RECTIFICATION AND AMPLIFICATION 116
circuits. We will consider an example later. As a general rule, however, positive
feedback is not used in circuits whose sole purpose is to amplify.
PRODUCTION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
In chapter 2 we saw that a resonant circuit, consisting of
an inductor and a capacitor connected in parallel, has a
natural (resonant) frequency which can be calculated
using the formula
If electrical energy (i.e. a pulse of current) is applied to
the circuit, it resonates. That is, current flows
backwards and forwards around the circuit and this
alternating current has a particular frequency, the
resonant frequency. As noted in chapter 2, by
appropriate choice of the capacitor and inductor a
resonant circuit can be made to generate any frequency
of sine wave. A resonant circuit alone is not sufficient,
however, to generate a sustained oscillation.
To produce a continuous, steady alternating current we
must arrange for the resonant circuit to be continuously
supplied with energy to overcome the losses in the
components and keep it oscillating. By use of an
amplifier and positive feedback we can provide this
energy.
The circuit alongside shows one way of generating
sustained oscillations using an operational amplifier
with positive feedback.
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RECTIFICATION AND AMPLIFICATION 117
L1 and C1 form the resonant circuit and L2 is an extra inductor in close proximity to L1.
The combination of L1 and L2 is, of course, a transformer. The oscillating current in
L 1 will induce a current in L2 . The current induced in L2 produces an AC potential
difference between the two input terminals of the op-amp. The output of the op-amp,
which is an AC signal which is in synchronization with the AC in the resonant circuit,
is fed back to the resonant circuit through R and this compensates for the natural
energy loss and so keeps the resonant circuit oscillating.
A problem with this circuit is that it is unstable. If the amount of feedback is too
small, the oscillations will die-out. If the amount of feedback is too large, the
oscillations will increase out of control. In practice it is impossible to have precisely
the right amount of feedback to generate a steady, sustained oscillation.
The problem is overcome by using a
voltage controlled amplifier whose gain
is controlled by negative feedback.
Figure 5.15 shows how this is
achieved.
The AC potential difference across the
resonant circuit is rectified and
smoothed to produce a DC voltage
which is directly proportional to the AC
signal. This DC voltage is used to
control the gain of the op-amp. If the
AC signal increases, the DC voltage
applied to the op-amp increases and
its gain is reduced. This reduces the
amount of feedback and the AC signal
is reduced. If the AC signal decreases,
the DC voltage applied to the op-amp
decreases and its gain is increased. Figure 5.15
This increases the amount of feedback A circuit for producing steady
and the AC signal is increased. In this continuous AC
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RECTIFICATION AND AMPLIFICATION 118
way the AC signal is prevented from either decreasing or increasing appreciably.
Piezoelectric Crystal Oscillators
As indicated in chapter 2, LC resonant positive feedback
circuits tend to drift slightly in frequency
due to factors such as ageing and
temperature change. When extreme R piezoelectric
frequency stability is needed, crystal
piezoelectric crystals are used. These
crystals have the property that when a voltage
potential difference is applied to their rectifier
opposite sides, the crystal resonates controlled with
amplifier output
mechanically. When included in the smoothing
circuit the crystal only permits current to
flow when the frequency of the current
is equal to the natural frequency of
oscillation of the crystal.
In practice crystal resonators consist of negative feedback
a quartz wafer between two electrodes.
The physical dimensions of the crystal
determine the resonant frequency and
if the crystal is maintained at a constant Figure 5.16
temperature a very high order of A circuit for producing stable
frequency stability can be obtained. high frequency AC using a
piezoelectric crystal
Figure 5.16 shows a suitable circuit for the production of stable, high frequency
AC using a piezoelectric crystal. The LC resonant circuit of figure 5.15 is
replaced by a piezoelectric crystal which is connected directly to the voltage
controlled amplifier.
A circuit using a piezoelectric crystal can also be made to produce rectangular
pulses over an extremely wide range of pulse durations and repetition rates.
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RECTIFICATION AND AMPLIFICATION 119
Extremely short pulse durations are required for computing and other applications.
For reaction testing in electrotherapy, the shortest duration in use would not normally
be less than 10 microseconds. For muscle therapy the pulse widths in use might lie
in the range 20 microseconds up to a few seconds.
EXERCISES
1 (a) Draw the circuit symbol for a semiconductor diode. Include arrows to
show the directions of high current flow (low resistance) and low current
flow (high resistance).
(b) What is meant by the terms 'forward bias' and 'reverse bias' of a diode?
State typical values for the resistance of a semiconductor diode when
forward biased and reverse biased.
2 The circuit below is used to convert AC from the mains to DC of lower voltage.
(a) Draw a graph of the potential difference across the 1 kΩ resistor versus
time.
(b) Why does this graph represent DC and not AC?
(c) How would the graph be changed if the diode was connected into the
circuit with its terminals reversed?
(d) Describe (with the aid of graphs) the effect of connecting different size
capacitors in parallel with the resistor.
back to chapter 8
