Where

Advantages and disadvantages of fixed bias circuit

Advantages:

1) This is a simple circuit which uses very few components

2) The operating point can be selected anywhere in the active region of the characteristics by simply
changing the value of Rb. Thus it provides maximum flexibility in the design.

Disadvantages:

1) Thermal stability is not provided in the circuit.

2) Since Ib is already fixed, Ic depends on β which changes unit to unit and shifts the Q-point. Thus the
stability is very poor.

Advantages and disadvantages of Emitter bias circuit

Advantages:

1) The circuit provides improved stability with the inclusion of emitter resistor RE. It has the tendency to
stabilize operating point against changes in temperature and β-value.

2) The emitter resistor RE provides negative feedback which minimizes the drift in the operating point.

Disadvantages:

1) Re causes AC feedback which reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier

2) Requires more components than base bias.

Advantages and disadvantages of voltage divider bias circuit

Advantages:

 Provides excellent stability

 Operating point is independent of β

 Operating point is stable against change in temperature.

Disadvantages:

1) Requires more components

2) Analysis and design is complex when compared to other biasing methods.

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 /
/ / Impact of Rs and
RL on low frequency response
The input section of the circuit can represented as shown below

For low frequencies, at the input section, f=f Ls, R=Rs+Ri, and C=Cs

Hence equation 4 can be written as,

Similarly, For low frequencies at the output section, f=f Ls, R=Rs+Ri, and C=Cs

Hence equation 4 can be written as,

Where

In the high frequency region , parasitic capacitances (Cbe, Cbc, Cce) and wiring capacitances
(CWi, CWo) decreases the gain as shown below.

Determining the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the input and output networks of the above

Fig we get
Where
Requirements of oscillations
Barkhausen criteria

Conditions which are required to be satisfied to operate the circuit as an oscillator is called as
“Barkhausen criterion” for sustained oscillations.

The Barkhausen criteria should be satisfied by an amplifier with positive feedback to ensure the
sustained oscillations.

The Barkhausen criterion states that:

• The loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude, that is, | β A | = 1 and

• The total phase shift around the loop is zero or 3600

Consider the ckt shown below

For an oscillation circuit, there is no input signal “Vs”, hence the feedback signal Vf itself should
be sufficient to maintain the oscillations.

The product β A is called as the “loop gain”.

From the circuit we have Vo=AVi ……(1)

And Vf=βVo ……(2)

Substituting (1) in (2) we get

Vf=AβVi …..(3)
When lAβl = 1, Vf acts as Vi and is in phase with Vi.
 RC Phase Shift Oscillator

The Barkhausen criteria states that in a positive feedback amplifier to obtain sustained
oscillations, the overall loop gain must be unity ( 1 ) and the overall phase shift must be 0 or
360.

When the power supply is switched on, due to random motion of electrons in passive
components like resistor, capacitor a noise voltage of different frequencies will be developed at
the collector terminal of transistor, out of these the designed frequency signal is fed back to the
amplifier by the feed back network and the process repeats to give suitable oscillation at output
terminal
Tuned Oscillators ( Hartley and Colpitt’s)

Hartley Oscillator
Colpitt’s Oscillator
Crystal Oscillator
 A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to
provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz
crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them were called "crystal oscillators".
Design :
Given, VCE = 5 V and IC = 2 mA Assume  = 100
VCC = 2VCE = 2 X 5 = 10 V
Let VRE = 10% VCC = 1 V
RE = VRE / ( IC + IB )
IB = IC /  = 2mA / 100 = 20 A
RE = 1 / ( 2m + 20 ) = 495, Choose RE = 470 
Apply KVL to collector loop
VCC – IC RC – VCE – VE = 0
RC = ( VCC – VCE – VE ) / IC = ( 10 – 5 – 1 ) / 2 m
RC = 2 K Choose RC = 1.8 K
Let IR1 = 10 IB = 10 X 20 A = 200 A
VR2 = VBE + VE = 0.6 + 1 = 1.6 V ( Since transistor is silicon make V BE = 0.6 V )
R2 = VR1 / ( IR1 – IB ) = 1.6 / ( 200 A - 20 A ) = 8.8 K Choose R2 = 8.2 K
R1 = ( VCC – VR2 ) / IR1 = ( 10 – 1.6 ) / 200 A = 42 K Choose R1 = 47 K
XCE < < RE, XCE = RE / 10
1 / ( 2  f CE ) = 470 / 10
Let f = 1MHz; CE = 33 F Choose CE = 47 F
Choose CC1 = CC2 = 0.1 F; C1=C2=0.001F
MOSFETs
Operation:
• Assume an n-channel MOSFET, with Source and substrate grounded.
Note: The reverse is true for the p-channel enhancement MOS transistor. When VGS = 0 the
device is “OFF” and the channel is open. The application of a negative (-ve) gate voltage to the
p-type eMOSFET enhances the channels conductivity turning it “ON”. Then for an p-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “OFF”, while -VGS turns the transistor
“ON”.
Note:
 Derivation of ID-VDS relationship:

Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause the channel resistance to decrease further causing
an increase in the drain current, ID through the channel. In other words, for an n-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “ON”, while a zero or -VGS turns the
transistor “OFF”. Thus the enhancement-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-open”
switch.
 Symbols

Biasing in MOS amplifier circuits:

Biasing by fixing VGS:
The most straightforward approach to biasing a MOSFET is to fix its gate-to-source voltage

VGS to the value required to provide the desired ID. This voltage value can be derived from

the power-supply voltage VDD through the use of an appropriate voltage divider.

Biasing by fixing VG and connecting a resistance in the

Source
An excellent biasing technique for discrete MOSFET circuits consists of fixing the dc voltage

at the gate, VG, and connecting a resistance in the source lead, as shown in the Figures below.
Applying KVL for the input loop we get
Applying KVL for the input loop we get

Applying KVL for the input loop we get

Biasing using a Drain-to-Gate Feedback Resistor
Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source
 Types of Feedback
The feedback may be classified into two types:
From the figure Open loop gain is
 Voltage-Series Feedback
In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with the
input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as shunt-driven series-
fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-series circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output but in series with the input.
As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the output impedance is decreased
and due to the series connection with the input, the input impedance is increased.

Voltage-Shunt Feedback
In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel with
the input voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-
fed feedback i.e., a parallel-parallel proto type.

The below figure shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback, by which it is evident that
the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output and also with the input.
As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well, both the
output impedance and the input impedance are decreased.

Current-Series Feedback
In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with the
input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven series-
fed feedback i.e., a series-series circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and also with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the input as well, both the
output impedance and the input impedance are increased.

Current-Shunt Feedback
In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with the
input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven shunt-
fed feedback i.e., a series-parallel circuit.

The below figure shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback, by which it is evident that
the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output but in parallel with the input.
As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the output impedance is increased
and due to the parallel connection with the input, the input impedance is decreased.

Let us now tabulate the amplifier characteristics that get affected by different types of negative
feedbacks.

Types of Feedback
Characteristics
Voltage-Series Voltage-Shunt Current-Series Current-Shunt

Voltage Gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases

Input resistance Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

Output resistance Decreases Decreases Increases Increases

Harmonic distortion Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Noise Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases