Englishgrammar00gjergoog PDF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
by KNUT GJERSET
Classic Literature Collection

World Public Library.org
Title: ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Author: KNUT GJERSET
Language: English
Subject: Fiction, Literature
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II_~I - I? c.;)
. -
· ~nglish Grammar.
......
,.,4
BY
.
.
•
.
KNUT GJERSET, Ph. D ..
,..
"
,.~
, " ,
DECORAH, IOWA.
LUTHERAN PUBLlSH~NG HOUSE.
1908,',
I! '. J', .
INTRODUCTION.
T
H~S book is written primarily for beginners, the purpose
being to give young pupils a th_orough drill in the ele-
ments of English grammar. The scope of the book, however,
is sufficiently comprehensive to constitute an ordinary academy
or high-school course in the subj ect.
It should be noticed that the work is constructive, that
through a gradual and systematic development of the sentence
the pupil is to become acquainted with all its parts from its
simplest to its more complex forms. Under the guidance of
the teacher the pupil is to learn to build the English sentence,
and in this work he is introduced to new elements only as
they are required in the enl,argement of the structure. No
forward step should be taken until the pupil has a thorough
knowledge of the ground already covered; he is not only to
build, but he is to understand every step in the constructive
process.
The pupils should write their exercises with pen and ink
in their copy-books, and great care should be taken to secure
neatness and accuracy in this work. Correct spelling and
systematic arrangement of analysis should be insisted upon.
In the analysis abbreviations of terms and statements should
not be tolerated. Every statement should constitute a sentence;
thus,
This word is a noun.
It is used as the subject of the sentence.
•
To better facilitate a systematic and orderly analysis
models are given in the text. It should not be forgotten that
the study of grammar has a practical as well as theoretical
side, that it is a training in the use of language as well as a
study of its structure. The pupils should be required to use
correctly punctuation marks and capital letters, rules for
which are given in the foot-notes of the book.
In the analysis unnecessary repetitions should be avoided.
The pu,pil should not be asked to constantly repeat what he
already knows, as this occasions loss of time and tends to de-
stroy interest in the work, but at intervals he may with benefit
state even that which he feels sure that he knows, lest' he
forget it. Don't repeat merely for the sake of going through
a formula, but for the sake of testing and strengthening the
pupil's know ledge.
In the appendix is found material for analytic work,
which should be begun as soon as the text is completed.
Luther College, January 2, 190ft
6
tXERCISE.
Model for Analysis.
Fire burns.
This group of words is a sentence, because it
expresses a thought. Of this sentence the word
fire is the subject, because it is that which we
talk about. The word burns is the predicate,
because it is that which is said about the. subject.
. Frogs croak. Study pays. Thunder rolls. Soldiers
march. Wood burns. Winds howl. Birds fly. Light
shines. Cocks crow. Ducks swim. Mary studies.
John plays. Children sleep. Rover barks. Flower~
bloom. Trees bud. . Winter .passes. Snow melts.
Rivers flow.
(The pupil should be required to write and analyze
simila'r sentences. )
Classes of Words.
Fire burns.
John works.
Horses run.
the
If w.e look at subjects and predicates of these
sentences, we see that the subjects, fire, John, horses,
are names of persons or things, but that the predicates,
vl.trnS, works, run, are not. These words, then, are
different in character, and' express ideas different in
kind. Because words differ in character, we divide
them into groups or classes. These groups or classes,
of words are generally called parts of speech, because
each group or class is a part of our spoken or written
language or speech. All the words in the English
language are divided into eight classes or parts of .
speech.
7.
CLASS OF WORDS - I.
Nouns.
A noun is the nalne of something.
Examples: horse, city, man, fire, dog;
New York, Smith, Rover.
We notice that some nouns are the names of
particular persons, places, or things. Such nouns are
called proper nouns.
Examples: John, Boston, Rover, the, Civil War, the
Reformation, the Middle Ages, Sunday.
Some nouns designate, not particular individuals,
but classes of individuals. These are called common
nouns, because they are common to, Qr apply to all
individuals of that class.
E'xamples: man, boy, sword, dog, city, day, war.
When used as subject of the'sentence, the noun
is called ~he subject noun.
ExERCISE.
Model for Analysis.
John studies.
This 'group of words is a sentence. (State the
reason.) Of. this sentence the word John is the
subj ect. (State the reason.) The word studies
is the predicate. (State the reason.) The word
] ohn is a proper noun, because it is the name of
a particular person. It is used as the subject of
the sentence. I
,
Ships .float. Kites fly. Knives cut. Summer comes.
Wheels tum. Man works. Women sew. Children
play. Mary sings. Walter' talks. Monday comes.,
Ru~~ FOR 'CAPI'l'ALS. - Every proper noun should be
capitalized.
,
,"
8
.
Chicago grows. Trains run. Wheat grows. Balls
roll. Years pass. Webster spoke. Armies march.
Kings rule.
I
Construction.
The relation in which a word stands to other words I
in the sentence is called its construction. Three things
should be established whenever a word is parsed: I
what kind of word it is, what form of the word it is,
and the construction of the word, or, in other words, I
its use in the sentence.

I
CLASS OF WORDS - II. I

Verbs.
I
A verb is a word that can assert or state something
about a subject.
Examples: run) strike) read) sing) speak, live, be..
Some verbs express action.
'Examples: strike, run) sing.
Some verbs express being or state.
Examples: live) be) exist.
Relation of Verb to Predicate.,

Since the verb is a word that asserts or states some-
thing about a subject, its place is, naturally, in the
predicate of the sentence.
The verb may be the whore predicate.
Examples: John I works. Horses I run.
The verb may be only a part of the predicate.
Examples: John I works early and late.
Horses I run very fast.
,
9
The verb is that word * in the predicate which can

assert or state something about the subject. Without
the verb"nothing could be asserted or stated about the
subject. Hence we can have no predicate without a
verb. But there can be no sentence without a predi-
cate. Hence we can have no sentence without a verb.
Every sentence, then, must contain a verb, because the
verb is a necessary part of the predicate. When the
verb stands in the predicate it is called the predicate
verb.
The predicate is all that \:Vhich· is stated about the
subject.
The verb is that word in the predicate which can
state something about the subject.
F:XF:RCISE. \
!It! odel for Analysis.
John works.
. This - group of words is a sentence. Of this
sentence the word lohn is the subject. because it
denotes that which we speak about. The word
works is the predicate, because it is that which
we say -about the .subject.
John.
This word is a proper noun, because it is the
name of a particular person. It is used as the
, . subj ect of the sentence.
works.
This word is a verb, because it is used to state
something about the subject. It is used as the
* It
should be noticed that the verb often consists of
several words; as, for example, has been working. But these
words together constitute a form of the verb, and the whole
group is treated as a single verb. _See also Phrases, page 43.
•
10
Fire burns. Rover barks. Day dawns. Time flies.
Winter comes. Summer· goes. February passes.
Sunday begins. Light s~ines. Snow melts. 1\fay
comes. Grass grows. Water runs. Storms gather.
Twilight falls. Tempests rage. Kings die. Palaces
crumble. Empires decay. Washington conquered.
Number of the Noun.

Fire burns.
Fires burn.
Man works.
Men work.
If we look at the subject nouns of these sentences,
we notice that some denote one and some more than
one of the things named. This difference in number
is usually shown by a change in the form of the noun.
Examples: fire fires
man men
'child children
This property of the noun, which shows whether
one person or thing, or more than one is spoken of,
is called number. There are two numbers, singular
and plural. The singular" number denotes one, the
plural number denotes more than one.
How the Plural Number of Nouns is Formed.
1. By adding s (sometimes es) to the singular.
Examples: window windows
boy boys
muff muffs
wife * wIves
calf calves
*f or fe is changed in the plural to ve, but ff remains
unchanged.
11
2. By a change of the principal vowel of the word.
~
Examples: man men
woman· women
tooth teeth
goose geese
foot feet
3. Some plurals end In en.
ox oxen
child children
brother brethren
In words of foreign origin the plural is formed in
a number of ways.
Singular. Foreign Plural. English Plural.
Examples: cherub cherubim cherubs
phenomenon phenomena
mag1!lS magt
.
focus foci focuses
madam mesdames
nebula nebulz
basis bases
genus genera
~XF:RCISE.
M oilel for the Parsing of the Noun.

In parsing the noun introduce the property of number.
Analyze the sentence as before.
Dogs bark.
dogs.
This word is a noun, because it is the name of
"
something. It is a common noun, because it

denotes a whole class. It is in the plural number,
because it denotes more than one. It is used as
the subject of the sentence.
• Woman and women from Old English wif-man and wif- •

men. Hence this is the same vowel change as in man - men.
12
Boys play. Anna sings. Paper burns. Birds sing.
Rover barks. George reads. Man studies. Dogs
fight. Rivers flow. Children cry. John writes. Flowers
bloom. Corn grows. Rabbits run. Men die. Winds
blow. LioI].s roar. Fruit ripens. Knives cut.
Number of the Verb.

The verb, like the noun, has a singular and a
plural form.
Singular. Plural.
Examples: sings sing
reads read
runs run
If'the subject is in the singular, the predicate verb
must also be in the singular.
. Example: Man sings.
If the subject is in the plural, the verb must also
be in the plural.
Example: Men sing.
This is called the agreement of subject and predi-
cate verb. The predicate verb must agree with the
subject in number.
ExERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Verb.
In parsing the verb introduce the property of number.
Analyze. the sentence as before.
Dogs bark.
bark.
This word is a verb, because it states something
about the subject. It is in the plural number to
, agree with the subject dogs. It is used as the
13
Gold glitters. John comes. Men vote. Trains run.

Stars twinkle. Kings rule. Rain falls. Pupils study.
Doors swing. Ice melts. Children sleep. Laura sings.
Nora studies. Wood floats. Lamps bum. Grandpa
walks. People talk. Rover barks. Clocks tick. Balls
roUe Night falls. Smoke rises. Winds blow. Apple-
trees blossom. Judith listens. Harry returns. Chicago
grows. Nightingales sing. Pupils recite. Chimneys
smoke. Locomotives run. Fire crackles. Caterpillars
crawl. Ducks swim. Squirrels climb. Pigeons fly.
Gender of the Noun.

We notice that some nouns denote males:
king, man, John, boy, emperor, husband, father. ,
Some nouns denote females:
queen, woman, Mar" girl, empress, wife, mother.
Some nouns denote at the same time both male and
female:
person, friend, neighbor, pupil, horse, dog.
Some nouns denote objects which are neither male
nor female:
tree, stone, house, door, gold, war, day.
This property of the noun by which it can denote
sex or the want of sex in the object named is called
gender.
· There are four genders:
M asculi1~e gender, denoting males.
Feminine gender, denoting females.
Common gender, denoting both male and female.
Neuter gender, denoting neither male nor female.
14
tXERCIst.
Model for the Parsing of the Noun.
In parsing the noun introduce the property of gender.
Children play.
children.
This word is a common noun, because it denotes
a whole class. It is in the plural number, because
it denotes more than one. It is in the common
gender, because it denotes both male and female.
It is use"d as the subject of the sentence.
Gold glitters. Emigrants travel. Winds b~ow.
Lilies bloom. Indians hunt. Seamen sail. William
studies. 'Girls sew. Anna weeps. Americans fartn.
Boys plow. Rudolph laughs. Stars shine. Trees grow.
Laborers work. Thursday comes. Parrots talk.'
Lightning flashes. April goes. Birds fly. Women
spin. People work. Empires decay. Geese cackle.
Cataracts fall. Language develops. Enlightenment
spreads. Alligators crowl. Trains pass. Iron rusts.
The Modified Subject."

In the sentences which we have studied so far, the
subject consists of a single word - a noun. But
some word or words may be joined to the subject
noun to limit or describe it. The subject will then
no longer consist of a single word, but of two or more
words.
Example;" Good men I labor.
RULt FOR THt Ust OP' PERIOD. - Place a period after a
heading, whether it consists of one word or a group of words.
15
CLASS OF WORDS - III.
Adjectives.
The word most frequently joined to the subject
noun to limit or describe it is the adjective. An
adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun
(or a pronoun, see page 27), expressing some quality,
quantity, or characteristic of the person or thing
named.
Examples: good, white, big, cold, three, first;
(ood men, white birds, three boys, much snow.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Analysis of the Subject.
Good men labor.
good men.
This group of words is the subj ect of the
sentence.
The word men is the subject noun. (Parse it.)
. The word good is an adj ective used to modify
the subj ect noun men.
Warm winds blow. Strong men labor. Pure water
sparkles. Br.ight little stars shi·ne. 014 John rests.
Little Alice cries. Cold winter comes. Beautiful day
dawns. Many little boys study~ Big, ugly, black
hawk's scream. Five little blue-eyed girls run. Many
big, strong boys play. Kind-hearted old John laughs.
Several little red roses bloom. Young little .birds peep.
Cold, bleak' November comes.
RUL~ FOR PUNCTUATION. - Place a comma between words
or terms occurring in a series (Ex. ~ood, honest, diligent men)
if and could be used between them, otherwise not.
Examples: "Good, honest, diligent men work." But,
"Five blue-eyed little girls study."
16
Kinds of Adjectives.
Some -adjectives express a quality or characteristic.
These are called descriptive adjectives.
Examples: good, white, sore, old, honest, beautiful. ,
Some adjectives expr~ss quantity.
These are called adjectives of quantity.
Examples: much, little, some, any, no, considerable.
Some adjectives indicate place.
These are called demonstrative adjectives.
Examples: yonder, this, that, nest, firs}, second, near.
Some adjectives express exact number.
These are called numeral adjectives.
Examples: two, fifteen, forty-five.
Some adjectives are derived from proper nouns.
These are called proper adjectives.
Examples : Spanish, Roman, Swedish, Christian, J effer-
sonian, Platonic, A merican, Lutheran.
The articles: a (or an) and the.
~XERCIS~.
Parsing of the Adjective.

In parsing the adjective state to what class it belongs
and give the reason.
Many people work. This man walks. All men
sleep. Thirty-five persons went. Big broad rivers
flow. These little girls study. No old man runs.
One big black oak fell. American valor conquered.
Christian truth spread. Indian savagery passes. Ten
little German children sang. Those American soldiers
fought. The last great contest closed.
Ru~ FOR CAPITALS. - Every proper adjective should be
ca pi talized.
17
The Articles.
The two adjectives a (or' an) and the are called
articles. The is called the definite article, because it
shows that some particular persons or things are
meant.
Examples: The man walks. The boys play. The horses run.
In these sentences some particular man, boys, and
horses are spoken of. This fact is shown by the definite
article. The definite article is used both with singular
and plural forms of the noun.
The indefinite article a (or an) shows that only
one individual of a certain class is thought of, but it
does not indicate any particular indiyidual.
The indefinite article is used only with the singular
forms of nouns.
Examples: A man walks. This means that one man or
any man walks, but not all or severa1.
A (or an) is called the indefinite article, because
it may refer to any individual of a given class.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Article.
The man reads.
the.
This word is an adj ective called the definite
article. It is used to modify the noun man.
RULE FOR THE USE OF THE Two FORMS OF THE INDEFINITIC

ARTICLt. -Before words beginning with a consonant or the
sound of y or w the form a is used.
Examples: a man3 a union, a wonder, a one-cent piece.
Before words beginning with a wovel or silent h, an is
used.
Exampels: an onion, an inventio~n, an honest man.
2
18
The grand old ship disappears. A unique fashion
prevails. A young.man comes. The saIne melancholy
moan. continues. An honest man works. A hollow
tree falls. A universal fear spreads. An Italian band
plays. The first I hour passes. A great navigator
succeeds. The beautiful morning dawns. The last
bell sounds. The two men agree. A young tree grows.
Comparison of ·the Adj~ctive.

By a change of form the adjective can usually
indicate a greater or the greatest degree of the quality
or quantity expressed.
Examples: wise, 'Wiser, 'Wisest.
This change of form in the adjective indicates
degree of comparison, and the adjective is said to be
compared. There are three .degrees of comparison, the
positive} comparative, and superlative.
Positive Degree. Coptparative Degree. Superlative Degree.
small smaller smallest
much more most
little less least
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
The positive degree is the simple form of the
adjective.
The comparative degree is formed by adding er to
the positive, or by placing the word more before it.
Sometimes it is formed also in an irregular way, by
the use of a new form.
The superlative degree is forlned by adding est to
the positive., or by placing the word most before it.
Irregular superlatives are formed in the same manner
as irregular comparatives.
19
The comparative is usually used to compare two
persons or things.
The superlative is used to compare three or more
persons or things, to indicate the highest degree.
txtRCIS~.
Model for .the Parsing of the Adjective.

The strongest men die.
strongest.
This word is a descriptive adjective. It is in
the superlative degree. It is used to modify the
subj ect noun men.
Little boys _play. The smaller boy wins. Younger
children study. Many weaker persons work. The
most honest man succeeds. A smaller girl cornes. An
old tree dies. Many older people walk. The youngest
girl reads. The smallest children cry. The most in-
dustrious pupils learn. The oldest house burns. The
five youngest boys went. A more experienced man
leads.
Adjectives Irregularly Compared.

Positive Degree. Comparative Degree. Superlative Degree.
good better best
much more most
bad
ill } worse worst
{ older oldest
old
elder eldest
many more most
little { less least
lesser
{ outer outermost
utter utmost
20
Positive Degree. Comparative Degree. Superlative Degree.
Up upper uppermost
near nearer nearest
nigh nearer next
Inner innermost
{ later latest
late
latter last
EXERCISE.
The older brother died. Less rain falls. The outer
wall fell. Utter* ignorance prevailed. Later reports
followed. The best soldiers perish. The next steamer
comes. The worst disorder prevails. The last faint
hope vanished. A louder cry came. The most alarming
news came. The smaller army conquered.
Some adjectives are not compared. These are

adjectives expressing characteristics which are absolute
and can not be compared.
Examples: round, square, three-cornered, one-eyed, per-
fect, infinite, universal, almighty, mortal, end-
less, unmarried, dead, alone, five, second.
The Modified Predicate.

In the sentences which we have studied so far the
predicate has consisted of an unmodified verb. But some
word or words may be joined to the predicate verb to
modify it. The predicate will then no longer consist
of a single word, but of two or more words.
Example: John I runs fast.
* Utter has gone out of use as a comparative form and

may be regarded as an adj ective in the positive degree.
I
21
CLASS OF WORDS - IV.
Adverbs.
The kind of words most frequently used to modify
a verb is the adverb. An adverb is a word used to
modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Examples: The Adverb Modifying a Verb:
Mary sings u:e II.
The Adverb Modifying an Adjective:
Very little rain falls.
The Adverb Modifying a11 Adverb:
John works very hard.
E:XE:RCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Adverb.

The little boy runs very fast.
very.
This word is an adverb used to modify the adverb
fast.
fast.
This word is an adverb used to modify the verb
runs.
The little prince spoke fluently. That very hard
winter came early. The roses smell sweet. Some very
old people went away. The first little tiny snowflakes
fell. The old Romans fought very bravely. All the
little song-birds returned. The enemy fled hastily.
John walked away very slowly. The beautiful flowers
blossomed again. The first settlers soon went away.
A very hard wind blew. The big apples ripened first.
Very cold weather came early. The soil froze hard.
Very many people came. N early all the houses burned
down. 4- large island disappeared entirely. Fire
suddenly burst forth.
'\
22
Kinds of Adverbs.
Adverbs of Manner. These adverbs answer the
question "How?"
Examples: beautifully, speedily, kindly, fast.
Adverbs of Time. These adverbs answer the
question "When?" .
Examples: now, then, early, late, formerly, soon.
Adverbs of Place. . These adverbs answer the
question "Where?"
Examples: behind, after, there, here, everywhere.
Adverbs of Degree. These adverbs answer the
question "To what extent?"
Examples: much, very, more, little, not, scarcely.
Modal Adverbs. See below.
Modal Adverbs.
These adverbs show the nature of the statement
made as either certain or doubtful. Usually they are
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas
and have no direct grammatical connection with any
word in the sentence. They modify the whole sentence
by introducing the idea. of certainty, doubt, reason, etc.
Examples: surely, not, indeed, perhaps, certainly, possibly,
probably, hence, therefore, accordingly, maybe,
wherefore.
~X~RCISF:.
Parsing of the Adverb.

In parsing the ·adverb state to what class it belongs and
how it is used in the sentence.
The children came late.
late.
This word is an adverb expressing time. It is
used to modify the verb came.
23
Many very big trees grew there. The girls stayed

inside. Those tender plants soon died. Watery vapors
rose everywhere. All the young people came here. Tin
melts very easily. The big black dog walked behind.
The smallest children came first. Grass grows more
abundantly. The heavy load scarcely moved. The young
people, perhaps, stayed longer. An old man :walked
close behind. The lark sings 'very gaily indeed. Roger
c~me late perhaps. The grass, certainly, grows fast.
Comparison of Adverbs •
.
Some adverbs are compared and, like adjectives,
they have a positive, comparative, and superlative
degree.
Examples: fast, faster, fastest; soon, sooner, soonest;
quickly, more quickly, most quickly.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Adverb.
If the adverb can be compared, state its degree of
comparison.
The old horse ran faster. The smallest pupils came
earliest. The most virtuous men live longest. Snlaller
boys read better. Anna reads very well. Rover runs
fast. These children went away later. This ball went
farthest. Some people act most foolishly. The Hawk
sailed last. The Falcon arrived later. I The teachers
assembled later.
RUL~ FOR PUNC'l'UA1'ION. - Place commas before and after
a modal adverb, if it stands in the middle of a sentence. If
it stands at the end of the sentence, no ~omma is used.
•
24
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.

Smith works.
Rover barks.
The man walks.
Smith strikes the stone.
Rover bites the man.
The man hits the dog.
We notice that in some of these sentences the action
expressed by the verb is not directed against any.
particular person or thing. In some of these sentences,
however, the verb expresses an action directed by the
subject against some particular person or thing~ The
person or thing thus acted upon by the subj ect is called
the object of the verb which expresses the action.
A verb that expresses an action directed by the
subject against an object is a transitive verb.
A verb that does not do this is an intransitive verb.
works John
EXERCISE.
The boy turns the wheel.
•
turns.
This word is a verb, transitive, because it ex-
presses an action directed by the subj ect against
an object. It is in the singular number to agree
with the subj ect noun boy.
25
wheel.
This word is a common noun, because it denotes
a class of things. It is in the singular number,
because it denotes only one. It is in the neuter
gender, because it denotes a thing which is
neither male nor female. I t is used as the obj ect
of the transitive verb turns.
The smallest boy hit the little girl. Rudolph saw
the ship. . The dog barks very loud. The two boys
plowed a very large field. The minister prayed very
fervently. Beatrice studies her lessons well. Sam·
catches many fish. The boy broke the slate. A big
black dog lately bit Rover. The Boers love inde-
pendence. Very many people arrived. The teacher
punished the bad boy. Adversity fiattereth no man.
The first vessel struck a reef.
Case of the Noun.

We have noticed that a noun can be used as the
·subject of a sentence, or as the object of a transitive
verb. I t can also be used to denote possession.
Examples: fohn's hat. The king's court.
The noun has, or once had, different forms to re-
present its different constructions. These different
forms of the noun are called cases. The noun has
three cases. When it is used as subject it is in the
nominative case. When . it is used as object it is in
'\
the objective case. When it is used to denote pos-

sessio.n it is '. in the possessive case. When the noun
is in the postessive case it is used as an adjective to
modify another noun to whi~h it is joined. Examples:
John's hat. Kings' crowns. John}s tells us which hat
26
is meant. That is, it describes the noun hat after the

manner of an adjective.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Noun.
Add the property of case.
John's hat fell down.
John's.
This word is a proper noun. (State the reason.)
It is in the singular number. (State the reason.)
It is in the masculine gender. (State the reason.)
It is in the possessive case. (State the reason.)
It is used to modify the subject noun hat.
Charlotte's little cat ran away. The big black dog
bit the boy. Exercise produces health. Emma studied
Longfellow's poems. Warm weather ripened the fruit.
Smith's cottage blew down. Galileo invented the
telescope. Henry Johnson"s cattle ate the grass. Nora
always learns her lesson. The multitude pursues
pleasure. A great man lives yonder. The Greeks
conquered the Persians. Flowers peep out everywhere.
1iary's cousins went away. Herbert rents Watson's
house. 'Deep rivers flow silently. James heard the
raven's croak. The boy found the hunter's tents. The
soldiers' baggage came.
RuIJt FOR FORMING THt POSSESSIW CAst OF NOUNS. - Add
an apostrophe (') to the noun and then add s.
Examples: Milton's sonne,ts. Men's advice.
If the noun ends in s add the apostrophe only.
Examples: Burns' poems. Moses' law.
To a plural ending in s add only the apostrophe.
Example: The soldiers' home.
Usually only in nouns denoting the Deity, men, and
. animals is the possessive case indicated by's.
27
CLASS OF WORDS - v.
Pronouns.
In order to avoid the constant repetition of the
name of a' person or thing we can use other words
in place of the name, or noun. To say: "Iohn took
John} s hat and started on I ohn' s way home," would
sound very awkward. This awkwardness disappears if
we say: "Iohn took his hat and started on his way
home." The words used instead of nouns are called
pronouns. The pronoun denotes the same person
or thing as the. noun in' the place of wh~ch it is used,
but it does not name the person' or thing.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Pronoun.
He saw the bird.
he.
This word is a pronoun, because it is used instead
of a noun. I t is used as the subj ect of the
sentence.
John saw him afterward. They returned early.
The ship crossed the ocean. You went away late. A
French artist painted the picture. James hurt himself.
All brought the same amount. The ship suffered great
injury. One followed him closely. These came last.
They defended themselves well. Both returned early.
. Neither had much money. We saw many. She bought
a new hat. We speak German. He met them.
Person of Nouns and Pronouns.

Nouns and pronouns denote either the person
speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing
28
spoken of. This property of the nouns and pronouns

is called person.
I made it. I, Paul, wrote it. Here I and Paul
clearly denote the person speaking. You fnade it.
You, Paul, wrote it. Here you and Paul denote the
person spoken to. Paul wrote it. He made it. I-Iere
Paul and he denote the person spoken of. There are
three persons: first, second, and third. When· a noun
or pronoun denotes the person speaking it is in the
first person; when it denotes the· person spoken to it
is in the second person; when it denotes the person
or thing spoken of it is in the third person.
EXERCISE.
Parsing.
In parsing nouns and pronouns state in what person
they are.
The Indians killed the settlers. The soldiers drove
them away. I finished the work. No man knew him.
He recited one lesson. James meets them daily. She
lifts the heavy burde~. We planted a garden very
early. John Clark saw them. The Spaniards lost the
battle.
Person of the Verb.

The verb, like the noun and pronoun, has the.
property of person. If the subject noun or pronoun
is in the first person, the predicate verb must also be
• in the first person.
Examples: I write. We work.
If the subject noun or pronoun is in the second
29
person, the predicate verb must also be in the second

person.
Examples : You write or Thou writest.
If the subject noun or pronoun is in the third
person, the predicate verb must be in the third person.
Examples : He writes. She works.
The predicate verb must agree with the subject in
perso 1£. We have already seen that the predicate verb
must agree with the subject in number. Hence, the
pr.edicate verb must agree with the subject in person
and number.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I love we love
2nd person { thou lovest you love
you love
3d person he, she, it loves they love
EXERCISE.
He loves them.
loves.
This word" is a verb, transitive, because it ex-
presses an action directed by the subj ect against
an obj ect. It is in the third person and singular
number to agree with the subject pronoun he.
We study Longfellow's poems. Leonora's youngest
sister reads French fluently. He foun'd the lost treasure.
We like good neighbors. He pays all servants alike.
We study arithmetic. They plow their fields very
early. Lena studies music. The early bird catches the
RULlt FOR CAPITALS. - Street, river, mountain, lak~, etc.,
are usually capitalized when they are used in connection with
proper nouns.
30
worm. The industrious man prospers. He likes the

work quite well. Henry Hudson discovered the Hud-
son River. Love sees no blemishes. Robert Fulton
invented tpe steamboat. Judith listens very intently.
The Poles fought very bravely. The white snow falls
silently. John's uncle came late. .
Kinds of Pronouns.
1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
Some pronouns by changing their form are able
to indicate more clearly than any other substantives *
whether the person or thi~g denoted is the speaker,
the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.
These pronouns are called personal pronouns. The
personal pronouns have person, 1~umber, gender, and
case very clearly represented by different forms.
DECLENSION.
To decline a noun or pronoun is to. give all its

forms for person; number, gender, and case, or as
many forms as the noun or pronoun possesses':
DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.

FIRST PItRSON. StCOND PnSON.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Nominative I we thou or you ** you
Possessive {my
mine
our
ours
thy or your
thine or yours
your
yours
Objective me us thee or you you
* N OUDS and pronouns are called substantives.

** These forms whether denoting the singular ·or plural
are always followed by the plural form of the verb.
N .....iMtin h,
Potullive his
Objective him
Possessive
Obj~ive
,-C>"Ii::~ a.re able
s."\3..~S~~'-;"'les •
,-"", tbe speaker, ParsitiK
'\...n'\.."O.'g. ~VO'&.~ of.
In parsing thh"::~:;~
1.:''''' o.",ouns. The JIIyeitll ,nsolll ~
J g e'nod.e:r. and in the sentence'
forms. The Spaniards
his household. He
the settlers. The
IS to give a\\ ;,ts pJanm:J a garden
and case, or as 'b=. The 'hbo,'j
possesses. • good
it. No man knows'
PRot'ouN. We olten pitied
JaW' you first.
S~co~"'O pasOfo/·V\u~,·
quietly away.
yoU ward ~nely she
y"", Waste makes
or yoUT yours
or yours retMmbered the
>""
RUiM &'OK
the siflgU\a~ ot 9\u

W with capital Jetter.
o{ the verb.
32
2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL AnJ!tC-
'rIVES.
When the possessive fo~s of the personal pro-
nouns are followed by a noun they have the function
of an adjective and are called pronominal adjectives.
Examples : My horse runs fast.
Our neighbor went away.
When the possessive forms of the personal pro-
nouns are not followed by a noun they are used as
pronouns: When so used they form a distinct class
of pronouns called possessive pronouns.
Examples : Hers came home.
Mine went away.
EXERCISE.
Parsing of Pronominal Adjectives and Possessive
Pronouns.
My horse runs fast.
my.
This word is the possessive form of the personal
pronoun I. It is used as a pronominal adjective
to modify the noun horse.
~ine are large.
mIne.
This. word is the possessive form of the personal
pronoun I used as a possessive pronoun. It is
in the plural number. It is used as the subject
of the sentence.
He soon found them. Mine grew very well. Ethel
left hers. She wore her mother's hat. They sent him
away. John studies his books. She took her sister
along. The little star throws its beams far. Yours
faded at once. Philip's sister left theirs. They spend
, 33
their time uselessly . We love our sisters. Our class

recited twice. Ella laid the book away. Her parents
need her. He saluted the English flag. Their father
took them along. The infant extended its hand. They
publish the paper daily.
3. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

The compound personal pronouns are formed by
adding the words self (singular) and selves (plural)
to my, thy, our, your, him, her, it, them, and one.
Singular. P.1ural.
myself ourselves
ourself ourselves
himself themselves
herself themselves
itself themselves
yourself yourselves
thyself , yourselves
oneself *
The compound personal pronouns have two uses:
1. They can be joined to a noun or pronoun for
the sake of emphasis. They then denote the same
person or thing as the noun or pronoun to which they
are joined.
Examples: John himself did it. She did it herself. I
saw Rome itself.
When so used the compound personal pronoun is
in ,the same case as the pronoun or noun to which
it is joined.
2. The compound personal pronoun can be used
as the object of a verb when it denotes the same
• Oneself is usually written one's self, though both forms
are allowed.
3
34
persof:l or thing as the subject. It is then called the

reflexive pronoun, because the subject is then repre-
sented as acting upon itself.
Examples : John hurt himself. They helped themselves.
EXERCISE.
Parsing of Compound Personal Pronouns.
In parsing the compound personal pronoun give its
person, number, and gender, and state whether it is used with
a noun or pronoun for the sake of emphasis, or is a reflexive
pronoun used as object.
A beautiful green ivy covered the stone wall. A
lady bought some oranges. She brought them alo11g.
The poor little children warmed their hands. The
American colonies defended themselves bravely. We
have no suitable furniture. The little boys. amused
them'selves. The spider wove its web. General Lee
himself took command. Gertrude always makes her
own dresses. Each star has its own place. You your-
self saw it. I made it myself. The inhabitants fired
their own houses. We saw Red Cloud himself.
4. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

A demonstrative pronoun is one used to point out
a person or thing. They are:
Singular. Plural.
this these
that those
The word own is sometimes inserted between the first and

second parts of a compound personal pronoun.
Examples: my own self, your own self, his oum self.
These forms may be regarded as compound personal
pronouns.
35
Also: the latter~ the former~ the one~ the other,

such, the same.
These forms are the same for all genders.
The demonstrative pronouns this and that have the
same forms in the nominative and objective cases.
They have no possessive forms .. To express possession,
of must be placed before them-.
Examples: of this, of that, of those. *
When the demonstratiyes· are placed before nouns
or pronouns they are demonstrative adjectives.
Examples: This man studies.
That man works.
When used· .without a following noun they are
demonstrative p,.onouns.
Examples: This is good.
That is all.
EXERCISE.
Parsing.
In parsing the demonstrative state whether it is a demon-
strative pronoun or a demonstrative adjective. If a demon-
strativi pronoun, give its number and case and tell how it is
used in the sentence.
Two little boys hurt themselves. Your child hurt
its foot. Pochahontas saved Captain John Smith.
These people came here lately. This thrives best.
Such books please him well. Mr. St. Johns bought
the latter. The troops marched almost constantly.
Ruu FOR CAPItALS. - Titles, such as general, captain, king,
president, Mr., Mrs., Miss, Madam, etc., are capitalized when
used in a formal way in connection with a person's name.
They may be regarded as a part of the name.
* These expressions will be explained later.
86
The most. beau~iful building burned ·down. The one
struck the other. The same army saw greater battles
later." That lady met Mrs. Lucinda Crawford after-
ward.
Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives.

Some words are used to point out objects in· a less
definite way than demonstratives do. These words are
called indefinites. They may be either pronouns or
adjectives. When used before a noun or pronoun they
are indefinite pronominal adjectives.
Examples: Every soldier fought.
All men die.
When used without a following noun or pronoun
they are indefinite pronounsi
Examples: A II perished.
Both came.
The indefinites in most common use are: each,
every, either, neither, other, another, one, several, none,
some, such,' all, any, few, many, b'Oth, ought, npught,
muck. ".
It .should be noticed, however, that none is always
a pronoun, and every always an adjective.
One and other are declined:
Singular. Plural.
. Nominative other others
Possessive other's others' •
Objective other others
The other indefinites are not declined, and they
have possessive forms only in rare cases.
Examples: either's, neither's.
37 •
Each other and one another may be regarded as

indefinite pronouns.· They are sometimes called re-
ciprocal pronouns.
The word one is sometimes used as a personal
pronoun.
Example: One knows one's own friends.
Sinsular. Plural.
one ones
one's ones'
• one ones
EXERCISE.
Parsing of the .Indefinites.
In parsing the indefinite state whether it is an indefinite
pronoun or an indefinite pronominal adjective. If it has
different forms' for case and number, state what form it is.
State its use in the sentence.
These red roses bloom very early. Neither knew
the other. The Lord loveth a cheerful giver. We
see others' faults very easily. Some still labored
patiently. Not every change pleases us. Linden saw
another sight. The sturdy farmers armed themselves.
Folly enslaves his votaries. Several went away very
early. Then either's love was great. Both met the
danger boldly. My brother followed the others. Each
sought the other's welfare. Each stroke brought liberty
nearer. The Dutch claimed New York.
The indefinites everyone, everything, everybody,

something, somebody, no one, nothing, nobody, anyone,
RULlt lOR CAPITALS. - All names of God, and expressions •
used as titles of the Deity should be capitalized. So, also,
pronouns referring to God should begin with capital letter
where the meaning might otherwise be mistaken.
•
38
anything, an:ybody, S01ne one, either one, each one, the
one, are always indefinite pronouns. The compounds
of one and body form their possessive case by adding
apostrophe and s.
Examples: anybody's, no one's, somebody's.
Else. These indefinite pronouns are sometimes used
together with else.
Examples: some one else, somebody else.
These word-groups may be regarded as compdund
pronouns. The possessive case is formed by adding
apostrophe and s to the form else. .
Examples: some one else's~ somebody else's.
EXERCISE.
All know the English language well. Those two

boys loved each other. The old ma~ remembered
nothing more. Others did the same thing. John's
parents soon knew everything. Some one's horse stands
yonder. Some pupils came very late. Each son re-
ceived his share. Ye hear the 'Yords. My father took
me along. The speaker himself stated this very clearly.
We threw ourselves down. The lady s.aw my brother's
•
picture. Few understand his· teachings. Some one
brought these coins. Every heart knows its own
bitterness.
Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives.

An interrogative pronoun or adjective is one used
to introduce an interrogative sentence * that can not
* An interrogative sentence is one used to ask a question.
Exalnple: Who are you?
39
be answered by )'es or no. An interrogative sentence
that can be answered by yes or no needs no intro-
ductory word. The interrogative pronouns are: who,
which, whether, and what. When used before a noun
or pronoun they become interrogative adjectives.
Examples: Which is the best?
Which one did it?
What is this?
What place is this?
Who. This pronoun refers only to persons or to
personified ob j ects. I t is declined as follows:
Singular and Plural.
Nominative who
Possessive whose
Objective whom
What. This pronoun refers to animals and things,
but not to persons. It is always singular, and is not
declinable. W hat is often used in exclamatory
• sentences * as an exclamatory adjective. Example:
What a rich country that must be! What is also
used as an exclamation and has then no grammatical
connection with the rest of the sentence.
Which. This pronoun refers both to persons and
to things. It has the same form for singular and
plural. It is not declinable.
Whether. This word is found as interrogative
pronoun only in older texts. Now it is in use as con-
junction and adverb, but it is not used as pronoun
except in imitation of the old style. It means 'U1hich
one of the two. It is always singular.
Example: Whether is greater, the gold or the temple?
* See page 61.

40
Although the interrogative pronoun stands at or

near the begin~ing of the sentence it is often not the
subject of the sentence. The subject very often fol-
lows the verb.
Examples: Who is he?
What does he do?
Interrogative Adverbs.
The adverbs where, when, whence} whither, ho'U'}
and why are used' as interrogative adverbs in asking
questions which can not be answered by yes or no.
Examples: When did you come?
Where did you see him?
How far is it?
Whither art thou going?
~X~RCIS~.
Parsing.
In parsing interrogative pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs
state to what class of words they belong, and in the case of
an interrogative pronoun to what it refers. Otherwise parse
as usual.
I
Who is he? What day is this? Where are we?

How goes it? Which one is it? What house burned?
Whence came they? Why are they h~re? He hurt
himself. It is her own fault. She took some one else's
hat. They saw each other later. Some grain is ripe.
Some is not. He has none. Miss Julia Andrews
teaches school. Her younger sister helps her mother.
Where is the 56th school-district? What is the news?
My father was a soldier. You were there. 'Frank is
a much better boy. Whose farm is this? The sun's
rays bring out the grass. King Solomon was the
41
wisest man. What have we? How old are you?
Which man advocated war? Few received so many
blessings. Some people waited. The beautiful ivy
covered the old wall. John is the gardener's son. Each
blamed the other. Nobody came. Somebody shut the
door tight. What is best? Which toad is the best. *
Which is the largest.?** Who came last? They bore
one another's burdens. We easily notice others'
faults. Wise Inen correct their own. Either's fall
determines both their fates. This leads them astray.
The former killed the latter. Every ant minds her own
-business. The lion meets his foe boldly. The child
scorched its dress. Everybody likes a polite boy.
Tense of the Verb.

We have already seen that the verb expresses
Jaction, being, or state. We must observe also that the
,verb expresses the time of the action or state expressed
by it. This it does by changing its form.
Examples: work, worked; sing, sang.
This property of the 'verb by which it can show
the time of the action or state expressed by it is called
tense. We will first consider the present and preterite
tenses of the verb.
The present tense of the verb shows that the action,
or being, or state expressed by it takes place at the
present time.
Examples: We work. A"drew sings.
• After the adjective best the noun road must be added

in the analysis.
** Here the indefinite pronoun one must be added.
42
The preterite tense of the verb shows that the

action, or state expressed by the verb took place some-
time in the past.
Examples : We worked. He sang.
We notice also that the preterite tense of the verb
is formed in different ways.
Examples: work, worked; sing, sang; sleep, slept.
There are two general ways of forming the
preterite tense. The first and oldest way is by changing
the vowel of the verb itself.
Examples: sleep' slept
sing sang
run ran
blow blew
slay slew
ride rode
lie lay
bite bit
.l\ small number of verbs form their preterite tense
. by such a change of vowel. They are called strong
verbs, or verbs of the first conjugation.*
By far the greater number of verbs form their
preterite tense by adding ed or d, sometimes t, to the
present form.
Examples: work worked
send sent
love loved
These are called weak verbs, or verbs of the second
conjugation. Verbs, then, are divided into two con-
jugations; the first, and the second.
• Conj ugation is a systematic arrangement of all the
forms of a verb in the different persons, nunlbers, tenses,
voices, and moods.
43
EXERCISE.
The boxs sang a song.
sang.
This word is the predicate verb, transitive. ( Give
the reason.) It is a strong verb. ~Why?) It is
in the preterite tense, because it denotes past time.
It is in the third person and plural number to
agree with the subject boys.
I finished my meal. John Milton wrote "Paradise
Lost." He carried his father's sword. Her attendants
followed her. _ They work very diligently. Holy
thoughts consoled her. The ladies' husbands came.
We have some fine roses. Kindness conquers the
rudest heart. Mice ran about everywhere. Sadly we
laid him down. He noticed it himself. Everybody
sought a. safe place. The biggest dog bit the man.
Phrases.
Instead of using a simple adjective or adverb con-
sisting of a single word we may use a group of words
as adjective or adverbial modifier:
Examples: A man of wealth wears fine clothes.
The carpenter came ih the evening.
The group of words of wealth is used as an adjec-
tive modifier of the noun man. The group of words
RUL! FOR PUNCTUATION. - Titles of books, essays, etc.,
when mentioned. in a sentence, are usually enclosed in
quotation marks, unless they are printed in italics. If the
author's name preceeds the title of the book, quotation marks
are not used.
44
in the evening is used as an adverbial modifier of the

verb came. We see, then, that a group of words may
be used 'in the sentence like a single word. Such a
group of words, not having subject and predicate,
used in the sentence like a single word, is called a
phrase. A phrase is not a sentence, because it has
neither subj~ct nor predicate. A phrase often consists
of a noun, or its equivalent, and a preposition joining
this noun to the word it modifies, e. g. The house
on the hill. He came at once. .
CLASS OF WORDS - VI. ,

Prepositions.
A preposition is a word used to.bring a word into
relation with some other word in the sentence, which
it is to modify or describe.
List of Prepositions in Most Common U.re.
a behind from throughout
abaft below In till
aboard beneath· into to
about beside minus ' touching
above besides near toward
across between notwithstanding towards
after betwixt of under
against beyond off underneath
along but on until
amid by over unto
amidst
.
,concerning past up
among despite pending upon
amongst down regarding versus
around during respecting with
at ere round within
athwart except save without
bating excepting since
before for through
45 .
The word which the preposition brings into relation

with another word is called the object of the pre-
position. If the object of the preposition is a noun or
a pronoun it is in "the objective case.
Examples: I spoke to him. We passed by them.
A preposition and its object form a prepositional
phrase. The prepositional phrase may be used as an
adjective or as an adverb. We shall see that phrases
(usually not prepositiQnal) may also be used as nouns,
verbs, interjections, etc.
ExERCISE.
-Model for. the Parsing of Prepositional Phrases.
We met them on the road.
on the road.
This group of words is a prepositional phrase,
consisting of the preposition on and its ohj ect
road. It is used as an adverb to modify the
verb met.
on.
Th~s word is a preposition. I t is used t~ show
relation between the verb met and the noun road.
road.
This word is a noun, common, third person,
singular number, neuter gender. It is in the
objective case, because it is used as the obj ect
of the preposition on.
the.
This word is the definite article, used to modify
the noun road.
They went to the fair. He ate an orange for break-
fast. General A. S. Johnston fell at Shiloh. Sounds
of music creep into our ears. Smith's oldest daughter
lives in Boston. He often talked to his friends about
46
it. General "Stonewall"* Jackson fell in th~ battle of

Chancellorsville. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth
of simple beauty. The smithy stands under a chestnut
tree. We saw a coral reef on the right side of the ship.
We met several of them by the gate. Many beautiful
pictures hung on the walls of the room. The ~fonitor
met the Merrimac in Hampton Roads, near Norfolk.
He came to us in the middle of the winter. On
the right side of the stream grew a large chestnut tree.
Everyone crossed the stream. in great haste. T;he
bravest men of the nation went to the war. The poor
exile of Erin came to the beach. The silk-worm lives
in Japan.
.
A preposition usually precedes its object, but not
always.
Care should be taken to distinguish between pre-
positions and adverbs, as many words can be used
both as prepositions and as adverbs.
Examples: He came in.
We stood near.
They passed by.
In these sentences in, near, and by are adverbs,
because they are not associated with words used as
their obj ects.
He came in a boat.
We stood near the shore.
They passed by the house.
In these sentences in, near, and by are prepositions,
because they are followed by words used as their
*'Stonewall is put in quotation marks, because it is a nick-
name and not Jackson's given name.
47 '
objects, together with which they form prepositional

phrases.
!X!RCISE.
The lady's uncle came in after a while. Deep snow
covered the mountains everywhere. I dwelt in the
house myself at that time. The children looked in
at the open door.* They walked out to the river.
Masses of timber came down from the mountains. He
pulled his master into corners.
A preposition sometimes has an adverb as its object.

Examples: from within, from without, from below, from
above, from behind, from beneath, since then,
before then, till now, for ever, at once, to
here, to there, from here, from there.
A preposition sometimes has an adjective as its
oh;ect.
Examples: of old, 0'" high, for good, in vain, in short,
.of late, at last, ere long, from near, from far.
A preposition sometimes has a phrase for its object.
Examples: from under the house, from on high, till after
the ball, since over two weeks.
!XERCISE.
People from below came to our village. Many
people crawled from under the ruins of the building.
A loud voice came from on high. Three blind mice
ran .after a farmer's wife. The children follow us.
Lavish nature paints the purple year. They bought
cotton in large, quantities.
* Notice that the prepositional phrase may modify adj ee-
tives and adverbs as well as nouns and pronouns.
48
Phrase Prepositions.
Sometimes two prepositions are used together, or
are combined with other words to show a compound
relation.
Examples: out of~ because of~ off of~ in front of, instead
of~ in lieu of, by means of, by dint 0 f~ by
virtue of, by force" of~ on account of, for the
sake of, as to, as for~ fr()m within, according
to, contrary to, over against~ along side, in
,·esPfct to, in order to, in regard to, agree-
ably to~ in place of~ in view of~ by way of~
in spite of, in consideration of, in defiance of,
on this side of, on that side, from out, from
beyond.
These and similar phrases may be parsed as phrase
prepositions.
The prepositions for and of. are sometimes joined to
adjectives.
E~amples: unheard-of, unthought-of, "ncared-for.
Place a hyphen (-) between the adjective and the
preposition and parse both together as an adjective.
tXERCISE.
The German enligrants came from beyond the sea.

In spite of difficulties they entered unheard-of regions
in Central Africa. On account of sickness he returned
early in the fall. He found no rest on that side of
the ocean. We saw them over against a range of hills.
He succeeded by dint of hard work. The Olympia *
. returned to America by way of Gibraltar.
• Names like this, instead of being inclosed in quotation
marks, are usually printed in italics. To indicate that a word "
is to be italicized underscore it.
49
Phrase Adverbs.
Some phrases may be regarded as phrase adverbs,
as the words constituting the phrase can not easily be
parsed separately.
Examples: aO little, ever so long ago~ in a hurry, once
upon a time, of yore, at last, at least, at
random, ere long, in vain, a long time ago,
over a year ago, since .then.
In parsing such phrases it is sufficient to state that
they are phrase adverbs, and to point out what they
modify. °
EXERCIS~.
Captain Farragut had a fleet of nearly fifty wooden

vessels. For six days Commander Porter hammered
away at the forts. In the course of the summer General
Rosecrans, with a lJnion army, got possession of
Chattanooga in Southern Tennessee. Since then Bertha
never lived with Mrs. Osgood. The weary traveler
found a home at last. Once upon a time an aged
minstrel came to the court of the king of Scotland.
Indirect ObjeOct.
The object of °a transitive verb is that upon which
the subject acts. This is also called the direct object.
But the transitive verb sometimes requires, besides the
direct Qbject, another object showing for the sake of
who~ the action takes place. This object is called
the indirect object.
Examples : John gave me the book.
We told them the truth.
The noun or pronoun used as indirect object is in
the objective case.
'4
50
ltXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Pronoun.
Mary gave him a present.
him.
This word is a personal pronoun, third person,
singular number, masculine gender. It is in the
obj ective case, because it is used as the indirect
object of the transitive verb gave.
Mary's father gave her a fine horse on her birthday.
John's cousin sends him a letter from across the sea.
The chief gave every. man a trumpet of brass. We
forgive our friends their faults. They did us no harm.
. In the end the discovery of gold has .great results for
good. The old general gave his men new uniforms.
Incomplete Intransitive Verbs and

Predicate Complement.
The greater number of intransitive verbs can stand
alone as the predicate of a sentence.
Examples: He reads. They talk. The children run.
I A few intransitive verbs, however, can not stand
alone as predicate, but must be followed by some word
or words to make the thought complete. Such verbs
are called inco1nplete intransitive verbs. A sentence
like "We are," or "He became" is incomplete, because
it does not express a complete thought. The question
will be asked, "What are we ?" "What did he become?"
To complete the thought we must add a word or words
to . the incomplete predicate verb. The word ( or
words) thus added to the verb is called the predicate
complementJ because it completes the predicate.
Examples: They are honest. She is .beautiful.
51
He
The predicate complement always modifies the sub-
ject. It completes the predicate, but does not modify
the predicate verb.
The predicate complement may be a noun~ The
noun is then called the predicate noun. The noun used
as predicate noun is in the nominative case, because
it denotes the same person or thing as the subject.
The predicate complement may be a pronoun.
A pronoun used as predicate complement is in the
nominative case.
Examples: It is I. It is he.
The predicate complement may be an adjective.
The adjective used as predicate complement is called
the 'predicate adjective.
The predicate complement may be an adjective
phrase.
Examples: They are at home. He is in town.
The incomplete intransitive verbs most frequently
used are: is, was, am, are, 'ivere, and all other forms
of the verb be; become, seem; and grow, turn, wax,
get when they mean to become. Also remain, stay,
continue, look, smell, go, sit, feel, appear, prove, are
often used as incomplete intransitive verbs.
52
EX~RCIS~.
Model for the Parsing of the N o'un.

I f the predicate complement is an adj ective, or an' adj ec-
tive phrase, parse it as usual and state that it is used as
predicate complement.
He is a soldier.
soldier.
This word is a noun, common, third person,
singular number, masculine gender.. It is in
the nominative case, because it is used as predi-
cate complement to the incomplete intransitive
verb is. It modifies the subject pronoun he.
Minneapolis is a city. Edwin Booth became a
•
famous actor. We are in school. Mrs. Smith's little
boy grew better. Lafayette became one of Washington's
generals. Washington spent the rest of the winter of
1777 * at Morristown. She seems vexed. A cypress
is a curious species of a tree. This panic in business
had at least one good result. In the North ** the
slaves were chiefly house-servants. Many. Northern
people disliked slavery. A little learning is a dangerous
thing. Very few people are good economists. The
interest is the fourth part of the debt. This is the-
best of all. Utopia'is the name of- the book.
Adverbs are sometimes used as predicate comple-

ment.
Exa.mples: He is away. John is here . . The sun is doum.
* 1777 is here used as a noun.

** N ortn, S outn, East, and Westare' proper nouns when
used to designate a portion of a country, and Northern,
Southern, Eastern, Western are prop~r adjectives when used
the same way. .
63
When an adverb is used as predicate complement:

is has the function of an adjective. In parsing such
a word state that it is an adverb used as a predicate
adjective.
Modifiers of the Predicate Complement•

.
If the predicate complement is a noun or pronoun,
it may take an adjective modifier.
Examples: He is a brave soldier.
This is our new house.
If the predicate complement is a simple adjective
or a phrase, it may take an adverbial modifier.
Examples: He is very good. They are always at home.
0
oThe predicate complement may be modified by an

adverbial phrase.
Example: He is away from hon~e.
The Copula BE. .

When used as an incomplete intransitive verb, the
verb be in its various forms: is, am, are, was, were,
etc., is called the copula.. It serves as a connecting
link between the subject and the predicate complement·
0
and takes no modifier.

Example: He is always good.
The adverb always modifies the predicate adjective
good, and not the copula is.*
• It would be equally correct to say that the adverb
always modifies the whole predicate is good. It amounts to
the same thing, because good is the only part of the predicate
capable of modification. The copula serves as a link to join
it to the subj ect and helps to make the assertion.
54
!X~RCISE.
Model f-or the Parsing of the Copula and Predicate

Complement.
We are always at home.
are.
This word is the present tense, first person, plural
number of the copula be, used as predicate verb.
at home.
This group of words is a prepositional adjective
phrase, used as predicate complement. (Analyze
the phrase as before.)
always.
This word is an adverb of time used to modify
the phrase at home.
Beauty's tears are very lovely. The long evenings
of winter are delightful. All the hedges are white
with dust. The cave among the rocks was the home
of a family of foxes. The g~and show-room is up-stairs.
Troups of camels wander about in the steppes. T}1e
Tartar's riches are in his camels. He was a very fierce
man. It was one of the wonders of the world. Heaven
lies about us in our infancy. The Ganges flows through
a great part of India. Cotopaxi is the highest volcano
in the world. Education is the best safe-guard of
liberty. The Indian is always afraid of evil spirits.
This is a poor little town. Some of these Bedouins
are shepherds. Sir Walter Raleigh brought the potato
to England in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
Special Classes of Nouns.

So far we have studied two general groups bf nouns; I
namely, COf1ttnon nouns and proper nouns. The com- ·1
~J!nb;)J ~'Bq~ sunou JO sdnoJ~ OM~ ;}pnI~u! sunou uow
•
56
special attention. These are: abstract nOll,ns and col-

lective nouns. An abstract noun is the name of a
quality or an idea.
Examples: goodness, kindness, honesty, mercy, power,
fear, truth, Uberty, virtue.
A collective noun is a name of a group of persons
or things thought of as a unit.
Examples: army~ audience, crowd, host, people, nation,
flock, herd, lot, class, gang, company, party,
fleet, peasantry..
Collective nouns are usually common nouns, but
when used as special names of bodies of individuals,
they are proper nouns.
Example: The Lake City Base Ball Team played here
lately.
Collective nouns, like other common nouns, have
singular and plural forms.
Examples: armies, crowds, classes.
It should be noticed that the singular form of some
collective nouns may be followed by the plural form
of the verb. This occurs when the individuals com-
prised in the group are not thought of as a body, but
as distinct individuals.
Examples: The clergy are opposed to the \neasure.
A herd of cattle were grazing in the distance.
The committee are making their report.
It should be noticed that a collective noun is a
special kind of common noun, that denotes a group
of individuals, but can not be applied to the separate
individuals of the group. The words tree, horse, plant,
etc., are common nouns. They are names of classes
of objects, but the n~me also applies to every individual
of the class.
58
EXERCISE.
There are many kinds of birds. At last we stood
at our mother's knee. There is a pleasure in the
pathless woods. There is a rapture on the lonely shore.
Many a bird froze to- death.* My barometer now
denoted an immense height. I seemed a monarch.
Every eye was upon me. The cheers of the multitude
reached me on the breeze. A taste of the rarer atmos-
phere elevated my spirits into ecstacy. T.here was
pride in the thought. Increased stillness attended my
way. The free wind was on my cheek. There are
vast herds of cattle in the pampas.
Mood of the Verb.

The verb may express action, being, or state in
different ways. It may be used to express something
as a fact.
Example: He works.
It may be used to ask a question.
Example: Does he work'
It may be used to express a command.
Examples: Work (ye). (You) work.
It may be used to express something as a wish,
a prayer, an uncertainty, or a condition.
Examples: If he come. God be with you.
This property of the verb by which it can express
action, being, or state in different ways is called mood.
The verb in the indicative mood is used to state
* The indefinite article a means one, but a is used before
great many to modify the plural form of the noun" after ma"y
to modify the singular form of the noun.
59
a fact, to ask a question, or to state something thought
of as certain.
Examples: The sun shines.
Is he your friend?
If he is your friend.
The form of the verb used to express a commarid
is called the impe·rative mood.
Examples: . Go (thou).
(You) work.
The verb is used in the subjunctive· mood to ex-
press an idea as uncertairi, as a condition, a prayer,
a wish, and the like.
Examples: May he prosper.
If she were strong.
If he be willing.
Kinds of Sentences.
Because the verb expresses action or being in
different ways, we have different kinds of sentences.
A sentence which states a fact or expresses something
as a certainty is called a declarative sentence.
Examples : We work. ·
You are in earnest.
A sentence used to ask a question is called an
interrogative sentence. In the interrogative sentence
•
the subject usually follows the predicate verb, though
not always.
Examples: Workest thou? Do you work?
Interrogative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs are
often used in asking questions.
Examples : Who is this man?
What is your name?
W hat house is this?
W here is the h,ouse?
60
A sentence used to express a com-mand is called

an imperative sentence.
Examples: Work (ye). (You) work.
In the imperative sentence the subject is usually
not expressed but understood, and must be supplied in
the analysis.
EXERCIS~.

In analyzing the sentence state what kind of sentence it is.
go. •
This is jln imperative sentence, the subject being
the pronoun you understood. The predicate is the
verb go.
go. .
This word is an intransitive verb, present tense,
second person, singular or plural number. It is
in the imperative mood, because it expresses. a
command.
He told her the story of his life. Summon the
doctor without delay. Had I the wings of a dove.
Came they. not early in th.e evening? Be kind to your
parents.* God grant him peace. Stay with us. Comes
the king to town at noon? God in thy good cause
make thee prosperous. Go with me to yonder light-
house of the skies. He placed his eye for a moment
to the tube. These words hereafter thy tormentors be.
An officer in the European service is in a different
situation.
RULE: FOR Pl:RIOD. - Declarative and imperative sentences
should be followed by period.
• RULl: FOR QUESTION MARK. - Place a question mark (?)
after an interrogative sentence.
* In the imperative mood be is the form of the copula.
61
The'Exclamatory Sentence.
Any sentence whether declarative, interrogative, or
imperative, may be used to express a st~ong emotion
of surprise, joy, sorrow, pain, fear, disgust, etc., in the
form of an exclamation. When so used it is called an
exclamatory sentence.
Examples: Great is God's wisdom! .
Ah tear her tattered ensigns down!
Why stand ye here idle?
In the exclamatory sentence the verb usually. pre-
ceeds the subject, as above, though not always.
Examples: John has come!
I see the ship!
Since the exclamatory sentence is in its nature
either declarative, interrogative, or imperative, it fol-
lows that the predicate verb in such sentences is either
in the indicative or imperative mood. The exclamatory
sentence expresses not only a thought, but· also an
emotion. What is often used as an exclamatory adjec-
tive in exclamatory sentences.
Example: What a sight is this!
EXERCISE.
What sorrow is mine! Strike for your native land!
Who is there? Saddle my horses! Call my train
together! How his full heart labors! He found Inany
of his former cronies. Rip Van Winkle was his name.
She had a chubby child in her arms. The gods defend
RULE 10R THE USE OF EXCLAMATION POINT. - The exclama-
tory sentence should be followed by an exclamation point (!)
if it is - an indicative or imperative sentence; by a question
mark· if it is an interrogative sentence.
62
her! Are you our daughter? I am your fatier!
Where is your mother? . Who comes hither? Does
nobody know poor Rip Van Winkle?* What is your
father's name? What street is this? The far-off hills
swell ~heir white purity against the pure blue of the
heavens ..
CLASS OF WORDS - VI.

Interjections.
Some words are used to express feeling and
emotion rather than thought. Such words are called
interjections.
Examples: an, on, alas, hurrahl
Like the exclamatory sentence they are uttered as
cries or exclamations. The kind of emotion expressed
by the interjection very often depends on the way it
is uttered.
A List of Interjections.
ah bravo hey hurrah soho
aha ·begone hey day hist soft
alas eh hah hush strange
ahoy faugh heigh-ho ha, ha, ha I shoo
alack farewell hail hoity-toity tut
all-hail fie hello indeed what
adieu foh ho 10 weldone
avast fudge hold lack a day welcome
aroynt good-by hum .pugh . welladay
avaunt ha hark pshaw zounds
Any word can be used as an exclamation with-
out becoming an inter j ection. Such words should
RULltFOR 'l'BJt EXCLAMA'l'ION POINT. - An interjection is
followed by an exclamation point (I).
* The predicate verb is does know.
\
63
be parsed as some other part of speech used as an
exclamation.
Examples: help! murder' Lear, Lear, Lear! a'Way! stoP!
seel Cordelia! dead I
The interjection has no grammatical connection
with the sentence or phrase in which it occurs. In
parsing such a word it is sufficient to state that it is
an interjection. If an other part of speech is used
as an exclamation state what part of speech. it is.
Interjectional Phrases.
The interjections are sometimes used in connection
with other words to form interjectional or exclamatory
phrases.
Examples: 0 ye hea'l,'eus! A las for Ine! A lack the day!
o poor Gloster! as it were, you know, to be
sure, by your leave, so to speak.
Any phrase may become exclamatory when used to
express strong emotion.
Examples: A bitter fooll Filial ingratitude I To shut
me out I Detested kite!
EXERCISE.
What a martyr a well":dressed man is to his hat.
o myoid heart, is cracked. Alas, are you here?
Alack, alack, I like not this unnatural dealing. Hum!
go to thy bed. The United States army consists of a
RULI: FOR PUNCTUATION. - An interj ection is usually fol-
lowed by an exclamation point, but if the interj ection is closely
·connected with what follows a comma is used. After ok, eh,
and hey the comma is used instead of the exclamation point.
After 0 no comma is used if the connection with what follows
is a close one, otherwise a comma is used.
64
hundred thousand men. Go with me to the duchess.

What a night is this! Oh, it is a trick! 0, then it
nloved her. Pshaw! this is nothing. Behold the bright
star in the sky I
EXERCISE.
Construct sentences containing one or more of the fol-
. lowing words and phrases, and analyze these sentences:
be, are, people, there, who, what, go, hurrah, hush,
soft, alas; ah, 0, mercy, so to speak, as it were, Jehova,
the Almighty, the Lord, at first, give, send, approach,
tell, pretty, white, gentle.
EXERCISE •
•
Beneath the tyrant's yoke the people languish. The
vine still clings to the mouldering wall. He seems a
man of cheerful yesterdays. She sang a few notes out
of tune. Many of the high peaks of the Andes are
volcanoes. Restore to God his due in tithes. The
knight looked troubled to the last degree. This is
sufficient for the destined bride. The deep-blue sky
gets a lighter color.
Ruu: POR THE USE OF THg HYPHEN. - When two or more
words are joined together to form a compound word hyphens
( -) are placed between them.
Examples: brother-in-law, dinner-time, deep-blue.
When words are divideg into syllables as in spelling
exercises, etc., hyphens are placed between the syllables.
When a word for want of space must be divided at the
end of a line place a hyphen at the end of the line to show
that the word is continued on the next line. "
It should be noticed that a word consists of syllables and
can be divided only at the end of a syllable. Example: es-
am-i-na-tion.
65
Numerals.
Words used to express number are called numerals.
They may be divided into several classes. \
Words answering the question, "How many?" are
called cardinal numerals.
Examples: one, two, twenty-five.
Words used to express which one of a series is
meant are called ordinal numerals.
Examples: first, second, twenty-first.
Words expressing how many fold are called multi-
plicative numerals.
Examples: single, double, tenfold.
Words used to express what part of a whole is
meant are called fractional numerals.
Examples: a third, half, six hundredths.
Cardinal numerals may be used as adjectives.
Example: A week has seven days.
When so used they are called numeral adjectives.
(See page 16.)
Cardinal numerals may also be used as nouns.
Examples: Fifty of them were killed.
A th,ousal1,d shall fall at thy side.
When used as nouns the cardinal numerals may
take a plural ending.
Examples: thousands, millions, hu,ndreds.
The ordinal numerals are used as adjectives. When
so used they are called numeral adjectives. (See
page 16.)
Example: The first ship arrived at noon.
The ordinal numerals are also used as adverbs.
Example: He came first.
5
66
The multiplicative numerals may be used as ad-

jectives, and when so used they are called numeral
adjectives.
Example: This is a double chord.
The multiplicative numerals may be used as ad-
verbs.
Examples: The grisly terror grew tenfold more hideous.
He read the book tmce.
The fractional nUl1zerals are used as nouns.
Examples: He received two fifths.
He gave her half of his' estate.
The numeral half may be used as an adjective
•
or
,adverb. .
Expressions like ten thousand three hundred, one
million three thousand five hundred may be regarded
as compOund numerals.
EXERqS~.
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain.

We gave the beggar twenty-five cents.
Take heed to yourselves.
Ye are in heaviness through nlanifold temptations.
For these causes the Jews caught me· in the temple.
Take double nloney in your hand. I
In th~ third year of his reign he made a feast unto

all his princes. I
The Jews gathered themselves together in their I
cities.
Seek ye first the kingdom of God. I
This is one of them. I
The second boat brought seventy-five passengers.

Some brought forth thirtyfold. I
j
67
He called twice at our house.

He owned twenty million dollars.
Three hundred thousand men invaded the country.
Two hundred penny-worth is not enough for them.
Have ye any meat?
The clock in the tower struck one. *
The Noun Used as Adjective and Adverb.

The noun is sometimes used as an adjective.
Examples: They built a stone wall.
He writes with a steel pen.
John is a farmer boy.
The noun is sometimes used as an adverb to modify
a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
Exampl~s: They walked a mile.
This river is a mile' broad.
We came an hour later.
•
Our neighbors came home.
EXERCISE.
Parsing.
In parsing a noun used as an adjective or as an advetb
state that it is a noun used as an adj ective, or a noun used
as an adverb, and point out what it nlodifies. '
John's brother came home yesterday.
He left San Francisco Monday afternoon.
The ladies' convention lasted three days.
He rained a shower of kicks and blows upon Gun-
powder.
There lived an 'honest fisherman.
The spectre started full jump with him.
* One is here a noun.
68
Cunning is a kind of short-sightedness.
His dark path becomes a way of .light to heaven.
Thus Death made way for Liberty f
God in heaven! Where slept thy thunderbolts?
The Noun in Apposition.

•
A noun may be added to another noun, or to a
pronoun to show more clearly who or what is denoted
by the first noun.
Examples: John the apostle went' to Patmos.
This is my friend Smith.
We, the People of the United States.
A noun so used is said to be in apposition with
the noun or pronoun to which it is added.
The noun in apposition has the function of an
adjective as it always modifies the other noun. The
noun in appo$ition is in the same case as the noun
to which it is joined.
EXERCISE.
Parsing of Nouns in Apposition.
In parsing a noun in apposition determine its person,
number, gender, and case, as before, and point out to what
noun it stands in apposition, and also the fact that it modifies
this noun.
The king himself came.
Fairest of all the maids was Evangeline, Benedict's
daughter.
Oh! a wonderful stream is the river Time.
RUL£ FOR THE Us£ OF THE COMMA.-The noun in· appo-
sition is preceded and followed by a comma, especially if it
is accompanied by modifiers. If the two nouns are closely
connected no comma is used.
69 •
,
My friend Reldresal, principal Secretary for Pri-
vate Affairs, is, in my opinion, the secbnd after the
Treasurer.
Amgrim took the sword Tyrfing.
Abou Ben Adhem awoke one night from a deep
dream of peace.,
By Nebo's lonely mountain,
On this side Jordan's wave,
In the vale in the land of Moab,
There lies a lonely grave.
Over the hill the farm-boy goes.
I, John Smith, give notice.
Give us a song.
Townshend, the ·Chancellor of the Exchequer in
the cabinets of Chatham and Grafton, renewed the
attempt to tax the colonies.
The steamer Baltic came to port this afternoon.
Our truths are half truths.
What is this, John?
Freedom calls you!
Quick! be ready!
Rouse ye in the name of God!
Father of earth and heaven! I call thy name!
John l\filton, author of Paradise Lost, was a native
of England.
They left their mountain home in old Scotland.
Into the mouth of hell,
Rode the six hundred.
RULE FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. -Titles of government
officials, as Secretary of State, Secretary for Ireland, etc., are
capitalized.
70
Independent Use of the Noun in Address.
For the sake of emphasis or in order to secure
closer attention, a noun denoting the person spoken to
is sometimes used in the sentence addressed to him.
Examples: Lo'rd· A ngus, thou hast lied!
Friends, Romans, countrynyn, lend me your
ears.
A noun so used is in the nominative case. It has
no connection with the sentence in which it is used,
and is, therefore, said to be independent by address.
EXERCISE.
She has a buxom arm, John.
Fly from the town, sweet child!
Then Fancy her magical pinions spread wide.
God! thou art merciful.
Hang the lanter~ aloft in the belfry arch of the
North Church tower.
Beneath, in the church-yard, lay the dead.
Wamba, the son of Witless, is the thrall of Cedric
of Rotherwood.
Special Uses of the Adjective.

The ~djective is sometilnes used as. a noun.
·Examples: The face of the deep is frozen.
The great, the wealthy fear thy blow.
The adjective is sometimes used as an adverb.
Examples: Soft sighed the flute.
Th~y came late.
RULE FOR PUNCTUATION. - A noun with its modifiers, if

any, used independently in address should be separated from
the sentence by a comma.
71
EXERCISE.
· Blessed are the merciful.
The snow is dead white.
Behold him - Arnold Winkelried!
The gift blindeth the wise.
Put not thine hand with the wicked.
Drowsily ticks the kitchen clock.
Home to the woodland fly the crows.
Thy jUdgments are a great deep.
The blue sky now turned more softly gray.
Old farmer John is poor.
Lift up your heads, girls.
Conjugation of the Verb.

To conjugate a verb is to giv:e in. a systematic
order its various fornls for tense, mood, voice, perS9n,
and number.
STRONG CONJUGATION AND \iVEAK CONJUGA1'ION.
We have already observed that verbs are divided

into two classes or conjugations, the strong and t~e
weak.
'The strong verbs form their preterite and past
participle by vowel change or ablaut.
sing sang sung
ride rode ridden
The \veak verbs form their preterite tense and past
participle by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the present ..
work 'lvorked worked
send sent sellt
live lived li'l-'ed
72
PRlNCIPAL PARTS.
In order to conjugate a verb we must know its

principal parts. These are:
• present indicative, 1st person, singular
preterite
present participle
past participle
• present infinitive
perfect infinitive
The present participle is. formed by adding -ing to
the present:
work working
throw throwing
The past participle has the same endings as the"
preterite in weak verbs. In strong verbs it is formed
by vowel change or ablaut:
Present. Preterite. Present Participle. Past Participle.
work worked working worked
ride rode riding ridden
throw threw throwing thrown
The present infinitive is like the present indicative,
1st person, sing.
I strike to strike
The perfect infinitive is formed by placing the
present form of the verb have before the past participle
of the verb:
to have worked
to have struck
* The present indicative, 1st person, singular, and the

present infinitive are alike, except in the copula be, but both
forms may be given for the sake of clearness.
• 73
neglect neglected neglecting neglected
•
spm spun spinning spun
Present Infinitive. Perfect Infinitive.
to neglect. to have neglected
to spin to have spun
. EXERCISE.
Form the principal parts of the following verbs:
stand, run, spoil, write, speak, spare, nip, migrate,
think, wait, sit, set, wind, creep, deprive, dye, die, get. .
The Tenses .
.The tenses of the verb are:
present
preterite
. future
present perfect
past perfect
future perfect
How the Tenses are Formed.
The preterite is formed both in strong and weak
verbs by changi~g the present form, as we have already·
seen.
The future is formed by placing the auxiliary verb
shall or will before the present infinitive of the verb.
Examples: I shall gee He will return.
The present perfect s~ands in relation to the present
and represents the act as being completed before the
present time. It i~ formed by placing the present form
of the verb have before the past participle of the verb.
Example: I have worked.
•
74 •
The past perfect stands in relation to the preterite

and represents the act as having been .completed before
some given past time. It is formed by placing the
preterite form' of the verb have before the past parti-
ciple of the verb.
Example: I had hutried.
The future perfect signifies that the act w.ill be
completed before some specified future time. . It is
formed by' placing the future form of the verb have
before the present participle of the verb.
Example: I shall ha~'e gone.
EXERCISE.
·Construct the different tenses, 1st person, singular of any
given verb.
Conjugation of the Verb TALK.

Intransitive Verb.
Principal Parts:
talk talked talking talked
to talk to have talked
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I talk we talk
you talk
• you talk
2nd person { (thou talkest) (ye talk)
3d person he talks they talk
Forms inclosed in parenthesis ( ) are now no longer in

regular use, but are found in older English writings. They
are, however, yet used in sacred style, and also in poetry.
75
Preterite Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I talked we talked
you talked you talked
2nd person { (thou talkedst) (ye talked)
3d person he, she, it talked they talked
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
..
1st person I have talked . .we have talked
2nd person (you have talked you have talked
( (thou hast talked) . (ye have talked)
3d person· he, she, it has talked they have talked
Past Perfect Te·nse.
Singular. Plural.,
1st person I had talked we had talked
you had talked you had talked
2nd person {
(thou hadst talked) (ye had talked)
3d person . he, she, it had talked they had talked
Future T ellse.
Singular. Plural.
1st ·person I shall talk we shall talk
you will talk you will talk
2nd person { (thou wilt talk) (ye will talk)
3d person he, she, it will talk they will talk
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I shall have talked we shall have talked
you will have talked you will have talked
2nd erson . .
p { (thou wIlt have talked) (ye will have talked)
3d person he, she, it will have talked they will have. talked
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
talk you talk you
(ta~k thou) (talk ye)
76
Infinitive.
Present. Perfect.
to talk to have talked
•
Participle.
Present. Past. Perfect.
talking talked ha ving talked
Gerund.
Present.. Perfect.
talking ha ving talked
~XERCISE.
Conj ugate one of the following verbs in the indicative

mood:
do, speak, think, travel, labor, ride, strive, rise,
sink, smile, suffer, sit, lie, long.
The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest

of the verb-phrase by other words.
Example: They had just entered the house.
In this sentence the adverb just modifies the
verb phrase had entered.
In analysis the verb-phrase is treated like a simple
verb form.*
EXERCISE.
Analyze the following verb-phrases:
shall come, will work, shall have seen, had con-
sidered, have arrived, will have gone, have failed,
will sit, shall think.
* The pupil should be drilled in analysing ver~ phrases till
he can readily recognize the forms constituting them. In
analysis of sentences, however, treat the verb-phrase as a
single form.
77
Auxlliary Verbs. .
Auxiliary verbs are so called, because they help to
make up the conjugation of the verb.
List of A vsiliary Verbs.
Present Tense. Preterite Tense.
have had
be, is, am, are was, were
shall should
will would
can could
do did
may might
must
ought
~XERCISE.
M oael for the Parsing of the Verb.

They had just entered the house.
had entered.
This verb-phrase is the past perfect tense of the
transitive verb enter. It is in the indicative mood,
because it states a fact. It is in the third person
and plural number to agree with the subject they.
It had not yet touched the ground. I 'will pursue
my melancholy story. Mr. Lovelace has just now given
me five guineas for poor Hannah. Your letter, my
beloved Miss Howe, gives me great comfort. Mrs.
Sinclair has just now left me. The next day they rested
in town. No more shall nation against nation rise.
Hark! a g:lad voice the lonely desert cheers. The
smiling infant in his hand shall take the crested basilisk.
A little learning is a dangerous thing. About the
middle of August the news came of the fatal loss of
78
Bristol. The desires of man increase with his acqui-

sitions. The Roman emperors gave large donations to
the citizens. This day she has conquered my sagacity.
I grew ashamed of the company of jockey-lords.
Thou, false Arcite, never shalt obtain thy bad pretense.
Arcite of Thebes had won the beauteous Emily. This,
Mr. Idler, I have found by long experience.
Conjugation of the Verb BE.

Princi pal Parts:
be, am was being . been
to be to have been
INDI~ATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I am we are
you are you are
2nd person { (thou art) ye are
3d person he, she, it is they are
Preterite Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I was we were
you were you were
2nd person { ye were
(thou wast)
3d person he, she, it was they were
Singular. Plural.
1st person I have been we have been
you have been you have been
2nd person { (ye have been)
(thou hast b~en)
3d person he, she, it has been they have been
79
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I had been we had been
you had been you had been
2nd person {
. (thou hadst been) (ye had been)
3d person he, she, it had been they had been
Fftture Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I shall be we shall be
YOU will be you will be
2nd person {
(thou wilt be) (ye will be)
3d person he, she, it will be they will be
Future Perfect Te'lJse.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I shall have been we shall have been
2nd person {YOU will have been you will have been .
(thou wi·It have been) (ye w~ll have been)
3d person he, she, it will have been they will have been
IMPERA'fIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
2nd person be you (be thou) be you (be ye)
Infinitive.
Present. Perfect.
to be to have been •
Participle.
being been having been
Gerf4nd.
Present. Perfect.
being having been
EXERCISE.
These tablets were in common use throughout
Europe. He has not been at home since yesterday.
80
Be still. We have· been very diligent. He had once
been very wealthy. He had tasted the cup of fashion-
•
able life. We shall be more industrious henceforth.
They will have seen him before that time. You will
be at the banquet Friday. In the United States there
can not be found sufficient * of this beautiful material.
Voice of the Transitiv.e Verb.

A transitive verb, as already stated, can express an
action as directed by the subject against an object.
Examples: John saw James.
You hit the ball. "
The subject is here the doer of the act. The object
is the receiver of the action.
When a transitive verb thus expresses an acti.on as
directed by the subject against an object it is in the
active voice.
But the transitive verb may also ~xpress the action
as directed by some person or thing against the subject.
The subject is not then the doer, but the receiver of
the action. When the transitive verb expresses an
action as directed against the subject it is in the passive
, .
VOf,ce.
V oice is that property of the transitive verb by
which it can show whether the subject is the doer or
the receiver of the. action.
A sentence having a transitive predicate verb can
have, then, two forms:
1. When the verb is in the active voice the subject
acts upon the object.
Example : John struck James.
* See special uses of the adj ective, p. 70..

81
2. When the verb is in the passive vohze, that
•
which was the object of the verb in the active voice
becomes the subject, -and what was the subject becomes
the obj ect of a preposition.
Example: James was struck by John.
The prepositional phrase arising in this way modifies
the predicate verb. It is often dropped from the
sentence.
Subject. Verb Active. Object.
- ..
The boy shot the rabbit.
Subject. Verb Passive. Obj. of Prep. BY.
The rabbit was shot by the boy.
The transitive verb in the passive voice has no

object, because the subject is the receiver of the action.
Conjugation of the Transitive Verb SEE.

Principal Parts:
see saw seeing seen
to see to have seen
6
82
ACTIV! VOIC! . .
The active voice of a transitive verb is conjugated
like the verb talk. (See page 74.)
P ASSIV! VOIC!.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I am seen we are seen
you are seen you are seen
2nd person {
(thou art seen) (ye are seen)
3d person he, she, it is seen they are seen
jJreterite Tense.
Singular. PI ural.
1st person I was seen we were seen
you were seen you were seen
2n d person {
(thou wert seen) . (ye were seen)
3d person he, she, it was seen they were seen
Singular. Plural.
1st person I have been seen we have been seen
you have been seen you have been seen
2n d person { (thou hast been seen)
(ye have been seen)
3d person he, she, it has been seen they have been seen
Past Perfect .Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I had been seen we had been seen
You had been seen you had been seen
2nd person {
(thou hadst been seen) (ye had been seen)
3d person he, she, it had been seen they had been ~een
Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I shall be seen we shall be seen
you ~ill be seen you will be seen
. 2nd person {
(thou wilt be seen) (ye will be .seen)
3d person he, she, it will be seen' they will be seen
83
Singular. - _
1st person I shall have been seen
2nd person You will have been seen
{ (thou wilt have been seen)
3d person he, she, it will have been seen
Plural.
1st person we shall have been seen
YOU will have been seen
2nd person { (ye will ha ve been seen)
3d person they will have been seen
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
be you seen be you seen
(be thou seen) (be ye seen)
I nlinitive.
Present. Perfect.
to be seen to have been seen
Participle.
being seen seen having been seen
Gerund.
Present. Perfect.
being seen having been seen
EXERCISE.
Change the following sentences from the active to the
passive and from the passive to the active form-:
The Germans conquered the French i~ 1870. Thirty
thousand people were killed by the eruption of Mount
Pelee. The trumpeter saluted Christian. The poor
children found no shelter. Lord Mithuen was captured
by the Boers. Small leaks sink great ships. He taught
them a valuable lesson. They harvested ~en acres of
84
wheat in one day. And now the chapel's silver bell

you hear. The Union forces defeated General Lee at
Ant:etam. A dreadful revenge was taken by the
German troops.
Retained Indirect Object•.

We have seen that a transitive verb in t~e active
voice may take, besides the direct' object, also an in-
direct object.
Example: John gave James a book.
This indirect object may be retained also with the
passive voice of the verb.
Example: Power was given him over all nations.
In such constructions the indirect obj ect is called
the retalned indirect object.
EXERCISE •
.LYodel for Parsing the Passive Verb-Phrase.
U do was assassinated by the Saxons.
was assassinated.
This is the passive verb-phrase of the transitive
verb assassinate. It is in the' indicative mood
and preterite tense.' It is in the third person and
singular number to agree with the subj ect noun
Udo.
The streets were paved with gold. The Indiaris
were led by OsceQla, a celebrated chief. Many states
had borrowed large sums of money. Will he try me
above my strength? America had already produced
Ruu: rOR THE USE or THE DASH (-). The dash is used
to point out an element in the sentence, upon which special
emphasis is laid.
85
five eminent painters-West, Copley, Stuart, Trumbull,
and Allston. A regular litie of steamships was estab-
lished between Liverpool and Boston in 1840.. The
Anti-slavery party at the North strongly opposed the
annexation of Texas. Few of the colonists were rich.
In New England all matters of public interest were
openly and fearlessly discussed in the town-meeting.
~1atters now looked serious. In Europe the French
and the English had long been enemies. Baron
Steuben, a Prussian military engineer, joined the
Americans. General Nathaniel Greene of Rhode Island
had been placed in command at the South. Arnold
died in London twenty years later. Mrs. I.,ofty keeps
a carriage. She had been dead two days. There is a
pleasure in the pathless woods. The next morning w~
were again visited by Mr. Burchell. Every cottager
in China has his litt~e tea-garden. ,The Tartar camel
has two humps. The wealth of some of the 'fartar
tri~s of Thibet consists in the yak. The long hair
of the y.ak is made ,into tent-cloth. The Tartars use
the yak instead of a horse. Troops of camels \vander
about in the steppes of Tartary. The skin of the camel
is u,sed for a great many purposes. A few years later
ten very important amendments were added to t~e
constitution. They were called a "Bill of Rights."
Vi'cksburg was held by' a strong Confederate force
under General Pemberton. Lafayette visited everyone
of the twenty-fou'r states. Congress gratefully voted
him two hundred thousand dollars. Chicago bade'
President McKinley farewell shortly after eleven
RULE FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. - N ames of political
parties should be capitalized.
86
o'clock * last night. 'Neath a tyrant's yoke the people
languish. The wise man is always ready for t~e ups **
and downs of life.
Remarks on the Passive Verb-Phrases.

The passive verb-phrase consists, as we see, of some
form of the auxiliary verb be and the past participle
of the principal verb. It should be noticed, however,
that t~e past participle of a transitive verb is some-
times used together with the incom·plete intransitive
verb or copula be as predicate complement. No action
is then expressed, but merely existing condition.
Example: The house is destroyed.
The subject here is not the receiver of any action.
No action is thought of. The house is thought of as
being in a certain condition. It is destroyed - gone .
. The predicate is destroyed is not a passive verb-phrase,
but consists of the copula is and the predicate comple-
ment destroyed which has here the character of a
predicate adjective.
. EXERCISE.
In analyzing these sentences care should be taken to
determine whether the predicate. consists of a verb-phrase
or of the copula with a predicate complement.
The poor are fed at his door every day. The Fugi-
* RULIt FOR 'tHtUslt OF 'tHE ApOSTROPHt ('). - The
apostrophe is used to denote the omission of letters in a word.
Examples: o'clock for of the clock, don't for do not, '93 for
1893, I've for [ have, etc. Eleven o'clock should be analyzed
thus: eleven is an adjective used as a noun. a' clock is a pre-
positional phrase == of the clock.
** Ups and downs are here used as nouns.
87
tives are captured. Take thou my soldiers, prisoners,

and patrimony. ' Our general is certainly wounded.
The 'inhabitants were slain in the streets of the city.
The sunshine is entirely untamed. I am convinced of
the, truth of the statement. In my dreams I am still
haunted by that fair VISion. The evil-doer is still
pursued. The house was remodeled from cellar to
garret.
Progressive Forms of the Verb.

The progressive verb-phrases express action as
continuing or going on at some particular time.
Progressive Forms of the Verb TEACH, Active Voice.

Principal Parts:
teach taught ' teaching taught
to teach to ha ve taught
If the form of the verb be and the following past parti-

ciple together constitute a passive verb-phrase denoting an
action directed against the subject, the form being can be
inserted between the two forms in the present and preterite
tenses without changing the meaning.
Examples: The house is (being) destroyed.
The house was (being) destroyed.
It is clear that the house, in, this case, is in the process
of being destroyed, or was in the process of being destroyed
in some past time. But if the sentence means that the house
is now, or was in some past time in a ruined condition the
form being can not be inserted. The form of the verb be
is then the copula, and the following past participle is the
, predicate complement.
•
88
INDICATIVP: MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1st person I am teaching
you are teaching
2nd person { (thou art teaching)
3d perSOR he, she, it is teaching
Plural.
1st person we are teaching
you are teaching
2nd person { (ye are teaching)
3d person they are teaching
Preterite 7"e1lse.
Singular.
1st person I was teaching
you were teaching
2nd person { (thou wert teaching)
3d person he, she, it was teaching
Plural.
1st person we were teaching
2nd person
5you were teaching
.1 (ye were teaching)
3d person they were teaching

Singular.
1st person I have been teaching
you have been teaching
2nd person { (thou hast been teaching)
3d person he, she, it has been teaching
Plural.
1st person \ve have been teaching
5 you have been teaching
2nd person
1 (ye have been tea~hing)
3d person they have been teaching
•
89
Past Perfect Tense.
Sin~ular.
1st person I had been teaching
2nd person
S you had been teaching
1 (thou hadst been teaching)
3d person he, she, it had be~n teaching
Plural.
1st person we had been teaching
2nd person
j you had been teaching
1 (ye had been teaching)
3d person they had been teaching
Future Tense.
Singular.
1st person I shall be teaching
~ you will be teaching
2nd person
1 (thou wilt be teaching)
3d person he, she, it will be teaching
Plural.
1st person we shall be teaching
2nd person
j you will be teaching
t (ye' will be teaching)
3d person· they will be teaching
Singular.
1st person I shall have been teaching
2nd person
5 you will have been teaching
1 (thou wilt have been teaching)
3d person he, she, it will have been teaching
Plural.
1st person we shall have been teaching
2nd person
j you will have been teaching
1 (ye will have been teaching)
3d person they will have been teaching
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
be you teaching be you teaching
(be thou teaching) (be ye teaching)
90
I nfj".itive.
Present. Perfect.
to be teaching to have been teaching
Participle.
Present. Perfect.
(being teaching) having been teaching
Gerund.
Present. Perfect.
(being teaching) having been teaching
,
Progressive Forms of the Verb TEACH, Passive Voice.
/ INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1st p~rson I am being taught
. 2nd person j you are being taught
( (thou art being taught)
3d person he, she, it is being taught
Plural.
1st person we are being taught
2nd person
5 you are being taught
( (ye are being taught)
3d person they are being taught
Preterite Tense.
Sin~ular.
1st person I was being taught
you were being taught
2nd perso~
{ (thou wert being taught)
3d person he, she, it was being taught
Plural.
1st person we were being taught
2nd person {YOU were being taught
(ye were being taught)
3d person they were being taught
The passive progressive verb-phrases are found
only in these two tenses.
91
EXE:RCISlt ...
Model tor Parsing the Progressive Verb-Phrases.

Andrew i~ working in the garden.
is working.
This is the progressive verb-phrase of the in-
transitive verb work. It is in the indicative mood
and present tense. It is in the third person and
singular number to agree with the subj ect noun
Andrew.
The sun is just rising. There are some beautiful
islands ~n the West Indies. A gre"at many people died.
In India all kinds of useful plants have been reared
by the English. England has possession of nearly the
whole of Hindostan. The orangoutang is found in the
densest forests of Sumatra. The poor Eskimo is sitting
all the time in the cold. He made the sledge himself
out of the bones of the great whale. No great nations
are found in the Frozen Zone. The boys are playing
some old game beneath the same old .tree. You also
"Yill have a voice jn' that judgment. The soldiers had
been marching all night. Thou hast been out upon
the deep at play. Zenobia's manly understanding was
strengthened 'by study. Cortez ever had in mind the
discovery of a strait through the continent. Enormous
sums were being invested in Mexican securities by
Englishmen. Alfred was famed during all his life for
the kindness of his heart. New parties of Danes were
continually arriving on the coast. The Danes at
Reading were re-enforced by these bands. Alfred
never enjoyed absolute peace, notwithstanding his
victory over Guthrum. The Danes had been now for
many years in Britain. They had established, in many
92
cases, friendly relations with the Saxons. Millions

have beet:1 led by this story to a more extensive study
of Alfred's life. Cortez had surrounded himself with
much state and ceremony. I shall be glad of thy
.• company. There will be no night then. They will
have finished their testimony before his return.
Verb-Phrases Expressing Determination, Command,

Promise, Resolution, etc.
Active Voice. Passive Voice.
Singular.
1st person I will see I will be seen
2nd person you shall see you shall be seen
{ (thou shalt see) (thou shalt be seen)
3d person he, she, it shall see he, she, it shall be seen
Plural.
1st person we will see we will be seen
2
nd person
{YOU shall see
( ye sh a 11 see )
you shall be seen
(ye shall be seen)
3d person they shall see they shall be seen
These verb-phrases should not be confounded with
the future verb-phrases with shall in the first person.
The verb-phrases with will in the first pe'rson are not a
future tense, but a present tense expressing present
determination, willingness, promise, command, or reso-
lution.
EXERCISE.
Thou shalt not steal. We will all fight for liberty.

In thy light shall we see light. His feet shall stand
in that day upon the Mount of Olives. All the land
shall be lifted up. Britains never will be .slaves. Thee
haughty tyrants never shall tame. The gates of it shall
93
not be shut at all by day. Improve your golden hours

to the noblest of all purposes. Our fairest dreams
are Inade of truths. Dear souls, fear no more the
mistakes of to-day. You shall ride home on my back,
Jack. At four o'clock we \vere drawn up in battle
array before the mayor's office. I had slept little
during the night.
The Emphatic Verb-Phrases.

Verb-phrases may be used instead of the sinlple
forms of the verb in the present and preterite tenses.
The verb-phrase is used when the action or state ex-
pressed by the verb is to be especially emphasized.
These verb-phrases are, therefore, called e1nphatic
verb-phrases.
Simple. Emphatic.
Examples: They work. They do work.
They worked. They did work.
The emphatic verb-phrase consists of the auxiliary
do placed before the present infinitive of the principal
verb.
The Emphatic Verb-Phrases of the Verb THINK.
Princi pal Parts:
think thought thinking thought
INDICA"IV~ MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I do think we do think
you do think you do think
2nd person { (thou dost think) (ye do think)
3d person he, she, it does think they do think
94
Preterite Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I did think we did think
you did think you did think
2nd person { (thou didst think) (ye did think)
3d person he, she, it did think they did think
IMPERATIVt MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
. do (you) think do (you) think
2nd person { (do thou think) (do ye think)
The emphatic verb-phrases are also used as inter-
rogative verb-phrases in interrogative sentences.
Examples: Did you work?'
Do you work?
Position of Auxiliary in Interrogative Sentences.

In interrogative sentences the auxiliary verb stands
before the subject and the infinitive or participle be-
longing to the verb-phrase follows the subject~
Do you work?
Have you worked?
Will you work?
Shall we work?
Had he worked?
Is he working?
EXERCISE.
Model for Parsing.
Do you labor?
do labor.
This is the interrogative verb-phrase of the in-
transitive verb labor. It is in the indicative mood
and present tense. It is in the second person
and plural number to agree with the subject
pronoun you.
95
We do labor.
do labor.
This is the emphatic verb-phrase of the in-
transitive verb labor. It is in the indicative mood
and present tense. I t is in the first person and
plural number to agree with the subject pronoun
we.
Once I did sail my boat on a little river. You
will get your pretty dress very soon, dear Emma.
Did Mary's g~andma give her this pretty doll? Do
you think she will cry? She did not cry yesterday.
Is your mama at home, John? "Hurrah, Hurrah!"
the American cried.* "Coal!" echoed Richard.
Potential Verb-Phrases.
The potential verb-phrases are forlned by joining
the. infinitive of the principal verb to some auxiliary
verb. The infinitive sign to is omitted when the
auxiliary verb -stands before the infinitive.
Examples: I can work.
We must work.
After the auxiliaries ought and have the infinitive
sign is retained.
Examples : We ought to work.
We have to go.
The auxiliaries enlployed in constructing potential
verb-phrases are: may, can, mu,st, w0f41d, should,
might, ought, need, could, have.
RULIt FOR QUOTATION MARKS (" "). - Quotation marks
are placed before and after a direct quotation.
* H """ah is not the obj ect of the verb cried, as an inter-
jection has no grammatical connection with ~ the sentence in
which it occurs. The verb cried is intransitive.
,
96
Potential Verb-Phrases of the Verb BRING.
Principal Parts:
bring . brought bringing brought
Present Infinitive. Perfect Infi nitive.
to bring to have brought
Present Tense.
ACTIVE.
Singular.
1st person I may bring
2nd person
j you may bring
1 (thou mayest bring)
3d person he, she, it may bring
Plural.
1st person we may bring
2nd person
j you may bring
1 (ye may bring)
3d person they may bring
PASSIV!.
Singular.
1st person I may be brought
j you may be brought
2nd person
1 (thou mayest be brought)
3d person he, she, it may be brought
Plural.
1st person we may be brought
j you may be brought
2nd person
1 (ye may be brought)
3d person they may be brought
Preterite Tense.
ACTIVE.
Singular.
1st person I might bring
j you might bring
2nd person
1 (thou mightest bring)
3d person he, she, it might bring
97
Plural.
1st person we might bring
2nd person
j you might bring
1 (ye might bring)
3d person they might bring
PASSmt.
Singular.
1st person I might be brought
2nd person
5you might be brought
1 (thou mightest be brought)
3d person he, she, it might be brought
Plural.
1st person we might be brought
2nd person
5you might be brought
1(ye might be brought)
3d person they might be brought

AC'rIV!.
Singular.
1st person I may have brought
2nd 'person
,j you may have brought
1 (thou mayest have brought)
3d person he, she, it may have brought
Plural.
1st person we may have brought
2nd person
j you may have brought
1 (ye may have brought)
,3d person they may have brought
PASSIV!.
Singular.
1st person I may have been brought
2nd person
j you may have been brought
t (thou mayes~ have been brought)
3d person he, she, it may have 'been brought
\7
98
Plural.
1st person we may have been brough~
2nd person 5 you may have been brought
1 (ye may have been brought)
3d person they may have been brought
Past Perfect Tense.
ACTIVt.
Singular.
1st person I might have brought
2nd person 5you might have brought
1(thou mightest have brought)
3d person he, she, it m~ht have brought
Plural.
1st person we might have brought
2nd person 5 you might have brought
1 (ye might have brought)
3d person. they might have brought
PASSIVE.
Singular.
1st person I might have been brought
2nd person
5you might have b~en brought
1(thou mightest have been brought)
3d person . she, it might have been brought
he,
Plural.
1st person we might have been brought
2nd person
5you might have been brought
1(ye might have been brought)
3d person they might have been brought
EXERCISE.
M oael for Parsing the Potential Verb-Phrase.
This disastrous defeat might have been avoided.
m'ight have been avoided.
This is the potential verb-phrase of the transitive
verb avoid. It is in the passive voice and past
• 99
perfect tense. I t is in the third person and
singular number to agree with the subject defeat.•.
A fire was still raging in the distance. It could
not have been seen. Her other son shall comfort her
old age. Often they would have bolted under any
other master. The Declaration of Independence was
signed on the fourth of J~ly, 1776.** The edifice was
composed of a basement of log~. He had been re-
commended to the favor of Judge Temple by the head
of an eminent mercantile house in N ew York. The
fly-catcher can sport among the water-lilies. A large,
bright flower would make the little fly-catcher a tent.
Nothing could be so fatal to us both. Mankind must
necessarily be diversified by various tastes. I must
tell you something about the red man. They ought
to contemplate the certain approach of age. 'They
mus't grow old. Who can do justice to a moonlight
night in such a climate? The time of action will not
always continue. He can tell the track of wild animals
by the slightest mark on the ground. Do raise the
window. He was in the thickest of the fight. The
letter will be written to-day. We do study. The Slavs
had not been seen before in that region.
• The mood of the potential verb-phrase is either indicative
or SUbjunctive. If it states a fact it is in the indicative mood.
If it expresses a condition, supposition, etc., it is in the sub-
junctive mood. As this is often somewhat difficult to deter-
mine, it may be well not to require the beginner to give the
mood of the potential verb-phrase.
•• 1776 is here a cardinal number used as a noun. It is
an abbreviation of the pregositional phrase in the year 1776~·
hence 1776 is to be considered as the name of a particular
year. It stands in apposition to the noun year understood.
409396
100 •
Progressive Forms of the Potential Verb-Phrases.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1st person I may be giving
2nd person 5you may be giving •
1(thou mayest be giving)
3d person he, she, it may be giving
~ Plural~
1st person we may be giving
2nd person
5 you may be giving
1 (ye may be giving)
3d person they may be giving
Preterite Tense.
Singular.
1st person . I might be giving
2nd person
J you might be giving
1 (thou migktest be giving)
3d person he, she, it might be giving
Plural.
1st person we might be giving
2nd person
5 you might be giving
1 (ye might be giving)
3d person they might be giving
Present P erteet T ense~

Singular.
1st person I may have been giving
2nd person
5you may have been giving
1 (thou mayest have been giving)
3d person he, she, it may have been giving
Plural.
1st person we may have been giving
2nd person
5 you may have been giving
1 (ye may have been giving)
3d person they may have been giving
101
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1st person I might have been giving
you might have been giving
2nd person { (thou mightest have been giving)
3d person he, she, it might have been giving
Plural.
1st person we might have been giving
you might have been Jiving
2nd person { (ye might have been giving)
3d person they might have been giving
EXERCISE.
The horses would have been driven by the boys.
They may have been staying home all day. Was
Robert Fulton the inventor of the steamboat? Mamma,
John has been pl3:ying with the kittens. You must
watch a little longer.· These plants must have been
. growing very rapidly. He may, indeed, be animated
by the consciousness of doing good. We seemed lifted
up into a purer atmosphere. The Union we reached
only by discipline of our virtues in the severe school
of adversity.. Every year of its duration has teemed
with fresh proofs of its utility. Our ships could not
sail about for a great part of the year. Without the
Gulf Stream the climate in England would be very
cold indeed. They would have become a compact
nation. I should have well deserved their gratitude.
Hostile parties would have been rallied together. The
people were daily becoming more firmly established in
the unity of principle. They might have blindly risen
in reaction against us. You must not go without per-
*A little is a phrase-adverb. See page 49.
102
.
mISSion. May I go to-morrow? The book shall
have been returned to you by nine o'clock to-morrow
morning. ~artha will have finished her dress by that
time.
EXERCISE.
Where are the great plains of the earth situated?
How much of the earth's surface is water?
- Why is the cold greatest in the frigid zones?
Ah! When shall they all meet again?
What a martyr a well-dressed man is to his hat!
That's news indeed.
0, 'tis a burden, Cromwell.
Bear lightly on their foreheads, Time!
The boys were playing some old game beneath
that same old tree.
The profane were driven from the temple of
Liberty.
The world was taken possession of by the demons .
of the air.
There is a sort of fascination in such a scene.
All this power will I give thee.
Whence come ye?
Full authority was given him by the emperor.
Which is the largest lake in the world?
Why is the greater part of Patagonia a desert? ~
I
~ Where is vegetation most luxuriant?·

When did the war with the French begin?
How they waltzed the portly sheaves about! - .
Give us this day our daily bread.
The apostrophe (') is used to show that a letter has
=
been omitted. 't == it, that's == that is, don't do not.
103
The Simple Subject and the Compound Subject.
The subject of a sentence ,is simple when it consists
of a single noun or its equivalent.
Examples: lonn drives the horses.
They were well received.
The people went home.
The simple subject may take one or more modifiers,
and still be simple.
Examples: Good people all of every sort
Give ear unto my song.
/okn, Mr. Smith's coachman. is quite old.
In the last sentence the noun John is the simple
subject. The noun coachman is a noun in apposition
to the noun John and serves as a modifier of it.
o When the subject consists of two or more nouns
or their equivalents thought of together, it is com-
pound. Usually the members of the compound subject
are joined together by conjunctions either expressed or
understood.
Examples: lohn and lames study their lessons.
Mary and her two sisters went to school.
Days, months, years, and ages shall circle
away.
Her downcast eye,
Her tr,mbling frame, her heaving sigh,
Her cheek, now flushed, now deadly pale,
In silence told the maiden's tale.
The members of the compound subject may take
modifiers.
Example: The old man and hir little daughter met them.
It should be noticed, then, that the subject of a
sentence is either simple or compound. A simple
sentence may have a compound subject.
104
CLASS OF WORDS - VIII.
Conjunctions.
Conjunctions are words used to connect words,
phrases, or sentences.
Examples: Jack AND Gill went up the hill.
They ran tIP hill AND down hill.
Alfred came home after a few years, but
James never returned.
You are kind of heart and gentle by nature,
] asper, but we are both rough and wild in
comparison with that dear creature.
Correlative Conjunctions.
Conjunctions sometimes occur in pairs. They are
then called correlative conjunctions .•
Examples: though - - yet
both-and
either-or
whether - - or
neither - - nor
not only--but (also)
as well--as
never--or
not--or
not--but
The members· of a compound subject may be
joined together by correlative conjunctions.
Model for the Parsing of Conjunctions.
Ice and snow covered the mountain sides.
and.
This word is a conj unction used' to connect the
two subj ect nouns ice and snow.
• The other classes of conjunctions will be explained later.

105
Agreement of Predicate Verb and Compound Subject
as to Number.
When the members of· the compound subject are
joined together by the conjunctions and or both-
ana, the predicate verb is generally plural.
Examples: Mary and ~er sister are studying.
B 0 tit, Mary and her sister are studying.
A compound subject, the members of which are
joined together by and or both - and, may be fol-
lowed by a predicate verb in the singular if each
member of the compound subject is thought of in turn.
Example: Thirty days hath September,
April, June, and November.
, If the members of the compound subject are joined
together by the conjunc~ions or, nor, either - or,
neither - nor, whether - or, not only - but also, as
we'll as, not - but; never - or, and not - or, the fact
stated by the predicate refers only to one of the mem-
bers of the compound subject, not to all; and with
this membeF the predicate verb agrees in number.
Examples: Either John or James is at home.
Neither ,the archbishop nor the earl of
Strafford was in any degree acceptable to the
queen.
If the members of the compound subject joined
together by these conjunctions are in the singular,
the predicate verb is singular also.
Example: Either ability or inclination was wanting.
If the members of the compound subject thus
joined together are plural, the predicate verb is also
plura1.
Example: N either the fishermen nor their boats were
found.
106
When the members thus joined into a compound
subject are singular and plural, the predicate verb
agrees in number with the one standing nearest to it.
Example: One or two were seen upon the shore.
When the members of the compound subject are
of different persons and are joined by the conjunctions
or, nor, either - or, neither - nor, whether - or,
never - or, not - or, not only - but also, as well as,
not - but, the predicate verb usually agrees in person
with the member standing next to it.
Example: Either he or thou art at fault.
Such constructions, being awkward, can easily be .
avoided by putting the proper fonn of the verb after
each subject noun or pronoun thus: Either thou arl
at fault or he is.
~X~RCISP:.
N either rain nor snow has fallen this week.

The meager herbage of the prairie promised
nothing in favor of a hard and unyielding soil.
Of whom do you speak?
Ducks, geese, and swans are cousins.
Both gold an4 ·silver are found in America.
Albert and Elizabeth accompanied his remains to
Hungary.
The deaf, the blind, the lame, the palsied, the living
dead· in many shapes and forms were there.
Much good may be done in a quiet way.
A king can not take his crown with him.
Decrepit age, and vigorous' life, and blooming
youth, and helpless infancy poured forth.
Some leaves turn red in "autumn.
•
107
Fernando Cortez, the great Spanish explorer, re-
turned to Spain after an absence
-
of\ thirty-six years.
Down comes h~sh-a-byC!) baby, and all.
Olaf, king of Norway, and Swein, king of Den-
mark, continued their attacks upon England until the
end of the century.
He has been coasting along the African shore~
Health is happiness, and strength, and wealth.
Is arithmetic or grammar your favorite study?
N either the Saxons nor the Danes gained any
permanent and decisive victories.
Ask it either in the depth or in the height above.
Thus shall we best testify our gratitude to the
teachers and guides of our youth.
N either the sunbeams, nor the birds, nor the red
clouds gave the little tree any pleasure.
Every evening from thy feet
Shall the cool wind kiss the heat.
All too soon these feet must hide
~n the prison cells of pride.
The Simple and the Compound Predicate.

A simple sentence may have a compound predicate.
The predicate is simple when it contains only one
verb or verb-phrase.
Examples: Fire burns.
They are industrious.
We have walked far.
They might have returnta later.
The predicate is compound when it contains mor~
than one predicate verb or verb-phrase.
Example: They danced and played in the summer wind.
•
108
. The predicate verbs or verb-phrases are connected
by conjunctions either'expressed or understood. It
should be noticed, then, that a simple sentence may
have both a compound subject and a compound predi-
cate. .
Example : John and his sister stayed at home and studied.
ExtRCIst.
John and J aines speak and read French.
He now hurried forth, and hastened to his old
resort, the village Inn.
Some large, lazy 'Sharks come even to the British
shores.
They' are quite hannless, and lie basking on the
top of the water.
Where does tea come from?
Then Theseus bent himself in good earnest to the
task, and strained every sinew with m·anly strength
and resolution. . .
The albatross flapped his strong wings and wheeled
away.
N either the wide mouth of the shark, the' brown
back of the porpoise, nor the spouting nostril of the
whale is visible.
The billows roar and bound, and lash the sides of
the trembling ship, and sweep with strange force her
decks. '
To rest the eye commas are inserted between the Rarts
of a long compound predicate.
Example: Every stratum of English society felt the
liberal impulse that caused the French Revolu-
tion, and suffered from the imperial turn
given that impulse under Napoleon.
109
From its height, the vale, the rivers, the spires,
and the towers of Granada broke gloriously upon the
view of the little band.
The world was taken pas,session of by the demons
of 'the air.
A cottontail rabbit jumped out and gave them a
great scare..
Poor little Runtie had been sickly from the first.
They took their daily dust-bath, but of late had
changed to another higher on the hill.
Their individual characters were early shown and
now developed fast.
The Simple and the Compound Object.

The object of 'a transitive verb in the active voice
is simple when it consists of only one noun or its
equivalent. It is compound when it consists of two
or more nouns or their equivalents. The nouns or
their equivale~ts forming the compound object are
joined together by conjunctions either expressed or
understood.
Examples: The Mad Moon brought madness, solitude,
and grapes.
Every month brought its food and its foes.
If the compound predicate consists of two or more
transitive verbs, each may take its own object.
Examples: The sun gained strength and melted the SHOUI.
They crossed mountains and forded streams.
The several transitive verbs of a compound predi-
• cate may have a common object.
Examples: We neither saw nor heard them since.
They first plundered and then forsook hi..
,
110
The object of a preposition may be compound.
Examples: Opie preferred going to the quick and heart
of the matter.
It was done in perfect simplicity and honesty
of heart.
The Compound P.redicate Complement.

An incomplete predicate verb may have a com-
pound predicate complement. The predicate comple-
ment is compound when it consists of two or more
predicate nouns or adj ectives, or their equivalents.
Examples: They are happy and content.
He was learned and. able, but corrupt and
unscrt4pulous.
ExtRCIst.
I can neither delight with accounts of suffocating
crowds, nor brilliant drawing rooms, nor toweri~g
feathers, nor sparkling diamonds, nor immeasurable
trains.
He was of a very calm, quiet, and placid temper
of mind.
The Saxons seemed appalled and paralyzed at the
greatness of the danger. .
The French king was weak and could not conquer
Normandy.
RULts J!OR THt Ust OJ! THt COMMA. - Phrases or clauses
inserted between two important parts of a sentence, as be-
tween subj ect and predicate, or between the predicate verb
and the direct obj ect, are separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas.
Phrases and clauses which, by inversion, are placed at the
beginning of the sentence are usually followed by commas.
If the phrase is very short, the comma may be omitted.
111
Edward had been brought up in childhood in his
father's country.
The American Indian possessed courage and forti-
tude in the highest degree.
In 1777 the American flag was seen for the first
time on European waters.
The poor heartbroken mother had come and dug
out the bedraggled bodies of her little ones.
Ships could not sail about for a great part of the
year.
Caesar came and saw and conquered.
The ravages of the Gauls left the poor plebeians
in a most pitiable condition.
Churches and abbeys, palaces and cottages, villas
and cities were given to the flames.
The basis ~f the absolute power of Louis XIV.*
was laid by Cardinal Richelieu during the reign of
Louis XIII.
Wallenstein, after numerous marches and counter
marches, attacked the Swedes in a terrible battle on
the memorable field of Liitzen in Saxony.
The Swedes won the day but lost their leader and
sovereign.
Notwithstanding the death of their great king and
commander, the Swedes did not withdraw from the
war.
The Complex Sentence.

We have seen that a phrase may be used in a
sentence instead of a single word. But instead of the
* XIV. is here an ordinal numeral (the 14th). Louis
XIV. is equivalent to the 14th Louis.
phrase we may use a sentence, which has then the
function of a single word.
.Examples: He left home in youth.
He left home while he was young.
The predicate verb left is modified in one case by
the adverbial phrase in youth, and in the other by the
.sentence while he was young. This sentence is, there-
fore, an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb and
has the function of a simple adverb. The sentence,
He left home while he was ')'oung, consists, then, of two
sentences which we call clauses. He left home is an
independent claftse, because it can stand alone as a
sentence. While he 'lJ)as young is a dependent clause,
because it is used with the independent clause as a
modifier, and can. not stand alone as a sentence. The
independent clause .is also called the principal clause,
because it constitutes the main part of the whole
sentence. The dependent clause is alsQ called the
subordinate clause, because it is subordinate to the
principal clause in importance. A ,sentence which con-
tains one principal clause and one or more subordinate
clauses is called a complex .sentence.
The Noun Clause.

The subordinate clause may have the function of
a noun. I t is then called a noun clattse.
The noun clause may be used as the subject of a
sentence.
Example: What 'Was done has never come to light.
The Logical and the Grammatical Subject.

The noun clause may be the real or logical subject
113
of the sentence when the word it is the grammatical
subject.
Example: I t is true that he has come.
The noun clause may be used as object of a
transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition.
Examples: Did you hear what he said!
He believes in what he has undertaken.
The noun clause may be used as predicate com-
plement.
Example: Things are not what they seem.
The noun ~lause may be used in apposition to a
noun or pronoun.
Example: What is there in the legends of chivalry that
surpasses it'
The Adjective Clause.
The subordinate clause may have the function of
an adjective. It is then called an adjective clause.
Examples: He who gave the reindeer to the Laplander
has filled the sea with living creatures.
We spoke with the man who came to town
yesterday.
The Adverbial Clause.
The subordinate or dependent clause may have the
function of an adverb. It is then called an adverbial
clause.
Examples: He came when the cloc/l struck one.
He hid where they could not find him.
ExERCISE.
Point out the subordinate clauses and tell what kind
they are.
Henry restored the laws of Edward the Confessor
8
114 '
wherever they had fallen into abeyance. The nineteen
years of Stephen's reign were filled with the strife
which usually follows a disputed succession. It is un-
doubtedly true that Charles had submitted to more
restrictions than any other recent king of England.
Parliament had neglected Ireland while the war was
raging in England. Severe punishment was inflicted
upon those who took part in this uprising. It was
determined, however, that the Scottish Highlands
should no longer be left in a condition which invited
Jacobite. in·trigues. When George III. became king,
the system of corruption gained new' force. The
colonists replied that this gr.oup of arguments was a
palpable misrepresentation of the actual facts. That
gymnastic training is good for boys, is clear. An
Eastern problem arose when Russia decided to cross
Siberia with a· railway.. That the .soul is immortal is
believed by all nations. Why he did not go is. not
known. Whether he can finish the work is doubtful.
Connectives Which Join Subordinate Clauses to the

Principal Clauses.
A subordinate clause may be joined to the principal
or independent clause by:
, 1. Relative pronouns and relative adjectives.
2. Subordinate conjunctions.
3. Conjunctive adverbs.
RUL~ FOR TH~ USE OF TH~ COMMA. - A long noun clause
used as subj ect should be followed by a comma. But if the
noun clause follows the verb as the logical subj ect, when the
~ord it is used as the grammatical subject, it is not separ~ted
from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
.
.,
115
Relative Pronouns.*
The simple relative pronouns are: who, which,
that, as, and what. The compound relative pronouns
are: whoso, whoever, whosoever, whichever, which-
soever, whauver, and whatsoever.
Who and which are declined as follows:
Singular and Plural.
Nominative who which
Possessive \vhose whose
Objective whom which
The relative pronoun joins the subordinate clause

to the principal clause by referring it to a noun or
pronoun in the princip~l clause. The noun or pronoun
to which the relative pronoun refers is called its
antecedent. **
Example: I spoke with the man whom we met yesterday.
The relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent
in person, number, and gender, but need not agree
with it in case.
* The relative pronouns are also called conjunctive pro-
nouns, because they connect subordinate clauses with principal
clauses.
** The antecedent of a relative pronoun may also be a
phrase, or a clause.
Examples: Towards autumn it is his custom to journey
over the mountains to the Springs - which
he is obliged to do to avoid the unhealthy
season in the tide-water region.
Whereupon the king· ca"sed him immediately
to be proclaimed a traitor; which the other
received with some expressions of undutiful-
ness and contempt.
116
Number of the Relative Pronoun.
The relative pronoun· has the same form in the
singular and the· plural.
Gender of the Relative Pronoun.

Who is either masculine or feminine. 'i
I
Which and what are neuters.

That and as are of all three genders.
Person of the Relative Pronoun.

The relative pronouns do not change their form
to indicate person, but ar~ consider~d in the same
person as their antecedent.
Case of the Relative Pronoun.

The 'case of the relative pronoun is determined by .
its construction in the subordinate clause to which it
belongs. It; may be the subject of the .subordinate
clause, and will then be in the nominative case.
Example: This is the man who met us yesterday.
It may be used as the object of the predicate verb
of the subordinate clause, if the verb is transitive and
in the active voice.
Example: This is the man whom we met yesterday.
It may be ,:!sed as the object of a preposition, and
will then be in the objective case.
Example: This is the man of whom we spoke yesterday.
It may be used in the possessive case to modify
some substantive in the subordinate clause.
Example: This is the man whose boy we met yesterday.
We notice, then, that in the subordinate clause the
117
relative pronoun has the function of a pronoun. But
it also has the function of a connective ili that it joins
the subordinate clause to some noun, pronoun, phrase,
or clause in the principal clause, or it may join the
subordinate clause to the whole principal clause.
The Relative Pronoun WHAT.

What is often equivalent to· that which.
Example: We gave them what we had.
What is.here the direct object of the transitive verb
gave of the principal clause, and also of the transitive
verb had of the subordinate clause. Since what is
equivalent t~ that which, we may substitute that which
in the analysis. The demonstrativ~ pronoun that is
then the object of the verb gave, and the relative
pronoun which is the object of the verb had, and has
for its antecedent the pronoun that.
But this substitution need not be made. What
may be retained in the analysis, but must then be
parsed as having two constructions.* In the first con-
struction it is the object of the verb gave. In the
second construction it is the object of the verb had,
having the function of a relative pronoun and having
the first construction for its antecedent.
The relative pronoun in the obj~ctive case is often
omitted.
E?C~mple: The house you showed me is sold.
* The part a certain word plays in the sentence in which

it stands is called its construction. A noun, for example,·
may be the subject of a sentence, or the object of a transitive
verb, etc., and ~ach of these uses of the noun is a construction. ,
See pagelS.
118
Relative Adjectives.
The words 'U,hicn and 'arhat, and their compounds
whichever, whichsoever, and whatever, whatsoever are
often used as adje~tives. When so used they are called
relative adjectives. The relative adjectives join the
subordinate clause in which they stand to the principal
clause. They have, therefore, two functions; that of
an adjective, and that of a connective word.
Example: We did not know which road was the best.
A noun following a relative adjective may have
two constructions.
Example: He gave them what supplies they needed.
Here the noun supplies is the object of the verb
gave in the principal clause and also of the verb
needed in the subordinate clause.
Clauses introduced by relative pronouns are either
noun or adjective clauses.
In analyzing a relative clause state whether it is
a noun clause or an adjective clause, and how it is
used in the seritence. State whether the. sentence is
simple or complex.
Analysis of the Subordinate or Dependent Clause.
In analyzing the subordinate clause state whether
it is used as nounr adjective, or adverb, and show how
it is joined to the principal clause. If it is used as
adjective or adverb, show also what it modifies.
• Model for Analyzing the Relative Clause .
His lands were on the borders which separate
J England from Scotland.
which separate Engla:nd from Scotland.
119
This is a subordinate clause, because it can not
stand alone as a sentence. It is a relative adjec-
tive clause used to modify the noun borders. It
is· a relative clause, because it is introduced by
a relative pronoun.
which. '
This word is a relative pronoun used as the
subject of the subordinate clause. It is in the
third person, plural number, and neuter gender to
agree with its antecedent borders. The sJ.1b-
ordinate clause is joined to the noun borders of
the principal clause by the relative pronoun which.
(The rest of the subordinate clause is analyzed like any
other sentence.) .
EXERCISE.
The men who wrote the English Chronicle were

monks.
The army which had the commander with the
strongest brain prevailed.
He asked them what greater comfort or security
the protestants of Christendom could receive .
.We are, and have been always confessed, the only
judges of our privileges.
The message was received by the lords with great
signs of joy.
He had not heard what they had to say.
One of those who hated Spain most was Walter
Raleigh. •
At the beginning of the reign he had been accused
of a crime of which he had not been guilty.
This was what Parliament itself thought at the time.
No marriage of any of the king's children should
be concluded wtith any prince or person ,whatsoever,
122
They did not think that they discharged their duty, -

unless they added some further reasons.
The committee which presented the declaration to
the king at Newmarket, presented likewise additional·
reasons.
Although they longed for home, they stayed for
six months.
They were. free from whatsoever mischief. that
petition might produce.
He said that he could not come that day.
"You must stay at home to-day," said his mother.
The comm,ittee that still continued to sit in London
intended no other business but their own privileges.
, Relative Adverbs.*
The subordinate clause may be joined to the
principal clause by a relative adverb.
The principal relative adverbs are: where, whence,
whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, why, how,
as, before, after, till, until, since.
These adverbs are called 1'elative adverbs, because
they are used much the same way that relative pro-
nouns and adjectives are, and because the relative
adverb is generally equivalent to a prepositional phrase
containing a relative pronoun or adjective.
Examples: where == in which, to which, in what place.
when == in which, at what time.
how == in what way, which way.
The relative adverb has the function of a con-
nective, because it joins the subordinate clause to the
* The relative adverbs are also called conjunctive adverbs,
because they have the function of subordinate conjunctions.
123
principal clause. Generally the subordinate clause is
joined to some particular word or phrase in the
principal clause.
The relative adverb has also the function of an
adverb, because it modifies some word or phrase in the
subordinate clause.
Example: I remember th~ place where I was born.
He~ the relative' adverb where joins the sub-
ordinate adjective clause I was born to the noun place
of the principal clause. ,It also modifies the verb born
of 'the subordinate clause.,
The subordinate or dependent clauses may express
a variety of ideas. Divided according to the idea they
express the subordinate clauses will ~eneral1y fall into
one of the following groups:
PLACE. We stopped where the road turned. I
. remember the place 'ulhere I was born.
TIME. They came 'luhen 'their work was done.
MANN!R. They live as their fathers and fore-
fathers lived.
DEGREE. He is not as rich as they think he is.
CAUSE. He grew 'despondent, because he found
no employment. •
PURPOSE. We work in order that we may earn
our daily bread.
CONCESSION. Though the night be dark and dreary,
Darkness can not hide from Thee.
CONDITION. If he is willing, we will go.
RESULT. He was so weak that he grew alarmed.
COMPARISON. He looked as if he were frightened.
INDIRECT STATEMENT. He said that he would
come.
124
INDIRECT QUESTION. He asked when we 'UJere
going. He asked: "When are you going?"
It should be noticed that an indirect question may
lose the form of an interrogative sentence and be fol-
lowed by a period. But it may be used as a direct
quotation,* in which case it is followed by the interro-
gation point or question mark.
DIRECT QUOTATION. Any direct quotation.may be
used as a subordinate clause. .
. I
Examples: tIHe is right /" she exclaimed.
ttGo and see what it is/' she said.
liDo you know what you have to do?" he
asked.
Subordinate Clause with Compound Subject and

Predicate. ·
Like any other sentence, the subordinate clause
may have a compound subject, predicate, etc.
Example,s: I know where your brothers and sisters are.
We told them that they should stay at home
and study.
He told us that we should feed the horses
and the cattle.
RULt FOR THt U SIt OF THt COLON. - A long direct quo-

tation, or matter formally thtroduced, like enumerations, etc.,
should be preceeded by a colon.
* When we express a thought which is not ours but some-
body else's we call it a quotation. We may express this thought
in the exact words of the person himself. It is then called a
direct quotatation and the words are indicated by quotation
marks placed before and after them. Example: He said:
"Truth is strong and must prevai1." We may express some-
body else's thought in our own words. He said that tr.~th
is strong and must prevail. In this case quotation marks are
not used.
,
125
Cemplex Subordinate Clause.
The subordinate clause may itself be complex.
Example: I saw the place where Mary stayed when she
was a child.
EXERCISE.
Go where glory waits thee.

When the praise thou meetest
To thine ear is sweetest,
Oh! then remember me .
•
Hark! the bird is coming.
Tl)e colors on its body are green and gold and
purple.
You can scarcely tell where one ends and the other
begins.
They live in many places where it is hot.
There is a very noble tree which grows in Ceylon.
It is called the talipot.
The talipot has a straight stem and grows to the
height of two Qundred feet.
\ People who live near the jungle see many beau-
tiful things.
When the signal has been given, the immense
crowd press round the car and seize on the ropes that
hang to it.
What does the bat eat?
Insects and little birds and mice and rats.*
When there is no stream or rivulet the Arab sinks
a well and waters his palmtrees ..
* In an answer to a question the subj ect and predicate verb
of the sentence are often understood as here. The subject
is bat understood. The predicate verb eats is also understood.
126
He said that he had given them full answers in
his late declaration.
From the tangled forest, which clothed the hill
beneath which they stood, came the yells of savages
and the crack of rifles.
The people in England were downcast when they
heard that the grand army of General Burgoyne had
surrendered.
As he was riding on, three men sprang out of the
woods and seized his horse's bridle.
Though he is rich; he is not benevolent.
If this hat fit me, I will buy it. .
Let * us remember our fathers' deeds lest we forget
.. our duties.
He came home in order that he might meet his
college friend.
The clock is so old that it is entirely useless.
He returned, because he could get no work.
Since it is your wish, I shall begin the work to-
morrow.
Though the alarm was general, he was not
frightened.
Except someone help us, we can not finish the
work to-day.
Supposing we do o~e-half, will you do the other?
Around us and above us rise sun and system,
cluster and universe.
I doubt not that in every region of this vast erJ;1pire
of God, hymns of praise and anthems of glory are
rising and reverberating from sun to sun and from
system to system.
* Let is here an imperative in the first person plural.
127
Adverbial Clauses of Comparison.
Subordinate adverbial clauses expressing compari-
son are introduced by as if, as, and than.
Examples: He gazed at us as it he were afraid.
He is as honest as the day is long.
You are taller than I am.
In subordinate clauses introduced by as and than
the predicate is usually not expressed and must be
supplied in the analysis.
Examples: He is as rich as Vanderbilt (is rich) .
He is as wise as Solomon (was wise).
You are taller than I am ( tall) .
The substantive following the conjunction as, being
the subject of the subordinate clause, must always be
in the nominative case.
Examples : You are older than she (is); not her.
You are young~r than I (am).
The word as in the principal clause is an adverb
expressing comparison. The degree or character of
this com'parison is expressed by the subordinate clause
of comparison joined by the subordinate conjunction
as to the adverb as. This adverbial clause modifies
the adverb 'as.
This is more than a yard (is much). In this
sentence the subordinate clause of comparison a yard
(is much), is joined by the subordinate conjunction
than to the adjective more, which it modifies.
SUCH AS. This is not such a book as I want. In
this sentence the subordinate adverbial clause of com-
, parison as I want modifies the adjective such. It is
joined to the adjective such by the relative pronoun
as, which is also the object of the transitive verb want.
128
SO AS. He is not so tall as I am. In this sentence

the adverb of comparison so is modified by the sub-
ordinate adverbial clause of comparison I am (tall)
joined to the adverb so by the subordinate ~onJunc
tion as.
EXERCISE.
His face di9 shine as the sun.
Whep he falls, he falls as I do.
Refined policy has ever been the parent of con-
fusion and ever will 1?e as long as the world endures.
During the night a terrible northeaster came up.
The blue-eyed little fellow lmew more than we
-thought he did.
We saw again such faces as we had before seen
in India.
John is not so tall as his father was at twenty-one.
N either he nor his brother could have worked
harder than they did.
Genius is a peculiar native aptitude, or tendency,
to anyone calling or pursuit over all others.
Andrew Jackson was born in North Carolina, and,
when a boy of fourteen, ,was taken prisoner by a band
of British troops and Tories who were roving about
the state during the Revolutionary War.
After the War for Independence, Jackson removed
to Nashville, then a little stockade fort far out on
the frontier,* and was soon known as a man of
courage and determination.
In this way a quarrel began which went on from
bad to' worse.
* The subject and predicate verb which was. must be
supplied in the subordinate clause.
129
When the battle of New Orleans was fought, a

tr~aty of peace had already been signed at Ghent in
the Netherlands.
If .they had suspected an attack at this point, they
might have so strongly fortified the place that it could
not have been taken.
You will recall that we claimed the Oregon
.country, first, by reason of Captain Gray's discovery
of the Columbia River in 1792, and, second, by reason
of its exploration by Lewis and Clarke some years
later.
Special Use of the Gender. ~
Nouns designating birds and animals are usually

neuter when used in a general way, and. when birds
and animals are referred to by means of the personal
pronoun, the form it is generally used.
Examples: The wild horse gallops about with its mane
flowing in the wind. The 'fartar camel has
two humps on its back. The thrush of the
tropical South America lines its nest with
clay.
But birds and animals may also be referred to as
he and she. This is especially the case when they are
thought of as more or less intelligent living beings,
. and when they are represented as having human in-
telligence, as in stories.
Examples: The pewees came back at last, and one of
them is now on hi$ wonted perch.
"How the tortoise bears his shell,
How the woodchuck digs' his cell,
And the groundmole sinks his well;
How the robin feeds her young,
How the oriole's nest is hung."
9
"
180
No rule ·can be given for the ~se of the pronouns
he, she, ·and it when referring to birds and animals.
It depends on the taste and fancy of the writer.
Even inanimate objects may be referred to as he
.1
or she. This is especially the case with. ships of all
kinds. The nouns ship, yacht, frigate, sloop, etc., are
feminine. The sun is always referred to as he, the
moon as she.
JtXJtRCIS~.
The turtle lives in the sea, though it is not born

there. When the humming-bird spies a viper, it sets
up a shrill cry. The flycatcher is as beautiful as' the
humming-bird. -Her body is so tiny that it is no
bigger than the tip of your finger. The gray, wintry
sky unlocks her treasures. An American frigate called
Chesapeake was on her way to the Mediterranean' Sea.
The swamp sparrow makes its nest among tall g~ass
where the ground is wet and swampy. Then the
magpie .put a thin layer of mud on the twigs and
smoothed it a little· with her beak. - While I was
watching the man, a heron came flying over my head.
Soon he came down on the sand close to the water.
Wherever there is a stream of water with fish in it,
. there you may look for the kingfisher. He is a shy
bird. There was once a hare so kind and gentle that
. many other beasts claimed to be her friend. The sun
has lost his rage. The moon wears a wan circle round
her blunted horns.
Ellipsis, or Abbreviated Sentences and Expressions.

I~ A sentence or a clause is complete when its subjec.t
and its predicate are fully expressed. But, for the
131 •
sake of brevity and ease in expression, a part of a

sentence, a clause; or a phrase may be omitted when
the meaning is sufficiently clear and the part omitted
can be easily supplied. The part thus omitted is said
to be understood, because the mind understands that
it belongs to the abbreviated sentence or expression.
Such an omission is generally called an ellipsis, which
means a "leaving out." .
Examples: Is your father at home?
He is.
Where were you yesterday?
In town.
In the analysis it is necessary to supply the element .
or part omitted.
EXERCISE.
What is he that builds stronger than either the
mason, the shipwright, or the carpenter?
The gallows-maker.
Who builds stronger than a mason, a shipwright!
or a carpenter?
A grave-maker. .
Nearly all our associates are determined by chance
or necessity, and restricted within a narrow sphere of
choice.
He was a fellow that would not move faster than
he could help. ·
Was it not yesterday we spoke together?
It was.
J?o you find patience so predominant in your nature
that you can let this go?
Where is Duncan's body?
Carried to Colme-Kill, the sacred guardian of his
predecessors and guardian of their bones.
132
Conjunctions Used as Introductory Words.
Conjunctions, especially a·nd and but, are often
used to introduce a sentence. They are then used not
as conjunctions, but as introductory words.
E.xamples: But look yet farther .
.£4 nd yet we never attend to it.
EXERCISE.
But there remains to us a great duty of defence and
preservation.
And what is genius? .
You see as from a tower the end of all.
Many people shut it out of their houses as if it
were an enemy, watch its descent upon the carpet as
if it were only a thief of color, and plant trees· to shut
it away from the mouldering house.
Mental occupations are a pleasing relief from
bodily exertions, and from that perpetual hurry and
wearisome attention which in most of the employ-
ments of life must be given to obj ects which are not
otherwise interesting than as they are necessary.
The man of letters, when compared with one that
is illiterate, exhibits nearly the same contrast as that
which exists between a blind man and one that Can see.
A well cultivated mind. places its possessor beyond
the reach of those t.rifling vexations and ,disquietudes
which continually harass and perplex those who have
no resources within themselves, and in some measure
elevates him above the smiles and frowns of fortune.
And yet I tell you, these gods and these divirii~iesJ
though created under the inspiring fire of poetic fancy
and Greek imagination, never reared the stupendous
structure by which we are surrounded.
138
The Objective Complement.
We have already learned that a predicate comple-
ment is joined to the incomplete predicate verb to
complete the predicate, and that this complement
always modifies the su1;lject. Certain transitiv~ verbs
also require a complement. This complement completes
the idea expressed by the verb; an idea which the
verb alone could not express. When used with a
transitive verb in the active voice this complement
always refers to and modifies the object. It is there-.
fore called the objective complement.
The objective complement may be a' noun, an
adjective, or an equivalent.
Examples: He made the stick straight.
They elected him governor.
Straight is the.objective complement. It completes
the idea expressed by the verb, and modifies the
object. Stick is really the object of made straight.
Made straight is equivalent to straightened, the adjec-
tive straight being added to the transitive verb made
to complete the idea expressed by the verb. .
When the transitive verb is in the passive voice,
the object becomes the subject and the objective com-
plement becomes a part of the predicate complement.
J;xamples: The stick was made straight.
He was elected governor.
I
Transitive verbs of naming, making, choosing,
considering, calling, etc., take. an objective compl~ent
when' they are used with the idea of producing some
definite result or bringing something about.
Examples: He painted the house red.
They appointed hini leader of the band.
He cried himself hoarse.
134
E:XE:RCISE.
Charles VII. was crowned king at Rheims, 1429.
The senate proclaimed Bonaparte emperor under
the name, of Napoleon I.
They raised a force and took the king prisoner.
The king made Anselm archbishop.
He was considered a dangerous character.
Washington had been reelected, President in 1792.
Congress adopted the little band of patriots
gathered about Boston and made it the Continental
Army, and elected George Washington, a delegate in
Congress, commander-in-chief.
Roger Bacon had invented, or at least first made
mown, the composition of gunpowder.
The first mention of it, which has been found in
France, occurs in the year 1338.
The five emperors - N erva, Trajan, Haarian, and
the two Antonines - that succeeded Domitian were
elected by the senate.
Why call ye me good?
The Counts of Toulouse, the protectors of the
heretics, were also the patrons of the poets.
As soon as Ferdinand and Isabella had settled the
affairs of their dominions they began' preparations for
the conquest of Granada. ,
The teacher may requir.e the pupil to change the COD-
struction of some of these sentences from active to passive
and from passive to active. ,
Care should be taken to distinguish between an obj ective
complement and a noun in apposition. A noun in apposition
serves as an adj ective modifier of the noun with which it
stands in apposition, but it does not serve as complement to
the predicate verb.
135
The Appositive Adjective.
We have seen that an adjective modifying a noun .
may be joined to the noun directly; as, good men, old
people. When the adjective is joined directly to the
noun it is called attributive adjective.
An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun when it
is used as a predicate, or as an objective complement.
It is then call~d a predicate adjective 'and is joined to
the noun or pronoun by means of the predicate verb.
But an adjective may be joined to a noun or pro-
noun more loosely, in a way similar to a noun in ap-
position. An adjective.so joined to a noun or pronoun
is called an appositi~'e adjective. It is often separated
from the noun by a comma.
Examples: He destroyed all checks, ecclesiastical and
military, upon the absolute power of the
crown. .
He had broken all laws, human and divine.
~X~RCIS~.
Pyrrhus, kfng of Epirus, a cousin of Alexander

I the Great, responded to their entreaties and crossed
over into Italy with a small army of Greek mercenaries
and twenty war elephants.
What' do you think the parson found,
When he got up and stared around?
A greater calamity is not recorded in all history,
ancient or modern.
Those uncouth shapes which, while we clung to
flesh and blood, affrighted us have become familiar.
\ There is a sort of fascination in such a scene equal
to that of a tempest at sea.
136
After such a battle and siege the pallid world lay
subdued and tranquil.
They formed a nation which bordered on a people
with a name similar to their own.
He found at Ghent his friends, sad and broken-
spirited.
He saw the king, calm in the midst of the stonn
which was raging around him.
"I will stick to everything I have promised in the
charter," answered Louis XVIII. .
Moderate and honest by nature, Jay was that day
the instrument of Fouche's intrigues.
\More fortunate than Ney, in spite of his still graver
faults, he owed not his death to French bullets.
The Duchesse 9.e Berry, mad with despair, asked
permission' to return to Sicily. .
The Emperor of Russia appointed Baron Stein a
minister of state.
He thought it necessary.
He 'fell dead.
The queen found the Bourbons too powerful.
The fields lay bare and bleak in the icy grasp of
winter.
Charles VIII. was crowned king of Naples, emperor·
of the East, and king of Jerusalem.
Care should be taken to distinguish between an appositive
adj ective and an obj ective complement or a predicate comple-
ment. "They found him dead." The word dead is here an
appositive adj ective used to modify the pronoun him appo:-
sitively. It can not be a predicate complement, because found
is a transitive verb. It can not be an objective complement,
because an objective complement is used only with transitive
verbs which produce certain definite results.
187
Th~ Compound Sentence.
A sentence is compound when it consists of two
or m·ore principal or independent clauses.
Examples: ] ohn works, and Mary plays.
Many went, but few returned.
Co-ordinate Conjunctions.
Conjunctions which are used to connect words,·
phrases, or clauses of equal value are called coOrdinate
conjunctions. The coordinate conjunctions most fre-
quently use~ are:
and but or
for too also
nor • else then
both still yet
besides either neither
hence thus so
then further however
therefore likewise moreover
whence wherefore notwithstanding
consequ~nt1y accordingly so that
so then otherwise
The clauses of a compound sentence are usually
connected by coordinate or correlative conjunctions"
Examples: John works and Mary studies, but ] ames does
nothing.
Either the condition of peace must be ac-
cepted, or the war must continue.
Cla~ses connected by these conjunctions are called,
with reference to each other, coordinate clauses, because
they are of the same rank or value.
It should be noticed that coordinate clauses need
not always be independent clauses. Two or more sub-
ordinate clauses may be connected by coordinate or
•
138
correlative conjunctions and joined to ~ principal
clause. They are then coordinate clauses with refer-
ence to each other, but subordinate with reference to
the independent clause to which they are joined.
Example: I saw them, both when they came and when
they went.
The clauses when they' came and when they went
are correlative clauses, being of equal value and con-
struction. Both clauses are subordinate adverbial
clauses, modifying the verb saw of the principal or
independent clause.
Sometimes the coordinate independent clauses of a
compound sentence are not connected· by coordinate or
correlative conjunctions, but are seplrated by commas,
semicolons, etc.
Example: The Renaissance becomes the Reformation;
the humanist becomes the reformer.
But in this and similar
I
cases the coordinate
.
con-
junction and may be used instead of the punctuation
mark. This shows that the clauses are coordinate and
form a compound sentence.
Relative Clauses.
A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is usually
a subordinate restrictive clause used as a noun, or as
an adjective modifier. But a relative clause may be
used to express a new idea. It may then be called a
non-restrictive relative clause.
Example: I met my father, who had just returned from
Europe.
Ruu: FOR TH~ US~ OF THIt COMMA. - A non-restrictive
relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas. The restrictive relative clause is usually not separ-
ated by commas.
139
EX£RCISE.
The way was long, the wind was ~old,

The minstrel was infirm and old.
The last of all the bards was he,
Who sung of border chivalry.
'this rare collection of books was burned, which
was a great pity.
Charlemagne must not be rega"rded as a warrior
merely.
Herodotus was overcredulous, and was often. im-
posed upon by his guides in Egypt and Babylon; but
he describes with great care and accuracy what he
himself saw.
The Russians threw themselves across the path of
the invader at Borodino, but their lines were swept
back by the strong columns of the Grand Army.
The siege, which lasted eleven months, was one of
the most memorable and destructive in history.
This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt
that ·lay in the house that Jack built.
He has noticed the fact that races, as they increase,
subdivide.
The Copts are very degraded descendants of the
ancie~t Egyptians, and the Roumans of Wallachia have
fallen away very considerably· from the level of the
Dacian colonists of Trajan.
It will scarcely be argued at the present day that •
Phrygian civilization began at a very .early date.
RUL~ FOR THE USE OF TH~ The principal
COMMA. -
clauses in a compound sentence are usually separated by
commas.
140
Complex Compound Sentences.
The coordinate clause of a compound sentence may
be complex.'
Example: Dick was with us when we returned to Georgia,
and when the war broke out he faithfully
helped us with the work on the plantation.
The Strengthened and the Modified Superlative.

Although the superlative- degree is the highest de-
gree of adjectives and adverbs it may be strengthened,
and it may be modified or restricted.
Examples of strengthened superlative:
Grant was by far the ablest general in the
armies of the North.
This was the noblest Roman of them all.
This is the 'Very best.
In these sentences, by far, of them all, very, are
adverbial modifiers used to strengthen th~ superlative.
Examples of modified or restricted superlatives:
Winter was in many respects their best man.
Re was the last of the Mohicans.
GENERAL EXERCISlt.
If· the ballot-box be overturned, the cartridge-box
must take its place.
Recalcitrant .priests were thrown into prisons, im-
ages were plucked down from the rood-loft, and the
most valuable * of Irish relics, the staff of St. Patrick,
• was burned in the l1}arket place.
As he fanned me with his heavy wing and looked
with a human intelligence at the car, my pulse bounded
with exulting rapture.
* The noun relic must be understood aft~r the adj ective
'lIaluab Ie.
141
But the wind had passed on and had met in a lane
With a schoolboy, who panted and struggled in vain;
For it tossed him arid twirled him, then passed, and he
stood
With his hat in a pool and his shoe in the mud.
Pizarro and his little band had been soreiy. tried by
the perils they had encountered.
Their principal food was crabs and such shell-fish
as they could pick up along the shores.
If we look out upon the starry heavens by which
we are surrounded, we find them diversified in every
possible way.
Reading maketh a full man; conversation a ready
man; and writing an exact man.
He who speaks honestly and cares not, need not
care, though his words be preserved to remhtest time.
It was at this identical spot that the unfortunate
Andre was captured, and this has ever since been con-
sidered a haunted stream .
. Society demancfs that a young man shall be some-
body.
The first great lesson a young man should learn
is that he kno,!s nothing. .
Upon the death of Jovian, Valentinian was elected
. emperor by a council of the generals of the army and
the ministers of the court.
The classical revival gave to Europe, not only
faultless literary models, but large stores of valuable
knowledge_.
Ru~Jt FOR When the conjunctions are
PUNCTUA'l'ION. -
omitted the principal clauses of a compound sentence are
often separated by semicolons, but commas may also be used.
142
Julian is called the Apostate, because he abandoned
Christianity .
Notwithstanding Cr9mwell was a man of immov-
able resolution and iron spirit, he felt sorely the
burdens of his government, and was deeply troubled
by the perplexities of his position.
The petition was read in the House of Commons,
and approved, and the petitioners thanked for their
kind expressions therein; and then it was delivered by
them at the bar of the House of Peers.
The power of money was growing day by day,
and the feudal lords, who scorned to acquire wealth
by commerce or industrial pursuits, procured it by
plundering.
The third crusade, which has already been de-
scribed, was a complete failure, but it had no fatal
results for France, as had the preceding crusade.
The preaching of the apostles and their disciples
had spread the Gospel throughout the Roman world,
and as early as the third century the Christians formed
a kind of vast society in the heart of the empire.
The bishop, who had first been appointed by the
apostles and consecrated by the laying on of hands,
afterwards, when the number of conversions necessi-
tated the fonnation of a church in every city, was
chosen by the faithful, installed by the other bishops
of the province, and confirmed in his powers by the
metropolitan.
RULlts FOR PUNC'l'UA'l'ION. - Principal clauses of a com-
pound sentence which are subdivided by commas, should be
separated by semicolons.
The comma can be used wherever it aids in avoiding
ambiguity.
143
The national assemblies became nothing more than
the council of the sovereign ..
While Washington and his riflemen were engaging
the Indians, the British troops drew back.
Seven hundred soldiers lay killed on the field.
Had General Braddock listened to Washington's
advice, it might have been diff.erent.
On the second of July, 1776, they stood up before
the Congress, and what they had prepared was read
aloud.
The cannons roared, the bells pealed out their
joyful notes, the bands struck up martial music, and
all the town was in a blaze of excitement.
When the war had lasted two years or more, and
England saw that this country could not be easily con-
quered, a plan was devised by George III. which he
thought would surely be successful.
The army made altogether a splendid sh~w, and
the chief in command of this great force was one of
the finest British officers, General Burgoyne.
W.ashington spared all the men he could from his
army in New Jersey, and sent them to General Gates,
to w~om he gave command of the northern army.
I f ever thou hast felt another's pain,
If ever, when he sighed, hast sighed again,
If ever on thine eyelid stood the tear
That pity had 'engendered, drop. one here.
So may the rosy~fingered hours
Lead on the various year,
And ev'ry joy which now is yours,
Extend a larger sphere.
144
And he who will not "sign the pledge,"
And keep his promise fast,
May be, in spite of fate, a stark
Cold-water man at last!
Tell my mother that her son shall comfort her
old age.
And from that glad hour,
Followed I Him and ministered to Him;
And found myself alive, who had been dead,
And saved by love, who dwelt so lovelessly.
• •
Subjunctive Mood.
The verb-forms constituting this mood were once
quite numerous, but they have gone more and more
out of use in modern English. Subjunctive forms are
now most frequently met 'with in poetry and in solemn
style. :In modern English prose they are now rare,
in conversation almost unknown. In the copula be
the subjunctive forms are yet clearly distinguished in
the pr'esent and preterite tenses.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
If I be If we be
If you be If you be
(If thou be) (If ye be)
If he be If they be
Preteritt) Tense.
Singular. Plural.
If I were If we were
If you were If you were
(If thou wert) (If ye were)
If he were If they were
145
In other verbs the subjunctive, active voice of
transitive verbs and the sUbjunctive of intransitive
·verbs are "the same as the indicative forms, except in
the 2nd and 3d persons singular of the present tense.
•
Indicative. Subjunctive.
I find If I find
you find If you find
(thou findest) (If thou find)
he finds If he find
In the passive voice of transitive verbs the sub-
junctive verb-phrases are formed by th~' subjunctive
forms of the auxiliary verb be.
The sUbjunctive does not express action, being,
or state, as a fact, but as something supposed, hoped
for, or thought of. The subjunctive is, therefore, used'
to express:
- 1. A condition.
Example: If this be true, it is deplorable.
2. A condition contrary to fact.
Example: If I were rich, I would give money to the poor.
3. A concession or supposition.
Example: He walks with firm elastic steps, aged though
he be.
4. A wish or prayer.
Examples: Would that it were so.
o .had I the wings of a dove.
Hallowed be Thy name.
The subjunctive is usually preceded by some con-
junction like if, though, lest, supposing, although,
"except which joins the subordinate to the principal
J
clause, Qut these conjunctions must not be regarded

as signs of the subjunctive, as the indicative forms
may also be used after them.
10
146
The sUbjunctive is used in a subordinate clause
when contingency, futurity, uncertainty, or something
contrary to fact is to be expressed, but when the
thought is expressed as a fact either real or supposed,
the indicative is u·sed.
Examples: If he be rich (which is doubtful) he ought
to give.
If he is rich (which is quite certain) he
ought to give.
tX~RCIS~.
Though I-speak with tongues of men and of angels,

and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass
or a tinkling cymbal. Seekest thou rest, 0 mortal?-
'seek it no more on earth. 1f the rulers of a nation
be holy, the .Lord hath blessed that nation. Be shy
of too much openness with any, lest thou repent here-
after. Wouldst thou be poor, scatter to the rich, and
reap the tares of ingratitude. Be resolute but not
rebellious, lest thou be of the company of. Korah. If
thou art challenged, speak, and prove the good thou
doest. W ouldst thou be rich, give to the poor; - *
thou shalt have thine own with usury.
The Infinitive.
The verb is generally used in the predicate to
assert or state something about the subject. When
. so used it is called a finite verb. But the verb may
also be used to name in a general way some action
* And must be understood here.
147
or state without referring it to any subject. When
so used it has the character of a noun and is a verb·
in form only. It is then called an infinitive or a
ve'l' bal noun.
Forms of the Infinitive.
Although a noun in character, the infinitive retains
many of the verbal characteristics as to form. The
forms of, an infinitive of a transitive verb are:
Active Voice. Passive Voice.
Present to love to be loved
Perfect to have loved to have been loved
The forms of the infinitive of an intransitive
verb are:
Present to walk
Perfect to have walked
The preposition to usually precedes the infinitive,
and is then called the sign of the infinitive.,
Object of the Infinitive.
The infinitive of a transitive verb takes an object.
Example: The law gave the master the right to punish
a serf.
Complement of the Infinitive.

The infinitive of an incomplete intransitive verb
takes a c9mplement.
Examples: He desired to become famous.
It seemed to be easy.
To become famous is the complementary infinitive.*
Famous is the complement of the infinitive to become.
* See page 148.
148
To be easy is the complement of the incomplete
intransitive verb seemed. Easy is the complement of
the infinitive to be.
Uses of the Infinitive.
The infinitive is used as:
1. Noun. As noun it may be used as subject.
Examples: To turn and flee was now too late.
To err is human.
The infinitive is used as the logical subject.
Example: It was easy to cross the stream on horseback.
_The infinitive is also used as a predicate com-
plement.
Examples: Our clock appears to have struck.
He seemed to be well.
2. Adjective. The infinitive is used as an adjective
modifier of nouns.
Examples: We have neither suit to solicit nor affairs
to manage.
Have you water to drink'
3. Adverb. The infinitive is used as an adverbial
modifier of adjectives, verbs, and other infinitives.
Examples: He is able to do it.
The wagon is good to ride in. ~,
I failed to succeed.
Edward was forced to retire to obtain pro-
visions for his troops.
4. Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive is
frequently used as a sort of a complement to a verb.
When so used it is called the complementary infinitive,
and is used adverbially. *
* Some of the infinitives in the examples that follow may
be- regarded as direct objects of a transitive verb; for example,
\
149
Examples: We endeavored to escape this difficulty.
He tried to carry them over in a boat.
The Turkish government hastened to make
apology.
They intended to arouse the neighbori1lg
tribes.
George III. resolved to revive the enforce-
ment of the Navigation Laws.
He wished to restrict the colonial trade with
the Spanish and French West Indies.
The infinitive is used adverbially to express
pu.rpose, intention, result, etc.
Examples: They came to see us.
He left, never to return.
To speak truth we must first know the truth.
The council convened at St. Albans to con-
sider what claims should be made on the
king.
The English barons prepared to bring him
to terms.
They fired their own houses in order to·
drive the enemy from the protection of the
town.
The vessel was trimmed to meet the blast,
and we were again bounding on our way.
5. The infinitive is used with auxiliary verbs
to form verb-phrases. After an auxiliary verb the
infinitive sign is usually dropped, though not always.
He tried to carry them over, etc.; and they are so regarded
by some grammarians. But as it is very difficult to draw
the line between cases where the infinitive is a mere adverbial
modifier and where it has more distinctly the character of a
direct obj eet, it is best to treat it as a complementary infinitive
in such constructions.
* In ·order to is a phrase preposition used interchangeably
with to To drive or in order to drive. (See page 44.)
150
Examples: shall speak
may speak
can speak
ought to speak
have to. speak
is to speak
was to speak
6. The infinitive is used as objective complement.
Examples: They forced him to resign.
He told us to come.
7. The infinitive is sometimes used as object of a
preposition.
Examples: What went ye out for to see?*
He is about to go.
8. The infinitive is sometimes used as an In-
.
dependent element.
Example: To say the truth, we never anticipated this.
Other Uses of the Infinitive.

He knew not what to do ='He knew not what
(he was) to do.
He knew not how to speak.
Here to speak must be considered as a comple-
mentary infinitive used to modify the verb knew. Not
is an adverb modifying knew, and how is an, adverb
modifying the infinitive to speak.
It will be remembered by generations yet to come
= by generations (that are) yet to come; or to come
may be regarded as an adjective m<;>difie'r of gener-
~tions, and yet as an adverb modifying the infinitive
to come.
*This use of for is now antiquated.
151
!X!RCISIt.
Parsing of the Infinitive.
State whether it is the present or perfect infinitive, and
of what verb it is the infinitive form. If the verb is transitive,
state whether the infinitive is active or passive. State also
how the infinitive is used in the sentence.
Richard went out the evening before to look" over
the ground.
The king could no longer venture to rule by force
as in the days of the Stuarts.
I come not here to talk.
It is better to have loved and lost than never to
have loved at all.
Parliament now attempted to come to an under-
standing with the king.
Henry VIII. caused the Bible to be translated, and
. ordered a copy to be chained to a desk in every parish
church in England.
The Duke of Marlborough, who was supposed to
be implicated in the plot, was banished to Holland.
The restoration of the monarchy was effected in
1660 only to be followed by a revolution in 1688.
The first step to be taken is to make sure that
truth is clearly perceived.
From the martyred girl's ashes a new spirit seemed
to go forth to bless her ungrateful country.
We try to spell in them the alphabet of the in-
visible world.
This has ever since been considered a haunted
stream, and fearful are the feelings of a schoolboy
who has to pass it alone after dark.
152
He proved to be but the shadow of a king.
He no sooner landed than he demanded of the
king that he should' swear to observe the laws of
Edward the Confessor.
I perceived the victor use every art to draw the
enemy from his stronghold.
They fought to get at the win~ows.
The king persuaded him to return.
He had compelled merchants to pay large sums.
The king had to apply constantly to Parliament
for money.
The king agreed to summon a Parliament to meet
at Oxford.
Shortly afterward his vessel began to make regular
trips on the Hudson.
Every cross-grained old woman was suspected of
witchcraft, and was liable * to be tortured and hanged
on that suspicion.
It was about this time that the names "Whig" and
"Tory" began to be given to two .political part.ies,
which soon became very powerful.
**The object of this change was to do away with
the excitement and tendency to 'rebellion at that time.
Their demands to have this inequality righted
resulted in the Reform Bill.
* The infinitive is sometimes used as a complement of an
adjective. In this sentence liable is the predicate adjective
and the infinitive to be tortured is the complement of the
adj ective, and the adj ective with the complementary infinitive
is the predicate complement.
** Use the infinitive and modifiers as subject of the sen-
tence, and the noun object as predicate noun in the analysis.
153
The ·Participle.
The participles are verb-forms which, like the in-
finitive, express action, being, or state, in a general
way without reference to a subject. These forms have,
generally, the functions of adjectives, but they retain
many of the characteristics of the verb. They are,
therefore, called verbal adjectitves.
Forms of the Participle.
Present Active driving
Perfect Active having driven
Perfect Active Progressive having been driving
Past or Passive driven
Past or Passive Progressive being driven
Perfect Passive having been driven
Like the finite forms of the verb, the participle
takes adverbial modifiers.
Examples: They found him sleeping soundly.
He sat thinking of by-gone days.
The participle of a transitive verb takes an object.
Example: The ship arrived carrying a big cargo.
The participle of an incomplete intransitive verb
!
I
•
takes a complement.
Example: A very simple arrangement sufficed for the
I "
kitchen, the ark being altogether a summer
habitation.
Uses of the Participle.

1. It is used as an attributive adjective. \
Examples: A rl?lling stone gathers no moss.
They sold watered stock.
2. In verb-phrases.
Examples: They are working.
154
We have been klln"ng.

He must have been studying.
Such verb-phrases may be regarded as forms of
th~ finite verb, and the participle need not be analyzed
separately.
3. As an objective complement.
Examples: He left them waiting.
We kept him wo"king.
4. As an adverbial complement.
Examples: The boy came "unning.
He remained standing.
The participle here really modifies both the subject
and the predicate verb.
S. As an appositive adjective.
Examples: Napoleon, seeing his army routed, fled from
the field.
"Excuse me," he said, smiling pglitely.
He met some people going to the fair.
6. The participle is used in the nominative abso-
lute construction.
Nominative Absolute.*
The time of an action is often expressed by a sub-
ordinate clause.
Example: W hen the 'lV(Jr was over, Logan was alone in
the wo~ld.
A subordinate clause may also be us~d to express
the cause of an action.
Example: As the day was warm and sultry, the soldiers
were relieved from duty.
* The use of the nominative absolute in English is almost

the same as that of the ablative absolute in Latin.
•
155
A subordinate clause may also express some cir-
cumstance attending the action.
Example: He spoke with great earnestness, while all the
warriors listened intently.
A clause expressing the time, cause, or circum-
stance of an action may be reduced to a phrase con-
sisting, as a rule, of a noun or pronoun and a participle.
Examples: The!tAlr being over, Logan was alone in the
world. .
The day being hot and sultry, the soldiers
were relieved from duty.
He spoke with great earnestness, all the
'Warriors listening· intently.
Such a phrase is called the absolute construction.
The noun or pronoun of the phrase is called the
nominative absolute, because the noun or pronoun is
in the nominative case, and because there is no direct
grammatical connection between this phrase and the
sentence to which it belongs.
The participle is sometimes joined to the noun
by a subordinate conjunction.
Example: Though living in retirement, he was still
inft uential.
EXERCISE.
Parsing of the Participle.
State what form it is and how it is used. If it belongs
to an incomplete intransitive verb, point out its complement;
if to a transitive verb, its obj ect.
In the Northwest dreadful scenes were being en-
acted. Float~ng fire rafts were sent down the river
RtiL~ FOR THE USE OF THE CoMMA. - The absolute COD- •
struction should be separated from the rest of the sentence
by commas.
•
156
in order to destroy the two schooners that were
anchored under the guns of the fort. Parties of
warriors were sent out in every direction to cut off
all help that -might be sent to the beleaguered garrison.
In June a vessel containing supplies and a reenforce-
ment of fifty men was captured by the Indians. He
passed down the Wabash, stopping at the French posts.
Although defeated on every hand and deserted by his
allies, Pontiac had not yet lost hope, nor was he among
those who sued for peace. Detroit being the strongest
and most important of all the posts, Pontiac had de-
cided to make it his own prey.
EXERCISE.
I have heard the zealous youth telling out his holy
secrets. Uttered out of time, or concealed in its season,
good savoreth of evil. Secrecy goeth cowled, and
Honesty demands wherefore. Love is a sweet idolatry
enslaving the soul. Volumes would not contain what
would be both instructive and interesting respecting*
the lives and works of the three great philosophers
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Upon the day appointed
he was brought out of the tower with his arms bound
behind him, having a very cheerful countenance.
When all was ready, he set his army of laborers at
work. They toiled eight years in the wilderness,
cutting down forests, excavating the earth, blasting
their way through ridges of rock, building aqueduct
bridges to carry the canal across rivers, constructing
, locks of solid masonry to carry it up the hillsides.
He came prepared to encounter the party. Having
*A preposition.
157
finished 'his business with these tribes, Croghan started
across the country to fort Chartres. As if designed
by Providence, a canoe of Indian squaws and children
was coming up to town. The Mayflower being moored
to the eastern bank of the Muskingum, the little com-
pany disembarked.
The Gerund.
The gerund has two forms, the present and the
perfect.
Present laboring
Perfect having labored
These forms are identical with the present and the
perfect participle. But while the participle is always
used as an adjective, the gerund is always used as a
noun. It is, therefore, also called a verbal noun.
Uses of the Gerund.
1. Subject.
Exampl~: Reading maketh a full man.
2. Predicate complement.
Example: Seeing is believing•
. 3. ,Obj ect of a preposition.
Example: He was engaged in trading with the natives.
4. Object of a transitive verb.
Example: We watched his playitlg.
The gerund may take an adjective modifier.
Example: The result of his reasoning will decide his fate.
It may also take an adverbial modifier.
Example: By retreating rapidly he avoided an untimely
battle.
158
It may take both adjective and adverbial modifiers
at the same time.
Example: Some time after the king's coming thither they
presented a declaration.*
The gerund takes an object if the verb to which it
belongs is transitive.
Example: He. was keen in discovering analogies.
Nouns and ~dj~tives in -ing.

The gerund, like the participle and the infinitive,
retains many characteristics of the verb. When these
characteristics are lost, the forms in -4ng become simple
adjectives or nouns and need no longer be considered
as gerunds or participles.
Examples : Tailoring is a profitable occupation.
She is a charming girl.
The participles and gerunds of verbs of which all
finite forms are lost may be regarded as nouns and
adjectives.
Examples: great cunning, antiquated implements.
~XltRCIS2.
This communicating of a man's self to his friend

works two contrary effects. Learning taketh away the
wildness, barbarism, and fierceness of men's minds. fie
said that he was far from receding from anything··
he had promised. All diligence was used in making
levies, in which few of the general officers which had
been employed the year before were made use of. The
earl chose rather to serve as lieutenant-general under
* Such constructions of the gerund· have gone out of use
in more modern English prose.
JIl* The rel~tive pronoun which must be understood here.
159
the earl of Northumberland, believing that the con-
ferring that preference upon him would more firmly
fasten him to the king's interest. After the calling of
the council of the peers at York was resolved upon,
and a little before the time of their appearance, the
marquis came to the king, and with some cloudiness
in his countenance he desired his majesty to give him
_ leave to travel. The king, surprised, was equally
troubled at it and demanded his reason. The last and
most confounding error was the removing of the treaty
to London, and upon any terms consenting that the
Scottish commissioners should reside there before the
peace was concluded. After many hours of bitter in-
veighing and ripping-up of the course of his life before
his coming to court and of his actions afterward, it
was moved, according to a secret resolution taken
before, that he might be f!lrthwith impeached of high
treason. Having made their first entrance upon busi-
ness with this vigor, they proceeded every day with
the same fervor. When Abraham sat at his tent door,
according to his custom, waiting to entertain strangers,
he espied an old man stopping and leanjng on his
staff, weary with age and travel, coming towards him,
who was a hundred years of age. How few men in
the world are prosperous! What an infinite number
of slaves and beggars, of persecuted and oppressed
people fill all corners of the earth with groans and
heaven itself with weeping, prayers, and sad" remem-
brances ! The king, observing his positiveness and
conceiving his intentions to be very sincere, suffered
himself to be guided by him.
160
The Word Like.

The word like may be an intransitive verb.
Example: You may go, if you like.
The word like qtay be a transitive verb.
Example: Fishes like these hidden places.
The word like may be a noun.
Example : We shall never look upon his like again.
The word like may be an adjective.
Example: There's no place like home.
The word like may be an adverb.
Example: In some places there are ants that are said
to work like farmers.
When the word like is used as an adjective or an
adverb it is followed by a noun, pronoun, or gerund.
The noun or pronoun used after like is in the
objective case.
Examples : You are like him.
This is hard work for a little boy like me.
There is nothing like being diligent.
The noun or pronoun used after like may be fol-
lowed by a participle and its modifiers, or object.
. Example: Like children babbling nonsense in their sport.
For the sake of brevity the participle is sometimes
omitted in such constructions.
Example: The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the
fold == like a wolf coming down on the fold.
It should be kept in mind that the noun or pronoun
used after like is always in the objective case; that
for this reason it can not be used as the subject of a
... verb. The sentence: The ship cleaves the
finite
"", watery plain like a swan, could not be. changed to
161
read: The ship cleaves the watery plain like a swan
does. The noun s'U}an being in the objective case,
because it is used after the word like, can not be used
as subject of the finite verb does. Like a swan here
means after the manner of a S'W'fn.
Model for the Parsing of the Word L ike.

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.
like a wolf on the fold.
This is an adverbial phrase of comparison * used
to modify the verb came.
Ii k e.
This word is here used as an adverb.
wolf·
This word is a noun denoting the object of
comparison. It is in the objective case, because
it is used together .with the word like. It is used
together with the word like to form the adverbial
phrase of comparison.
comsng.
.
This word is a present participle supplied in the
analysis, used to modify the noun wolf.
down.
This word is an adverb supplied in the araJysis,
used to modify the participle coming.
on the fold.
This is a prepositional adverbial phrase used to
modify the participle coming understood.
When like is used as a verb, it is parsed like any
other verb.
*When like is used as an adjective, the phrase of com-
parison will be an adj ective phrase.
11
162
!XERCISE.
I
Then came the mayor and the aldermen,

In cloth of scarlet decked;
And their attending men each one,
Like eastern princes tricked.
Thus the rich vessel moves in trim array,
Like some fair virgin on her bridal day.
Like some strong watchtower nodding o'er the deep,
Whose rocky base the foaming waters sweep,
Untamed he stood.
. Anon ten thousand shapes,
Like spectres trooping to the wizard's call,
Flit swift before him.
And if I speak, something is won~ to fall
Like a thick curtain, shutting off my mind,
With all it lmows, from you that lmow it not.
And gold was strewn the wet sands o'er,
Like ashes by a breeze.
Thou wert so like a form of light,
That heaven benignly called thee hence,
Ere yet the world could breathe one blight
0' er thy sweet innocence.
His two sons in careless beauty grew,
Like wild flowers in his path.
Like other babes, * at birth she cried. Like most
of his people, he was nearly six feet tall. The
cassaway is a long-legged bird like the ostrich. No
• It is necessary to supply the participle being before like.
The idea is that she cried at birth, being like other children.
163
one would like to live in such a place. The whole
country is like a lake. The man had a brown skin,
like the rest of the people in India.
On the top was a gorgeous golden wreath;
And the damask curtains hung beneath,
Like clouds of crimson and amber.
So he returned to many an evil way,
Like one
.
who stays when guiding .light is gone.
Exercises for Analysis.

Orator)' among the Greeks.
The art of oratory among the Greeks was fostered
and developed by the democratic character of their
institutions. In the public assemblies all questions
that concerned the state were discussed and decided.
The debates, as we have seen, were, in the democratic
cities, open to all. The gift of eloquence secured for
its possessor a sure preeminence, and conferred a
certain leadership in the affairs of state. The law-
courts, too, especially the great jury courts of Athens,
were schools of oratory; for every citizen was obliged
to be his own advocate and to defend his own case.
Hence the attention bestowed upon public speaking,
and· the. high degree of perfection attained by the
Greeks in the difficult art of persuation. "It was the
prevalence of the habit of public speaking," says
Grote, "that was one of the principal causes of the
intellectual eminence of'the nation generally." Almost
all the prominent Athenian statesmen were masters
of oratory. -MYlRs.
164
Alfred the Great.
At last the Danes met their match. Alfred, the
youngest and the noblest of the grandsons of Egbert,
was chosen king on his elder brother's death. That
brother had· left a son who would, in our time, have
succeeded to the throne. But a warrior was wanted,
and the warrior-uncle was lawfully chosen instead of
the boy-nephew. Alfred was at first defeated, and
driven to take refuge at Athelney, which was then an
island in the midst of the swamps of Somersetshire,
across which the Great Western Railway now runs
with dry grounds on either side. After some time
he came out, gathered his countrymen around him,
defeated the Danes, and forced them to accept the
treaty of Wedmore. By this treaty in 878 England
was divided into two parts by a line which ran .from
the Thames a little below London to Chester on the
Dee. To the south-west of this line the land was
English. To the north-east it was Danish.
-GARDINtR.
The Treason of Arnold.
The outlook was now dark enough; but it was
made darker still by the treachery of Benedict Arnold.
No officer in the Revolutionary army was more
trusted. His splendid march through the wilderness
to Quebec, his bravery in the attack on that city, the
skill and cour~ge he displayed at Saratoga, had
marked him out as a man full of promipe. . But he
lacked that moral courage without which great
abilities count for nothing. In 1778 he was put in
command of Philadelphia, and while there so abused
his office that he was sentenced to be reprimanded by
165
Washington. This aroused a thirst for revenge, and
led him to form a scheme to give up the Hudson River
to the enemy. With this end in view, he asked
Washington in' July, 1780, for the command of West
Point, the great stronghold on the Hudson, obtained
it, and at once made arrangements to surrender it to
Clinton. The British agent in the negotiation was
Major Andre, who one day in September met Arnold
near Stony Point. But most happily, as he was going
back to New York, three . .~ericans stopped him near
Tarrytown, searched him, and in his stockings found
some papers in the handwriting of Arnold. News of
the arrest of Andre reached Arnold in time to enable
him to escape to the British; he served with them till
the end of the war, and then sought a refuge in Eng-
land. Andre was tried as a spy, found guilty, and
hanged. -McMAST!R.
Night Hymn at Sea.
Night sinks on the wave,
Hollow gusts are sighing,
Sea birds to their cave
Through the gloom are fiying.
Dh, should storms come sweeping,
Thou, in heaven unsleeping,
Hear, hear, and save!
Stars look o'er the sea,

Few, and sad, and shrouded!
Faith" our light must be,
When all else is clouded.
Thou, whose voice came thrilling,
Wind and billow stilling,
Speak once more! our prayer fulfilling-
Power dwells with Thee.
-MRS. H!MANS.
166
Eldorado.
Gaily bedight,
A gallant knight
In sunshine and in shadow,
Had journeyed long,
Singing a song,
In search of Eldorado.
But he grew old-

This knight so bold-
And o'er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.
And, as his strength

Failed him at length,
He met a pilgrim shadow-
"Shadow," said he,
"Where can it be-
This land of Eldorado?"
•
"Over the Mountains
Of the Moon,
Down the Valley of the Shadow,
Ride, boldly ride,"
The shade replied,
"If you seek for Eldorado" ,
-EncAR ALLEN PO!.
Persecution.
The history of persecution is a history of en-
deavors to cheat nature, to make water run up hill, to
twist a rope of sand. It makes no difference whether
the actors be many or one, a tyrant or a mob. A
mob is a society of bodies voluntarily bereaving them-
selves of reason and traversing its work. The mob
167
is a man voluntarily descending to .the nature of the
beast. Its fit hour of activity is night. Its actions are
insane like its whole constitution. It persecutes a
principle; it would whip a right; it would tar and
feather justice, by inflicting fire and outrage upon the
houses and persons of those who have these. It
resembles the prank of boys who run with fire-engines
to put out the ruddy aurora streaming to the stars.
The invioiate spirit turns their spite against the wrong-
doers. The martyr cannot be dishonored. Every lash
inflicted is a tongue of fame; every prison a more
illustrious abode; every burned "'book or house en-
lightens the world; every suppressed or expunged
word reverberates through the earth from side to side.
Th.e minds of men are at last aroused; reason looks
out and justifies her own, and malice finds all her
work vain. It is the whipper who is whipped, and the
tyrant who is undone. -EM GSON.
Sunday at Home.
Every Sabbath morning, in the summer time, I
thrust ' back the curtain, to watch the sunrise stealing
down a steeple which stands opposite my chamber.
window. First the weathercock begins to flash; then
a fainter luster gives the spire an airy aspect; next it
encroaches on the tower, and causes the index of the
dial to glisten like gold, as it points to the guilded
figure of the hour. Now the loftiest window gleams,
and now the lower. The carved framework of the
portal is mar~ed strongly out. At length, the morning
glory, in its descent from heaven, comes down the
168
stone steps, one by one; and there stands the steeple,
glowing with fresh radiance, while the shades of
twilight still hide themselves among the nooks of the
adjacent buildings. Methinks, though the same sun
brightens it every fair morning, yet the steeple has a
peculiar robe of brightness for the Sabbath.
By dwelling near a church, a person soon contracts
an attachment for the edifice. VVe naturally personify
it, and conceive its many walls, and its dim emptiness,
to be instinct with a calm and meditative and some-
what melancholy spirit. But the steeple stands fore-
most, in our thoughts, as well as locally. It impresses
us as a giant, with a mind comprehensive and dis-
criminating enough to care for the great and small
concerns of all the town. Hourly, while it speaks a
moral to the few that think, it reminds thousands of
busy individuals of their separate and most secret
affairs. I t is the steeple, too, that flings abroad the
hurried and irregular accents of general alarm ;
neither have gladness and festivity found a better
utterance than by its tongue; and when the dead are
slowly passing to their home, the steeple has a
melancholy voice to bid them welcome. Yet, in spite
of this connection with human interests, what a moral
loneliness, on week-days, broods round about its stately
height! It has no kindred with the houses above
which it towers; it looks down into the narrow
• thoroughfare, the lonelier, because the crowd are
elbowing their passage at its base. A glance at the
body of the church deepens this impression. Within,
by the light of distant windows, amid refracted
shadows, we discern the vacant pews and empty
169
galleries, the silent organ, the voiceless pulpit, and the
clock, which tells to solitude how time is passing.
Time - where man lives not - what is it but eternity?
And in the church, we might suppose, are garnered
up, throughout the week, all thoughts and feelings
that have reference to eternity, until the holy day
comes round again, to let them forth ..
* * *
I love to spend such pleasant Sabbaths; from
morning till night, behind the curtain of my open
window. Are they spent amiss? Every spot, so near
the church as to be visited by the circling shadow of
the steeple, should be deemed consecrated ground to-
day. With stronger truth be it said that a devout
heart may consecrate a den of thieves, as an evil one
may convert a temple to the same. My heart, perhaps,
has not such holy, nor, I would fain trust, such im-
pious potency. It must suffice that, though my form
be absent, my inner man goes constantly to church,
while many, whose bodily presence fills the accustomed
seats, have left their souls at home. But I am there
even before my friend the sexton. At length he comes
- a man of kindly but sombre.> aspect, in dark grey
clothes, and hair of the same mixture - he comes and
applies his key to the wide portal. N ow my thoughts
may go in among the dusty pews, or ascend the pulpit
without sacrilege, but soon come forth again to enjoy
the music of the bell. How glad, yet solemn too!
All the steeples in town are talking together, aloft in
the sunny air, and rejoicing among themselves, while
their spires point heavenward. Meantime, here are the
children assembling to' the Sabbath-school, which is
170
kept somewhere within the church. Often, while look-
ing at the arched portal, I have been gladdened by the
sight of a score of these little girls and boys in pink,
blue, yellow, and crimson frocks, bursting suddenly
forth into the sunshine, like a swann of gay butterflies
that had been shut up in the solemn gloom. Or I
might compar~ them to cherubs haunting that holy
place.
About a· quarter of an hour before the second
ringing of the bell, individuals of the congregation
begin to appear. The earliest is invariably an old
woman in black, whose bent frame and rounded
shoulders are evidently laden with some heavy afflic-
tion which she is eager to rest upon the altar. Would
that the Sabbath came twice as often for the sake of
that sorrowful old soul.
*• * *
A few of the singing men and singing women had
lingered behind their fellows, and raised their voices
fitfully, and blew a careless note upon the organ. Yet
it lifted my soul higher than all their former strains.
They are gone - the sons and daughters of music"-
and the gray sexton is just closing· the portal. For
six days more there will be no face of man in the
pews and aisles and galleries, nor a voice in the pulpit,
nor music in the choir. Was it worth while to rear
this massive edifice to be a desert in the heart of the
town, and populous only for a few hours of each
seventh day? Oh! but the church is a symbol of
religion. May its site, which was consecrated on the
day when the first tree was felled, be kept holy forever,
a spot of solitude and peace, amid the trouble and
171
vanity of our. week-~ay world! There is a moral and
a religion too, even in the silent walls. And may the
steeple still point heavenward, and be decked with the
hallowed- sunshine of the Sabbath morn!
-NATHANIU HAWTBOaNJC.
The Song of the Women.

(LADY DUFPlCRIN'S PUN» POll MltDICAL AID TO 'tHlC WOMEN
OF INDIA.)
How shall we know the worship we would do her.?

The walls are high, and she is very far.
How s·hall the women's message reach unto her
Above the tumult of the packed bazar?
Free wind of March, against the lattice blowing,
Bear thou our thanks, lest she depart unknowing.
Go forth across the fields we may not roam in,

Go forth beyond the trees that rim the city,
To whatsoe' er fair place she hath her home in,
Who dowered us with wealth of love and pity.
Out of our shadow pass, and seek her singing-
"I have no gifts but Love alone for bringing."
Say that we be a feeble folk who greet her,

But old in grief, and very wise in tears;
Say that we, being desolate, entreat her
That she forget us not in after years;
For we have seen the light, and it were grievous
To dim that dawning if our lady leave us.
By life that ebbed with none to stanch the failing,

By Love's sad harvest garnered in the spring,
When Love in ignorance wept unavailing
O'er young buds dead before their blossoming;
· By all the gray owl watched, the pale moon viewed,
In past grim years, declare our gratitude I
172
By hands uplifted to the gods that heard not,
By gifts that found no favor in their sight,
By faces bent above the babe that stirred not,
By nameless horrors of the stifling night; •
By ills foredone, by peace her toils discover,
Bid Earth be good beneath and Heaven above her!
If she have sent her servants in our pain,

If she have fought with Death and dulled his sword;
If she have given back our sick again,
And to the ,breast the weakling lips restored,
Is it a little thing that she has wrought?
Then Life and Death and Motherhood be nought.
Go forth, 0 wind, our message on thy wings,

And they shall hear thee pass and bid thee speed,
In reed-roofed hut, or white-walled home of kings,
Who have been helpen by her in their need.
All spring shall give thee fragrance, and the wheat
Shall be a tasseled floorcloth to thy feet.
Haste, for our hearts are with thee, take no rest!

Loud-voiced ambassador, from sea to sea
Proclaim the blessing, manifold, confest,
Of those in darkness by her hand set free,
Then very softly to her presence move,
And whisper: "Lady, 10, they know and love!"
~KIPLING.
The King of Denmark's Ride. '

(AN OLD DANISH BALLAD ABOUT W ALD~MAR THt VICTORIOUS
AND HIS QUEtN, DAGMAR.)
Word was brought to the Danish king

(Hurry!)
That the love of his heart lay suffering,
And pined for the comfort his voice would bring;
173
o ride as though you were flying t
Better he loves each golden curl
On the brow of that Scandinavian girl
Than his rich crown jewels of ruby and pearl:
And his rose of the isles is dying!
Thirty nobles saddled with speed;

(Hurry!)
Each one mounting a gallant steed
Which he kept for battle and days of need;
0, ride as though you were flying!
Spurs were stuck in the foaming flank;
Worn out chargers staggered and sank;
Bridles were slackened, and girths were burst;
But ride as they would, the king rode first,
For the rose of the isles lay dying 1
His nobles were beaten, one by one;

(Hurry I)
They have fainted and faltered and homeward gone;
His little fair page now follows alone,
For strength and for courage trying!
The king looked back at that faithful child;
Wan was the face that answering smiled;
They passed the drawbridge with clattering din,
Then he dropped; and only the king rode in
Where his rose of the isles lay dying!
The king blew a blast in his bugle horn;

(Silence 1)
No answer came; but faint and forlorn
An echo returned on the cold gray morn,
Like the breath of a spirit sighing.
The castle portal stood grimly wide;
N one welcomed the king from that weary ride;
For dead, in the light of the dawning day,
The pale sweet form of the welcomer lay,
Who had yearned for his voice while dying!
176
Both - and, 104. Definite article, 17.
But, 132, 137. Degree of comparison, 18.
By dint of, 48. Demonstratives, 16, 34-35.
By far, 140. Dependent clauses. See Clauses.
By force of, 48. Descriptive adj ectives. See Ad-
By means of, 48. jectives.
By virtue of, 48. Do, 77, 93-95.
By way of, 48.
Each, 36.
Can, 95. Each one, 38.
Capitals,S, 7, 15, 16, 29, 31, 35, Each other, 37.
C:~ ~'n~n~25; of the rela- East, Eastern" 52.
tive pronoun, 116. Either, 36, 13/.
Either one, 38.
Clauses, 112; adjective clauses, Either __ or, 104.
113; adverbial clauses, 113; Elder, eldest, 19.
principal or independent, 112; Ellipsis, or abbreviated sen-
. relative, 138; subordinate or tences and expressions, 130.
dependent, 112, 123-126; noun Els 137
clauses, 112. e, .
Collective nouns, 55. Emphatic verb-phrases, 93'1
Ere long, 47, 49.
Co1on, 124. Ever so long ago, 49.
Comma, 15, 23, 63, 68, 70, 108, E e y 36
110, 114, 121, 138, 139, 142, E~e~ybody, everyone, 31.
155. . Everything, 37.
ComparatIve degre.e, 18, 23. Except, 120, 145.
Complemendt, preddlcate, 150-54 ; Exclamation point, 61, 62, 63.
co~po.un pre. comp., 11 0 ; Exclamatory sentence 61.
obJ ecttve complement, 133 ; ,
complement of the infinitive,
147; of participle, 153. Feel, 51.
ConjugatioR, 42, 71 if., 81. Few, 36.
Conjunctions, 104; correlative, For, 137, 150.
104 ; subordinate, 120 ; co- F or all, 120.
ordinate, 137; used as intro- F or ever, for good, 47.
ductory words, 132. F or that, 120.
Conj unctive adverbs, 122. For the sake of, 48.
Conj unctive pronouns, 115. Foreign plurals, 11.
Connectives, 114. Former, 35.
Consequently, 137. From above, from below, 47.
Construction, 8, 117. From beneath, f.,.om behind, 47.
Continue, 51. From beyond, from O"t, 47.
Contrary to, 48. From here, from on high, 47.
Copula, 53. From there, from under, 47.
Could, 95. From within, fro", without, 47.
Further, 137.
Dash, 84. Future perfect tense, 73-75.
Declarative sentence, 59. Future tense, 73-75.
177
Gender, 13; special use of, 129; Intransitive verbs, 24; incom-
of relative pronouns, 116. plete intransitive, 50.
Gerund, 157. I s, etc., 51, 77.
c.;et~ 51. Italics, 43, 48.
Go~ 51.
Good, 19. Last~ 20.
Grow~ 51. Later, latest, 20.
Latter, 35.
Had, 77. Less, lesser, least, 19.
Have, 77, 95. Lest, 120, 145.
Hence, 137. Let, 126.
His own self, 34. Like, 160.
How, 40, 122. Likewise, 137.
-However, 137. Little, 19.
Hyphen, 64.
Many~ 19, 36.
I I, 120, 145. Many a, 58.
Ill, 19. May, 77, 95.
Imperative mood, 59. Might, 77, 95.
Imperative sentence, 60. Mood, 58, 59, 99.
I n a hurry, 49. More, 18, 19. •
In consideration of, 48. Moreover, 137.
I n defiance of, 48. Most, 18, 19.
In front of, 48. Much~ 36.
In lieu of, 48. Must, 77, 95.
In order to, 48, 149. My own self, 34.
In place of, 48.
In regard to, 48. Naught, 36.
In respect to~ 48. Nearer, 20.
In short, 47. Need, 95.
In spite of, 48. Neither, 36, 137.
In vain, 47. Neither - nor, 104.
In view of, 48. Never - - or, 104.
Indefinite pronouns, 36; adjec- Nigh, nezt, 20.
tives, 36. No one, 37.
Indicative mood, 58. Nobody, 37.
Indirect object, 49. Nominative case, absolute, 154;
Infinitive, 146; forms of, 147; of nouns, 25; of pronouns,
object of, 147; complement 30 ff.; of nouns and pronouns
of, 147; uses of, 148-152. in the predicate, 51.
Inner, innermost, 20. None, 36.
Instead of, 48. Nor, 137.
Interj ectional phrases, 63. North, Northern, 52.
Interj ections, 62. Not - - but, 104.
Interrogative pronouns, 38, 59; Not only-- but, 104.
adj ectives, 38, 59; adverbs, Not--or,104.
40, 59. Nothing, 37.
Interrogative sentence, 38~ 94. N {)twithstanding, 120, 137.
178
Noun clauses, 112. Past perfect tense, 74.
Nouns, 7; abstract nouns, 56; Period,S, 14, 60.
used as adj ectives and ad- Person of nouns and pronouns,
verbs, 67; in apposition, 68- 27; of verbs, 28; of relative
69, 134; used in address, 70; pronouns, 116.
collective nouns, 55; common, Personal pronouns, 30.
7 ; case of nouns, 25-26 ; Phrase adverbs, 49.
person, 27; proper nouns, 7; Phrase prepositions, 48.
subject noun, 7; used in the Phrases, 43; interjectional, 63;
predicate, 51; verbal, 147, 157. prepositional, 45-47 ; verb-
Nouns in -ing, 158. phrases, 9, 76, 86 tI. See also
Number, 10; singular, 10; under Adjectives and Ad-
plural, 10; of relative pro- verbs.
nouns, 116; of verb, 12. Plural of nouns, how formed,
Numerals, 6~ tI. 10-11.
Positive degree, 18.
Object, 24; indirect, 49; com- Possessive case, how fonned,
pound, 109; of infinitive, 147; 26.
retained indirect, 84; simple, Possessive pronouns, 32.
109. Potential verb-phrases, 95 ;
Obj ective case of nouns, 25; mood of, 99.
pronouns, 30, 31, 116. Predicate, 5, 8, 20; simple and
Objective complement, 133. compound, 107.
Of old, 47. Predicate adj ective, 135.
Of them all, 140. Predicate complement, 50-51.
Of yore, 49. Predicate noun and pronoun,
Off of, 48. 51. .
0", account of, 48. Prepositional phrases, 45-47.
On that side, 48. Prepositions, 44-47.
On this side, 48. Present perfect tense, 73.
Once upon a time, 49. Present tense, 41.
One, 35-37, 67. Preteri te tense, 42.
One another, 37. Principal parts of verbs, 72.
One self, 33. Progressive potential verb-
One's own, 37. phrases, 100.
Or, 37. Pronominal adj ectives, 32.
Other, 35-37. Pronouns, 27; person of, 27;
Otherwise, 120. personal, 30; possessive, 32;
Ought, 36, 77. compound personal, 33; de-
Ourself, etc., 33. monstrative, 34-35; reflexive,
Out of, 48. 34; indefinite, 36; reciprocal,
Over a year ago, 49. 37; interrogative, 38, 59;
Over against, 48. relative, 115, 117; compound
relative, 115.
Proper adjectives, 16.
Participle, 153 tI. Proper nouns, 7.
Parts of speech, 6. Prove, 51.
Passive voice, 80-82, 87. Provided, 120.
.J
179
Punctuation,S, 15, 23, 43, 48, Still, 137.
63, 70, 141, 142. Strong verbs, 42.
Subject, 5, 14; compound, 103;
Question mark, 60. grammatical, 112; logical,
Quotation, 124. 112; simple, 103.
Quotation mark, 43, 48, 95. Subjunctive mood, 99, 144 1£.
Subordinate clauses, 112, 124 if.
Reciprocal pronouns, 37. Substantives, 30.
Reflexive pronouns, 34. Such, 35, 36.
Relative adjectives, 118; com- Such - as, 127.
pound relative adj ectives, 118. Superlative degree, 18 ;
Relative adverbs, 122 ff. strengthened and modified,
Relative clauses, 138. 140."
Relative pronouns, 115; com-
pound relative pronouns, 115; Tenses, 41, 73 fI.
number of, 116: gender of, Than, 120, 127.
116; case of, 116. That, 35, 115-117, 120
The, 17.
Same, 35. The one, 38.
Seem, 51. Then, 137.
Semicolon, 141, 142. There, 57.
Sentence, 5; complex, 111; Therefore, 137.
complex-compound, 140; 1
7 his, 35.
compound, 137; declarative, Though, 120, 145.
59; exclamatory, 61; impera- Though - yet, 104.
tive, 60; interrogative, 38, 59. Thus, 137.
Several, 36. Till, 122.
Shall, 92. Till after, 47.
Should, 95. Till now, 47.
Since, 120, 122. To there, 47.
Since over two weeks, 47. Transitive verbs, 24.
Since then, 47, 49. Turn, 51.
Singular number, 10, 12.
Sit, 51. Uncared-for, 48.
Smell, 51. Understood, 131.
So, 137. Unheard-of, 48.
So-as, 128. Unless, 120.
So that, 120, 137. Unthought-of, 48.
So then, 137. Until, 122.
Some, 36. Utter, 20.
Some one, 38.
Some one else, 38. Verbal nouns, 147, 157.
Somebody, 37, 38. Verb-phrases, 9, 76, 86 if.
Somebody else, etc., 38. Verbs, 8-9; auxiliary verbs, 73,
Something, 37. 76-77, 94, 95; conj ugation of,
South, Southern, 52. 42; incomplete intransitive,
Speech, parts of, 6. 50 ; intransitive, 24 ; person
Stay, 51. of, 28 ; predicate verb, 9 ;
180
strong verbs, 42; transitive, Whether, 39.
24; weak verbs, 42. Whether - - or, 104.
Voice, 80; active, 80-82; pas- Wliich, 39, 115-117.
sive, 80-82. Whichever, whichsoever, 115-
117.
Was 51. Whither, 40, 122.
We~ verbs, 42. Who, whose, wh~m, 39, 115-
Were, etc., 51. 117.
West, Western, 52. Whoso, whosoever, 115-117.
What, 39, 61, 115, 117. Why, 40.
Whatever, whatsoever, 115-117. Will, 77, 92.
When, 40, 122. Without, 120.
Whence, 40, 122, 137. Words, classes of, 6.
Whenever, 122. Would, 95.
Where, 40, 122.
Whereas, 120. Yet, 137.
Wherever, 122. Your oum self, 34.
Wherefore, 137.
". I
J
The End.
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Classic Literature Collection

Author: KNUT GJERSET

Subject: Fiction, Literature

'LJLWDOPublisher: World Public Library Association

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its use in the sentence.

CLASS OF WORDS - II. I

Relation of Verb to Predicate.,

The verb is that word * in the predicate which can

Number of the Noun.

M oilel for the Parsing of the Noun.

something. It is a common noun, because it

• Woman and women from Old English wif-man and wif- •

Number of the Verb.

Gold glitters. John comes. Men vote. Trains run.

Gender of the Noun.

The Modified Subject."

Parsing of the Adjective.

RULE FOR THE USE OF THE Two FORMS OF THE INDEFINITIC

Comparison of ·the Adj~ctive.

Model for .the Parsing of the Adjective.

Adjectives Irregularly Compared.

Some adjectives are not compared. These are

The Modified Predicate.

* Utter has gone out of use as a comparative form and

Model for the Parsing of the Adverb.

Parsing of the Adverb.

Many very big trees grew there. The girls stayed

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.

Case of the Noun.

the objective case. When it is used to denote pos-

is meant. That is, it describes the noun hat after the

Person of Nouns and Pronouns.

spoken of. This property of the nouns and pronouns

Person of the Verb.

person, the predicate verb must also be in the second

worm. The industrious man prospers. He likes the

To decline a noun or pronoun is to. give all its

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.

* N OUDS and pronouns are called substantives.

the siflgU\a~ ot 9\u

their time uselessly . We love our sisters. Our class

3. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

persof:l or thing as the subject. It is then called the

4. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

The word own is sometimes inserted between the first and

Also: the latter~ the former~ the one~ the other,

Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives.

Each other and one another may be regarded as

The indefinites everyone, everything, everybody,

All know the English language well. Those two

Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives.

* See page 61.

Although the interrogative pronoun stands at or

Who is he? What day is this? Where are we?

Tense of the Verb.

• After the adjective best the noun road must be added

The preterite tense of the verb shows that the

in the evening is used as an adverbial modifier of the

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