Professional Documents
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Review
Hypoxia-Inducible Factors
in Physiology and Medicine
Gregg L. Semenza1,*
1Vascular Program, Institute for Cell Engineering, Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological
Chemistry, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
*Correspondence: gsemenza@jhmi.edu
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2012.01.021
Oxygen is central to biology because it is used during respiration. O2 to hundreds of millions of millions of cells, such as the adult
O2 serves as the final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphory- Homo sapiens.
lation, which carries with it the risk of generating reactive oxygen
species (ROS). ROS react with cellular macromolecules and Hypoxia-Inducible Factors
alter their biochemical or physical properties, resulting in cell Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is expressed by all extant
dysfunction or death. As a consequence, metazoan organisms metazoan species analyzed to date (Loenarz et al., 2011).
have evolved elaborate cellular metabolic and systemic physio- HIF-1 consists of the subunits HIF-1a and HIF-1b. Each subunit
logical systems that are designed to maintain oxygen homeo- contains basic helix-loop-helix-PAS (bHLH-PAS) domains
stasis. This Review focuses on the role of hypoxia-inducible (Wang et al., 1995) that mediate heterodimerization and DNA
factors (HIFs) as master regulators of oxygen homeostasis binding (Jiang et al., 1996a). HIF-1b heterodimerizes with other
and, in particular, on recent advances in understanding their bHLH-PAS proteins and is present in excess, such that HIF-1a
roles in physiology and medicine. Due to space limitations and protein levels determine HIF-1 transcriptional activity (Semenza
the remarkably pleiotropic effects of HIFs, the description of et al., 1996).
such roles will be illustrative rather than comprehensive. Under well-oxygenated conditions, HIF-1a is bound by the
von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) protein. VHL recruits an ubiquitin
O2 and Evolution, Part 1 ligase that targets HIF-1a for proteasomal degradation (Kaelin
O2 started accumulating in Earth’s atmosphere 2.5 billion and Ratcliffe, 2008). VHL binding is dependent upon hydroxyl-
years ago. Increased availability of atmospheric O2 led to the ation of a specific proline residue in HIF-1a by the prolyl
evolution of an extraordinarily efficient system of oxidative hydroxylase PHD2. PHD2 uses O2 as a substrate, and thus,
phosphorylation that transfers chemical energy stored in carbon its activity is inhibited under hypoxic conditions (Epstein
bonds of organic molecules to the high-energy phosphate bond et al., 2001). In the reaction, one oxygen atom is inserted into
in ATP, which is used to power physicochemical reactions in the prolyl residue, and the other atom is inserted into the
living cells. Energy produced by mitochondrial respiration is cosubstrate a-ketoglutarate, splitting it into CO2 and succinate
sufficient to power the development and maintenance of multi- (Kaelin and Ratcliffe, 2008). Factor-inhibiting HIF-1 (FIH-1)
cellular organisms, which could not be sustained by energy represses HIF-1a transactivation function (Mahon et al.,
produced by glycolysis alone (Lane and Martin, 2010). The 2001). It hydroxylates an asparaginyl residue on HIF-1a, using
dimensions of primitive metazoan species were small enough O2 and a-ketoglutarate as substrates, thereby blocking the
that O2 could diffuse from the atmosphere to all of the organ- association of HIF-1a with the p300 coactivator protein (Lando
ism’s thousand cells, as is the case for the worm Caenorhabditis et al., 2002). Dimethyloxalylglycine (DMOG), which is a compet-
elegans. To escape the constraints placed on organismal itive antagonist of a-ketoglutarate, inhibits hydroxylases and
growth by diffusion, systems evolved that could conduct air to induces HIF-1-dependent transcription (Epstein et al., 2001).
cells deep within the body, and these designs were sufficient HIF-1 activity is also induced by iron chelators (e.g., desferriox-
for O2 delivery to organisms with hundreds of thousands of amine) and cobalt chloride, which inhibit hydroxylases by dis-
cells, such as the fly Drosophila melanogaster. The final leap placing Fe(II) from the catalytic center (Epstein et al., 2001).
in body scale occurred in vertebrates, and it was associated Studies in cultured cells (Jiang et al., 1996b) and isolated,
with the evolution of complex respiratory, circulatory, and perfused, and ventilated lung preparations (Yu et al., 1998)
nervous systems designed to efficiently capture and distribute revealed an exponential increase in HIF-1a levels at O2
O2 and Metabolism
The regulation of metabolism is a principal and primordial
function of HIF-1. Under hypoxic conditions, HIF-1 mediates
a transition from oxidative to glycolytic metabolism through its
regulation of four factors: PDK1, LDHA, BNIP3, and BNIP3L.
PDK1 encodes pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) kinase 1, which
phosphorylates and inactivates PDH, thereby inhibiting the
conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A for entry into the
tricarboxylic acid cycle (Kim et al., 2006; Papandreou et al.,
2006). LDHA encodes lactate dehydrogenase A, which converts
pyruvate to lactate (Semenza et al., 1996). Finally, BNIP3 (Zhang
et al., 2008) and BNIP3L (Bellot et al., 2009) mediate selective
mitochondrial autophagy (Figure 1). HIF-1 also mediates a
subunit switch in cytochrome c oxidase that improves the
Figure 1. Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
Under hypoxic conditions, hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) activates the
efficiency of electron transfer under hypoxic conditions (Fukuda
transcription of genes encoding the following: glucose transporters and et al., 2007). An analogous subunit switch is also observed
glycolytic enzymes, which increase the flux of glucose to pyruvate; in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, although it is mediated by a
PDK1 (pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase), which inactivates PDH (pyruvate
completely different mechanism (yeast lack HIF-1). This con-
dehydrogenase), the mitochondrial enzyme that converts pyruvate to acetyl
CoA for entry into the tricarboxylic acid (TCA/citric acid/Krebs) cycle; LDHA servation suggests that the subunit switch in cytochrome c
(lactate dehydrogenase), which converts pyruvate to lactate; and the mito- oxidase may represent a fundamental response of eukaryotic
chondrial proteins BNIP3 and BNIP3L, which induce mitochondrial-selective cells to hypoxia.
autophagy. The shunting of substrate away from the mitochondria reduces
ATP production but prevents excess ROS production that occurs due to It is conventional wisdom that cells switch to glycolysis for
inefficient electron transport under hypoxic conditions. ATP production when O2 becomes limiting. Yet, HIF-1a null
mouse embryo fibroblasts, which do not downregulate respira-
tion under hypoxic conditions, have higher ATP levels at 1%
concentrations <6% (40 mm Hg), which cannot be explained O2 than wild-type cells at 20% O2, demonstrating that under
by known biochemical properties of the hydroxylases. In most these conditions O2 is not limiting for ATP production (Zhang
adult tissues, O2 concentrations are in the range of 3%–5%, et al., 2008). However, the HIF-1a null cells die under prolonged
and any decrease occurs along the steep portion of the dose- hypoxic conditions due to ROS toxicity (Kim et al., 2006; Zhang
response curve, allowing a graded response to hypoxia. Anal- et al., 2008). These studies have led to a paradigm shift with
yses of cultured human cells have revealed that expression of regard to our understanding of the regulation of cellular metabo-
hundreds of genes was increased in response to hypoxia in lism (Semenza, 2010): the purpose of switching to glycolysis
a HIF-1-dependent manner (as determined by RNA interference) is to prevent excess mitochondrial generation of ROS that
with direct binding of HIF-1 to the gene (as determined by would otherwise occur due to the reduced efficiency of electron
chromatin immunoprecipitation [ChIP] assays). In addition, the transfer under hypoxic conditions (Chandel et al., 1998). This
expression of hundreds of genes was decreased in response may be particularly important in stem cells, in which avoidance
to hypoxia in a HIF-1-dependent manner, but binding of HIF-1 of DNA damage is critical (Suda et al., 2011).
to these genes was not detected (Mole et al., 2009). These
results indicate that HIF-dependent repression occurs via Role of HIFs in Development
indirect mechanisms, which include HIF-1-dependent expres- Much of mammalian embryogenesis occurs at O2 concentra-
sion of transcriptional repressors (Yun et al., 2002) and tions of 1%–5%, and O2 functions as a morphogen (through
microRNAs (Kulshreshtha et al., 2007). ChIP-seq studies have HIFs) in many developmental systems (Dunwoodie, 2009).
revealed that only 40% of HIF-1-binding sites are located within Mice that are homozygous for a null allele at the locus encoding
2.5 kb of the transcription start site (Schödel et al., 2011). HIF-1a die by embryonic day 10.5 with cardiac malformations,
In vertebrates, HIF-2a is a paralog of HIF-1a that is also vascular defects, and impaired erythropoiesis. Thus, all three
regulated by prolyl and asparaginyl hydroxylation. HIF-2a also components of the circulatory system are dependent upon
dimerizes with HIF-1b, but it is expressed in a cell-restricted HIF-1 for normal development (Iyer et al., 1998; Yoon et al.,
manner and plays important roles in erythropoiesis, vasculariza- 2011). Depending on the genetic background, mice lacking
tion, and pulmonary development. In D. melanogaster, the gene HIF-2a die by embryonic day 12.5 with vascular defects (Peng
encoding the HIF-1a ortholog is designated similar, and its et al., 2000) or bradycardia due to deficient catecholamine
paralog is designated trachealess because inactivating muta- production (Tian et al., 1998); die as neonates due to impaired
tions result in defective development of the tracheal tubes lung maturation (Compernolle et al., 2002); or die several months
(Wilk et al., 1996). In contrast, C. elegans has only a single after birth due to ROS-mediated multiorgan failure (Scortegagna
HIF-1a homolog (Epstein et al., 2001). Thus, in both invertebrates et al., 2003). Thus, although vertebrate evolution was associated
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