Department of English

Writing an Academic Essay

Handouts for LMD Students

Prepared by: Mr. Benziane Nabil – University Centre of Tamanrasset

Academic Year: 2018/2019

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Contents

What is an academic essay? ………………………………………..03

Difference between an essay and a paragraph …………………….03

Form of an essay ……………………………………………………04

How to write an essay ………………………………………………05

The structure of an essay ……………………………………………09

Writing the introduction …………………………………………….10

Compose a thesis statement …………………………………………11

Seven introductory strategies to start your introduction …………..13

Writing the main body ………………………………………………. 15

Signalling words within paragraphs ………………………………..17

Linking ideas between paragraphs …………………………………. 18

Useful linking words and phrases ………………………………….. 20

Writing the conclusion ………………………………………………22

Model essay …………………………………………………………24

Coherence and Unity in essays …………………………………….25

Style to consider in writing essays ………………………………… 29

Types of essays ………………………………………………………31

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WHAT IS AN ACADEMIC ESSAY?

An academic essay is a continuous piece of writing focusing on a particular issue,

which is carefully framed by the title. The writer should define what the question is
asking, then respond to it, supporting all statements with evidence, example, and
logical argument.

Essays allow students to demonstrate an in-depth knowledge of a topic based on

research and reading. The skill of good essay writing is to be able to critically discuss
and evaluate ideas within a set word limit. The focus of an essay is usually on
developing an argument or analysing ideas rather than on description. The essay is
written in paragraphs and has a structure that includes: introduction, body and
conclusion.

Differences between an Essay and a Paragraph

An essay is simply a paper composed of several paragraphs, rather thanone paragraph.

In an essay, subjects can and should be treated more fullythan they would be in a
single-paragraph paper.

The main idea or point developed in an essay is called the thesis statementor thesis
sentence (rather than, as in a paragraph, the topic sentence).The thesis statement
appears in the introductory paragraph, and it is thendeveloped in the supporting
paragraphs that follow. A short concludingparagraph closes the essay.

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FORM OF AN ESSAY

Introduction

The introduction sets the scene for the whole essay. You should not rewritethe essay
question. Instead, the purpose of the introduction is to identify thetopic, the position
being argued and the main reasons for that position.The introduction will normally
move from more general statements related tothe question, to a specific statement of
the main idea or argument that will bediscussed in the body.

Body

Here you use evidence from scholarly readings to explain and supportin detail the
reasons for your point of view given in the introduction. The bodycontains a number
of paragraphs that link together to develop a strongargument or discussion of the
topic. Generally, a paragraph needs to be atleast four to six sentences long. A single

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sentence does not form a paragraphin an academic essay and bullet points are usually
not acceptable.

Conclusion

The purpose of the conclusion is to summarise and make final evaluativecomments on

the ideas presented in the essay. It should not contain newideas or examples. It is
crucial to link the conclusion to the essay question.

HOW TO WRITE ESSAYS?

The rest of this booklet discusses ways of maximising your chances of writing a
reasonable essay. It is divided into three main sections:

a) Answering the question.

b) Structuring your answer.

c) Presenting your work.

a) Answering the Question

This is the key issue, as already mentioned. Most students go wrongfrom the start, by
not doing what the question demands of them.Answering the question is by no means
an easy task, as titles can besubtly phrased, intricate, or allusive. What you need to do
is tease outthe key elements. Pattern Notes (discussed in the Note-Takingbooklet) are
a good way of doing this. Try to represent the questiondiagrammatically, putting the
key issue in the centre of a blank sheet ofpaper, with other elements radiating out
from this. Make sure that eachword or phrase in the question is represented on your
plan. Then‘brainstorm’ each, by writing down anything that seems pertinent. Youwill
probably end up with what looks an untidy mess! But, out of this,you should be able
to pull some key points, while rejecting others asless relevant. These points will form
the basis of your essay, so it is agood idea to re-write these on a separate sheet of
paper.

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When you have identified the key elements, you need to locateinformation to support
each aspect. This will involve reading yourlecture notes and following up references,
besides undertaking someindependent research in the library. Try to make sure that
your readingis guided by your plan and avoid unfocused ‘background’ reading.

Amongst the key words of your title, look out for the ‘instructional’ words.These
inform you what is to be done with the material: whether you aremeant to describe a
theory, analyse it, evaluate it, or compare it withanother. The following is a list of the
words that commonly occur inhigher education essays, together with an indication of
their meaning,plus, where relevant, in parenthesis, the derivation of the word.

INSTRUCTIONAL WORDS YOU MIGHT COME ACROSS IN A QUESTION

ACCOUNT Give the reasons for something; unpack the causes ofsomething in
FOR a logical way.
ANALYSE Examine in detail the constituent parts of something, and their
Inter-relationship (to loosen up).
APPRAISE Estimate the worth, value or importance of (to price).
ASSESS Estimate the worth, value or importance of (to judge).
CLARIFY Present clearly; unpack the complications of (to make clear).
COMMENT Make remarks about, expound (to contrive).
COMPARE Set together so as to reveal the similarities and differences;the
agreements and disagreements between (to match).
CONSIDER Deliberate on; give careful thought to.
CONTRAST Put in opposition to bring out the differences (to standopposite).
CRITISE Give judgement on something, backed by a discussion of the
evidence (to judge).
DEFINE Give the precise meaning of something; often to show that
thedistinctions are necessary (to set limits to).
DESCRIBE Give detailed account of, show characteristics of (to writedown).
DISCUSS Investigate or examine by argument, to sift and debate, givethe
pros and cons of (to shake apart).
EVALUATE Determine the value or worth of something in the light
ofparticular criteria - truth, utility, logic, morality etc.(to value).

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EXAMINE Investigate in detail, to question, to inspect (to weigh).
EXPLAIN Make plain, interpret; unfold the meaning of (to level out).
ILLUSTRATE Make clear using concrete examples, or by using diagrams,figures
etc. (to light up).
INTERPRET Explain the meaning of; translate into familiar terms, makeexplicit
(to serve as an agent, a translator).
JUSTIFY Show adequate grounds for conclusions, decisions, dealingwith
possible objections to these (to make just).
OUTLINE Give the main features, general principles of something.Leave out
detail in preference for structure and relationships.
PROVE To establish as truth by argument, test genuineness of.
RELATE Show how things are connected and the extent that they arealike
or affect each other; also: to narrate (to bring back).
REVIEW Make a survey of something, giving it a critical analysis (to see
again).
STATE Express briefly and clearly.
SUMMARISE Give a concise account of the main points, omitting
details,examples.
TRACE Follow the development of something from its origin (to draw).

b) Structuring your answer

‘Answering the question’ is certainly the key issue in essay writing. Butsome essays,
though they appear to have done this, fall short becausethe information is so badly
organised. Making sure your answer isproperly structured will avoid this, and help
maximise your chances ofgood marks.

Essays comprise three sections, though they are usually written incontinuous prose
(i.e. without subheadings - but consult your tutor; he orshe may have a view on this).
These are i) ‘introduction’; ii)‘development’ or ‘main section’; and iii)’conclusion’.

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i) The Introduction - a key part of your essay, and one that can set thewhole tone for
your reader. Introductions should unpack the question -defining key terms, outlining
what the wording implies - and give anindication of how you intend to answer the
question - e.g. signpostingthe various stages in your argument. An introduction is read
first but can be written last, when you know the direction your answer hastaken.

ii) Development - this is the main section of your essay, where you layout your
response, mixing argument with supporting evidence (facts,illustrations, experiments,
quotations, references to the literature). Tryto see it as a series of points, each to be
developed in a separateparagraph, though there should be an overall thread linking the
points ina thematic way (e.g. points for/ points against; historical
progression).Sometimes you will find a natural theme; at other times, you may needto
put a more artificial framework on your work (e.g. there are five pointsof note here:
first..., secondly..., etc.).

iii) Conclusion - another key part, where you pull together and restatethe main points
of your essay in order to make some overall statementin response to the question.

c) Presenting Your Work

Excellent presentation will not save a poor essay, but it will certainly helpthe marker’s
perception of it. On the other hand, it is unlikely that anyessay will be ‘first-class’
without some attention to presentation. Thisaspect involves writing reasonable
English in grammatical sentences,tied together in coherent paragraphs. It also
involves spelling correctly,and such minor issues as leaving sufficient margins and
numbering yourpages.

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THE STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY

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WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction is important as it sets the tone for the reader by giving some idea of
thecontent and the writer’s position and suggests how the piece of work is organised.
It isnormally approximately 10% of the total word count of the essay.

Key features that are usually included in theintroduction; general, narrowing

down tospecific:

• general point about broad issue or topicdiscussed

• more focus on particular aspect of this topic

• justification for your choice of focus

• definitions of key terms as necessary

• focussed statement about main argument ofposition you will consider and some idea
ofhow it will develop through the essay.

The first paragraph of an essay is called the introduction. The introductory paragraph:

- Is usually five to ten sentences.

- Catches the reader’s interest.
- Gives the general topic of the essay.
- Gives background information about the topic.
- Present a Thesis Statement – a clear, direct statement of the central idea that
you will develop in your paper. The thesis statement, like a topic sentence,
should have a keyword or keywords reflecting your attitude about the subject.
- Indicate a Plan of Development – a preview of the major points that will
support your thesis statement, listed in the order in which they will be
presented. In some cases, the thesis statement and plan of development may
appear in the same sentence. In other cases, the plan of development may be
omitted.

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The introduction is often organised by giving the most general ideas first and then
leading to the most specific idea, which is the Thesis Statement.

An effective introduction should:

1- Provide the context necessary to understand your thesis: background

information. If you are writing about literature, you should include the titles,
authors and publications dates of the text you are analysing. Similarly, if you
are writing about a historical event, you should name the event, the date and
the key people (or countries or issues) involved.
2- Clearly, state the main point of the essay: A clear thesis statement is a key
component of an effective introduction.
3- Set the tone for the essay: Tone refers to the mood or attitude conveyed
through language, particularly through word choice and sentence structure.

However, any of the following will make an introduction weak:

- It does not give enough information about the topic or gives too much
information about it.
- It talks about too many different topics.
- It does not state a clear thesis.

COMPOSE A THESIS STATEMENT

The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about, and what point you,
the author, will be making.

Your thesis statement will have two parts:

- The first part states the topic.

e.g. Public Transportation

- The second part states the point of the essay.

e.g. Can solve some of our city’s most persistent and pressing problems.

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The topic now must be elaborated, explained or argued.

Supporting point

Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather than
driving.

Elaboration

Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes. Of course,
less driving time means saving on gasoline as well. In many cases, these savings
amount to more than the cost of riding public transportation.

EXAMPLE OF AN EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION

Below is an introduction from a student essay. Each sentence is numbered. Look atthe
key below for a description of what each sentence is doing.

The application of renewable energy technology in remote areas

1) Our life is heavily dependent on the supply of energy. 2) After World War
ll,especially, developed countries received great benefits from electricity.3)
However, today more than 30% of the global population still live in off-gridareas,
without electricity (Hogue 2008). 4) This is mostly in developing countriesor remote
parts of developed countries, such as mountainous areas or isolatedislands. 5)
Economically, it would be very challenging to produce electricity forthese areas
(Gillett 2006). 6) As developing countries grow economically, thedemand for energy
will increase rapidly, thus adding to the pollution problemscaused by fossil fuels. 7)
Renewable energy technology could be the solution tothese problems. 8)This essay
will first demonstrate the need for electricity inremote areas, and then the extent to
which renewable energy technology can meetthis need in remote areas will be
examined by looking at some examples.
KEY 1) general statement2,3,4) background5, 6) problems and justification7)
position you will consider (thesis statement)8) outline of structure

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In short

Introductions serve an important function. They ‘welcome’ your reader into your
essay by providing context, stating your thesis, and setting the tone. They should also
grab your reader’s interest. Strategies for attention grabbing hooks include starting
with a quotation, a question, a surprising statement or fact, an imaginary situation or
scenario, an anecdote, interesting background information, or a new twist on a
familiar phrase.

SEVEN INTRODUCTORY STRATEGIES TO START YOUR

INTRODUCTION

1. Quotation

Start with a quote from a text, a film, a subject-matter expert, or even a friend or
relative if he or she said something relevant to the topic and of interest to your reader.

Example

“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others”, said Napoleon
in George Orwell’s classic novel Animal Farm. Uncle Sam might say something
similar. “All people must pay taxes, but some must pay more taxes than others”. Our
current federal income tax system treats taxpayers unfairly and require and
monumental budget to administer and maintain. A flat tax, which would treat all
taxpayers equally and dramatically reduce tax compliance cost, is the answer.

2. Question

Open up with a question to get your readers thinking. Of course, the question (and its
answer) should be relevant to your thesis.

Example

What’s in a name? Nothing—and everything. It is, after all, just a name, one tiny
piece of the puzzle that makes up a person. But when someone has a nickname like
‘Dumbo’, a name can be the major force in shaping one’s sense of self. That’s how it
was for me.

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 3. Surprising Statement or Fact

This type of hook provides ‘shock value’ for the reader.

Example

If you don’t believe our current tax law is ridiculously out of control, consider this:
Our total tax law consists of 101,295 pages and 7.05 million words. That means our
tax law has almost 100 times more pages and ten times as many words than the Bible.
Bloated? You bet. But it doesn’t have to be. The government would collect equal or
greater or greater tax revenue and save millions of dollars in compliance costs by
instituting a flat tax system.

4. An imaginary Situation or Scenario

Hook your reader with your imagination. You might ask them to place themselves in
the scene, or you can let them simply witness it.

Example

You’ve been drifting at sea for days with no food and no water. You have two
companions. Suddenly, a half-empty bottle of water floats by. You fight over the
bottle, ready to kill the others if you have to for that water. What has happened? What
are you—human or animal? It is a question that H.G.Wells raises over and over in
The Island of Dr.Moreau. His anwer? Like it or not, we’re both.

5. An anecdote

Start your essay by telling a short, interesting story related to your subject.

Example

I’d been getting into a lot of trouble—failing classes, taking things that didn’t belong
to me. So the guidance counsellor at school suggested that my parents take me to a
psychiatrist. “You mean a shrink?” my mother replied, horrified. My father and I had
the same reaction. After all, what good would it do to lie on a couch while some
‘doctor’ asked questions and took noted? So I went to my first session angry and
sceptical. But after a few weeks, I realised that we had it all wrong. Those shrinks
really know what they’re doing. And mine helped me turn my life around.

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 6. Interesting background information

Tell your reader something unusual about your subject.

Example

Incredibly, Frankenstein—one of the most important novels in Western literature—

was written by a teenager. When it was published in 1818, Mary Shelley was only 19
years old. Despite her youth, Shelley’s story raises a question that is more important
today that ever: What is the creator’s relationship to his or her creation?

7. A new twist on a familiar phrase

Reword or rework an old standard to create a fresh hook.

Example

To eat or not to eat? That is the question millions of Americans struggle with every
day as they fight the battle of the bulge. But it seems to be a losing battle. Despite the
millions spent on diet pills and diet plans, Americans today are heavier than ever.
These are many reasons for this nationwide weight gain, but experts agree that the
main cause is lack of exercise. And one of the reasons we don’t get enough exercise is
because we spend too much time in front of the TV.

WRITING THE MAIN BODY

The essay’s main body in composed of at least 3 paragraphs that explain, elaborate
and discuss the main idea of the essay which is already mentioned in the thesis
statement and the plan of development respectively.

Again, how do we write a strong paragraph?

A strong paragraph

• is a group of related sentences which develop one main theme or idea

• has unity: it discusses only one idea

• has coherence: the idea is developed in a clear and logical way

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The theme of one paragraph should follow logically from the theme of the
previousparagraph and should lead on to the theme of the next. All the paragraphs
should developthe main idea of the essay presented in the thesis statement in your
introduction.

The structure of paragraphs

1. a topic sentence: states the topic and the controlling idea and is usually thefirst
sentence in the paragraph.

2. supporting sentences: to develop the point you are making usinginformation,

explanation, examples, and with a smooth flow from one sentenceto the next.

3. evidence: your point should be supported by evidence from the literature orby an
example from the subject area.

Sample paragraph from essay on the positive and negative effects of tourism:

The solutions that have been adopted by governments have not shown
mucheffectiveness or efficiency (Pallant 2009). Although governments have
madeserious efforts to tackle the negative effects, sometimes by enacting strictlaws,
mass tourism is still causing many problems, and the intensity ofdegradation that has
been registered in the environment has not declined.According to McCormack and
Slaught (2010), the traffic of ivory and rare animalfurs has increased considerably
and gangs are becoming more organised becauseof the potential profits that can be
obtained from this traffic. Strict laws do notseem to dissuade the gangs from carrying
out these illegal and destructiveactivities. In addition, in spite of the huge efforts
made by the internationalcourts and the organisations for the protection and
promotion of children’srights, Slaught (2009) states that there are still hundreds of
thousands oftourists reported to practise sex tourism and to abuse poverty. Moreover,
thereis a marked deterioration in the behaviour of young people associated
withtourism, such as alcohol-related problems and violence, which governments
havebeen unable to prevent despite their efforts to do so (Bailey et al. 2009).
Comment: This is a well-developed paragraph of appropriate length. The first sentence is the topic sentence

with a central idea (solutions adopted by governments) and a controlling idea (solutions have not been effective)
which is developed through the paragraph with examples supported by evidence from the literature.

SIGNALLING WORDS WITHIN PARAGRAPHS

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Look at paragraphs 1 and 2. Which is more coherent (easy to follow)?

Sample paragraph 1

One difference among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity varies
indifferent climate zones. The Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth
assalty as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are reasons for this. In
warmclimates, water evaporates rapidly. The concentration of salt is greater.
Thesurrounding land is dry and does not contribute much freshwater to dilute
thesalty seawater. In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoffcreated
by melting snow adds a considerable amount of freshwater to dilute thesaline
seawater.

Sample paragraph 2

One difference among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity varies
indifferent climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Europe is onlyone-
fourth as salty as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are reasons forthis. First of
all, in warm climates, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, theconcentration of salt is
greater. Second, the surrounding land is dry and doesnot contribute much freshwater
to dilute the salty seawater. In cold climatezones, on the other hand, water evaporates
slowly. Furthermore, the runoffcreated by melting snow adds a considerable amount
of freshwater to dilute thesaline seawater.

Paragraph 2 is more coherent because it contains signalling words –

expressionswhich lead the reader from one idea to the next. They show the reader
how the parts ofa paragraph are connected. Note the punctuation (comma) used with
these words.Below is a list of signalling phrases you can use to connect ideas between
sentences.These do not need to start a sentence but can also be used within a sentence
(see ‘onthe other hand’ in sample paragraph two).

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addition Moreover, in addition, apart from this, furthermore
Cause and effect As a result, because if this, for this reason, therefore,
consequently
Comparison/similar ideas In the same way, similarly, likewise
Contrast/opposite ideas In contrast, however, on the other hand,
example For example, for instance
explanation In other words, to be more precise
generalisation As a rule, generally, normally, on the whole, in most
case, usually
Summary/conclusion Finally, in brief, in short, overall, therefore, in
conclusion
Time/order At first, initially, eventually, finally, lastly, next,
first(ly)

LINKING IDEAS BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS

As an academic essay consists of more than one paragraph, you need tolink each
paragraph. Paragraphs should not stand in isolation. Do notexpect the reader to make
the connection between your ideas; make thoseconnections explicit. This way, the
reader will be led in a logical orderthrough your argument and will be reminded of
your current theme orangle.

The signalling words in the table above may be of use when connectingparagraphs
together. However, you may often need a longer sentence tohelp create a link from
paragraph to a paragraph. The topic sentence canform part of the linking sentence or
follow it.

Imagine you are outlining the positive and negative issues of a given topic. Youmight
begin your ‘positive’ paragraph with one of the following:

One of the main advantages of X is…

OR One of the positive effects of X is….

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The next paragraph might then begin:

A further advantage (of X) is…..

OR

X is a further advantage worth considering…

When you are ready to change your discussion to the negative issues, you couldwrite:

Having considered the positive effects of X, the negative issues needto be taken
into account.

OR

Despite the positive effects outlined above, there are also negativeissues to be
considered.

Start of three consecutive paragraphs in an essay:

Having discussed many of the advantages of fast food in the world, some important
setbacks need to be considered. Within the last ten years, therehas been an awareness
of the dangers of eating fast food. Fatty food isunhealthy …………
A further drawback is that, despite all efforts to keep the environment cleanand tidy,
it is almost impossible to keep litter off the streets. Takeaway packsand unwanted
souvenirs from fast food restaurants can often be foundlittering the streets…………
The final disadvantage worth considering is the advertising of unhealthy food
which targets young children………..
Checking for paragraph links as you read through your work

• Does the start of my paragraph show my reader what it will be about?

• Does my paragraph add to or elaborate on a point made previously and,if so, have I
explicitly shown this with an appropriate linking phrase?

• Does my paragraph introduce a completely new point or a differentviewpoint to the

one before? Have I shown this with an appropriate linkingphrase?

• Have I repeatedly used similar linking phrases? (If yes, try to vary them.)

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20
To show and effect/conclusion

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WRITING THE CONCLUSION

Just as your introduction is the first impression your reader will have of your
writing,your conclusion is the last. A good conclusion will show that you have
successfullyanswered the question in an organised way.

A conclusion is normally approximately 8% of the total word count of the essay.

The conclusion at the end of your essay serves a number of functions.

• It is the final part of your text and so needs to pull together all the mainideas.
• It should refer back to what you outlined in your introduction and to yourthesis.
• It is an opportunity to show the extent to which you have been able todeal with the
issues involved in your thesis.

NEVER introduce new information or ideas in the conclusion. If they are important,
include them in your main text.

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Example conclusions: one good and one not so good:

Below are two conclusions to a 2000 word essay on the following topic:

Discuss the causes of stereotyping in the mass media andto what extent they influence
social attitudes.

Sample one

My essay has looked, therefore, at the problems caused by racial

stereotyping,focussing on the lack of ethnic minorities working in the mass media. It
has beenseen that this bias causes a parallel bias in the interpretation of news
event.Indeed, the problem is even more acute in the United States. According to
asurvey conducted by the Pocock Institute (1998), only 7% of newspaper staffare
black or Hispanic, which is totally unrepresentative of the population as awhole. 81
words
Comment: This is too short for a 2000 word essay. It does not refer back to the
question of socialstereotyping. It does not move from specific to general. It introduces
a new ideaat the end and stops short.

Sample two

Stereotypes, therefore. have always existed in society, and probably will alwaysdo
so. The mass media is a relatively recent phenomenon, which is one reasonfor the
widely differing views on its role in creating and fostering stereotypicalimages. The
actual causes of stereotyping in the mass media have been shown tobe surprisingly
diverse, and, since laws are often ineffective, it is society itselfwhich must prevent
any form of stereotyping which leads to suffering. Thingsare changing, however, and
in some areas very quickly; some commonplacestereotypes of only twenty years ago
are today virtually taboo. It is societywhich must indirectly control the mass media,
not vice versa. However, in anincreasingly ‘global’ world, controlled by fewer
corporations and individuals whoare more than willing to use stereotyping in the
mass media as a tool to controlsociety, we must be more and more vigilant to avoid
this cynical manipulation.153 words
Comment: This is much better. The length is about right. It refers back to the
question. It summarises the main points of the essay and finishes with a broad
comment of possible implications in the future.

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MODEL ESSAY

Definition of a Football Fan

Not every person who likes sports would be considered a fan.The word “fan” is an
abbreviation of “fanatic,” meaning “an insaneor crazy person.” In the case of football
fans, the term is appropriate.They behave insanely, they are insane about the past,
and they areinsanely loyal.
First of all, football fans just plain behave insanely. They wear theirofficial team T-
shirts and warm-up jackets to the mall, the supermarket, theclassroom, and even—if
they can get away with it—to work. If the teamoffers a giveaway item, the fans rush
to the stadium to claim the hat orsports bag or water bottle that is being handed out
that day. Even thefact that fans spend the coldest months of the year huddled on icy
metalbenches in places like Chicago proves that fans behave insanely. Whenthey go
to a game, which they do as often as possible, they also decorate their bodies. True
football fans not only put on their team jackets and grabtheir pennants, but they also
paint their heads to look like helmets. At thegame, these fans devote enormous
energy to trying to get a “wave” going.
In addition, football fans are insanely fascinated by the past.They talk about
William “Refrigerator” Perry’s 1985 Super Bowltouchdown as though it had
happened last week. They describe the“Fog Bowl” as if dense fog blanketed
yesterday’s game, not 1988’splayoff match between the Philadelphia Eagles and the
Chicago Bears.They excitedly discuss John Elway’s final game before retiring—
whenhe won the 1999 Super Bowl and received MVP honours—as if it werecurrent
news. If you can’t manage to get excited about such ancienthistory, they look at you
as though you were the insane one.
Most of all, football fans are insanely loyal to the team of theirchoice, often
dangerously so. Should their beloved team lose three ina row, fans may begin to react
negatively as a way to hide their broken hearts. They still obsessively watch each
game and spend the entire dayafterward listening to the postgame commentary on
TV.
Furthermore, thisintense loyalty makes fans dangerous. To anyone who dares to say
to aloyal fan that another team has better players or coaches, or God forbid,to anyone
wandering near the home cheering section wearing the jacketof the opposing team,

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physical injuries such as bloody noses, black eyes,and broken bones are real
possibilities.
From February through August, football fans act like any other human beings. They
pay their taxes, take out the garbage, and complain about the high cost of living.
However, when September rolls around, the team’s coloursare displayed, the sports
record books come off the shelves, and the devotionreturns. For the true football fan,
another season of insanity has begun.

COHERENCE AND UNITY IN ESSAYS

Coherence refers to a certain characteristic or aspect of writing. Literally, the word

means "to stick together." Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in a paragraph
flow smoothly from one sentence to the next sentence. With coherence, the reader has
an easy time understanding the ideas that you wish to express.

Consider the paragraph:

My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for
the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of this river,
which is 175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have long branches that can
move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the
riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill,
which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill
is not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used
as stairs. There are no trees around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and
can be seen from many miles away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree.
This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old.
These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place.

Major Connectors

Look at the words in bold font. Do you see how they help guide the reader? For
example, consider the words, First, Second, and The third amazing feature.We can
call these words major connectors. Major connectors help organize the main parts of

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your paragraph. This paragraph has three main parts: (1) a part about the Wheaton
River, (2) a part about Wheaton Hill, and (3) a part about the Big Old Tree. Another
way of saying this is that this paragraph has three main points which are indicated by
the major connectors. Using such major connectors is an important way of providing
coherence to a paragraph

Minor Connectors

What about the other words in bold, such as those appearing in the phrases "these
trees" and "this hill"? We can call these minor connectors. Minor connectors provide
coherence to a paragraph by connecting sentences within each of the main parts of
your paragraph. That is, when you write about your main points, you can use minor
connectors to link your details to each main point.

Now, look at this paragraph. Can you identify the main points?

Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. The
Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive
and function in outer space. The Mercury project tested rockets with the new
Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. The Gemini project was
intended to find out whether two people could work in the weightless environment
of space. Gemini astronauts took "spacewalks." They floated outside their
spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts tried out
new flying skills. Some astronauts flew two spacecraft extremely close together;
this procedure was called "rendezvous." On some Gemini flights, astronauts
physically linked two spacecraft together. Linking, or "space docking," was a major
goal of the Gemini program. The Apollo project, with three astronauts, was
intended to test spacecraft and skills so that people could actually fly to the Moon
and land on it. Performing scientific experiments on the lunar surface and collecting
rocks for study on Earth were goals.

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Was this paragraph a little confusing to read? Now consider the same paragraph with
a few changes:

Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. For
example, the Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings
could survive and function in outer space. In addition, the Mercury project tested
rockets with the new Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. As
another example, the Gemini project was intended to find out whether two people
could work in the weightless environment of space. One way of doing this was by
having Gemini astronauts take "spacewalks." That is, they floated outside their
spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronautsalsotried out
new flying skills. For example, some astronauts flew two spacecraft extremely close
together; this procedure was called "rendezvous." On some Gemini flights, astronauts
physically linked two spacecraft together. This linking, or "space docking," was a
major goal of the Gemini program. Finally, the Apollo project, with three astronauts,
had the goal of testing spacecraft and skills so that people could actually fly to the
Moon and land on it. Other goals included performing scientific experiments on the
lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on Earth.

Do you see which of the connectors above are major and which are minor? The
major ones are For example in the second sentence, which introduces the first
supporting point (the Mercury program); As another example, which begins the
second main point (the Gemini program); and the word Finally, which
introduces the third and last main point (the Apollo moon program). (In the
paragraph above, all of the major connectors are underlined.)

As for the minor connectors, we can divide them into three groups. The first
group of minor connectors provides coherence for the first main point (the
Mercury program). There is only one minor connector in this first group, In
addition, although it is possible to have more than one, depending on how many
details you have to support your first main point.

The second group of minor connectors consists of That is, also, and also the
phrase For example in the sentence, "For example, some astronauts..." Notice

27
 that this last minor connector is the same as the major connector at the
beginning of the paragraph. However, the function of each is different,
depending on the meaning of the sentences.

The third group of minor connectors in this particular paragraph also has one
member, which is Other goals included....

Here is a table of a few common connectors (also called transitions):

For
example,
For
As another example, On the one hand,
instance,
Another example of [xxx] is (that) On the other hand,
One
Finally, However,
example of
In conclusion, ..., but...
(this) is
To summarize, also
First,
Second,
Third, etc.

Paragraph Unity

Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph unity

means that one paragraph is about ONLY ONE main topic. That is, all the sentences -
- the topic, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and (sometimes) the concluding
sentence -- are all telling the reader about ONE main topic. If your paragraph contains
a sentence or some sentences that are NOT related to the main topic, then we say that
the paragraph "lacks unity," or that the sentence is "off-topic."

Look at the following paragraph, which is similar to the paragraph that we have
studied above. Does it have perfect unity? Try to find the sentence that is off-topic:

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Each of the Russian manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. For
example, the Vostok project was designed to test whether or not human beings could
survive and function in outer space. For another example, the Voshkhod project was
intended to find out whether people could work in the weightless environment of
space. One Voshkhod cosmonaut experimented with weightlessness by taking a
"spacewalk." That is, he floated in a spacesuit outside his Voshkhod spacecraft,
connected to it by a tether. The cosmonaut to do this was Alexei Leonov. Several
weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White.
Finally, the Soyuz project, with three cosmonauts, had goals of testing spacecraft and
spaceflight skills so that people could fly long missions in Earth orbit.

This paragraph is generally good, but the sentence, Several weeks later, Leonov's
spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White, does not have anything to
do with the major goals of the various Russian space projects. That is, it is an "off-
topic" sentence, so we can say that the paragraph somewhat lacks unity. In order to
improve the paragraph, we should omit this sentence, even though it is historically
accurate.

STYLE TO CONSIDER IN WRITING ESSAYS

INTRODUCTION

- Have you got one?

- Does it take your reader straight from the question into your answer?
- Does it unpack/interpret/frame the question as necessary?
- Does it broadly signpost your essay? tell the reader where s/he’s going?

MAIN BODY

- Is your essay in paragraphs?

- Does each paragraph express and develop a single idea?
- Does each follow logically from the last, with no sudden breaks or shifts of
topic?
- Have you dealt with all the issues posed by the question?

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 - Have you explicated important concepts/ideas, using examples where
appropriate?
- Have you substantiated all your arguments with facts/evidence/ quotations?
- Have you been side-tracked anywhere, gone off at a tangent on a favourite
hobby-horse?

CONCLUSION

- Do you have one?

- Have you drawn together the main threads of your essay? Can you restate
them in broader terms (i.e. summarise)?
- What general inferences can you draw from your argumentrelevant to the
question? (i.e. conclude, don’t just summarise.)Where do you stand in relation
to your case? Are you sure you only refer to material discussed in the main
section, rather than introduced new material?
- To round off - can you, very briefly place your answer in a widercontext?

GENERAL POINTS

- Vocabulary - should be varied, precise and apt; not vague and cliché-ridden
(e.g. ‘got’, ‘sort of’, ‘kind of’, ‘like’); nor too overblown, pedantic and
repetitious.
- Spelling - check technical, specialist terms and proper names in particular.
- Grammar - Sentence structure should be varied; not too simple, nor too
convoluted (complex sentences do not signify complex thought).
- Have you used signpost words (‘but’, ‘however’, ‘although’ etc.)
appropriately, to give your essay cohesion?
- Have you generally signposted where you are taking your reader (‘There are
two points here...’, ‘Now to move on to... ‘, ‘Having covered...’ etc.)?
- Have you used pronouns instead of nouns where apt? Are any of your
pronouns ambiguous?
- Punctuation- Make sure it is used correctly. Beware of overworking commas
and dashes.

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TYPES OF ESSAYS

1. Definition Essay

A definition essay is a type of essay that defines a term, a concept, or an idea. The
difference, however, in a simple definition and a definition essay is that a simple
definition is a literal definition, while a definition essay covers all the connotative and
denotative definitions of a term. A definition essay introduces the term, concept, or
idea being defined, presents clear and specific information about the term, and uses
examples to clarify it.

Writing an Effective Thesis Statement for a Definition Essay

A thesis statement is the heart of an essay. The same is the case with a definition
essay in which a thesis statement plays a key role in defining the term. The
introduction just gives a good hook and background information. It is the thesis
statement which presents the major points of the definition. Like all thesis statements
of five-paragraph essays, the thesis statement of a definition essay has three major
evidences that relate to the definition of the term, idea, or concept being defined.
However, it just keeps the topic limited to the definition by structure, by function, or
by analysis.

Difference Between a Definition and a Definition Essay

Words, ideas, and concepts have various connotative meanings in different contexts.
One concept in one text could be entirely different from the same concept used in
another text. In order to explain in meticulous detail, various definitions are collected
and analyzed. Definitions are also based on structure and analysis as well as
functions. When these definitions are discussed according to their roles in different
contexts, it is called a definition essay. A definition is just a simple statement about a
term, but a definition essay is a discussion of several definitions of the same term.

Examples of Definition Essays in Literature

Example #1: An Argument Against Happiness (by Marc Gellman for Newsweek)

“Why is it that bad people can be happy? The reason is that happiness as defined by
our culture has become just a synonym for pleasure, and anyone can feel pleasure. A

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good meal, a winning team, a fabulous vacation can make even the biggest criminal
feel just as happy as the most noble hero. The problem is the linkage between
happiness and pleasure. Feeling good has no natural connection to doing good. But it
does in the teachings of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Judaism, Christianity and
Islam, as well as in the good and decent lives of those who do not find their life’s
guidance from ancient-wisdom traditions. For all these people, happiness is linked to
goodness, not pleasure.”

This paragraph defines what happiness is. Although it is not a complete definition
essay, it is part of a definition essay. Just check how happiness is defined and
elaborated in different ways.

Function of Definition Essay

A definition essay tends to define a term and settle or resolve a controversy. Readers,
when reading a definition essay, finds themselves making distinctions among
different definitions of a term. It presents a full picture of different usages of the same
term in different contexts, making readers aware of all the contextual interpretations.

2. Narrative Essay

A narrative essay is a type of essay that has a single motif, or a central point, around
which the whole narrative revolves. All incidents, happenings, and characters revolve
around a single motif presented in the narrative. A narrative essay is similar to a
simple five-paragraph essay, in that it has the same format. It is only different in that
it is a narrative, having characters, incidents, and dialogues.

Difference Between a Narrative Essay and a Short Story

A narrative essay has a specific format, specific aspect to discover, and a specific
motif. It revolves around that motif set by the writer prior to writing the essay. A short
story, however, is different from a narrative essay in that it does not revolve around a
pre-set motif, and that it does not have a specific format. Also, a short story always
leaves readers at a critical juncture with the desire to discover more. In contrast, a
narrative essay ends when the readers are fully satisfied. They do not wish to read any
more or do not want to discover anymore.

Elements of a Narrative Essay

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A narrative essay has three required elements: character, theme, and dialogue.

Character

Characters are an important part of a narrative essay. Even if the essay is

autobiographical in nature, the person writing the essay is a character involving some
other characters who act, behave, and do like all other characters presented in stories
and novels.

Theme or Motif

A narrative essay revolves around a theme or a motif. This theme or motif is

presented in its thesis statement, which breaks it down into three distinct evidences.
These three distinct evidences are then further elaborated through characters in body
paragraphs.

Dialogue

Dialogue is used to capture the conversation between characters. In a narrative essay,

dialogue is the third important element, without which the characters lose their worth
and liveliness.

Examples of Narrative Essays in Literature

Example #1: New Directions (by Maya Angelou)

“Annie, over six feet tall, big-boned, decided that she would not go to work as a
domestic and leave her “precious babes” to anyone else’s care. There was no
possibility of being hired at the town’s cotton gin or lumber mill, but maybe there was
a way to make the two factories work for her. In her words, “I looked up the road I
was going and back the way I come, and since I wasn’t satisfied, I decided to step off
the road and cut me a new path.” She told herself that she wasn’t a fancy cook but that
she could “mix groceries well enough to scare hungry away and keep from starving a
man.”

This paragraph is an example from a narrative essay of Maya Angelou. She has
described how a girl looks, and how she behaves. She has also written direct
dialogues to show that it is a narrative.

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Function of Narrative Essay

A narrative essay describes people, presents their conversation, and narrates their
experiences to teach lessons to readers. In fact, it is like a story, but different in that it
is weaved around a motif. A motif is given before the incidents of the essay. Readers
become aware of this single theme, central idea, or motif once they go through the
essay. Its major aim is to provide information about life experiences and lessons
learned from those experiences.

3. Descriptive Essay

A descriptive essay, as the name implies, is a form of essay that describes something.
In this genre, students are assigned the task of describing objects, things, places,
experiences, persons, and situations. The students use sensory information to enable
readers to use their five senses of touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight to understand
the topic of the essay.

Qualities of a Descriptive Essay

• Clear and Concise

• Use of Images

• Use of Five Senses

As far as clear and concise language is concerned, it is necessary to describe things

precisely. Imagery is used to make things seem real and remarkable. The use of the
five senses creates the imagery, or a mental picture, for each reader.

Examples of Descriptive Essays in Literature

Example #4: The TajMahal (by Salman Rushdie)

“And this, finally, is why the TajMahal must be seen: to remind us that the world is
real, that the sound is truer than the echo, the original more forceful than its image in
a mirror. The beauty of beautiful things is still able, in these image-saturated times, to
transcend imitations. And the TajMahal is, beyond the power of words to say it, a
lovely thing, perhaps the loveliest of things.”

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Check this short description of the TajMahal by Salman Rushdie. This description
presents a different picture of the TajMahal.

Function of Descriptive Essay

A descriptive essay presents a person, place, or thing, in a way that readers feel as if it
is in front of their eyes, or that they are tasting it, or that they can hear it, or that they
can smell it. Writers use sensory information to describe object. The object of the
writer is to present a picture of something as honestly as he can.

4. Expository Essay

Expose means to uncover or lay something bare, or to discover something in a way

that others know what it is. Expository is derived from exposition, which is a noun of
‘expose.’ An expository essay is a genre of writing which tends to explain, illustrate,
clarify, or explicate something in a way that it becomes clear for readers. Therefore, it
could be an investigation, evaluation, or even argumentation about an idea for
clarification.

Types of Expository Essay

Expository essay is further divided into five major categories.

1. Descriptive Essay: A descriptive essay describes something, some place,

some experience, or some situation through sensory information.

2. Process Essay: A process essay explains or shows a process of making or

doing something.

3. Comparison Essay: A comparison essay makes comparison and contrasts

between two things.

4. Cause/Effect Essay: A cause and effect essay finds out the cause of
something and then its effects on something else.

5. Problem/Solution Essay: A problem/solution essay presents a problem and

its solution for readers.

Difference Between an Expository Essay and an Argumentative Essay

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As is clear, an expository essay is an exposition, explanation, investigation, or
illustration for the purpose of clarification, therefore, its tone is often kept neutral.
However, in an argumentative essay, a clear position about something is taken before
the argument is presented. There is no issue of objectivity or neutrality.

Examples of Expository Essay in Literature

Example #2: Learning to Read (by Malcolm X)

“It was because of my letters that I happened to stumble upon starting to acquire some
kind of a homemade education.

I became increasingly frustrated at not being able to express what I wanted to convey
in letters that I wrote, especially those to Mr. Elijah Muhammad. In the street, I had
been the most articulate hustler out there. I had commanded attention when I said
something. But now, trying to write simple English, I not only wasn’t articulate, I
wasn’t even functional. How would I sound writing in slang, the way I would say it,
something such as, ‘Look, daddy, let me pull your coat about a cat, Elijah Muhammad
—‘

Many who today hear me somewhere in person, or on television, or those who read
something I’ve said, will think I went to school far beyond the eighth grade. This
impression is due entirely to my prison studies.”

This passage has been taken from a process essay. In this essay, Malcolm X tells the
process of his learning. In this paragraph, he gives full detail how he learns letters.

Functions of an Expository Essay

The function of an expository essay is to clarify and expose things, ideas, persons, and
places through description, process, comparison/contrast, or through problem
solution. The objective of this type of essay is to make readers aware of things given
in the essay. It proves full and detailed information in a way that readers become
knowledgeable about the topic.

5. Persuasive Essay

The term “persuasive” is an adjective derived from verb “persuade,” which means “to
convince somebody.” A persuasive essay is full of all the convincing techniques a

36
writer can employ. It presents a situation, and takes a stand – either in its favor, or
against it – to prove to readers whether it is beneficial or harmful for them.

Examples of Persuasive Essay in Literature

Example #2: We Are Training Our Kids to Kill (by Dave Grossman)

“Our society needs to be informed about these crimes, but when the images of the
young killers are broadcast on television, they become role models. The average
preschooler in America watches 27 hours of television a week. The average child gets
more one-on-one communication from TV than from all her parents and teachers
combined. The ultimate achievement for our children is to get their picture on TV.
The solution is simple, and it comes straight out of the sociology literature: The media
have every right and responsibility to tell the story, but they must be persuaded not to
glorify the killers by presenting their images on TV.”

This is an excerpt from Grossman’s essay. He is clearly convincing the public about
the violent television programs and their impacts on the kids. See how strong his
arguments are in favor of his topic.

Function of a Persuasive Essay

The major function of a persuasive essay is to convince readers that, if they take a
certain action, the world will be a better place for them. It could be otherwise or it
could be a call to an action. The arguments given are either in the favor of the topic or
against it. It cannot combine both at once. That is why readers feel it easy to be
convinced.

6. Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of
an issue. It could be that both sides are presented equally balanced, or it could be that
one side is presented more forcefully than the other. It all depends on the writer, and
what side he supports the most. The general structure of an argumentative essay
follows this format:

1. Introduction: Attention Grabber / hook, Background Information, Thesis

Statement

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 2. Body: Three body paragraphs (three major arguments)

3. Counterargument: An argument to refute earlier arguments and give weight

to the actual position

4. Conclusion: Rephrasing the thesis statement, major points, call to attention, or

concluding remarks.

Examples of Argumentative Essay in Literature

Example #1: Put a Little Science in Your Life (by Brian Greene)

“When we consider the ubiquity of cellphones, iPods, personal computers and the
Internet, it’s easy to see how science (and the technology to which it leads) is woven
into the fabric of our day-to-day activities. When we benefit from CT scanners, M.R.I.
devices, pacemakers and arterial stents, we can immediately appreciate how science
affects the quality of our lives. When we assess the state of the world, and identify
looming challenges like climate change, global pandemics, security threats and
diminishing resources, we don’t hesitate in turning to science to gauge the problems
and find solutions.

And when we look at the wealth of opportunities hovering on the horizon—stem cells,
genomic sequencing, personalized medicine, longevity research, nanoscience, brain-
machine interface, quantum computers, space technology—we realize how crucial it
is to cultivate a general public that can engage with scientific issues; there’s simply no
other way that as a society we will be prepared to make informed decisions on a range
of issues that will shape the future.”

These two paragraphs present an argument about two scientific fields — digital
products and biotechnology. It has also given full supporting details with names.

Function of Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay presents both sides of an issue. However, it presents one side
more positively or meticulously than the other one, so that readers could be swayed to
the one the author intends. The major function of this type of essays is to present a
case before the readers in a convincing manner, showing them the complete picture.

7. Analytical Essay

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Analytical implies the breaking down of something into parts, or the discussion of
something in a way that it becomes a dissection of the whole. An analytical type of
essay differs from other types of essays in that its primary goal is to explain
something bit by bit to enhance understanding. Most of the times, an analytical essay
is written about the analysis of a text, or a process, or an idea. In literature, however, it
is a critical analysis of some literary text which is done to enhance its understanding.

Types of Analytical Essay

1. Cause and Effect: One way of analyzing something is to discuss the cause of
something, and its effect on other things.

2. Comparison and Contrast: Another way of analyzing something is to

compare and contrast things among themselves.

3. Classification: Classification is yet another method of analyzing things, to

learn of their nature.

4. Process: Process is also a type of analysis writing.

5. Definition: Defining things is also a way of analyzing the nature of things.

Examples of Analytical Essay in Literature

Example #2: Freedom (by Joyce M. Jarett)

“On the first day of school, I was escorted by hordes of national guardsmen. Like a
funeral procession, the steady stream of official-looking cars followed me to the
campus. Some patrolmen were parked near campus gates, while others, with guns
strapped to their sides, stood near building entrances. Though many of my escorts had
given me smiles of support, still I was not prepared for what I encountered upon
entering my new school.”

This is a paragraph from a process analysis. The author, Joyce M. Jaret, has
beautifully described her experience of the security in this paragraph, and how it is
deployed when an important figure faces security issues in his life. This is an analysis
of the process of security deployment.

Function of Analytical Essay

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An analytical essay dissects something such as a concept, an idea, a thing, or even a
character. Its major aim is to enhance the understanding of readers. An analysis could
be done through a process, definition, classification and division, or comparison and
contrast. The thing or idea is broken into several parts, through classification and
division, and then analyzed. A process is broken into several steps for analysis. Not
only do analytical essays enhance understanding, but they also make readers aware of
minute details of things.

8. Comparison and Contrast Essay

A comparison and contrastessay compares two similar objects, or contrasts dissimilar

objects, in a way that readers become informed about the advantages and
disadvantages of both the objects. Readers are then able to weigh pros and cons of the
objects compared and contrasted to select a better product. It, however, does not mean
that it is only a comparison or contrast of products, it could be a situation after which
readers are to make a decision, weighing pros and cons. Although a comparison and
contrast essay is set to demonstrate both similarities as well as differences, sometimes
it only shows similarities, and at other times, only differences.

Examples of Comparison and Contrast Essay in Literature

Example #1: A Slow Walk of Trees (by Toni Morrison)

“His name was John Solomon Willis, and when at age 5 he heard from the old folks
that “the Emancipation Proclamation was coming,” he crawled under the bed. It was
his earliest recollection of what was to be his habitual response to the promise of
white people: horror and an instinctive yearning for safety. He was my grandfather, a
musician who managed to hold on to his violin but not his land. He lost all 88 acres of
his Indian mother’s inheritance to legal predators who built their fortunes on the likes
of him. He was an unreconstructed black pessimist who, in spite of or because of
emancipation, was convinced for 85 years that there was no hope whatever for black
people in this country. His rancor was legitimate, for he, John Solomon, was not only
an artist but a first-rate carpenter and farmer, reduced to sending home to his family
money he had made playing the violin because he was not able to find work. And this
during the years when almost half the black male population were skilled craftsmen
who lost their jobs to white ex-convicts and immigrant farmers.”

40
This passage compares two types of attitudes about the author’s grandfather; one of
the black community and the other of the response of the white to this blackness.

Functions of a Comparison and Contrast Essay

A comparison and contrast essay helps readers reach a critical decision. It could be a
comparison and contrast of two products, two objects, two things, or two issues.
Readers read the essays, weigh all aspects, and then decide whether to make a
purchase and decide in favor of one thing or not. This type of essay also makes
readers more cognizant of the situations or issues discussed.

9. Cause and Effect Essay

Human beings often try to find root causes of things, happenings and phenomena.
This research leads to the discovery of effects, too. It is because human beings always
desire to understand reasons for things, and why they happen. A composition written
to find out reasons and results is called a cause and effect essay. It makes discovery of
the causes of something and resultantly finds out effects.

Signal Words for Cause and Effect Essays

Cause and effect uses special words for causes, effects, and predictions, such as led to,
because, cause, reason, explanation, so etc. However, for effects, the words most
commonly used are therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, then, and thanks to. For
predictions, the most commonly used words are if, when, after, as soon as, may,
might, or possible.

Examples of Cause and Effect Essay in Literature

Example #1: Why We Crave Horror Movies (by Stephen King)

“I think that we’re all mentally ill: those of us outside the asylums only hide it a little
better—and maybe not all that much better, after all. We’ve all known people who
talk to themselves, people who sometimes squinch their faces into horrible grimaces
when they believe no one is watching, people who have some hysterical fear—of
snakes, the dark, the tight place, the long drop … and, of course, those final worms
and grubs that are waiting so patiently underground.

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When we pay our four or five bucks and seat ourselves at tenth-row center in a theater
showing a horror movie, we are daring the nightmare.

Why? Some of the reasons are simple and obvious. To show that we can, that we are
not afraid, that we can ride this roller coaster. Which is not to say that a really good
horror movie may not surprise a scream out of us at some point, the way we may
scream when the roller coaster twists through a complete 360 or plows through a lake
at the bottom of the drop. And horror movies, like roller coasters, have always been
the special province of the young; by the time one turns 40 or 50, one’s appetite for
double twists or 360-degree loops may be considerably depleted.”

Stephen King tells the reasons people like to watch something horrible or terrible.
This passage sheds light on those reasons.

Function of Cause and Effect Essay

A cause and effect essay explains the real situation to readers. Readers understand
what lies behind a happening, and how it effects, or how it will impact, human beings.
Mostly, such essays are used for scientific topics. It is because these essays explore
the nature of things, and their likely effects on us, or the things around us.

10. Critical Essay

Contrary to the literal name of “critical,” this type of essay is not only an
interpretation, but also an evaluation of a literary piece. It is written for a specific
audience, who are academically mature enough to understand the points raised in such
essays. A literary essay could revolve around major motifs, themes, literary devices
and terms, directions, meanings, and above all – structure of a literary piece.

Examples of Critical Essay in Literature

Example #2: On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth (by Thomas De Quincey)

“But to return from this digression, my understanding could furnish no reason why the
knocking at the gate in Macbeth should produce any effect, direct or reflected. In fact,
my understanding said positively that it could not produce any effect. But I knew
better; I felt that it did; and I waited and clung to the problem until further knowledge
should enable me to solve it. At length, in 1812, Mr. Williams made his debut on the

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stage of Ratcliffe Highway, and executed those unparalleled murders which have
procured for him such a brilliant and undying reputation. On which murders, by the
way, I must observe, that in one respect they have had an ill effect, by making the
connoisseur in murder very fastidious in his taste, and dissatisfied by anything that
has been since done in that line.”

This is an excerpt from Thomas De Quincey about his criticism of Macbeth, a play by
William Shakespeare. This essay sheds light on Macbeth and Lady Macbeth and their

Functions of a Critical Essay

A critical essay intends to convey specific meanings of a literary text to specific

audiences. These specific audiences are knowledgeable people. They not only learn
the merits and demerits of the literary texts, but also learn different shades and
nuances of meanings. The major function of a literary essay is to convince people to
read a literary text for reasons described.

11. Process Essay

As the name suggests, this type of essay explains a process of making or breaking
something. These essays are often written in chronological order, or in numerical
order to show step-by-step processes. They are written in descriptive or prescriptive
modes. Although it is not a technical communication, it sounds like having all the
qualities of a technical document. The only difference is that it is often written in
descriptive mode, while a technical document is mostly in imperative mode.

Transition in a Process Essay

As process essay provides step-by-step approach of doing something, they have

typical transition words. These transition words make readers understand what has
been done and what will follow next. Some of the specific transition words could be
immediately, initially, in the end, in the future, in the meanwhile, later, next, soon,
eventually, finally or firstly, and secondly.

Examples of Process Essay in Literature

Example #2: A Homemade Education (by Malcolm X)

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“I was so fascinated that I went on—I copied the dictionary’s next page. And the
same experience came when I studied that. With every succeeding page, I also learned
of people and places and events from history. Actually, the dictionary is like a
miniature encyclopedia. Finally the dictionary’s A section had filled a whole tablet—
and I went on into the B’s. That was the way I started copying what eventually
became the entire dictionary. It went a lot faster after so much practice helped me to
pick up handwriting speed. Between what I wrote in my tablet, and writing letters,
during the rest of my time in prison I would guess I wrote a million words.”

In this essay, Malcolm X has stated some of the ways through which he learned
writing. He states how he “went on” copying the dictionary from one page to the next
page. Some of the transition words such as “finally” and “actually” are quite obvious.

Function of a Process Essay

A process essay gives reader a sense of complete how-to-do process of making or

creating some objects or things. Readers, after going through the essay, are able to
create and make things. Although it is not like imperative instructions, it gives full
details in a descriptive or prescriptive mode. It is because its major objective is not to
present trite and dry instructions, but lively language to make readers read it with
interest and do the act with enthusiasm.

12. Explicatory Essay

“Explication” means to explain the work of an item of literature. An explication, or

“explicatory” essay is used to explain and interpret a piece of literature such as a
poem, a play, a novel, or a short story. It often examines sentences, verses, or
passages extracted from longer literary works. Like all other types of essays, however,
it also needs a clear thesis around which body parts focus, ending on a conclusion.
The text is cited at different places to support the main claim and move the argument
forward.

Examples of Explicatory Essay in Literature

Example #4: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen)

“Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance,

and easy, unaffected manners. … he was discovered to be proud, to be above his

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company, and above being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could
then save him from having a most forbidding, disagreeable countenance, and being
unworthy to be compared with his friend.”

Mr. Bingley, the romantic interest of Jane, and his friend, Mr. Darcey, are described
in this excerpt through direct characterization. She has admired Mr. Bingley for his
pleasant countenance, comparing him to Mr. Darcy.

Function of an Explicatory Essay

An explicatory essay does not directly point out merits and demerits of a poem or a
short story. Rather, it discusses the text and its structure. The merits of the work
emerge out of its explicatory analysis. Readers fully understand the deficiencies or
demerits if there are any, but a critic only discusses the structure and what it is
presented within the text in a critical essay.

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