum 30 cm compacted thickness). Lime treatment
would therefore be considered advantageous only where investigations failed to locate
suitable backfill or improved subgrade material, and when pavement savings can be
made by taking advantage of the enhanced strength of the treated clay.
(d) Minimizing Moisture Changes and Consequent Movements

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If the above methods cannot be utilized, because of excessive costs or the absence of
suitable fill or replacement material, expansive clays may be used for fill and subgrade.
Special practices are then necessary to avoid detrimental moisture and volume changes in
the swelling soils, as follows:

• Confining expansive clays under improved subgrade and protective blankets

Placing selected materials over weak subgrades can reduce subbase thicknesses and
hence pavement costs. In the case of expansive soils, this practice also protects them
from moisture changes. It is then recommended that the selected material be at least 30
cm thick and relatively impervious.
Expansive soils may also be used to form shallow embankments (up to about 3 m),
provided that a protective blanket (at least 30 cm thick) is placed on the slopes. The
blanketing material should be at least conducive to a subgrade strength class of S3 quality
and be impermeable and resistant to erosion.

• Surcharging expansive clays

Placing a substantial thickness of non-swelling material over expansive clay reduces
heave. The minimum thickness required depends on the expansion pressure of the
swelling soil, but will usually be 1-3 m to produce a useful reduction of swell. It is
therefore possible to use expansive soil to form the lower part of an embankment. It is
recommended that the total thickness of pavement plus improved subgrade be at least 60
cm, irrespective of the other protective measures taken.

• Limiting the compaction of expansive clays

Expansion pressure and potential volume change increase significantly with the dry
density of swelling soils. High degrees of compaction may therefore be detrimental and
should be avoided. It is recommended that the dry density of expansive soils in no case
exceeds 95% MDD (AASHTO T 180).

• Placing expansive clays at equilibrium moisture content

This should prevent moisture changes. If possible, the equilibrium moisture content
should be measured under existing roads in the region concerned. Otherwise, it can be
assumed that the equilibrium moisture content is near the plastic limit. This applies in
areas where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm and the water table is non-existent
or deep (more than 5-6m). In arid areas or in the case of a water table close to ground
level, a special study will be required to determine the equilibrium moisture content.

• Preventing moisture changes under the pavement

It is pointed out that expansive clays are the product of weathering of basic igneous
rocks, by leaching out of salts, to leave a clay with an open chain structure and a sugary
granular appearance. This is not confined to “black cotton” soils alone: these are the
products of weathering in poor drainage conditions. However, the red silty clays present
in great quantities in the southern part of Ethiopia are also the products of weathering of
basic igneous rocks, but under good drainage conditions. They are also expansive clay
soils, but to a less startling degree. Because of these less obviously detrimental
characteristics and their good handling and compaction properties, these are often used as

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embankment materials. Unfortunately, possibly due to the methods by which we measure

moisture content, which shows the extra water ion present in the meta-halloysite mineral
that makes up these red clays, as free water, which it is not; the specified OMC for these
materials is not the equilibrium moisture content. Subsequently large vertical cracks
develop in these embankments as seasonal drying and wetting of embankments takes
place abetted by root growth. These lead to depressions in the wheel paths, in granular
based pavements (often erroneously ascribed to base failure) and longitudinal cracks in
bound base pavements.

These unwanted effects can be avoided by placing a slippage layer, consisting of a thick
polythene sheet, and a thin layer of sand, at the interface between subgrade and
pavement. They inhibit the upward travel of the cracks. Alternatively, not using or
modifying these materials can reduce the problems.

It is essential that the swelling soils under the pavement are protected from moisture
changes, whether caused by external water or by internal variations. To this end, the
following practices should be adopted:

1. The pavement shall be as impermeable as possible. In particular, the use of an

impervious bituminous surfacing is required (multiple surface treatment or asphalt
concrete).

2. The shoulders must be sealed. They should be extended to a width at least equal to the
depth of the zone affected by seasonal moisture changes. Their width should in no case
be less than 2 m.

3. The side ditches should be dispensed with, or if this is impractical, they should be
located as far away as feasible from the pavement. They should have sufficient section
and grade to ensure that no water ponding can occur.

5.4.7 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

• Pavement selection

Since small differential movements of the subgrade are almost inevitable, even if
mitigation measures are implemented, flexible pavements are required. Double surface
treatment is generally adequate if the pavement layers are impervious. Asphalt concrete
is preferred over pervious roadbase and subbase layers.

• Embankments slopes

If the side slopes of the embankments are protected by non-swelling materials, usual
slopes (e.g. 1(V):2(H)) may be used. However, if left unprotected, expansive soils are
prone to erosion and also to creep due to lateral expansion movements. Safe slopes in
expansive soils are therefore very gentle. If expansive soils are to be left exposed, as may
be the case in shallow cuts or side ditches, it is recommended that the slope does not
exceed 1 (Vertical) : 4 (Horizontal).

• Drainage structures

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Culverts must not be cast and drainage pipes not be laid directly against expansive clays.
Surrounds or haunches, made from non-swelling material, must be placed. The use of
impermeable and, if possible, gravelly material is essential.

Current Consequences

The site investigation capacity available at present in Ethiopia is limited, and the
recommendations to drill and sample deep cuts, rock quarries, and two holes at each
bridge abutment and pier, have a number of consequences:

• If this is included as part of a Design Contract, it will be expensive and time

consuming, and much of it cannot be started until the Final design is well under way.

• The Design Contract times will be extended by many months.

• Design Consultants will be put at greater risk due to having to let sub-contracts to
variable performers.

In the present system, the Design Consultant obtains surface samples from rock quarries
and investigates bridge sites by a combination of trail pits, probe holes and geosysmic
and resistivity survey, and then provides a full site investigation rig for the Supervision
Engineer’s use in the Construction Contract. It is suggested that this system is more
economic and better suited to Ethiopia at present, where constraints of access inhibit site
investigation contractors working in isolation.

If it is considered mandatory to obtain this information during the Design Contract, it is

suggested that a separate contract for the SI should be let, during the Final Design Stage,
supervised by the Design Consultant, but directly paid for by ERA.

One drill hole per abutment and pier, three to four holes per rock quarry, and one to two
holes per major deep cut should be sufficient and this program will take approximately
three months to carry out per 100km of average road.

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