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    History of The Philippines - From The Spanish Colonization To The Second World War PDF

    Uploaded by

    Mariver Llorente

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    A HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War by Renato Constantino With the collaboration of Letizia R. Constantino ay Monthly Review Press New York.and London For Marita, Renato Redentr, Crls, Kara Patra, Nine Eso fond Carmina opgrigt © 1075 by Reco Constantin ‘int seed Libary of Cones Cataloging in Pblistion te 2. Palpln ander 1698 1946. 1. Con DssERCST 1976” 988.9 ISaWesstioaL2 ‘e279 Manutactre inthe Unite Sato Aeron Table of Contents Preface PART I~ LIBERATION TRANSFORMED (CHAPTER 1 — Towards People’s History (An Introduction) Colonial Scholaehip. The Task at Hand, Motiv {or of History. The Inariculate in History. Redrese- ing, the Imbalance, Litiations and a. Bepinning Rediscovering the Past The Unifying Thread. The Motive Force. (CHAPTER I~ ‘The First “Liberction” Society in Transition. Unity in Feudal Shel, The ‘Moorish Conquest. The Catholic Monarchs. The New ‘Tastes of Butope. Primitive Accumulation. Mercan- tila. Conquest as Business. The Religious Just fication. Kinge and Popes. The Patvonato Rea, The Religoue Garb, Friar ve. Encomenderos. The Great Debate. Resolution of the Confit. ‘The Elections. Conaurst Legitimized. (CHAPTER I ~ Barangani Societies Proto-Anthropolopes, Aborting Historical Trend PreSpanith Seldemmente,Subsatence Economies, Transitional Societies, Administrators not Rulers The Dependent Population. Slavery — A Misnomer Insights from Other Experiences. Concepts of Prope: ty. Disintegration of Communalism. The Resultant Social System. Summary. 10 2 (CHAPTER IV — Pacifcation and Exploitation Crown and Conquistador. Origins ofthe Bncomiends ‘Taming the Encomiendas. Philippine Encomienda not Land Grant. Abuses of the Encomenderos, Adminis trative Agencies. Encomienda and Hacienda: Insine ments of Pacifcation. ‘The Tribute, Forced. Labor ‘The Bandala, Divide and Rule. The Intermediaries, CHAPTER V ~ "The Colonial Landscape i Colonial Outpost. Economic Neglect. Moves for ‘Abandonment. ‘The Compromise. Plural Reonomies, ‘The Chinese Role. Redueciones. Population Centers, ‘Acceleration of Stratification, Colona Intermediaries ‘Third Prop of Power. Appropriation of Communal Holdings. Resultant Stratifistions. (CHAPTER VI— Monastic Supremacy Spiritual and Temporal Sovereigns, Clericl Ascend ney. Mision Rivalries, Property Acquisitions. Node | of Acquisition. rom Partoers to Landlords. Oat Fight Land-grabbing Pattern of Land Tenancy. Seeds of Discontent. Friar Abuses. Silelines and other ‘Abuses. Peonomie Power. Commercial Acthitie, Political Power. Union of Church and State "Ware house of Faith”. Friar Supremacy. Official Com plaints. Gubernatorial Casualties. Competing Exploit ‘18 and Opprestors. Confliet Over Land ‘ites From Individual to Common Grievance, Transformation in CConttiousess. From Accettory to Principal Appare PART Il - THE CRUCIBLE OF PRACTICE CHAPTER Vit Patteme of Strugsle ‘The Landscape Reviewed. Early Resentments. Karly Resistance. Winning the Chiefs. Economie Roots of Natvim. Tamblot. Bankaw and Tapar. Labor Cons sription. Sumuroy. Tricky Dabeo. Opportunities for the Chiets. New Stage in Native Revistance. The toiago “Revolt”, Lam's Maneuvers. Change of Manin Nonrevoll: Middlemen of Power. Pans Het Touuboration, Malong New Ambitions EE kipton. Cumapee. Religion and Rebelion Notun for Miles Te, Longest Revol, Mountain Somimnlis. Nogotstons, Conducted. Beyond De GRepAntenea Peeing The Bash Intelde Sling “tendo Prototype. Common Basis of Rett, Detender of King and Couch Mewsnie ‘Jeitencee Changing Nasters Bite Serity. Bath appet A Step in Pla Awakening CHAPTER VIIL— End of lation Satelization of Spain. Anglo-Chinese Colony. Sol vent. of Barangsnic Society. English Penetration Infltrsting the Mercantiiet Curtain. Economie Re thinking Emergence from Irolation. Economie Trans: Jormation. Manila Hemp. Beginnings of the Sugar Bice. End of the Tobscco Monopoly. The Social ‘Transformation. Chinese Mestaos, Mesizo Progress Reenter the Chinese. The Shift to Landowning, Rise fof Haciendss. Land grabbing, Social Rearrangements ‘The New Principalia, (CHAPTER IX~ Progress and Protest Spread of Liberals. The Goverment Monopolies. ‘Agsinst the Prncipales. Dhsory Equality. Pleeian Revolt. Vietory of the Princpales.Advance and Retreat. Sense of Racal Equality. Hermano. Pe Origins of Colorums. Repercussions. Eeonomie Dis- locations. Foreign Avcendancy. Cultural Changes. Inellectua) Ferment. Secularization and Fiipiisx: ton, Cavite ~1872. Against the Peninsular. Fighting ‘he Brisas Spaniards. Setting the Stage, (CHAPTER X— Revolution and Netionhood ‘The New Plipince, The Reform Movement. The Propaganda Movement. Assimilation and Representse tion, Reformist Demands. Risas Liga The Split Ambivalent Classes, Ubon Ideas, Rural Masset. Urban 109 129 a6 Sense of Solidarity. Depression in Countryside. The Land Question. Immediate Causes. Convergence of Grievances, The Katipunan. Bonifacio. Influence of Plaridel, Historic Initiative of the Masses. Common Denominator. Bonifacio a Synthese. Inchoate Ideology. Hustado Imprint. PART I~ UNITY AND DISUNITY CHAPTER X1— Revolution end Compromise Separatim Proclaimed. Propaganda and Expansion. Betrayal. “The Die it Catt”. The Revolt Spreads Reign of Terror. Swelling Forces of Revolt. The Plot Begins. Preemptive Leadership. The Plot ‘Thickens, Character Auastination. Undermining the Katipunan. “Cavite”. The ‘Power Strugele. The ‘Triumph of Civitimo, Bonifacio Outmaneuvered Iustrado Syndrome. Sharing Spoils and Honors. Rival Power Centers. Conte Tummeoats. The Mock Ty Bonifacio’: Rele Appraised. The Lang Trek to Com promise. Reformist Atavism, The Right Credentials ‘The Bergain. The Logie of Teeros. Negation of Puged Lavin. The Revolutionaries Repudiated. Quarrel Over Spoils. The Hongkong Ble. The Struggle Continues. ‘The People's Pury. Katipunan Reval. During the Hongkong Sojourn. Aguinaldo Copitulated: The People Did Not. (CHAPTER XIl ~ The Second Coup ‘The New Protagonist. The Offer. The Junta Decides. Leading the Repudisied. Four Major Forces on the Scene. Manifestations of Mendicaney. Spaniards and Tustrados. Pater, et. al. Protectorate Proclsimed Meaning of Aguinsido. Mowe. Undereating Other Resistance Leaders. The People's Participation. Buying ‘Tre. The Selhout. Aguinaldo’ Roster of Eminence ‘The Directing Hands Military Successes. People'® 167 298 Victory. Tustrado Ascendaney. The Religious Aspect Pomp and Ceremony. ‘The Fast Acts Vailation and ‘Opporiunism. Agunddo's “Adjustments”. Reluctant Foe. The “Autonomists”. Blakna-beto Repested cer Obtucle, Bonciok Fate Repeat ene cteton of Mentcaney. TH" Lost poate mening roe a Pala. Toe Tek etit Scond Bouya Fae Among hi People (CHAPTER XIII — Collaboration and Resistance (1) eotnting forthe Fast. Leading Collaborators Me Setborton, Petemo and Burncamino. Bont ers Oetretoe Baposed Pom Deception to My, ‘the Ameena Restance Belied. Statehood, USAT 00, Licensed Pole! Paris. let ty of Laxdenp. Offic History. The Oral Viewamlation,Suppreon and Atoctes, Recon Mirco, Cvuliee and Lowes Ants atone {ves Religion and Nationalism. The Pailpine bv dependent Charch, CHAPTER XIV — Collaboration an Resistance (2) Mass Sopport, The New Katipunan, Amigo Act Faustino Guillermo. Macao Sakay. ‘The Tagalog Reputiie. Suspension of the Vint. Santuars and Supplies Istrado Wat and Peoples’ Wrath. Salam\ Tock The Tap is Set. Death of » People’s oro, Resitance in Bl. Resistance in the North, The Rice Movement. Nativisic Revival. The. Magic Bons Apo Ipe, Socal Goat in Relpous Garb. Folk ero. Popa io, Antiforign, Antebte. Dwinding Suppor The "epube of Negros” Puljanes in (Cebu. Pasjanes in Leyte, Dios Dios Samat. Fighting Style. Contral_of the Countryside. Sprit of the Revolution lve CHAPTER XV — New Outpost and Preserve Raticnaizations of Expansions. Beonomie Roots The Philippine Role. in Search of a Patron. The Catholic Interest. The “Antilmpevialse™. The Resl Debate, A Clash of Interests. Tas Role. Servicing ‘American’ Business. “Philippines for the Fuipinos™ Mhllppine Status Clarified. The Cooper Act ~ Pro aan uv 260 281 tectionst Triumph. Setting Down to Busines. Shout ering the Costs of Exploitation. Eliminating Com- petition. ‘The Payne-Alavich Act. Friar Lands and ‘Suan Investors. The San Jose Estate Transaction. The Land Polley. The Tiumph of American Busines 1. Sugar. 2 Copra. 3. The Hemp Bonanza. ‘The Manila Amerieant. Consumption Habits (CHAPTER XVI~ Colonial Society and Politics Pocification Through Education. The New Invasion. 308 ‘The Opening Wedge. Handmaliden of Colonial Policy Myths of Coloniism. ‘The New Intermediaries Ceciques Retained. The Debating Club. Progress of Pllpinistion. Roote of Philppine Polite Caught in the Midale. Imperatives of Party Life. Dichotomy ‘of Public and Praate Views, Pro-forma Opposition (Otlice Not Independence. Secret Pears. Private Maneuvers. Quezon's Real Views. Rationale of the Junkets. Quezon vs. Osmefa. Reconciliation. Ants ‘Americanism in 1923. The Old Refrain. ‘The Mie Sioners Exposed. Political Brokers. Contemporary Ring Patronage. Hedging on Independence. “Friends” of Independence. Enemies of Independence. Fro ad ‘Anti. Ominous Prediction. Same Dog, Different Colls. Con-Gon ‘84. A Colonial Document. Trans: thon to Neo. Colonia, (CHAPTER XVII ~ Turbulent Decades Growing Unrest. Exports and Tenaney. Land Tenure System, Tenants and Rural Worker. The Friar Lands Minor Messiahs. ‘The Golorums. “Bresd and Pree dom”. Tayug 1981. The Grievances. Official Re fictions. The Firt Labor Groupe. New Slogans. Polteal Adjuncts Peasant Unionizstion. Unions and Politics. Intemational Contects. ‘The. Communist Party. Outlawing “of the CPP. The 1920 Crash Peasant Actions. Strike Fever. Tangulan Asedilo tnd. Encalado. ‘Sakdalism, Ancilpating Goals of Future Protests. Placards for All Seasons. Oppo tunis of Ramos. The Outhresk. Milestone in Pole ticisation. Tempo of Protest Ominous Slogans. Don Perico, Left Ideology, Hite Status, "Social Justice” a ‘To Placete and to Reasture. Preaching and Practice, ‘The. Reaction, Private Armies. Focus on Cente Turon. Intemational Fascist Incurions. Popular Front, Escalating Tensions. On the Bve of War. PARTIV—PROLOGUE CHAPTER XVIII~ A Usable Past From Rebellion to Revolution. Identity and Host ty. Inpute of Experience. Unity and Division. Trans: fnutation of the Stage. Distorted Perceptions From ‘Tojo to MacArthur. Freezing the Colonial Structure. Poverty-breding Society Relations of Dependence, Limitations on Consciousness. History and Consciousness. NOTES INDEX 385 399 ane Preface tn recent years, quite a number of scholas have come out with specialized studies on diferent areas of Philippine history ‘The authors of these books, brochures, articles, and research proves examined primary and orginal sources and distilled the Fults of previous efforts I am indebted to them for many an Tmight into part events But to my knowledge, no base framework hae 60 far been advanced which would incorporate these fresh findings into a new view of Philippine history. My fwork isan attempt inthis dieeton. Tt isthe purpose of this Book to make the past reusable for present tasks and future foals, Thave relied forthe facts on these specialized studies as Swell af on. the general histori: I make no clams to new Findings, en'y new interpretations ‘The Pilipino reader may fad it somewbat surprising that 1 hae chosen to ure the word native (upto Chapter 9) to refer to the indigenous inhabitants ofthe Philippines. 1 trust thet they will inthis instance dieard an pejorative asovations attached to the tenn. Itsarve: merely asa conveniont designation until ‘that peti in history when the word Filipino ean be used in ts corret content, which i when an emerping nation appropriated for itself name which weed to apply only to Philippine bor Spaniard. In other words, began to use Filpino enly when {he Pilpine people started to think of themselves as such ‘Tho eader wil ote that all foreign words — and these Include thote in the lod! dialects ~ are itaiized only on fist. ‘art of the research work for this book was undertaken while 1 was directing the History: Series Project of the Lopes Foundation and until my resignation from the Lopes Museum. 1 Would ike te acknowledge the ssstance ofthe researches then employed by the Foundstion and of the staf of the Lope Museum. 1am indebted to 4 number of academic colleagues, particularly Dr, Lia H. Chung, for thelr assistance in verifying {nd tracing source materials not avilable in the Palippines ‘Like my previous books, this one may be termed a family undertaking. My son and his wife spent many hour jn the periodical sections of Manila lbraries digging up material on the petiod from 1820 to 1941; my daughter and my son inlaw did esearch on clerical Insitutions and prepared the index. Above all, this book is another offspring ‘of a lifetime of scholanty Collaboration with my wife who berdee contributing to the ‘esearch, the organization of materia, and the editing give tne ‘the benefit of her usual pereptive and unsparing crite. At my collaborator in this work, she deserves as much as { do Whatever credit it may win.” All shortcomings are my res ponsbilty alone. Renato Constantino Quezon Cty December 27, 1974 Part | LIBERATION TRANSFORMED I. Towards a People's History Decades have passed since Filipino historian flt the inital impule to rewrite Phppine history from the point of view of the Filipina. The discovery that some accepted facts of history twere actualy apocryphal, the owing realization that certain foreign sources which used to be the staple of history books were awed by bias, and, during periods of national ferment, the Filipinos” own heightening swareness of their separate ‘ational identity ~ all thete epurred recurring attempts to evi the past. More recently, the intensified thrst of rationalist forces in Philippine society projected the necessity of establishing anew framework for Pippin history. Colonial Scholarship By taining, Filipino historians were captives of Spanish and American’ historiogrsphy, both of which inertaby viewed Philippine history through the prism of their own prejudices. Responding to the need to write Philippine history trom the Point of view of the Fipin, some of these scholars valiantly fied to transcend the ialtations of tei raining. They deserve full credit for ther many revelations and coractions of historical misconceptions. But in the main, walle they made Important contribution toward lbereting Pipino mings from the burdensome legiey of clerical scholanlp by corecting Certain ‘blases eared over from the Spanish period, they Fetsined strong survival of American colonial histeriography. ‘These historians refuted the tore Bstant defamstions of the Filpinos and highlighted the abuses of Spanish fralocracy. Spanish and clerical rule were placed in better perspective. This inal success did not however extend to the correction of the Prejudices nor the blasting of the myths that were implanted by 1 ‘ely American acholamhip. Much remains to be reasested at ‘the Amnerican colonialist who will come in fora great (eal of undeserved credit. ‘Moreover, reacting to the almost exclusive concentration on Spanish concerns of eater colonial historiopaphy, some scholar tended toward the opposite extreme and themselves Girmined an entire epoch of history on the ground dt it war a Iistory of Spaniards, Wale its rue that a Fipino history need not bother ftuaf with matters that affected only the Spaniards, Spanish colonial policy from the begining ~ and indeed even ‘certain sepecte of Spanieh history and society — had profound effets on the evalving Filipino socely and cannot therefore be gored. ‘Other scholars demonstrated thelr nationale by projecting the heroic deeds. of recognized heroes and ideaizing other national leaders. They faled to perceive that to give history ritionast perspective the role some of these men played ‘Should have een ritealy scrutinised and. evaluated. “The failure to do this had the effect ~ perhaps unintended but ‘one the les unfortunate ~ of propagating other myths and setting the Huson thet history i the work of heroes snd great ‘men. Stil others have concentrated thelr efforts on contom- ‘porary events. So much effort has been directed toward the recording ofthe latest posible history thatthe need fo veasess the pastas boen neglected, with the unfortunate reslt that critical areas of offical history have remained fundamentally “unchallenged. More recently, the nationalist pressures on Pilipino scholars ‘generated a number of specialized studies that exposed some of ‘the myths about Phllppine-American relations. Thee impact ‘was however limited since the work of these scholars was still Undertaken primary in the ineret of “objectivity” and for ‘this reaton didnot fll within the framework of an exsentially Ubersing scholarship. Ih other words, the tank of comecting Iistoreal misimpresions was not purwed as part of a total tfort to remove the fetierson the Pilipino mind that had been forged ‘by colonial education. Nevertheles, some of these specialized studies have provided fresh insights Into speciic periods or aspects of our pat. There is the danger, however, ‘hat the increasing depth of a historin's specialization may become the “means for escaping @ reality too complex for his 7." Tmmeraed in particularities, some lose sight ithe general dimensions of Mtoy. Other thougs prcetng general history, occupy themselves with recording a plethors 2 of particularities without discovering their unifying thread ‘The Task at Hand ‘But beyond wating Philippine history from the point of view of the Filipino, the task is to advance tothe waiting of a tuly Fripino history, the history of the Flpino people. This means that te prinepal focus must be on the anonymous masses of invidls and on the social forces generated by their collective Ives and strugales. For history, though itis commonly defined ts the story of man, ls not the story of man the indwidua, but ‘man the collective, that is, asocated man, Without society there can be bo history and there are no societies without men. ‘Man lone, man the individual, could never have become hnuman except in asoeation with other men. Man interacts with nature and with other men through the intervening veality of Society. Without society he would have remained lke other fnimals, unable to consciously change his environment oF himeett. Tt was in cooperative work that men ft became human and tis cooperative effort is what produced rocety. But coopera tion i a exigency of struggle against nature and puns social foes. Men must work together to fight natural or social forces stronger than their individual eves. Struggle & therefore the essence of life, whether of an individ oa society. An individual has n history apett from fociety, and society’ is the historical product of people in strugpe Human society is the cause and the result of people in ‘motion and in constant struggle to realize the human potential, for the human being isthe only species that has unlimited possibiltie for development, ‘Motivator of History History, then, ls the recorded struggle of people for ever inereating freedom and for newer and higher realizations ofthe ‘human penton. But the struggle isa collective one and a2 sich involves the mass of human ‘beings who are therefore the ‘motivator of change and of history. History is not merely a chronology of evens; it & not the story of heroes and great men. Essentially, history consists of ‘the people's efferts to attaln a better fe. The common people Possess the capacity to make history. In fact, the Metric a Initiative of the masses has time and again produced social catalyam that have changed the world. Historie struggles provide the people with lessons in thet upward march and give form and strength to the constantly changing society. In studying thee struggles, « true people's history discovers the laws of social development, dlinates the Continulies and dcontinuites ina moving society, records the behavior of classes, uncovers the myths that have distorted ‘hought and brings out the inate heroism and wisdom of the masses. Such hisory therefore constitutes both a guide and a ‘weapon in the unremitting struggle for greater freedom and the Attainment ofa better society. Since the mast of humanity is stil in a state of poverty and ‘gnorance since a few nations have attained advancement and development atthe cost of consigning others to underdevelop- ‘ment, what has hitherto been reparded as history 6 pre- dominantly « conscious record ofthe ich andthe powerful but byrno means the just andthe corect ‘The people should alo have thelr history for they have made history through Ustr participation in mate actions resulting in the unfolding ofthe social forms that seek to realize their gous, But inthe recorded pages of history they have rained in the background, as if they had played only a neglgle role tis ‘those who rule who have had their namer and exploits emble ‘zoned on these pages. The people have been taken for granted fd thelr role has boon minimized or even denied. ‘The inarticulate in History ‘The individuals who made history colorful could not have made history without the people. Supermen may exist in Fomantie mind or among those who persist in the primitive Practice of defying men; but no supermen exitt, only leaders ‘who became great because they were working with and forthe people. "The various changes in society and the upward climb of ciullzaton could not have been possible without the people Playing definite and itreplacesble roles in each epoch. We Inarvel at the pyramids of Hgypt, the Great Wall of Chins, the Parthenon of Gresce. It wae he labor of milions of saver thst fave the great thinkers of ancient cviizetions the leisure and ‘he tactics to conceive ofthese wonders. And it was the labor fof other millions that turned conception into reality. ‘The French: Revolution and the American War of Independence ‘ savolved masses of human beings who fought, suffered snd died {Sitio te victories for which thelr leaders are remembered. The (Shrines of society, the advent of civaation, the reat artistic ‘Goris were all nepted and made posible by the people who ‘Jere ue maineprings of activity and the producers of the ‘Jealth of tovetes, But their deeds have rarely been recorded ‘Decne they were inarticulate. is true thatthe inarticulate a individuals cannot have their deeds recorded in history. However, their cllectve effort can te and should be chronicled and given its deserved importance Bat since the arsiulae, having lrumed the responsibility and the pavilege of writin History, have done so from ther point of ‘ew, the retlting accounts present an incomplete and distorted pictire which unduly projects individual men while disregaeing the dynamic role ofthe masses. Most of the names that crowd the annals of recorded history are those of men who during Certain periods held power over the people or who, because the people were behind them, were able to perform deeds of such Fistore magnitude ae to derere remembrance. The institutions Snd the personalities that history comecly celebrate were in & Teal sense products of the people's efforts All powerful leaders, and especially the tyrants, exerted tfrts to insure that the history of ther time would be written In their image, Theit subjective attitudes were « dominant Influence inthe recording of events. But as people gained know- ledge and a societies progressed, some individuals who were hitherto regarded as heroes began to lose their eevance; others were unmasked as vans who stood agaist the interests ofthe people. For in the final analyst i the people who make oF Umake heroes. They are the ultimate judge ofan individual's role in history, 1k is only ‘within the context of «people's history that Individuals, events and ineittions can be carectly apprised. Tn a people's history, individual, events, and institutions as particularities wil be seen in their proper perspective within the fenerality of historical process and only then wil these barticularites be fully undemteod. At the same time, only by ‘orreclly understanding these particularities wil the general Dattere of the evolving history of the people be fully compre Yhended: The general and the particular constitute a dialectical "lationship, am accurate perception of which deepens the stad of the history of «people ‘A people's history therefore has to be general in order to serve abs concrete guide for understanding a developing society. 5 But this generality is achieved only by the discovery of the Interelationships of particularities. Redresing the Imbalance ‘The struggle for national liberation of the peoples of underdeveloped areas has enriched the literature of history and hhas been responsible for new approaches, new techniques of ewing events and writing hutory a a reaction tothe official histories which have been part of the arsenal of colonialist in Derpetusting the backward conditions of their colonies. Philip. Die historlane can contribute to this important stream of thought by revisiting the Philppine past to eliminate the ‘istortons imposed by colonial scholathip and to redress the lmmbalance inherent in conventions! histerigraphy by projecting the role ofthe people ‘This work is a modest attempt inthis direction It does not lay claim to being real people's history although the proce of ddemythologiing Philippine history and exposing certain events ‘and individuals is part of the inital work toward restoring history to the people. In pursuance of this ark, the precent work may appear to oversee certain beteyals and may seem {fo exaggerte the importance of certain events while paying scant attention to othen customarly emphasized. ‘This 8 necessary today inthe face of the ell predominantly colonial ‘iew of our pat. We need to emphasize what has hitherto been Blossed over. ‘When inilletusl decolonization shall have been accom plished, ahistorical account can be produced which wil present ‘aller, moze balanced picture of reality. Limitations and a Beginning ‘To obtain a comprehensive knowledge of the ctivtes ofthe mass in each period of our history will require panstaking txamination of documents and all avalable records, including folklore, as well as inspired deduction, An arduous task, its nevertheless "posible considering. what anthropologists and lucheologists have boon able todo with societies long dead. But ‘Since such a history wil surely take decades of study, it must be Postponed toe period when social conditions will afford ‘Scholars the luxury of spending years on tis investigation. "The immediate concer of the times is for work that can present in practical way not jst the side of the Piipinos but 6 tbe de ofthe Flipno mans, Even fhe sy wer ont he ecMotrer opr to tedecoe tnd offi Rito, = nee Seton help open the oor towards # teal peoples A sed for rel pops hitory becomes more gent we Tilpnes sash for tly Mipno shton to Hino Jroutens Ae fi we ably analy Piipine sce in Trigt of clon mythe and frig concept nd wasn 3 cite bans of satimptoon snd prom that ony eve Tr lnk of undestanding ofthe ch experince conn in Str hoy of srg for freedom, Hitory for mst o rina Sings of facie and an of pesoali an evens 2 Bitte of exo wonip aod pty Homta atowe cur ond enty and ca tater fa deers History {peu aa mpented documentation of events tat oecmed BPG ps, thou sy unin end thot comtinaly Sove thet of chronology, without clear itrelton with he Pent Rediscovering the Past A people's history must rediscover the past in order to make it reuse. It ie the task ofthe historian to weave particular ‘events into a total view so that historical experience can be ‘immed up and analyzed. Such a history can then serve as 8 side to present and gucceeding generations in the continuing ‘Struggle for change. Such «history must deal withthe past wth {view to explaining the present. It must therefore be not ony ‘eserptive but also analytcaly t must. deal not only with objective developments bul aio bring the discussion to the realm of value judgments nour particular eas, history should show how a nation was bom where previously there was none, and how the society that merged sufered date changes endcontinues to change despite the apparent continuity that impresses the superficial observer. W must seek to uncover the emerging forces concealed by Prealing mythe and obstricted by the fores of reaction. A history that serves as a guide to the people in pereeving Present reality is elf « berating factor, for when the present ' amined by a comprehension of the past itis that much ‘easier for te people to grasp the direction oftheir development and identity the forces that impede real progres. BY projecting the people's aspirations, a people's history can give us the Droper perspective that wil enable ws to formulate the coreect policies for the futur, liberated from outmoded concepts based ‘on colonial values and serving only the needs af foreign powers ‘The Unifying Thread Objective developments in society cary with them the formation of a subjective factor which becomes instrumental in realizing further developments. Conssioumes interacts with materi life, The superstractures that emerge are the totality of {institutions laws, customs, and prejudices that correspond to the economic structure of society. "Though the ideas of the dominant classes predominate t any {given period, they ere not the only oner that exist, Inevitably, ‘isentng Wess emerge to coexist with the dominant ones and come into confrontation. with them when the economic ‘contradictions that they reect have sharpened to a critical degree. Thus economic struggles are often fought ae political nd intllectul battle, ‘The various revolts that broke out in the Phlippines constituted practice which changed not only eiteumstances bat ‘man himself. These struggles were the schools of the masts; their quantitative cecurrence as localized or regional actions led toa qualitative change: the birth of « nation, From blind responses to foreign oppression, mass actions agaist. the Spaniards and later against the Americans underwent raious ‘tansformations unt they finally became a conscious szugee {or national liberation. While these struggles took place on various levels of understanding, they developed in the parti pants a deeper and more intenge comprehension of the nature ff their socioty and of the changing forms of their struggle, Despite the tremendous obstacles that Spanish and. American colonialism created by their subtle operations onthe conscious est of the Filipinos, ever higher level of politcal and ‘economic awareness were being achieved in stvgele, at least ‘mong some sectors ofthe population. "The Motive Force ‘This rich tradition of strugle has become # mative force of Plippine history. Participation in mass actions ries the level ‘of consciousness of the masses. The more conscious they are, the more they become active and the more ‘allng thet contribution to the changing of solety and the changing of ‘heir own attitudes, untl Uney come to relize that strugele i 8 thelr histori right and itslone can make them fee. “S people's history of the Philppines must trace the con- tingity of the people's material and subjective growth, The Unifying and aivsive foree of colonialism must be soon in the recpantes of the people through struggle. Thore must be no Segmentation of the different stages of our history. The Continulty, despite the evolution and disappearance of forme of focal life apd institutions, must be shown fist in the Sppeerance ofa nation which wae both the product of Spanish Colona and its very antitheis, and then inthe transforma tion ofthat nation under American coloniais.* ‘Since mass actions were sis responses toward international ovelopments which hi thelr impact on the country, Its also ‘sonal to sft word evens to find their corelation with Loel vents ‘The “iberations” which the people endured have been responsible for ther awakening, for their growing awareness of fhe need to really berate themssves through their own efforts, Bach successive generation has contebuted to the tradition of struggle, while every. stage has widened and deepened. the prople' understanding of heir own powers and thet own ossbites. In the history of these strugles, we find certain laws of evelopment which give usa better understanding of reality and Which ean guide us to higher forms of strgge for the people's fnuse. A people's history thus nites past with prevent experince “The only way a history of the Philippines can be Pilipino is to write on the bass of the strggs of the people, for in theve rages the Filipino emerged Fipino resistance vo colonial oppression i the unifying thread of Paipine history The First "Liberation" ‘The Filipino people have had the misfortune of being “berate” four times during their entire history ‘int came the Spaniards who “liberated” them from the “enslavement of the devi,” ext came the Americans who berated” them from Spanish oppression, then the Japanese ‘who “berated” them from American imperialism, then the ‘Americans again who “berated” them from the dapanese facsts. After every “liberation” they found their country occupied by foreign “benefactors.” ‘The people essed each ruler. though each struggle sought to change certain objective conditions, it hed is most profound effect onthe people themselves. ‘The intensity and dizection ofeach struggle depended on the nature of the oppresion and on the objective and subjective level of the oppresed people at each given time and pace, The ‘ype of oppression in turn was determined by the nature ofthe colonisng society aswell a by the objective conditions in the colony. Its therefore at essential to know the character of each ‘society that intrded into Philippine shores ait is to study the social formations tht these foreign ruler encountered at the time of conquest Society in Transition What were the circumstances surounding the fest “ber tion’? What war the nature of Spanish society at that time? “There is some confusion among Philppine scholars regarding ‘the type of society that prevlled In Spain during the age of discoveries and conquests. The general impresion is tht Spain ‘was feudal-and that she therefore tanmplanted the classe] features of feudalism to the Pallppines. The historically 10 tablished fact ie that while Spanish sovity at the time of Slagellan'® voyage #40 ‘exhibited feudal characteristics, its Ronomic base wat no longer completely feudal. Capitalist ‘Shterprise wat changing the configurations of the country ‘though the old feudal institutions persisted with few modifica fions, and slong with these institutions, the modes of behavior, nlues and other xpects of conslousness which chamcterized The old order “A given economic structure dost not automatically produce tne loa, cultura, political and other institutions corresponding tot History demonstrates that long after a particular base fconomic structure has disappeared, vestiges of its comes: ponding sperstructures and institutions linger on and eventual Ty become impediments to the goth of the new socio- ‘conomi bate It isthe presence ofthese institutional vestiges {hat sometimes obscures perception of the advent of a new ‘fonomle system, Spain during this period was already witnessing the tran formation of ie social fabric with the rise of the middle clas. ‘The reris had boen emancipated; the towns were becoming canter of economic activity and a new focus of economic frengtn, To the old contradiction between srs and thei lords ‘wat sdded a new one: that between the wealthier members of the middle ease on the one hand, and the nobility and the clergy on the other. The workers supported the middle class fganat the nobles and’ the clergy. ‘This clash of economic Interests dia not however prevent the rich merchants from aping the manners and valuer of the nobility. In fect, the letrados tanong them were awarded certain distinctions by the state, some even becoming nobles Th be ofthe de cls wore te town. he owns gew wealthy with the development of industry and commerce, fhe. prosperous merchants clamored for legal equality and politcal power, Although they were jelous of their new Drerogaties and strongly committed to their town charters, they ‘nevertheless allied themeelves with the monarchy and ‘ipported the centralizing and absoltist polices of the King ingofer at these. were directed aginst the nobility and the ‘ergy. ‘The king welcomed thie alliance for financial and tactical reaions, The middle class contrlled the new wealth and was practically the only’ group which paid taxes notwith Sanding the huge landholdings of the nobility andthe Church, “The monarchy successfully used. the economic challenge oved by the ising middle class ws leverage agains! the clergy n _and the nobility. By guning dominance ovr the latter, the king ‘counteracted the centritupl tendencies within hit domain ahd soured Its unity aba sate ‘Unity in eudal Set ‘Throughout Burope, national sovereignty had become an imperative, for the growth ofthe new economic forces required Conditions of peace. Stability was impossible while a country ‘war divided among waring feudal lord, but a wellstablished ential suthonty could proride both the peece and the free feces to wide lritores that a burgeoning capitalism required, ‘This was the economic imperative that spurrod the esablish- ment ofthe Western state system, "The tre of various nallon-ates was accompanied by the decline ofthe papacy ara temporal power although it remained ‘potent Sdeolopea! force, But even during the heyday of the papacy, Gnancial end mercantde capital had already bepun to frsinuale lief nto the interstices of feudal society. This aptalitectivity was to bocome the solvent of the medicva ‘world. Tt spured technological progres which revolutionized ‘avigntion thur making possible the er of ducovercs. It wat leo this copitalet spirit that war to manifest elf in revolt gaint the restrictive. prliies of the feudal order, in the felebration of the competitive spirit and of individualism, and In the Reformation, te easence of which was prtate enterprise in religion, Despite its feudal shell, the Spain that sent Magellan to the East aleady iad definite caitaliet burgeons. We have described in general the clas alignment and the motive forces of Spanish society. But to understand more fully those colonial policies peculiar to Spain It ls necessary to examine briefly her easier history. ‘The Moorih Conquest Im the year 711, sn army of Arabs and Berbers under 2 certain commander’ Tarik landed on the rock which now bears his name: Gibraltar, froma Gebel Tarik othe mountain of Tak ‘The Muslim invadre were able to subd the entire peninrula ‘wth the exception of areas in the northwest which remained Christian, In these areas, the xmall Christan states of Leon, CCertle, Nava and Aragon, ourlsed.” w Individually o in concert, these states fought the Moors and sueudly poshed them into the kingdom of Granada in the south eine {3th century, the Kingdoms of Leon and Castle were eed as the Kingdom of Castle” Catalonia had previously JRined Aragon to form the Kingdom of Aragon.” Their effort Xo expel the Moors received papal sanction and the support of the ret of Catholic Europe, These wars, which encompassed ‘easy eight hundred years, ar calle the recongusta ‘The reconquista.Iuelf) Ie the subsequent voyages of aiscovery, wat impelled by and fostered the emergence of Cpitalist enterpeiea in Spain. The year 1402 marked both the nd of the reconguista andthe discovery of America. The end ‘of the Moorish wars and the bepinning of the great voyages of Giscovery”ooeured. during the reign of a royal couple who Anited in wedlock the Tberian Kingdoms of Castle and Aragon. ‘The Catholic Monarchs The manage of Ferdinand and Ibella resulted in the adoption of uniform policies in both kingdoms, factor which fostered the bisth of the Spanish nation. They completed peciicalion work within ther respective realms before proces: Ing tothe final conquest of Granada to terminate the 800 year carpal agin the Moors Tesblla of Castile red @ kingdom that commanded the contra tablland that slants away feom the Mediterranean. It was 2 region characterized by austerity and religiosity. 3 “niphter of a mad princess and herself the mother of a mad ‘queen, Isabella was’ a woman deeply obsessed with what she conceived to be her principal duty on earth: that of being God's Instrument for tne propagation ofthe Fith* Ferdinand of Aragon reigned over a kingdom on the Ebro valley which sloged towards the Medltertnean. He was there {ore exposed to the influence of poltical developments in Maly, 8 Tact which made him ambsitiout for the wealth and power that Conquest reaps, ‘The two monarchs ruled on equal footing, Combining veiious veal and an aptitude for polite mane ‘The medieval crown of Aragon with its businesslike, urban Aistoceacy had # commopolitan outlook and mereantic pro ints, ‘Cate, though predominantly pastoral wae not Jmmune tothe sing surge of capitaliem: ite people. were ‘Sequirng thelr own commercial and maritime experiences. The aa peasants were withdrawing from agriculture asa result of the ‘Gowth of the Mesa, the sheep farmers guild. As Spanish woo! {eda growing domestic textile industry, the expanaion of the ‘England, Holland, and Portugal were engaged in the same ‘wool ade with northern Europe stimulated the development ‘ventures, for this was the era of primitive of he prt of San Sebastian, Laredo, Sentander and Corts {Elation the period when the emerging capitalist centers seeuMcuidng the ial fund which waa o launch captain De world sytem, Primitive Accumulation ‘The New Tastes of Europe ‘Thgaccumuationtokyaros forms. Intra, meant the sepucation of the producer fom the means of production, ‘The victories of the reconqusa developed the city af Sevie. ‘tele example being the eoclonures in England where the By the 15th century, this cty ad become an ative commercial Semand for wool for the new textile factories encouraged the center where Spelih trader and thelr counterparts tn the {otds to fence off thes lands and convert them ino. ating Meditenanean lands gathered to plan new venture” Barcelona teat for sheep, thus dipossessing the peasant became Spain's greatest mercantile end indus centr. There "Exeraltchniquee of accumulation consited of pracy and 8 wide variety of fabric were manufactired a well as pottery, the plunder of colonies soqured through the voyages of ares, ope, at and many other articles, Valencia was almost dlacotry. Thus we se Hat the growth of capitalism had been ss prosperous as Barcelona, The wealth and grandeur of these {nseparsbie from colonialism since the ea of primitive capital cites ated to the magnitude of industry and commerce in fccumtlation, ‘This period saw the conquest of Mexico and thelr respective regions South America, the heyday of pircy and pivateering when ‘These internal economic developments were the undesying ‘buaneers were knighted, and the peak of the Negro save factors that sparred the great voyages of discovery. The ea tage. Between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, the routes that Spain's adventurer took, however, were dictated by ‘development of a world mavket for an expanding capitalism ® Tortutous impediment. required the subjection and exploitation of the peoples of ‘The wars of the Crusades which had brought the prople of ‘Aten, Asin and Latin America — the underdeveloped con- Western Burope into closer contact with the Bast had crested tinents of today” oped among the crusaders new tastes in food, hixures, and other Fefinements of living. Buropeans learned to prize cinnamon, Pepper, nutmeg, ginger and other spices. These spices together ‘The voyages conducted by the Spaniards were part of the vith dyes, perfumes, precious stones, and other tems of Kiury Initia) efforts to. develop 2 world economic aystem. When were transported by ship of caravan to ports in the Eastern Legazpi sat forth on his tip to the Philipines neatly a century MeditezancanVenetian and Genoese merchants brought these after the Columban discoveries, the Spanish ealonies in th foods to Tly; Ialian middlemen tock charge of the distribu. ‘Americar were already Ohving satalites linked to the metro. {on in Western Burope polis in Burope, and Span had had many years of experience in ‘The Spaniards and the Portuguese were interested in patici- ‘Sealing with her colonies in America. ting inthis lucrative wade, but the Mediterranean was closed ‘But deopte the fat that Spain commanded a big empire, she fo them by Venetian naval power. This forced Spain and herself became an economic dependency of the more developed Portugal to finance voyages in search of new routes. capital slates of Burope ~ frst Holland, later England and ‘The voyage of Ferdinand Magellan led to his “discovery” of, France. Spain therefore had no choice but to respond to the the Philippines in 1521, Spain dispatched other expeditions $0 ‘spits system although she was only on the margin of this part of the globes! the one headed by Miguel Loper de ‘Spitalis development. Her economic polices during this period ‘Legazp began the colonization of the lands in 1865. of accumulation served. the ends of ber more powerful "The Spanish occupation of the Philippine. chipeago ‘apitalit neighbors. Her colonial polices were implementations ‘occurted eighty yeas after Spain had entered the modem ers ‘of the mereantlist syst prevaling at the ime. u 1s Mereantiism Mercniion was he manieation of i tran sao tr ne mer ots eaaney depended onthe pace tat Ss ‘coum Thu the shipment of metal out feces Alicouraged end the scantion of old and aver no fouged, The colonies saved se scuces af gad esd ee oy it they were ot produce of precous melas tayo ot See ith other counter ws Sntuted using iy Senses {how colonies fo ache s ftvonlls tase see a ‘tinued accumulation, ™ sd Tian banking houses! The! Spenth mona ontinualy borrowing from these foreign finales fs tneene See end the voyegee Moreover, fold wat et io Endandin order o pay for imports whic Spanish Sere es ‘buying in inreaing quantities rom English mera, . the wealth of Spain's Ammercancoloes only fade her more dependent on the Northern Buropea maton, the meraniltimpule to dicovr mote hide Boe scare of the meal became ote inpertant as eee fy it fe ote ort re mat pn gh actare from the more svanced eps atoe Nethetands and Ennd and pid ith pls ome ae coming dependent on oth The wat omen {elo unrated tomra inden Tosa iecame's preoccupation tt led to thesnueraone ‘ent of Sun veava the davlopng onan af Ree Conquest as Business ‘Te rconguist and th eccupatin ofthe Canary ian {he Kingdom of Cale provided the eiperece Tor Seba {tare congue. During Be econgut, the Cwm faa as i practice to enter muo contra wid eaden of minty expeditions apinst the Moors Thee contacts niotang we Frecedent forthe caplaiocion, the typi” devant ot Seeemont between the Spanish monarch tnd Se congue dere of the Now Word in tee Contec, certaa ig ae Feserved to the Crown in the conquered tenivras thi the 16 conquistador was asured of rewards in the form of postions, $2ole ofthe conquest, grants of land and ennoblement. epoditions were financed by the king, bY public institu tiona,and also by private enterprise. Magellan's voyage was such Grunderaking. Financed ofleally by te Cose de Contretacion Br sevtle, it war part of the kings business. Tt was « typical mmereantlst venture, for the dicovery of mines or the vources tof spices would constitute an assurance ofthe inflow of metal lito Spankh coffe, ether diectly from the newly discovered land or indielly through a monopoly ofthe trade in spices. "The Religious duatifcation (Of coure, these objectives were not ven asthe real reason for the expeditions As always, there had to bean ideological [ustfcation for such enterprises in order to conceal the cass motives of kings. Tn tie instance it was religion. Religious zeal ‘dguled the economic content of te voyages af discovery and olongation. I. was also largely responsible forthe survival of feudal values and institutions in the conquered lands, forthe (Catholic Church was a pila of feudalism "The theo-poitcal nature of Spanish colonialism in the Prllpines will be beter understood if we review the relation ‘hip between the Spanish monarchs andthe papacy. ‘The papacy during this period war a beleaguered state engaged in vaxioue strugges with emerging slates and at the ‘Sime time miltantly working for the Chratinisation of the ‘wor. Ite mission to proclytize had been given « powerful Impulse by the Crumder and by the Mohammedan threat to “Burope. The Spanish reconguista was part of tis mission. ‘Although the papacy aa temporal power had lost lot of wound with the development of the nation-state sytem, it Feligious influence on the people and on the rulers themselves ‘lowed it to retain it status at a powerful institution in rope. The Spanish people and ther monarchs were stil captives of the myth thet one legitimate way of acqulring & frown wat by papal grant. Despite the fact that Spain was ‘Sreudy an emerging capitals sat, she sill preserved her old Uc with the papacy and sought, as olser Catholic countries did, ‘heoloiel sanction for her activites. ‘After the discovery of America, Pope Alexander VI issued several bls granting the Spanish sovereigns exclave right over the newiy discovered tersitory.Tna bull ued on May 4, 1493, the Pope drew a demarcation line one hundred leagues west of 7 Alexander VI divided the world between Spain and Portugal for ‘Purpotes of discovery and coloniastion. Kings and Popes ‘The acceptance of papal sanction over these questions, however, sould not milead ws Into thinking thet internal matte the monacht of Span were ina postion of borne tion to the papacy. The fact tat whbe the kings of Span were the moet arent champlont of Catholcian in Europe Whim the domana they were ot consent and persian Inlimiing esesatal sath King eented the introns of popes into Spanish pln suthoup they. themsees exerted hc inuenes timer tnateny, to secure the eleton of poper who would fever thom. Tx tei putes with the pope, the Spanish mooercht vere ofen mupported by the Spanish erg A dockent ‘tien by « Dominican mantined that it would be lew Take war on the pope and furheragued tat ince dung the ened of Ulla commit with Rome woud be ped the bse of Spin could takeover te eroptes ‘of the pope in deiing certain cessed quentons The operated wth thet of excommunaton Many books ‘atten by Spank churchmen defending the ropa! postion ‘iravs the pope were paced the Indes in Rome serio: which Cathtes were frtnden to ren but they wee ot So Tein the Inde of the Spanish inition = ‘The Fatronato Real In the trequentystomny relations between king and pope we see the contradictions between two heads af wate Over ‘mundane mater ‘The Chir of Spain was rich; it was the chest proprietor in the county. While we have no deta on Church propery curing Ferdinand’ reign, we may infer ie extent from the fact hat {ovard the mid fe intenth conta te combined rene of the clergy amounted to over $78,000,000 a yea, or half the total To the kingdom. > “= 16 Jealous of the enormous economic and spiritual power ofthe ‘church in Spain, Ferdinand sought to capture this vital force by ‘Hempting to subordinate the Church to himself. He saw his epportunity with the reconquest of Granada in 1492. As a Soran for his zealous effort in driving sway the infidel Moos, fhe asked for and received from the pope a patronato rel ovet 1 the chareher to be established In Granada. This was exscily that the Crown wanted, and Ferdinand skilfully maneuvered Thereafter to secure from the papacy extensions of his patro- ato to all his overveat dominions on the ground thet angelizing the heathen of the Indies was the same as recotering Granada for Carstendom. “Evangelical work in the new territories thus came under royal supervision. Byery priest who went to the Indies had to have royal permission; moreover, since the colonies wore admin tered from Mexico and there was no papal legate in America, Rome had no direct contact with the clengy in the new lende ‘The monarch also had veto power over the promulgation of papal balls and exerised through his viceroys close supervision ‘over the ecclesiastics in the dominions. Having acquired from the pope by virtue of the patzonato rel the right to nominate Dshope and prieat, the King energtially sed this prerogative, thus precipitating constant conflicts between the Crown and the papacy inthe matter of appointments to bishopric. The Religious Gard ‘The patronato real in effect gave the king vatt powers which he shrewdly used to serve his ends. These ends were of course ‘ot purely religious. Ferdinand, politician that he was, saw the ‘epportunty open fo him to appropriate some of the powers and economic advantages thatthe Church enjoyed. Sie the ‘eligious in Spain were to cerain extent under royal contrat by virtue of the pattonsto, this enabled him to. prevent 2 ‘hfureation of power within Spain. Thus, Spain became the Church, not the Church of Rome but the Church of sing ‘commercial interes, We must therefore remember tat when We speak of the Church in the Philppines duving the Spanish regime, we mean a peculiarly Spanish Church serving the ends of Spanish empire ‘This isnot to tay, however, thatthe clergy in the colony did not come in confit with the political representatives of the Grown. While they served the sume monareh, the clerics? ‘attempts to enlarge thew powers and defend thelr own material 19 Ineress within the colonial establishment often resulted in bitter discord between them and lay officals In uch instance, the. Spanish clergy invoked the power of the papacy {0 reinforce their stand. One such dapute arove dung the ealy {yews of colonization, rian vs. Bncomenderos ‘The immediate question concemed the collection of tributes, ‘An annual tibute was exacted from all Chistian adult males ‘excluding the native “nobility.” (See Chapter $) The tax war {tstified as a cognition of Castlan sovereignty. The agents charged with the collection of the tribute were the encomen eros, Spanish subjects granted thie privilege by the Crown a @ reward for their services. (See Chapter 4) Part of thi tute ‘was supposed to go toward the support of missionaries who ‘were to instruct the people in the Chistian doctrine, 1K wat inevitable thet the encomenderor and the religious should become rivals over the conquered territories. There wat ‘no quarrel between them over the need of a “culturally Infeior” people for “guardianship.” The quertion wat who should be the guardians ~ the Chureh or the encomenderos, ‘The property and the labor of the inhabitants were after all not. teifing matter, Anxious to gain the loyalty of the native, the fia bitterly smiled the exorbitant exactions and other abusee of the fencomenderos. No doubt some priests were voicing a genuine ‘concer for their new flock ‘while others protested thet maltreatment because they feared this might jeopardize their ‘msionary ‘work. Stil, the material motivations. cannot be Aiscounted. Govemor Gomez Perez Desmariias, for example, did not conceal his suspicion that the far’ championship of fhe natives was merely a pretext for ecclesiastical agpancice: ‘ment in the secular sphere. Frm complained tht the encomen eros often withheld thet stipend. In ther effort to undercut the power of the encomenderos, the clergy raised theoretical questions which invalved the king legal and moral authority. Bishop Daningo de Suara held that the right to tax the nativer stemmed from the supernatural character of Spanish sovereignty and, therefore, tribute could ot be lawfully exacted unless the Spanish authonties provided the natives with religious instruction. In the 1880, the fre ‘tied to implement ths view by authorising some encomenderor 20 cette # mode rng alowane, ota encomeners but 12 sist mach of he Comp ‘The Great Debate ‘Toe material contradiction wat fought in the realm of consioumess. The philsophical and theologal hairspiting {har bot dee resorted to. digusod «very real bone of entention "~ the mataalenefsctons that colonia {rougt in ta wake. The egal and theological debater beter the series and the polit advisers ofthe King expresed the repectve interes ofthe contending partien* “The problem reveled sround the ropponed dual role ofthe ving” Within Spain, he wee a natural sovereign, but in ie {Elonies he wats iperataral monarch. This man te poston {then by’ number of Jeu prestes inthe Phlppins in a tmemorandom which they submited in 1591 to. Govemor ‘Gomer Peres Desmarda. Te memorandum argued tha ava felt of the. Alesandan ‘donation, the pope had meray {Emafened tothe monarchy pat of Ms superar sone "Tidhop Domingo de Saar, who specheaded he fight ater resented thowe sme arguments more sstemataly, anchoring the poe’ clam to supernatural sovereigaty ovr al fen on he Dleniudo potettiscontered ty Chis pon Se. Peter and his ‘ccaom' This meant tet although the pope may not have ‘ad direct temporal authority over infidels, be had the ght to ‘xercae temporary jredtion over them inorder to aesom, Blan the apitaal objects of his euperaturl sovereignty fd this was the soverelgity he had delegated tothe Catan ‘ing: By ctng dubia on he naturel sovereignty of the Rng, theccleres wee opening the door to papal intervention in ts temporal aff of te sony ‘hry, the Kings svocses could not scept the Alexa dis donation te ole foundation forte Crown Heo {he conquered tees beau the would be Spl cls {0 the lands upon a concession emanating tom # sures ‘aude Spain, Tie would confer on the pope or hs repreer tie power thet might inthe future ete the King Offical Circles in Spin were aleady de-emphassing the importance ot sh plnn Sony cheng a ave “The contro repwting the mera an Spanish Sovereignty wart raging question during he St forty eam of occupation Resolution of the Conflict An appropriate solution to the impasse was sought. Natural sovereignty must reinforce supernatural sovereignty; thie would tive the Kinga legal right to collect tibutes. But then, natural sovereignty over a teritory could be acquied only ass result of ‘free and voluntary section on the part ofthe natives thereof ‘This had been ‘one. of the seven. principles suggeted by Francisco de Vitoria, prima profesor of Theology at the University of Salamanca, as the basis by which the king might acquire n clear and ust title for the exercise of poliieal jurisdiction over the Indies!” It was therefore decided that the ‘rious chieftains of the land be induced to enter ino a pact with the Spanish monarch for mutual protection agunst the Infidels endo elect him as their natural sovereign, In. 1898, the Spanish governor receved a royal order Instructing him to encourage the natives of all provinces to submit. themselves voluntarily to the sovereignty ofthe Spanish king. The governor directed the olcoldes mayores and the religious to gather the native chiefs of thelr respective areas as ‘well as the followers of each chief so that they might elect the (Cactlian king ae thelr natural lord and sovereign? ‘The Elections In letter to the king, Governor Francico Tello detailed the srguments that were used to induce the chiefs to take thei oath ‘of fealty tothe Spanish Crown, ‘They wee a how God ou Lrd ad pante them est kndnes and nce in lating them under de emogecal faith Ost Lod hed heated them frm the Minds and tyranny in which they were subjects ofthe den... Wh i sl more weighty, the most cused And perere vet of Maar had begun, Grous it flowers and Aces, to spread and scatter Orouph tome of the Hands of thi luchiplgo ie petent and borate ced; but the toe God wos Pesed st at tne toring the Spach pele into thes lands, Which was a cre and remedy forthe mort snes hich the sd Mabometan st has lady commenced to eaten them. Bess hi, ‘he Spaniards ha ied them fom the tyranny which the ie and lords wre potting themed of tnt wes and goods, whch ‘8th rats injury which could be acted upon term, Tey hee ‘so rermnded of he rea for hat Cod ou Lrdd pie toe in ‘ing them forthe ing and natural led the Cathie king, Don cu sot, 0 mii hm and keep them n pace and eG Sk moc pon od low. Our Lod might have ered seesngoet ofthe Mandan wove bre mae by ober ie ao ave not Ca ar sponse forthe ty wich Se cindy msl ve fle nto geste Wanda sod Se ES Neen and they wos not ine been 0 ch and SCuproned ney ae, nor wold the propery ve een 9 me "The “election” was solemnly caried out with the under sanding that the king and his subjects bound themselves to fender certs services to one another. "The King promised to fre them religu instruction, to rule them with justice, and to protect them from ther Infidel enemies. The chieftains agreed { pay 4 moderate tribute and to forgive all abusive exactions in the pat. Conquest Legtimized ‘Thus was conquest “legitimized” ata contractual agreement, and submission transformed into “iberaton.” "The oath of fealty of the chiefs wat used as the euppoted legal Eas forthe exation of tribute to apport the Church and the Spanish outpost in the Philippines. It alto influenced to a large degree the evolution of native institutions during the first century of rule. Quu-feudal practices and initutions. were ‘tabled although feudalism in its clasial Buropean form fid ‘not materialize in the lands, for the Kind of feudal Felations that eventually took root in the country were ‘conditioned by other factors. tl. Baranganic Societies Spanish colonisation was an alien force which interrupted and. redirected the course of development. of indigenous societies. is fut to speculate on the paricular characteristics of the Asian societies that might have emerge inthe archipelago if the laws of development operating within the social units then existing had not beon drastically modified by colonialism. I is however estential that as we tried to analyze the nature of Spanish tociety at the time of conquest, we should likewise examine the nature ofthe indigenous societies and their level of economic development at the moment of confrontation with Spanish colonialism. Proto-Anthropologsts Spanish clerical chroniclers left 4 lepicy of prote-anthro- pologicl observations which have toa very Inge degree formed the ‘basis for prevent” views and conclusions regarding the ‘re Hispanie past of the Philippines. Thee factor impited the fsccuracy and reduced the value of their observations! (1) thelr lack of taining at soci anthropologists, (2) thelr natural tendency to view and describe the sturtion in terms which ‘would justify their missionary presence, and (8) their inability, enforced by their conviction of racial supesonity, to eveluats fn Asian riety on its own terms.” ‘These limitations resulted in chronicles which often recorded the minutiae of life in indiscriminate fashion, tended. to generalize on the basis of limited observations, disparaged native customs and values because these dd not conform to Chistian norms or fended pertonal taree, and abore aly consistently Viewed preSpanish society from’ the: vantage point of the apie cl by thse Sant ouce, pinot hae tend a set th pre Spanish ave commoner a hengreashed NE thea te mune leel of development. A mor prio ae ius been the acceptance. of Wenten anaes which “read preston: wth Barpean model fhe ete tat Pipi Roan haw nderord coueract deopry sinaes of preSpanin cre by ping is acveenssseines tothe plato aaa, they hae taken few nee vo fe te dy of ‘Soy story tom bondage to Europea areotypen *N teopclogea sds of end Aan scctar ge ample ileneatadtnclyAtaa dvlopest which shld be ‘los fscer for na nights into the Phippine ps. This TOU omer scolar woul be beter qualified to urate Taunt orth present hat we setae of th xance of thawte! eso oc davopment and ofthe ange Ot frag tne inom ito bropen mc Nether al we atempt to doctbe the eros and practice, sconomie an asic sctompisnent rious Scie id var otal commeniies ina her taney snd

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