KURSUS REKABENTUK STRUKTUR KAYU (COURSE ON STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TIMBER)- KURSUS REKABENTUK STAUKTUA KAYU (COURSE ON STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TIMBER) 19-21 SEPTEMBER 1989 SINDUSTRIAN KAYU MALAYSIA DAN INSTITUT PERTYELIDIKAN PERHUTANAN, SIA, BRALAY Kemonterian Peruszhazn Utama Malaysia‘we BEES HEGRE REE ERE EEE 07 742403 DERIVATION OF PERNIGGIDLE OTRESSES YOR MALAYSIAN TIMBER DESTON by X.8, Low, B.Sc. (Hons), Ph.D. Institut Penyelidixan Perhutanan Malaysia (PRIM), Karung Berkunci.201, Jalan FRI, Kepong, 92208 Kuala Lumpur introduction de,fhown in Fig.2, structural timber designs follow similar Sesign prineiples and procedures that hae ished tor other Geppemiy, Used structural materials such as steele Pig hee enaicated that derivation of persissible “stresses 202 ett? gonstitutes an important integral part of Nevertheless, considerable lack of tinber tect eeugemary, Malaysians including engineers and acchivects secon resulted in difficulty of sequiris i for design and subsequentiy led shun away fron tinber in favour of other naterale Pedike Processed materiats (e.g. atest) tinber is a natural Breguet Hovever, "being organic with cellular etrustsee eat Serensth propertics of timber are affected uniquely by eames of factors such as load duration, moisture tonten’ cece Besctice, the effects caused by these factors "ase cottidertt Guring stresses derivation process, aseike in Fig-2, derivation of permissible tinber stresses for Geen generally involves’ four stages. they” incieae’ cee ‘(ijmmiation of (istrenstn “properties,” (Lijbasic. stresctt® (oeajStade, Stresses, and “(ivipermissibie stresses, a mens Gerafiea treatment on’each of these four stages till he preaces in the following sections. Btrength Properts, of Malaysian tinbors * Derivation of permissible stresses of tinber for wepin, with she deternination of “strength properties of ieee (rig.2);, Teeditionally, ‘strength. properties ‘of wataveten times SENS 0, subsect’ of ‘investigation at PRIN TAC piaeeer Sthefgth properties of ‘nore than i70 tinbor species nepeeenty, Egeted and decunented in the Malayaian Forest secviay meee” Ueatlet No.34 (Lee et at., 1979). ‘Standard teste to aetence e design normanly Rethods of testing employed had been describ, qecnsard Bs 373:1957 (Anon., 1957) and American sosienstss ‘Testing Materials AstM D143-52 (anon., “1968. In the past canenePETES PEFTSRREREEEEEES size of 2x2" vas used but this has been switched to 2-cm x 2-cm as a result of meirication (Lavers, 1969}. In practice, timber strength properties “are obtained tron extensive sampling and analysis procedures. In Trade Leaflet on 34, the mean ultimate strength values, the number of tests snd the standard deviations of the test results are given. As can be seen in the subsequent sections, these information are casential fer the derivation of basic stressea, In sddition, strengch properties presented are obtained from tasts on green and air-dry, materials with their moisture contents given. The typical strength properties of a few Malaysia timbers vere extracted trom ‘Trade Leaflet No.34 and shown in Table 1. Generally, strength properties usually raquired for timber design 4) The modulus of rupture in bending, 4) the maximus Conpreseive strength parallel to the grain, iii) The “Raximum compressive strength perpendiouiat to the grain, and iv) The,maxinun Shear strength parallel to the grain. Basic stress of Mimber ' Strength properties of Malaysian timbers obtained from standard fests using small clear specimens, cannot be directiy used in timber design. This is due to variability of tinber and other factors such as moisture content, size and shape of mamsers, duration and condition of loading etc. that have considercsie influences on the structural properties of timber. For exazple, in practice, structural timbers are of mich larger sizes than test specimens, the load say be applied for an indefinite period instead of a fev minutes to failure under normal test conditions in the laboratory. The moisture content under the conditions of use may be ditterent from those of teat epecimens. consequestly, the average ultinate stresses derived fron standard tests have to be adjusted/nodified to account for the various strength reduction factors before they can be used in design. In the pest, the ultinate stresses obtained from standard tests were reduced using some arbitrary factors to achieve what Xnows as ‘working stresses’. However, these arbitrary factors ‘were found to be over conservative and led to poor uti¥isetion ot Eimber for structural purpose. ‘Gince then, ‘considerable oaount of information on strength reducing factors were collectes and FRIM proceeded to derive the basic and grade stresses which eventually were incorporated into the Malayelan standard MS Se¢ 3978 (Anon. 3978) = In MS 544; 1978, the basic stress was defined as:- wrhe atrese which can safely be permanently eusteined - by timber containing» no “strength reducing charactorieticat| SEPP RR RE SERRE RBREBE RE EE ¥ in general, basic stresses are governed ‘by the general gharacteriaties of particular epecies, tree tron ‘aii Uiiead defects and axe related to the strengins of the tisher “Aeible unseasoned and seasoned conditions respectively. As shown in Fig.3, for the purpose of deriving basic stresses of timbers fron ite ‘strength properties the following facors ace considered:~ 5 i.) Variability of strength Strength of timber varies widely oven within a particular species, this is due to such factors as condition oe geowth," age, heredity end source. However, “Ie hac “bess getablished that for a large nunbor of ‘teste, "Ee? Gistribution of strangth foliews tha normed seatigcisee distribution, ‘this statistical propability of model sas es used to account for variability ‘in the derivation of dusne stress. “Apart from the econowivs of the countsy, the crates Seadnis Probability depends cubstantially ‘on’ engingesiog judgement and experience. “In Malaysia ‘where tianed Fesoruces are rich but construction kill is reili isu’. probability of 1 in 100 that the minimus serencoy’¢> sxceeded has been chosen for the conpucation os waste Stresses of the following etrength i, bending ii. tension 444. cospression parallel to the grain Vv." modulus of elasticity eoperties i= Statistically, the minimum value, BVI, correspenge to this probability {8 'given a WA (prob: 1 in 100) = ( % = 2.33 6) Egea ip the case of compression perpendicular to the grain, failure of tisber under this. condition rarely occurs suddenly “and the paxinun load is carried indefinitely with increasing detomtiny® Hence, the strength is taken ae that at the Gimet cr proportionality. For this reason, a higher probability of 1 in 96 is dustifiable ‘tor this strength ‘proparty” ona’ the orgsponaisg sinimun value, Mv2, ie equal to r= v2 (prob. 2 in 40) = (2 - 2.96 0) Ba.2 The symbols have similar meanings as £q.1 if, Duration of Loading For timber, it has been established that the longer the Guration of loading the lover the load required to caste failure. Wovever, it should be pointera out ‘chee experimental evidences of the effects of duration on lostiey ghd the reasons for the behaviour of change in strength ine five are still limited,S®SH8ESHRRPRZERBRHREREEED and shape of Members As mentioned before, actual structural sizes are much larger than the small spécinens used to produce test reser’ furthermore, actual structural mesbers of tiuher may have rectangular or even: round cross sections wnherecs "ave specimens tested are normally squared in cross sectien. ne date, “botn “in Malaysia or @isevhere experiments had’ been carried out to invest of size and shape of soubora on their screngeh propersice iv) Factor of satety in general, this factor of safety covers accidental overloading,” errors in design assumptions and mistarce ah analysis and during fabrication. Till to date three factors of (1i) to (iv) cannot be detersined in a scientific manner and it is dependent upon incensed intornation only on the behaviour of laboratory test spectacne Father than actual structural componente, the sive of the feamne is determined only from engineering judgement. in practice oniya single reduction tactor is applied to a strangth property ‘ts account for the three factora conosrned. As @ result, Girtecote factors are used fer varied strength properties. For “exaspiee factors of 2.5, 2.6, 1.5, 1.3 end 1,0 are appited to beniie! shear, compression’ parallel and perpendicular to the grain rad soduliis of elasticity respectively: Jo determine basic siresses for different strength properties sinply divide oither Eq.1 or bg.2 by ‘the seievant rometiee factors given in the preceding section. A 2ict of formstee ten evaluate basic stresses te shown in Table 2. Novever, it pust be pointed out that for a nunber of reasons, the factors’ edopted in HS 544 : 1978 to derive basic cesesne; the slightly higher than those used in the Pritish standard cr ist 1967. “Until more evidences can he collected on the suscess of using these values, higher values of factor of entaty ace Recessary to provide greater confidence in the use of tne nanis stresses, Unless further refinenente to the Values of the fantete gan be achieved a slight sacrity In econony for carsth ne inevitable and justiriabie. a Effects of Meiature Content (Hc). Most of the mechanical propertios of timber are affected by changes in Mc below the Fibre Saturation Point (rb) amend oh, Rost, local timbers lies between 25 and 30 per cent Me. ane Loe may be defined as the moisture at vhich the cell wall’ of tinct ig completely saturated vith vater but with no water pesca ay the cell lumen ‘or cavity AB shown in Pig.4, most of the strength properties of wood vary inversely with the Mc ‘below FSP. Above "FSP. the “cecenark= a a a a a rT] ia r a r a a . B- a a a a t properties are constant with changes in MC. It may be possibie ko take advantage of tho increase in strength with redustion te HC Below FSP." However, the derects) that accompanying, shrinvace below FSP can offset and Limit advantage obteinea, Green Basic Stress and Dry Basic stress [pois lBPy pater Rerpoee, the mexioun Mc, tor ay conditions to apply dry basic stresses 16 19 por cent and above this oniyneets, etfedees” shoul “be “used. "rn Rockies, “eho eu aa OUAY, Free Below 29 per cent He increases ‘rapidly ‘over a thickness of saree (arin) z Honce, green basic stresses are normally emsloced fon solid timber nenber in excess of 100sms (iin However, soma modifications are required in order to compute cic stresses, $4, (La. the ultinate stress at 19 persone sat (ora Noaiean fotmits, So ginee mucins, SErese 2 22 4 Purpose. Me ‘ Bq. Where, 5, = Ultimate etress et FSP (1.0. 25 ¢ H.c) assumed to be equal to green stress, S: = Ultinate stress from air-dry costs Mi n= 25 € (agoumed FSP) Wot Alr-ary moisture content tron tect, My = 18 ¥ (ox. moisture content ‘for ary condition) Tt should be noted, novever, that fo: Eensile stress parallel to the grain is consideres ae eqeiorient ko the bending ‘stress. this ‘te eo because although eee strength of timber pareiel to the grain is greater then Kengite gerongth, defects neve a greater intiuence ‘cn tensiie stece fhan on"other strength ‘properties. on ‘the “other ‘hand, basic stress derivation, shes stress values are the average of the tact results for Moa eeet and radial "stresses because the Glfterence’ or the: senha sa tuo directions ia negligible. An example denostrating th basic stresses for Kenpas’ op. Appenaix 1. Rethod of deriving green ané dry jecies of tinhor is iilutrates ih Stress Grading Im practice, it is almost impossible to obtain and to use defect free tisber. Therefore, in order to use structural tines cafect dest advantage, .some fora; of grading which specify the oive ne 5GGG BRE RBBB REBEEE EE aefecté atfecting the strength properties of timber 1s necessary. {Howe eve types of grading, namely (4)quality grading and seadinrees «SEAGIG. are “commonly used In Malayele yeaa fee QED. which Ss based on external appearance of ene plese ty Simper, 36 Mot suitable for structural purposes becabae once ShEEying capacity of tinber wenbers. Gherefore, atrete vraniee which grades tinber according to its ability to carey 1am Te Service is adopted for structure! tiaber TReTMEE EYStER Of grading, tinber is visually graded by accessing ans .Sfeeet OF growth aq ali au seasoning detcccs suck oe 4acke! Grain, dtzections, splits, shakes, etc. on the “strengty ea Liniting ‘the size of these defects. altnough viciny tera’ Gigding is not a very accurate or fact method but it gine ee jainst collapse under “a particular lead “and? Yonce” lead to a nore efficient use of tlaber, Jradsstion J on Stress Grading of MOR three visual stress Grades, known as Select structural, ‘standaca ¢fmauel Gounon building, are provided. the Select stncenuey Einberg are uscd for’ epeciai purposes, parcicaierss gitength/weisht ratio of the tinber 1 to be waninea wa? for transmission lines and trusses of very lone” cosh. are, on the other hand, used for normal, purposes only and the conson Structural erate vineeed Bpdntended for menbers used in the less importens pose ee pes vhich are not . usually — designed by’ ease De iagas!’ f0Ethe engineer, larger nunber of tinber grades vould conned oHoMever,, Bany other considerations such as esaitloed Seeeuiat tons im geaqing, desion, specification, fabricesia md Hugging go noe dustity “tne econoay of too mane ween utthermore, considering large musber of “Cinber epeties eee, nuaber ae? git gtalavsia, ‘the problen would be innensea if’ larse IUBPSE OF Tages exists. For these reasons, three tress Greare’ ‘+e: Select, Standard and Counon, ara considered to be alecnnes Grade stresses . ‘The grade stress was defined in HS 544 ; 1978 asi~ ughe strosa vaich can safely be rnanentiy sustained by tinber of Particuler grade In order to derive grade stresses, the relationship between SeeeRgE™ OF og timber “of a particular grade with the lieiting gefecte: 20 defined in WGR, and the strength of tinber free find defects must bo known. he shown in Fig.5,” the waduaon ge strength due to a detect ie exprecaed’ in terns of the Seceagen Fr ct ien is defined ag the ratio of the strength oft eigee of Cimber with a defect and the strength of ‘the same eosSBSFZUSERBEBBEEREEBESBEEGE without the defect. That is : Re we = Where R= strength ratio u © the etrangth of a piece of timber with defect(s) Uw the strength of ‘the sane piece of tinber without aezect (s) a Hence, a strength ratio of 80 (per cent vould indicate tinber contains defect(s) that reduce ita strength with no defects by 20 percent. The strength ratios assigned to various atrongth properties of thres stress grades are shown in Table 3. Perhaps it ie worth to mention that although the defects within a particular grade has been defined and strength ratio assessed, ‘no So far been carried out on Malaysian timbers to ase the strength reducing characterictics. Nevertheless, due ‘fons haa bean given to the reduction In strength due to fects curing the establishnent of etree gracing rules in the derivation of grade stresses, the strength ratios are applica directly to the basic stresses int 4) bending, 41) tension paratiel to the grain, and Aif) coupregsion perailel to the grain hat is i= Grade strese (¢) = R x Basic stress (B) 2.5 However, in the case of compression perpendicular to the grain, if is not affected by knota and. the governing defect is the aise of vane, lence, grade strosses for this case is calculated on ble wane within the particular grade. Tn another case of shear parallel to the grain, the governing @efects are fissures (Checks, shakes and splits) the grade oe Csietlated bascd ‘on perniseiblo flesures for the "Staalar grade, Furthermore, defect in visual stress grading sumed’ to have no effect on the overall otif{ness of a luomecls BBA Fesult, the Values Of moduli of elasticity are the seme for all grades, ‘The above method is applicable to green grade stresses. with dry Grade strecsos ono may wish to take advantage of the increase ih Strength as tinber dries beloy PSP. In the derivation of dry Basic tresses, hovever, the strength Le offset to a” certain extent by checking vhich occurs during drying. Thus, the strese allowed depends on the particular strength property being Considered. For example, checke generally affect the shear ‘Strength nore than ether strength propertics and it follows that ‘the increase in shear for dry grade stress should not be to a similar eytent as for other strength properties. That is vhy dnERREDS SE RRGRRERERRREE the derivation of dry grade stvess in shear, a further reduction is applied to the ehear sccors after it has been multiplied by the Strengen ratio. An example chowing the method of deriving green and dry grade Stresses is presented in Appendix 2. Turthermore, the basic and grade stresses for sone Malaysian tinbers can be obtained from the Malaysian Forest Service ‘trade Leaflet No.37 (TL 37)(ENgKU Abdul Rahnan bin chik, 1980a) ° Basic and grade stresses for strength groups of Malaysian einbers. Malaysian forests, vhich are very heterogeneous in nature, have yielded large umber of species of timber for, various Epplications. fo date, at lest 70 species have been identitied aha widely used in bulliding construction. ‘The availability of Such & large munber of tinber species has oftan produced problem fo their users e.g. in predicting species available to thea. The fact that many Malayelan building professionals ate lacking timber technological knowledge will, of course, aggravate this probien further, in order to relieve this problem and to pave way Ror wider utilization of structural timber, strength grouping systen of classifying timber vac devised. Under thie system timber species having similar strength and ‘stiffness properties are placed in the sane strength group, ‘The position or placing of the timber species in the group Ls determined by their green and Dy necessity, the minimum basic stress for the Will determine the basic and grade stresses for As shown in Table ¢, the existing malaysian systen of strength Grouping claseified structural timbers Into 4 groupe of A, by C and D in order of decreasing conpressive strength. In addition, the basic and grade stresses for these four strength grouse are availsbie from the Walaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet Nose (HL 38) (Engku Abdul Rahgan bin Chik, 1980). ‘he use of strength grouping method, which can handle a wide range of timber species available effectively should be eneouraged. Using this method a tinber designer need only to specify the strength group in design and the bulléerstwould have avwide range of species to select from, Nonetheless, this nethod Sf specification say lead to inefficient weilization of the Stronger species of tinber. Despite this shortcoming, however, if a designer visnes to take full agvantage of the strengen of a Particular species and its supply is plentiful then selective Specification method, as against strangth grouping method, can be employed such that di¢ferent species are seperately specifies and their individual grade stresses used. Although 75 species are shown in Table 4, other species may be “added to ‘the list once sufficient strength data of these new Species hecone available. In the light of new research findings,