Reviewer in Biology

General Biology 2
Here is where your journey begins
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the animal’s epithelial tissue and its function

2. describe the characteristics of the animal’s connective tissue
3. compare and contrast the different muscle tissues in the animal’s body
4. describe the structure and functions of plant tissues
5. cite examples of plant tissues and their location in a particular organ
6. describe the structures and functions of th different plant organ
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 1.2
ANIMAL’S PLANT’S
SPECIALIZED SPECIALIZED
STRUCTURES STRUCTURE
 Cells grow, mature and undergo
differentiation in multicellular animals.
Tissues are formed as a result of cell
differentiation. A tissue is a group of similar
cells that performing a common function.
Tissue sections are treated with biological
stains to differentiate cells and tissues and
to have a clearer view of the different parts
under the microscope. Animal cells are
organized into specialized groups with
distinct functions that form different tissues
 Tissues may be recombined to form an
organ, which is a group of tissues working
together to perform a complex job.
Four types of tissues found in the
animals

EPITHELIAL CONNECTIVE
TISSUE TISSUE

MUSCULAR NERVOUS
TISSUE TISSUE
EPITHELIAL TISSUES

 Epithelial tissues are the tissues that lines and orders and
organizes your body to avoid chaos.
 Does everything to protect your deeper layers of tissue
from injury or infection
 Proper Epithelium covers and lines your outer and inner
body.
 Glandular Epithelium forms your glands and secretes
hormones and other substances
There are 3 types of epithelium
according on their shape

SQUAMOUS CUBOIDAL COLUMNAR

CELLS CELLS CELLS
- for fast absorption and - Absorbs nutrients
diffusion making thin - Absorb nutrients
- Produce secretions
membranes
- Protective in
function
- Found in lungs and
skin

The shape of each kind of epithelial cell correlates with its functions
There are 3 types of epithelium
according on the number of layers
SIMPLE EPITHELIAL STRATIFIED PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
TISSUE EPITHELIAL TISSUE EPITHELIAL TISSUE
A simple epithelium is A stratified epithelium is a type of A pseudostratified epithelium tissue is
an epithelial tissue epithelial tissue that is composed of a “Falsely stratified” epithelium. It is
made up of only one more than one layer of epithelial cells. made up of columnar cells that are
layer of epithelial cells. The basal layer is the only one that is tall and thin and form irregular
These cells are in in contact with the basal lamina. This shapes. The cells appear to form
direct contact with the layer is also the one that undergoes several layers, but are actually
basement membrane. mitotic division producing cells in the arranged in a single layer, and all its
And often the layer upper layers. cells rest on the basement
underneath the The stratified epithelium is found in membrane. Pseudostratified
basement membrane the skin wherein the apical layer epithelium is found in the upper
is a connective tissue. becomes heavily keratinized before respiratory tract as ciliated types.
The simple epithelium dying. Stratified epithelia usually have
is primarily involved in a mechanical or protective role.
absorption and
filtration.
Naming Epithelial Tissues
SIMPLE
SQUAMOUS
EPITHELIUM
Consists of a single layer of flattened
cells and usually found in thin barriers
where exchange of nutrients, wastes
and respiratory gases occur
They are found in the alveoli of the
lungs where gas exchange takes
place and in capillaries where
diffusion and osmosis takes place.
STRATIFIED
SQUAMOUS
EPITHELIUM
Formed from multiple layers of cells resting on
a basement membrane, with the superficial
layer(s) consisting of squamous cells.
Underlying cell layers can be made of cuboidal
or columnar cells as well.
Naming Epithelial Tissues

SIMPLE STRATIFIED
CUBOIDAL CUBOIDAL
EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM
Filters our blood from toxic
substances. Found mainly on glands, which specialize in
Helps in absorption of waste materials selective absorption and secretion by the gland
from our blood to excrete them out of into blood or lymph vessels.
our body.
Naming Epithelial Tissues
SIMPLE
COLUMNAR
EPITHELIUM
Simple columnar epithelia are tissues
made of a single layer of
long epithelial cells that are often
seen in regions where absorption
and secretion are important features.
The cells of this epithelium are
arranged in a neat row with the nuclei
at the same level, near the basal
end.
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
COLUMNAR
EPITHELIUM
Pseudostratified columnar epithelia are tissues
formed by a single layer of cells that give the
appearance of being made from multiple
layers, especially when seen in cross section.
Protects the lungs from irritants and trap
particles to prevent them from travelling further
down respiratory passages.
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
 Connective tissues include a large group of different tissues
characterized by having dispersed cells and large
extracellular matrix.
 The extracellular matrix includes protein fibers (collagen,
elastic, or reticular), ground substances secreted mostly by
the cells of the connective tissue and cells.
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Protection Structural Connection

support and Binding

Transportatio
Immune n Storage
function and
repair of body
parts
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

CONNECTIVE FLUID
TISSUE CONNECTIVE
PROPER TISSUE
SUPPORTING
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

LOOSE DENSE
CONNECTIVE CONNECTIVE
TISSUE TISSUE
Areolar Regular

Adipose Irregular

Reticular Elastic
 RETICULAR
AREOLAR LOOSE LOOSE
CONNECTIVE CONNECTIVE
TISSUE TISSUE
 Viscous ground substance ADIPOSE LOOSE 
Viscous ground substance
 Elastic and collagen fiber CONNECTIVE 
Reticulin fibers
 Fibroblast (binds skin) 
Reticular cells
 Good blood supply
TISSUE
 Adipocytes 
Made up of reticulocytes
 Surrounds organs and blood (specialized fibroblasts)
vessels  Extracellular matrix
 Good blood supply, stores energy,  Provide the supporting framework
insulates organs, acts as cushion for the bone marrow and lymphoid
 Filled with flat droplets (bone-cell making organs)
 Cell nucleus
 REGULAR DENSE
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
 Ground substance
 Fibroblast nucleus
 Collagen fibers
 Not good blood supply, long
healing, time found in tendons and
ligament
IRREGULAR
DENSE
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
 Ground substance
 Fibroblast nucleus
 Collagen fibers
 Richer blood supply, can handle
stress, found in skin and on
covering of bone
ELASTIC DENSE
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Densely packed elastic fibers
Flattened Fibroblasts
Ground substance
Found in trachea, vocal cords and
some artery walls.
 Can stretch 1.5 times its normal
length and then recoil.
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE

CARTILAGE BONE
Hyaline Compact bone

Fibrocartilage Spongy bone

Elastic
 HYALINE ELASTIC
CARTILAGE CARTILAGE
 Chondrocyte cell  Lacunae
 Lacunae  Chondrocyte
 Ground substance FIBROCARTILAGE  Elastic fibers
 Poor blood supply, slow to heal  Very flexible
 Found in nose and respiratory  Chondrocyte
 Collagen fibers  Found in ears and epiglottis
passage (prevents swallowed food from
 Lacunae
 Very tough, absorbs shock entering the trachea)
 Found in spinal discs and meniscus
 COMPACT BONE

 Also called cortical bone surrounds

spongy bone.
 Heavy tough and compact in
nature
COMPACT BONE
 Makes up 80 percent of the human
skeleton
SPONGY BONE
 Forms a shell around cancellous
bone and is the primary component
of the long bones of the arm and SPONGY BONE
leg and other bones, where its
greater strength and rigidity are  There are far more uncompacted
needed space
 Lighter and less dense than
compact bone
 Consists of plates (trabeculae) and
bars of bone adjacent to small,
irregular cavities that contain the
bone marrow
 FLUID CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
 Blood is a special type of
connective tissue with a liquid
matrix called the blood plasma
 Includes erythrocytes for the
transport of oxygen
 Leukocytes for the body’s defense
against infection
 Thrombocytes for blood clotting
 The blood transports nutrients to
cells and removes carbon dioxide
and other wastes.
 The blood also regulates the fluids,
ions and pH balance of the body
General Biology 2
Here is where your journey begins
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the animal’s epithelial tissue and its function

2. describe the characteristics of the animal’s connective tissue
3. compare and contrast the different muscle tissues in the animal’s body
4. describe the structure and functions of plant tissues
5. cite examples of plant tissues and their location in a particular organ
6. describe the structures and functions of th different plant organ
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLANT’S
1.1
ANIMAL’S
1.2
SPECIALIZ
ED
SPECIALIZED STRUCTU
STRUCTURES RE
 Cells grow, mature and undergo
differentiation in multicellular animals.
Tissues are formed as a result of cell
differentiation. A tissue is a group of similar
cells that performing a common function.
Tissue sections are treated with biological
stains to differentiate cells and tissues and
to have a clearer view of the different parts
under the microscope. Animal cells are
organized into specialized groups with
distinct functions that form different tissues
 Tissues may be recombined to form an
organ, which is a group of tissues working
together to perform a complex job.
Four types of tissues found in the
animals

EPITHELIAL CONNECTIVE
TISSUE TISSUE

MUSCULAR NERVOUS
TISSUE TISSUE
MUSCULAR TISSUES CONTRACT
 Contractile tissues responsible for movement
 THE MUSCLE CELLS (OR MORE ACCURATELY
CALLED MUSCLE FIBERS) THAT MAKE UP MUSCLE
TISSUES CONTAIN MYOSIN AND ACTON, PROTEINS
INVOLVED IN MUSCLE CONTRACTION.
 HAVE SPECIAL ABILITY TO SHORTEN OR CONTRACT
IN ORDER TO PRODUCE MOVEMENT OF THE BODY
PARTS
 THE TISSUE IS HIGHLY CELLULAR AND IS WELL
SUPPLIED WITH BLOOD VESSEL
SKELETAL CARDIAC
MUSCLE MUSCLE

SMOOTH
MUSCLE
 SKELETAL MUSCLE/ STRIATED
MUSCLE
 Most abundant muscle
 Cover the skeleton and give our body its general
shape
 There are over 650 skeletal muscles in the body
 Attach to the bones either directly or via tendons
 Voluntary motion
 Muscles pull on the bones of the skeleton
 Maintain posture
 Swallowing lexcretion
 Maintain optimal body temperature
 Multinucleated
 Tiers of structure within skeletal muscle
 CARDIAC MUSCLE
 Cardiomyocytes
 Contraction pumps blood out of
the heart
 Striped/ striated because they also
have myofibers and sarcomere
 Can communicate
 Electrical stimulus travels through
gap junctions
 Muscle contraction is coordinated
 The heart works as pump
 Involuntary
 The heart is innervated by the
autonomic nervous system
 SMOOTH MUSCLE
 Found in organs
 Do not present a banding pattern, instead a long
spindle shape
 Present in blood vessel walls (regulates pressure and
distributes blood )
 Present in airways (controls passage of air)
 Present in digestive tract walls (contracts to push food
along)
 Present in bladder (contracts to expel urine)
 Present in the reproductive system (walls of uterus)
 Have one single nuclues
LONGITUDINAL LAYER
CIRCULAR LAYER
NERVOUS TISSUES CONDUCT
 To do all things, cells in nervous tissue need to be able to
communicate with each other by way of electrical nerve
impulses.
 The nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called
neurons, which are found in the brain and spinal cord.
 Neurons are specialized cells that conduct impulses to and
from the brain.
 A typica neuron is made up of three parts: dendrites, cell
body and axon.
 DENDRITES
 Dendrites are projections of a neuron that
receive the signal from other neurons.
 The transfer of information from one neuron to
another is achieved through chemical signals
and electric impulses that is electrochemical
signals.
 The information transfer is usually receive at the
dendrites through chemical signals, then it
travels to the cell body, continues along the
neuronal axon as electric impulses and it is
finally transferred onto the next neuron at the
synapse, which is the place where the two
neurons exchange information through chemical
signals.
 The branches resemble the branches of a tree
in the sense that they extend from the soma or
body of the neuron and open up into gradually
smaller projections.
CELL BODY
 The cell body also known as the
soma contains the nucleus and
cytoplasm.
 The cell body is the neuron’s core.
 The carries genetic information,
maintains the neuron’s structure,
and provides energy to drive
activities.
 It is enclosed by a membrane
which both protects it and allows it
to interact with its immediate
surroundings
 AXON
 An axon is a long, tail-like structure
which joins the cell body at a
specialized junction called the axon
hillock.
 Many axons are insulated with the fatty
substance called myelin.
 Myelin helps axon to conduct an
electrical signal communicating with
other neurons until it reach the
secretory region.
 When neurons reach the secretory
region neurotransmitters are released
which will either inhibit or excites other
nerve cells.
CLASSIFYING NEURONS BY STRUCTURE

UNIPOLAR BIPOLAR MULTIPOLAR

Has single axon Has two axes Composed of 3
that quickly found on specific or more process
divides into parts of the eye (axon and
single branches or the nose. e dendrites) 99 %
of neurons are
dendrites.
CLASSIFYING NEURONS BY FUNCTION

SENSORY/ AFFARENT
NEURONS MOTOR/EFFERENT INTERNEURONS
NEURONS
Transmits from sensory Transmit from CNS Sit in between and help
receptors to Central to muscle/glands, shuttle signals around.
Nervous System (CNS) always multipolar Typically multipolar and
and is typically unipolar neurons very common on CNS
neurons.
COMMON FEATURES OF NEURONS

RECEPTIVE REGION Stimulus received

CONDUCTING REGION Signal travels through

TRIGGER ZONE Initiates the conducting region

SECRETORY Neurotransmitters released

REGION
ORGAN SYSTEMS: MAJOR ORGANS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
SYSTEM MAJOR STRUCTURES FUNCTIONS
Integumentary Skin, nails, and hair Protects against injury, infection and fluid
loss
Provides structure and support
Muscular Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscular tissues Moves limbs and trunk
Moves substances through the body
Provides structure and support
Skeletal Bones and joints Protects and supports the body and
organs
Interacts with skeletal muscles
Circulatory Heart, blood vessels, blood lymph nodes and Transports nutrients, gases, ions,
vessels and lymph hormones, and wastes
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs Regulates behavior
Maintains homeostasis
Regulates other organ systems
Controls sensory and motor functions
Digestive Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, Extracts and absorbs nutrients from food
and small and large intestines Removes wastes
Maintains water and chemical balances
ORGAN SYSTEMS: MAJOR ORGANS AND
THEIR FUNCTIONS

SYSTEM MAJOR STRUCTURES FUNCTIONS

Excretory Kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters Removes wastes from the blood
and urethra Regulates concentration of body
fluids
Endocrine Hypothalamus and pituitary gland Regulates body temperature,
metabolism, development, and
reproduction
Maintains homeostasis
Regulates other organs systems
Reproductive Testes and penis in males; ovaries Produces gametes and offsprings
and uterus in females
Immune White blood cells, lymph nodes and Defends against pathogens and
vessels and skin diseases
Respiratory Lungs, nose, mouth and trachea Moves air, into and out of lungs
Controls gas exchange between
blood and lungs
ANALYZE THE PICTURES

PLANTS
ANALYZE THE PICTURES

TISSUE
Plant Form
and Function
Lesson 1.2
 Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to,

1. describe plant system in terms of reproduction, development,

nutrition and gas exchange and transport
2. describe examples of homeostasis and the major features of
feedback loops that produces such homeostasis
3. explain how organisms maintain steady internal conditions from
specialized structures and processes
Whoa!
There are more than 350,000 known
species and more are to be discovered
and named in the years to come. Their
fascinating morphology and their ability
to regulate and maintain homeostasis
are being studied by botanists.
Associated with the presence of
vascular tissues is the development of
plant organs that are specialized from
essential plant functions
 Organs that allow the plant to live and grow are called
vegetative organs.
 The root anchors the plant to the soil for support and absorbs
water and minerals from the soil.
 The stem is the main axis of the plant together with its
branches. It functions as a support and for the transport of
water and nutrients absorbed by the roots to the leaves. It also
distributes the products of photosynthesis to the other plant
parts.
 The leaves are responsible for the manufacture of food by
photosynthesis.
 Flowers, fruits and seeds are involved in reproduction.
DIFFERENT PLANT ORGANS
 Leaves are the chief organs or plants for photosynthesis. Because of this,
leaves need a constant supply of vital elements of solar energy, carbon,
dioxide and water.
Leaves  Plants differ in terms of ability of the leaves to change color.
 Deciduous plants change the colors of their leaves with the changing of
the season or lose them with the onset of the winter.
 Evergreens, on the other, remain green all the time.

Evergreen plants
Deciduous plants
DIFFERENT PLANT ORGANS
 A stem is an above ground structure that supports the leaves, transports water and
important nutrients between roots and leaves, and produces new tissue for growth.
 A node is formed between the leaf or leaves are attached to the stem, whereas the region
Stem in between nodes is an internode.
 A herbaceous stem has no relation to cambium growth, that is why it is soft.
 Woody stems on the other hand, are hard and rigid, as seen in trees.
 For other perennial plants, stems aid in the reproduction, from the modified underground
structures such as bulb, tubers and rhizome, which can be a new shoot system.

Herbaceous Stem
WoodyStem
DIFFERENT PLANT ORGANS

 The root systems enable a plant to anchor itself in the soil

while absorbing water and minerals (nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and other organic molecules) to the rest of its body.
 Grasses have fibrous roots that can attach to the soil whereas
a carrot’s taproot stores the product of photosynthesis.
 Adventitious roots arise from an organ other than the roots,
such as the stem or a leaf and can be modified

Roots
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
 Plant growth, from seed germination to maturity,
involves a combination of cellular responses and
molecular interaction.
 Water uptake allows plants to metabolically utilize the
chemical compounds and micronutrients obtained
from the surrounding of the soil.
 The presence of root hairs in some plants increases
the surface are for water absorption.

ROOT
NODULES
The root nodules of leguminous
plants are caused by nitrogen-
fixing bacteria belonging to the
genus Rhizobium.
RHIZOMES
Rhizome, also called creeping
rootstalk, horizontal
underground plant stem capable
of producing the shoot and root
systems of a new plant.
PROP
ROOTS
Any modified roots that arise
from the stem of certain plants
and provide extra support. Such
stems are usually tall and
slender and the prop roots
develop at successively higher
levels as the stem elongates.
Plant Tissue
 Meristematic Tissue
 Surface Tissue
 Fundamental Tissue
 Vascular Tissue Transport
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
 Cells are very active
 Have dense cytoplasm and distinct nucleus to carry out division
 Small, thin-walled, and with no central vacuole and specialized
features
 Small or no vacuoles as do not need to store anything for long
 Part of the plant where growth is the fastest

Apical
Meristem

Intercalary
Meristem

Lateral
Meristem
SURFACE TISSUE
 Surface or dermal tissues cover and protect the surface of the different
plant organs
 The cells that make up the cell tissues are usually flattened with their top
and bottom surfaces parallel.

Root hairs Guard cells Cork

Cutin
A slender projections Modified epidermal Covers the outer surface
A waxy substance
found in the epidermal cells found on of the bark of woody
that prevents water
cells of roots, which leaves that function stems and roots.
loss.
enable the cell’s to open or close the
modification to increase stomata.
the surface area of the
root for absorption.
FUNDAMENTAL TISSUE
 Fundamental or ground tissues form the main bulk of plants.
 They fill most of the spaces in any plant organ
 The cells that form the fundamental tissues are involved in the production
and storage of food and serves as support for the plant.
 Fundamental tissues are made up of three types of cells

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchym

cells cells a cells
 Large, thin-walled, and
usually have a large central
vacuole. They usually contain
plastids.

Parenchyma Sclerenchym
cells a cells
Have a thick secondary cell wall
in addition to the primary cell
They functions mainly as wall.
support. They are very
similar to parenchyma cells
except that they have a
thicker cell wall, which
explains their support
function.
Collenchyma
cells
VASCULAR TISSUE TRANSPORT
 Vascular tissues are complex conducting tissues that extend from the
roots to the leaves of plants

Xylem
Transports water and
minerals from roots to leaves
via the stem.

Phloem
Transports organic nutrients
in both directions along the
length of the plant.
Plant Nutrition
Plant nutrition refers to the supply and absorption of
chemical compounds for the growth and metabolism of
plants. These chemical compounds for growth are known as
plant nutrients or essential elements. Inorganic nutrients
are obtained from the environment via soil, air and water.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND PHYSIOLOGY IN
PLANTS
ELEMENTS FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS

Carbon, Hydrogen, Major constituents of organic plant material; assimilation of

Oxygen oxidation-reduction reactions.
Boron Cell wall synthesis, enzymatic reactions and metabolic pathways;
mitotic activity for root development.
Calcium Structural component if the cell wall and cell membrane; counter-
ion in the vacuole.
Chlorine Water splitting system of photosystem II; stomatal opening
regulation
Copper Cofactor for metalloproteins and enzymes ; photosynthetic electron
transport; cell wall metabolism and hormone signaling; oxidative
stress response
Iron Regulatory component of proteins and metabolites in roots and
leave
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND PHYSIOLOGY
IN PLANTS
ELEMENTS FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS
Magnesium Chlorophyll synthesis; cofactor in activation of ATPase

Manganese Photodestruction of cholorophyll and chloroplast

structure; enzymes activator; precursor of amino acid,
hormones(auxins) and lignins
Molybdenum Enzymes activation (e.g., nitrate reductase, catalase, and
ribonuclease); chlorophyll synthesis
Nickel Endosperm development and dehydrogenase activity;
urease activation for urea breakdown; root nodule growth

Nitrogen General plant growth of roots, stem, leaf, flowers and

fruits; chlorophyll synthesis
Phosphorus Energy transferring for photosynthesis and respiration
(ADP-ATP synthesis); structural component of
phospholipids, nucleic acids, coenzymes and nucleotides.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND
PHYSIOLOGY IN PLANTS
ELEMENTS FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS
Potassium Cell extension and stomatal regulation; enzyme
activation (kinase, starch synthase, and nitrate
reduction); photosynthetic activity (e.g., CO2 fixation
and pH regulation

Sulfur Assimilation of oxidation-reduction reactions;

participates in various enzymatic processes
Zinc Enzymatic function and reactivity; stem elongation;
protein and starch synthesis.
PLANT HORMONES, RESPONSES AND
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
 The nutrients are available as irregular patchy distribution in most soils which leads to
the limited access of nutrients in plants.
 Some lead to an induced expression of chemical transporters and collection of
enzymes and compounds to remobilize the sources present.
 Adaptive mechanism are also utilized by plants to increase or decrease growth in
organs that directly or indirectly involved in nutrient acquisition.
 In some cases, plants alter the growth patterns based on stress conditions such as a
decline in nutrient availability.
 Some plants contain anthocyanins to fight against photoinhibition brought about by
low nitrogen or phosphorus.
 Plants also use other means of barrier, such as physical and chemical to protect them
from pathogenic substances. As soon as a pathogen is detected by the plant system,
an inducible defense cascade occurs which involves oxidative burst expression of
defense-related genes, formation of compounds with antimicrobial properties and
programmed cell death.
Table 1.2
HORMONES FUNCTIONS
Abscisic Acid (ABA) Lateral root inhibition; nutrient starvation stress-protecting hormone;
seed germination, leaf senescence, stomatal aperture, adaptation to
environmental stress; embryo maturation; plant pathosystems
defense responses.
Auxin Antagonistic effect on disease susceptibility and resistance; defense
response against biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens; stimulates
cell elongation from wall-loosening factors, such as elastin; induces
growth of pre existing roots.
Bassinosteroids (BR) Structurally related to animal steroid hormones for growth,
development and physiological responses ; abiotic stress
responses; seed germination; reproductive development; regulate
plant defense from pathogens.
Cytokinin (CK) Long distance (root-to-shoot) signals for nitrogen assimilation; seed
development; regulation of stem-cell related genes; cell
differentiation, chloroplast formation.
Table 1.2
HORMONES FUNCTIONS
Ethylene Defense from necrotrophic pathogens and herbivore insects; root
hair proliferation and elongation from low iron and lateral root
growth from low potassium.
Gibberellines (GA) Response to nutritional limitation; partial regulation of P signaling

Jasmonic Acid (JA) Defense from necrotrophic pathogens and herbivore insects such
as caterpillar, beetles, leafhoppers, and spider mites; diverse plant
processes such as trendril coiling, leaf senescence, fruit ripening,
tuber formation and stomatal opening.

Salicylic Acid (SA) Activation of defense response from biotrophic and hemi-biotrophic
pathogens; establish systematic acquired resistance; inhibit seed
germination; increase seed vigor.
REPRODUCTION AND MODERN
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION
 Genetic engineering in plants was introduced in the 1980’s to create transgenic crops
that are of high-yield and pest resistant.
 This procedure is an effective tool to increase herbicide tolerance and insect
resistance but is not useful it multiple traits are to be introduced
 Thus, new genetic tools are adapted to allow site-specific integration, multiple or
multigene transfer, and regulation of gene expression.
 Synthetic promoter and synthetic transcriptional activators are both designed to fine
tune gene expression.
 Another method to successfully perform multigene transfer in plants is to assemble
and synthesize large DNA molecules in a singe vector to transform large DNA
constructs. Large gene construct and multigene transfer can be integrated to a host
plant through the organelle or via nuclear transformation.
 Genome editing is also a promising technology since the gene of interest may be
deleted, mutated or integrated depending on the target trait.
 ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Individuals are exact clones of the parents with
identical genetic make up
A single parent produces an offspring by cell
division or without the fusion of two gametes

ADVANTAGE
An organism can reproduce many offspring in a short
time without exerting much energy to either produce the
gametes or to find a mate.

DISADVANTAGE
Include the lack of variation among individuals
A changing environment may wipe out a group of these
organisms that cannot easily adapt to sudden changes in
their environment
FISSION
An individual divides into two
halves, after which each grows to
the original form
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. REGENERATION
Involves the production and differentiation of new tissues to replace missing and
damaged parts of the body.

Flatworms

Hydras Echinoderms
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

2. BUDDING
Involves forming a new individual from an outgrowth on the parents body
A parent organism produces offspring by growing a tiny replica of itself on the form of
an outgrowth, called “bud”

Hydras
Sponges
Tunicate
Cnidarians
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

3. PARTHENOGENESIS
A development that involves an activated unfertilized egg that undergoes mitosis in the
absence of cytokinesis

Aphids Ants

Wasps
Animal Reproductive Development

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Characteristic of nearly all eukaryotes

A process by which new individuals are formed from sex cells

gametes produced by the parents in their sexual organs
HERMAPHRODITE
Animals possess both male and female organs

Advantage if an animal rarely meets members of its own species

for mating.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS OCCURS
IN THREE FUNDAMENTAL STEPS
1. GAMETOGENESIS - production of gametes

2. SPAWNING – bringing gametes together

3. FERTILIZATION – fusion of gametes

SEQUENTIAL HERMAPHRODITISM
Sequential hermaphroditism occurs when an organisms
changes its sex at some point of time in their life.

More importantly, it dictates that an organism can

change from male to female (protandry) or female to
male (protogyny)
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
Occurs most often in land-based animals.
 OVIPARITY / OVIPAROUS

 VIVIPARITY / VIVIPAROUS

 OVOVIPARITY

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic
environments where both eggs and sperm are released
into the water.

External fertilization protects the eggs from drying out.

CLOACA
 A common chamber and outlet into which the
intestinal, urinary and genital tracts open.
 It is present in amphibians, reptiles, birds, sharks,
and monotremes.
 A cloaca is not present in placental mammals or in
most bony fishes.
FERTILIZATION
 Takes place and marks the beginning of a new
organism.
 This involves the gametes that leads to egg
activation and nuclear fusion.
 The fusion of egg and sperm cell membrane is
species-specific
CLEAVAGE AND BLASTULA FORMATION
 The rapid, multiple rounds of cell division are
termed cleavage.
 Cleavage can take place in two way:
holoblastic (total) or meroblastic (partial)
 Cleavage formation can be divided into three
subtypes: isolecithal, centrolecithal, teleolecithal
 After the cleavage has produced over 100 cells,
the embryo is called blastula.
 The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells
surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity.
 In mammals, the blastula forms the blastocyst
in the next stage of development
GASTRULATION
 The process during embryonic development that changes the embryo from a blastula, with a
single layer of cells to a gastrula containing multiple layers of cells.
 Organisms that do not form a third layer are known as diploblastic organisms.
 Triploblastic organisms contain a third layer. Triploblastic organisms account for the majority of
higher animals
ORGANOGENESIS
 The formation and development of the organs of an organism
from embryonic cells
 Organs develop from the germ layers through the process of
differentiation.
 During differentiation, the embryonic stem cells express
specific sets of genes that will determine their ultimate cell
type.