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Form in architecture and principles of design

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DOI: 10.18503/2309-7434-2018-1(11)-57-63

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 АРХИТЕКТУРА СТРОИТЕЛЬСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

УДК 72.012 DOI: 10.18503/2309-7434-2018-1(11)-57-63

FORM IN ARCHITECTURE AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
DANICA STANKOVIC, Ph.D., Associate Professor, University of Nis, Faculty of
Civil Engineering and Architecture in Nis, Serbia
ALEKSANDRA KOSTIC, MSc. Arch., Ph.D. student, University of Nis, Faculty of
Civil Engineering and Architecture in Nis, Serbia
VOJISLAV NIKOLIC, MSc. Arch., Ph.D. student, University of Nis, Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Architecture in Nis, Serbia
ALEKSANDRA CVETANOVIC, MSc. Arch., Ph.D. student, University of Nis,
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Nis, Serbia
Abstract: The concepts regarding space and form are moved from one to the other in the course
of history. Also, this change that space and form have undergone together should be considered based on
the change and development in theory, discourse, technology, material, time etc. Depending on this de-
velopment and change process, architectural form is also evident to change its expressions. The main goal
of this research is to define the types of forms and their characteristics as well as the types of the possible
spatial organizations in architectural design. The investigation includes analysis of the contemporary ar-
chitecture. In this article are analyzed the examples from the practice with the aim of emphasising the
significance of the conceptual design strategies used in architectural design.
Key words: form, architecture, principles, design, buildings.

1. Introduction
Form in architecture is not only related to space and the activity occurred within this
space. Yilmaz (1999) claims that form is also instrument for meaning or a sign. A part from that
architectural form is also related to the elements themselves; arrangements, and combination
with each other (syntax); the meaning (semiotix), and the affects on people (pragmatics) [11].
Form can not reduce to the single of selection of elements and their organization. Neither can
form be considered only as a tool of meaning.
The primary elements as point, line, plane, basic shapes and solids have given a base to
variety of geometries as conceptual through the history. Also we could see all use of those ele-
ments in architecture nowadays. Those are the basic elements which are directly influence form-
ing of space and architectural form as in either conceptual sense. Put differently, those elements
have added aesthetic, symbolic and conceptual wealth to architectural design. For that cause, ar-
chitects are broadly used those elements in particular in architectural space organization.
This paper consists of three main parts. In the first step, the author analyzes different
groups of elements of a form in architectural design and their characteristics. Thereafter the
study is attempted to define the types of form and space organisation as well as the conceptual
principles in architectural design. And finally, the last part of this article shows examples from
practice with the aim of emphasising the significance of the choice of architectural form, its de-
velopment and articulation, depending on the basic types and the principles of organization.

2. Form and spatial organization in architectural design

Wong (1993) believes that design is a process of purposeful visual creation. Therefore it's
a visual language is the basis of design creation. Elements of design may appear rather abstract,
but together they determine the appearance and content a design. Four groups of elements are
differentiated: conceptual, visual, relational and practical. In dictionary of architectural design
each element is firstly considered as a conceptual element, then as a visual element [10].

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Conceptual elements of architectural design are point, line, plane and volume [1]. Con-
ceptual elements are not visible, they are not realistically present and if they really exist there
they are no longer conceptual. Thus when conceptual elements become visible they have shape,
size, color, light and texture. Yilmaz (1999) considers that they are all combine to inject a quality
or spirit that articulates space. Architectural forms as a three - dimensional forms are seen differ-
ently from different angles and distances. Under different condition as is lightning, color or tex-
ture visual elements can make the form in different situation to look differently [11].
The group of relational elements governs the placement and interrelationship of the
shapes in a design. Some are to be perceived, such as direction and position; some are to be felt
such as space and gravity. The practical elements underlie the content and extension of a design.
They are representation (realistic, stylized, or near-abstract), meaning and function [10].

2.1. Types and characteristics

Forms can be regular or irregular. Regular forms are generally stable in nature and sym-
metrical about one or more axes. According to Ching (1996) forms can retain their regularity
even when transformed dimensionally or by the subtraction or addition of elements. A form can
be transformed by changing one or more of its dimensions and still retain its identity. A form can
be modified by subtracting a part of its volume. Depending of the scope of the subtractive pro-
cess, the form can retain its starting identity or be transformed into another form. A form can be
modified by the addition of elements to its volume. The character of the additive process and the
number and dimensions of the elements being attached define whether the identity of the initial
form is altered or retained. So, while a subtractive form (Fig. 1) derives from the elimination of a
part of its authentic volume, an additive form (Fig. 2) is created by connecting or physically at-
taching one or more supporting forms to its mass.
Irregular forms are usually asymmetrical and more dynamic then regular forms. As the
focus is both solid masses and spatial voids in architecture, regular forms can be part within ir-
regular forms. In the same way irregular forms can be included in regular forms [1].
Type of the spatial organization is defined by the formal characteristics. A spatial organi-
zation can be centralised, linear, radial, clustered or within grid organization.

2.2. Conceptual principles and strategies

Design principles play an important role for a better improvement of the concept of
whole. Also the function of design is to arrange elements one by one or one to one as well as
considering their relationship with whole. Design strategies are applicable in all architectural
works whether is two - dimensional or three - dimensional form.
As the fundamental science of forms and their order geometry contributes to the process
of composition and designing in architecture. Leopold (2006) observes that a composition in ar-
chitecture starts with elements and their relations. Through history of geometry and architecture
there were developed some rules based on geometry which formed the basis for architectural
composition [6].

Fig. 1. Base and façade of the Orange Cube / Jakob + Macfarlane Architects in Lyon, France, 2011 (Source:
https://www.archdaily.com/111341/the-orange-cube-jakob-macfarlane-architects), Fig. 2. Base and view on the PANEUM Cen-
ter / Coop Himmelb(l)au in Asten, Austria, 2017 (Sorce: https://www.archdaily.com/881743/paneum-center-coop-himmelb-l-au)

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 АРХИТЕКТУРА СТРОИТЕЛЬСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

Acсording to Yilmaz (1999) conceptual design strategies used in architectural design are:
unity, balance, contrast, rhythm and proportion. For Ching (1993) principles that are seen as
visual devices that allow the varied and diverse form and spaces of a building are: axis, sym-
metry, hierarchy, datum, rhythm, repetitiom and, transformation.
Unity is the quality possessed by a building or group of buildings in which the elements
are seen to be bounded together for some reason. A grouping appears to have unity when the
visual centers of gravity of the individual elements are clustered close to the center of gravity of
the whole. Unity can be archived through similarities in texture, color and detailing of elements.
In whole and integrated architectural design unity is a highly desirable goal [11].
Axis is the most elementary principle of organizing form and spaces in architecture. Alt-
hough it is imaginary, it has powerful, dominating, regulating devices. The disposition of ele-
ments about an axis determines its organization whether is interesting, stable, attractive or mo-
notonous.
Balance is equilibrium in a composition. Because of that, the forms are generally ar-
ranged about an axis. Balance and proportion usually go together. Equilibrium can be considered
as a part of the unity between balance and proportion. There are two basic notions about balance.
The first one is symmetrical balance where two halves of an object divided visually by a perpen-
dicular plane is perfect of near-perfect mirror images of each other. The second is dynamic bal-
ance, describe an approximately equal summing up of the elements on either side of a readily of
a perceived visual rotation in a building's composition.
Any form gets its meaning by an opposite one. The interdependence of the elements is
achieved by tension resulting from their opposing characteristics. Either existing or absence of
contrast highly effects composition of architectural forms. It serves to give an unambiguous
identity to two fundamental systems and it enables the designer to establish a hierarchy of mean-
ing in the composition. As a result, contrast has importance that due to the elements highly be
wanted to emphasize which becomes more dominant and more attractive. Consequently, contrast
in composition involves the juxtaposition of elements that are strongly different from one anoth-
er [11]. Contrast can be built into any of the physical attributes of elements or surrounding spac-
es: shape, color, texture, size, etc.
Another fundamental notion in the history of architecture is the concept of symmetry
closely connected with the idea of harmony. Symmetrical condition cannot exist without imply-
ing the existence of an axis or center about which it is structured. There are two types of sym-
metry: bilateral and radial symmetry [1]. Symmetry now is understood as the invariance under a
certain kind of transformation.
Ching (2007) states that there are three ways to classify hierarchy in architectural compo-
sition: hierarchy by size, hierarchy by shape and hierarchy by placement.
Datum refers to a line, plane, or volume to which other element in a composition can re-
late. It organizes a random pattern of elements through its regularity, continuity, and constant
presence.
Rhythm is a time-based expression of balances movement in a processional sense.
Rhythm is often established by the use of regular repetition. The simplest example would be a
regular series of shapes with the same interval between them. A colonnade, with the repeated
beats of solids and voids, represents such a pattern that it creates a rhythm. It becomes percepti-
ble as the viewer physically moves by through, or another building or space. Rhythm can be
formed by increasing the height or width of the units. Instead of the same form, rhythm can be
used alternatively for repeating two or more contrast forms, colors or intervals.
Proportion is the ratio of one part of a building to another. Proportion generally refers to
a relation between various parts of a building due to analogous ratios. Proportion theories at-
tempt to describe nature in terms of mathematical y ordered magnitudes. These are used to con-
struct systems of rules governing relationships between constituents in a configuration, and be-
tween constituents and a whole. Throughout history, architects have sought to create pleasing

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compositions by inventing proportional systems. The most perfect proportion was Golden Sec-
tion.
The principle of repetitium utilizes both of two concepts of visual perception to order re-
curring elements in a composition. We tend to group elements in a random composition accord-
ing to their closeness or proximity to one another, and the visual characteristics they share in
common.
Design is generative process of exploring an idea and probing its potential. It is important
designer to understand the fundamental nature and structure of the concept. Transformation is
the principle that allows a designer to select a prototypical architectural model and transform it
through a series of discrete manipulations.

3. Characteristic forms in the contemporary architectural practice

By remembering the historical relations between geometry and architectural design we
help to keep the background of our culture but also to understand the combination between geo-
metrical thinking and architectural designing.
Kuloglu and Samlioglu (2012) notice that the concepts regarding space and form moved
from one to the other in the course of history. Also, they claim that this change which space and
form have subjected together should be discussed based on the change and development in theo-
ry, discourse, technology, material, time etc. In accordance with this development and change
process, architectural form is also obvious to change its appearance [4].
According to Last (2014) the first decades of the twentieth century saw the increasing
theorization of the masses in terms of their spatial, aesthetic, and socio-political implications.
Over the past decade, as the world has increasingly become digitized, architecture‟s spatial im-
agery has increasingly aspired to a state of pure fluidity, acting as if in an opportunist fashion to
take over a world of thought vacated. Along with spatial formations, fluid architectures are pro-
ducers of spatial imagery that differ from their modern predecessors [5]. Against modernity‟s
advancement of the spatial image of production as repetition, is the increasingly common ap-
pearance of fluid formations in the work of numerous architecture practices.
In the following part of this article are analyzed the examples from practice with the aim
of emphasising the significance of the conceptual design strategies used in architectural design.

3.1. DH Triangle School / NAMELESS Architecture

The authors claim that the Triangle School represents relationships between people, place
and education. That relationship between the three elements discovers the multiplicity of the ar-
chitecture. Located in Namyangju, adjacent to Seoul, this high school building investigates new
potentials of the educational architecture through the dialectical articulation of such complexity
of the problem and simplicity of the form [7].
The composition of the form has a central organization. The building is perfect equilat-
eral triangle (Fig. 3). The structure of the building creates units and developed composition as a
combination of pillars and panes. In this central organization there are many types of units that
are unique to each other. They are part of one whole central segment. Within the triangular vol-
ume there is a patio which provides multiple relationships, creating different viewing angles and
changing lighting.
According to principle of hierarchy in this situation is made hierarchy by shape and func-
tion. That means that all units have unique shapes which have characteristic function. Also the
principle of hierarchy is about relation public to private. Balance and symmetry both create a
stable relationship between components. Balance is perceptually based and focuses on the com-
position of elements. The principle of rhythm is modulated in facade. Unique units are repeating
on the rectangle facade of the building.
The building exists as a free-standing volume in the build surrounding.

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 АРХИТЕКТУРА СТРОИТЕЛЬСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

Fig. 3. Base, view of the building and façade of the DH Triangle School / NAMELESS Architecture in South Korea, 2015
(Source: https://www.archdaily.com/638299/dh-triangle-school-nameless-architecture)

Fig. 4. Base, façade and a detail of facade of Olmo Tower / LEAP Laboratorio en Arquitectura Progresiva (Source:
https://www.archdaily.com/778036/olmo-tower-leap-laboratorio-en-arquitectura-progresiva)

3.2. Olmo Tower / LEAP Laboratorio en Arquitectura Progresiva

Project is comprised of an 8 floors office building in the shape of a cube plus a business
center, an horizontal parking lot complements the composition, and under the cube shaped office
building a commercial space faces the street. Basic geometric configuration that is used to de-
termine a building's form is square (Fig. 4). That square has grid configuration. In the intersec-
tion of both horizontal and vertical axis is set a column. From that is established the structure of
the architectural composition of the building as a columns - structure. In this case there is 1:1
relationship between plan and section. The configuration of the whole elevation is equal to the
plan.
According to principle of hierarchy in this example is made hierarchy by function. In the
composition of the building there are zones that have its unique function.
The process of repetitive to the whole is emerged when the form of the unique element is
established by the organization of repetitive elements.
The design of the facade coating gives the office building a specific character. From a
distance and during the day it is perceived as a solid metallic cube. The texture is achieved with
only two different 3D panels and all the possible organization allowed by the geometry of the
panels. By night the skin of the building becomes transparent due to the tiny perforations of the
metal sheet, modifying the building into an urban night lamp [8].

3.3. Rolex Learning Center / SANAA

The Learning Center is located on the campus of science and technology university EPFL
in Switzerland, within site of the Alps. The building features the impressive concrete surfaces
creating a fluid space for students to enjoy. „The concept of the building was to make one very
big room, where people and programmes can meet together to have better communication”, ex-
plains Nishizawa. „There are no walls to divide, so any programme can meet anywhere. It is
more like a park” [9].
The building appears from above as a large rectangle punctuated by variously sized non-
geometrically perfect oval voids. That curves and slopes which define the interior space give the
building a totally organic look. The fourteen voids, which act as entry points, provide light, and
create a set of outdoor spaces, serve to define the center‟s spatial organization.

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 АРХИТЕКТУРА СТРОИТЕЛЬСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

Fig. 5. Base, view of the building and detail of Rolex Learning Center / SANAA in Lausanne, Switzerland, 2011 (Source:
https://www.archdaily.com/50235/rolex-learning-center-sanaa)

Spatial components in composition are in asymmetrical balance (Fig. 5). The principle of
subtraction is presented in the composition. Mani irregular holes inside of the building are sub-
tracted from the mass. According to principle of hierarchy in this case is made hierarchy by func-
tion. In the composition of the building there are zones that have its specific function. In this
composition the hierarchy of size is presented too.

4. Conclusion
According to Erzen (2007), form and space have been existed as the two indivisible con-
cepts from the beginning of architectural creations. From that time aesthetic and beauty interest
existed, there have been aesthetic expression of views on form and this process continues [2]. In
view of the form-geometry-architecture connection, in ancient times, square, circle and triangle
were the most significant shapes. Forms obtained from these shapes were often used, as they
were considered to be the most beautiful. Therefore basic geometrical forms were preferred in
the architecture of the ancient times.
It would be insufficient to mention only the discussions about the physical dimension
while dealing with the space and form concepts. It is because both form and space involve se-
mantic expressions, as well. Since ancient times, considering the use of basic forms in architec-
ture, it can be said that the pure geometry of form has been deformed day by day, additions and
deductions have increased, and the void effect created in interior and exterior space is handled
not only with functional, but also formal concerns [4].The basic forms prevailing the architecture
during the history are modified according to the changes in the design perspective and are devel-
oped under the influence of these changing design perspectives. When we research the history of
architecture, we are aware that the architectural space and consequently form went through phys-
ical and semantic transformation.
The concepts in terms of the space and form are transformed during history. The modifi-
cations that space and form have suffered together should be discussed relying on the progress
and development in theory, discourse, technology, material, time etc. According to this devel-
opment and improvement process, architectural form transforms its expressions as well.
Hendrix (2012) concludes that there is the neglect of theory in architecture nowadays.
Emphasis has been placed instead on the development of the technological means of architectur-
al production, in particular computer programs, at the expense of the development of a theoreti-
cal or conceptual basis for architectural form-making [3].

Acknowledgement
The paper was done in the scope of the scientific project No TR36045 funded by Repub-
lic of Serbia, Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development.

References
1. Ching, F.D.K. (2007). Architecture: Form, Space and Order. Hoboken New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons.

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2. Erzen, J. (2007). Paradigms for a New Aesthetics in a Globalizing World‟, Changing

Historical Processes-Changing Concepts, 1, pp. 139-147.
3. Hendrix, J. (2012). Theorizing a contradiction between form and function in archi-
tecture. SAJAH, 27 (1), pp. 9-28.
4. Kuloğlu, N. & Şamlıoğlu, T. (2012). Perceptual and Visual Void on the Architectural
Form: Transparency and Permeability. Architectoni.ca, 2012 (2), pp. 131-137.
5. Last, N. (2014) Architecture and the Image of Fluidity, Globalizing Architecture /
Flows and Disruptions, pp. 34-41.
6. Leopold, K. (2006). Geometry concepts in architectural design. Proceeding of 12th
International Conference on Geometry and Graphics, Salvador, Brazil, August 6-10, 2006, Paper
#T35, pp. 1-9.
7. URL: https://www.archdaily.com/638299/dh-triangle-school-nameless-architecture.
8. URL: https://www.archdaily.com/778036/olmo-tower-leap-laboratorio-en-
arquitectura-progresiva.
9. URL: https://www.architectural-review.com/today/rolex-learning-centre-by-sanaa-
lausanne-switzerland/5217744.article.
10. Wong, W. (1993). Principles of Form and Design. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
11. Yilmaz, S. (1999). Evolution of the Architectural Form Based on the Geometrical
Concepts. PhD Thesis, Izmir: Institute of Technology.

ФОРМА В АРХИТЕКТУРЕ И ПРИНЦИПЫ ПРОЕКТИРОВАНИЯ

ДАНИЦА СТАНКОВИЧ, Доктор Ph.D., доцент, Университет в Нише,
факультет строительства и архитектуры, Сербия
АЛЕКСАНДРА КОСТИЧ, Магистр архитектуры, аспирант, Университет в
Нише, факультет строительства и архитектуры, Сербия
ВОИСЛАВ НИКОЛИЧ, Магистр архитектуры, аспирант, Университет в Ни-
ше, факультет строительства и архитектуры, Сербия
АЛЕКСАНДРА ЦВЕТАНОВИЧ, Магистр архитектуры, аспирант, Универси-
тет в Нише, факультет строительства и архитектуры, Сербия
Аннотация: Понятия о пространстве и форме перетекают из одного в другое в ходе исто-
рии. Кроме того, это изменение, которое пространство и форма претерпели вместе, следует рас-
сматривать на основе изменений и развития в теории, дискурсе, технологии, материале, времени и
т.д. В зависимости от этого процесс, архитектурная форма также явно изменила свои выражения.
Основной целью данного исследования является определение типов форм и их характеристик, а
также типов возможных пространственных организаций в архитектурном проектировании. Иссле-
дование включает анализ современной архитектуры. В данной статье анализируются примеры из
практики с целью подчеркнуть значимость концептуальных проектных стратегий, используемых в
архитектурном проектировании.
Ключевые слова: форма, архитектура, принципы, дизайн, здания.

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