U.S. AIR FORCE PROJECT RAND RESEARCH MEMORANDUM JFRARDD TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO THE DETECTION AND INTERCEPTION CP INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILES Willian W, Kellogg Sidney Pasenan RUALS72 ASTIA Document Muiber AD 11476 October Zl, 1955 This research is sportored by the United States Air Force under cantract No. ‘AF 49(898)-700 monitored by the Directorate of Develapment Planning, Deputy chief of Staff, Research and Technology, Ha USAF. ‘his s @ working paper. Because it may be expanded, modified, or ny time, permission 10 quote OF reproduce mist be sblsined from e4sD. The views, conclusions, ond recommendations expressed herein do not necessarily taflect the official views or Policies of the United Stotes Air Force. DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTIONS, 7 RAND earn & opeRM-1372 10-21-55 sie ser ‘he defenaive application of infrered-optical techniques for the detection of an intercontinental vallistic missile (ICBM) during‘its takeoff, mideourae flight, and re-entry 1s considered quantitatively in terms of naximum detection ranges and tines for tracking. The re-entry phase 48 examined from the point of view of an infrared ‘tracking head in an interceptor missile. The times between first acquisi- tion by“this tracker and the interception are presented in terns of inter- ceptor altitude and ICBM re-entry angle for several types of re-entry bodies. ‘The takeoff phase is examined fron the point of view of on early-warning systam employing an airborne infrared search eet at 40,000 ft altitude mationed osteide of enemy territory. The detection ranges are presented as a function of missile altitude, and the effects af the horizon (modified by the presence of clouds below the search station) and the horizontal travel of the missile from the launching site are taken into account. It is shown that such a system can probably detect (and track) missiles up to burnout with Launching-site-to-detectdon-station distances of the order of 1100 n mi. ‘The optical detection of an ICHM during its madcourse flight after Yarnout te apparently possitie only unter a rather Lintted set of conditions, dues, ub twilight, when the IGE is in the sunlight wut the detector is in : the earth's shadow. In this application 2 photamltiplier detector system operating in the visitle portion of the spectrum appears to be superior to an infrared system. :BH-1572 1LO-2-55 mate * conta SUMMARY. .eeeeeee seetensncseceseeateessens “a Section Te INTRODUCTION... .eseeeeseeeeeeerers cae TI. CALCULATION OF MAXIMO YBYECTICN RANGES DURING RE-ENTRY OF 4X TORK. 3 A, Basic Range Bquation. 3 B. ICBM Ymission During i ©! Minimim Detectable Flux and Spectral Response of the Detection System. ssseresecsssesensevasetoee teecee 10, D, Maximn Detection Ranges During Re-Bairy. a B. Discrimination against the Star Background. 26 PL Meteors, 4 Hetural Decoz...-sesevee seeceee 2B TEL, CALCULATION OF MATIN DETECTION RANGES DURIN) TAKE-OFF OF AN ICHM...0sseeeeeveee 3 A. IOWM Emission During Take-off. 30 BL Geonetrical Limitations on Date Garruture of, the Earth and the Trajectory of the Missile, 37 c Db ug IV. DETECTION OF 4N ICBM DURING TTS MID-COURSE FLIGHT... 53 Ax TOBM Bntswion Daring Mid-Course Fli ght. 3 B. Intensity of Reflected Sunlight Signal. 5h Gl Sensitivity of a Fhotoslectric Detection Syste. 56 ‘D. Detection Ranges....+- 3? % o © Bl Take-off...ca00 a REFERENCES -...++04 8RH-IS72 10-21-55 qumpopucTION Tt appears to be a basic characteristte of an ICBM that aerodynamic heating couses tt to get het during takeoff and even hotter during re-entry into the atmosphere. Since hot nistal is a good enitter of infrared radiation, At would be expected that the missile could be detected by infrared detectors during its flight through the atmosphere. The emission of infrared radiation by the rocket flame during the, boost stage further Ancreases this expectation, with the added possibility that there may be enough radiation to permit infra red detection during that part af the poverea fight vnich occurs above the atmosphere, The purpose of this seport is to pull. together the various factors involved in determining how such a detector system waild work, and to show sone estimated detection rang of the current capabilities in infrared detection systens and photio-conductor 1» based on a reasonable extrapolation cells, Although dt 4s indeed posible to make such estimates, it mst be empha- sised at the cutest that there are too many variables in the protlem to permit a precise anever. To name a few of the uncertainties: + The description of an ICBM mst be rather vague, since, so far as we kmav, none has ever been tilt, In this study four poseible re-entry configurations have been selected from the uany possibilities. The Selection 1a intended to bracket the most likely types. + The requirements on a detection systen in terms of the ancunt of information it must provide, the angular accuracy, the tine available, ete., will determine the minimum infrared signal with which it can work, Therefore, it 19 necessary to make some rather arbitrary assumptions about the way in which the system will be employed beforeRM-1972 10-55 “Be one can estinate such a paraneter aa the maximm detection range. During the takeoff of an IGBM the rocket flane must emit a grest doal of infrared radiation, A fairly exhaustive survey has failed to Lead to a satisfactory description of the exission of a rocket flone 4m a vacuum, as would be encountered during the Later part of the boasted flight. This Le being investigated further at RAND, but for tho time being wo mist content ourselves vith @ rough estimte of this quantity. ‘Thus, the ansvers are still incomplete. Bven so, save very significant remilts can be obtained. It appears that infrared detection systems operating in a favorable environment will have a good chance af detecting ICBM's during takeoff and re-entry at ranges long enough to be useful defensively. It should be borne in mind that the only apparent alternative to an infrared detection systen -- nanely, a radar detection systen ~~ offers serious prob- ems because of the small radar cross-section of tho missiles and the require- ments for high angular accuracy. An important function will have been fulfilled 4¢ this study can stim- late further work in the field of ICBM detection by optical-infrared methods. A gumber of fruitful areas for research will be suggested in the cairse of the report, and are sumarized at the ond in Chapt. V.CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGES ‘DURING RR-ENTRY OF AN IGRM Interest in active defense against the IC8M has centered around systems for intercepting the missile during the ra-entry phase of its flight. There- fore, the protlen of infrared detection during this phase will be considered" fret, The analysis given here will serve as the groundwork for analyzing the protilens of detection during other phases of the flight, A. BASIC RANOB SqUATION It 4s poseitie to sclve the equation expressing the Limiting condition for infrared detection exphicitly 4m terms of the maximum detection range:” re where: € is the total emlssivity of the source, assued independent of wavelength (equals unity for 4 "black bedy*) J 4s the total tack body omission of the source per unit area 4y 18 the total projected area af the source or target ny 38 the fraction uf flax emitted which is transmitted by the atmosphere ny 38 the fraction of flux reaching the detector which is transmitted to the cell, after the action of color filters in the system. nig $8 the fraction of flux reaching the cell wich 4s detected by the cell “ror a derivation of the equation in this form, and a discussion of the various parameters involved, see Ref. (1). & good discussion of the specific problen of ellistie missile detection Uy infrared wmissien ie elso coutekned in Ref. (2).RMA1572 10-21-55, P, 1s the minimin effective fux trom the target which will provide the secker with reliathe guidance information For investigating detection ranges against ICBM's, tis equation can be simplified by grouping together certain parameters: Er ° where: Ey is the total Hack body emission of the source or target, whieh 2 equal to Ein, tp 1s the epoctral efficiency of the detection systen, which ts equal. to ngmgs Noto: Tt is assumed that n, = 1 in the re-entry calculations velow, where detection 19 made at very high altitude. Tt vill be noted that ‘the factor By, the target emission, is « function of the configuration of the target, its temperatare, and its emissivity, while at the other factors in the firet radical are functions of the aotection systen. Por this reason, it is ccaventent to investigate the targst first, and theo choose the characteristics of the detection system 0 that they will tend to maximize the range and at the same time fulfil? ‘the operational requirements for speed and securacy, In each chapter this procedure 4s followed, since the evission characteristics of the target and the operational constraints on detection are quite different during the various phases of the flight. TORM EMISSION DURING RE-ENTRY As an IOBM re-enters the earth's atmosphere (after spending twenty tead tee thirty minutes in whet may be considered as interplanetary space) it sutters violent decelerations, and ito skin temperature increases at © rate which is roughly proportional to the deceleration’), Wntle the protien of designing a missile re-entry body and varhead viieh can withstand the unigie heating rate encountered in high speed re-entry of the atmosphere is a formidable ono, it appoars that severs) approaches sight be saccestit.(3)(l) since we connct yet know which alternative the enemy vilL choose, 4t 4» necessary to treat enoigh cases to give sme iden of thie behavior of the family of possible configurations. A description of four pexsitie re-entry systens is given in Table 1. Asmuming an initial re-entry velocity of 23,700 ft/sec, characteristic of a 5,500 mi icum rired on its mintmm-energy trajectory (with a re-entry angle of about 22 degreas from the horizontal) the corresponding frontal ekin ten~ for the four cases are chem in Fig. 1 as a function of altitude, ‘The corresponding total emitted radiation from the target in the forward aspect is given in Fig. 2. A total emissivity, 6, of 0.8 wos used for the first three cases, since this in roughly representative of e variety of oxidized matallic surfaces and of graphite. The fourth case, where the murtace io oxidized copper, has an emissivity of abat 0.5, A polished metal surface would tave a lower anissivity, but it is believed that the surface would become oxidined and perhaps roughened during ita passage ‘through the atmosphere. ‘It is clear that the various re-entry characteristics differ markedly ana therefore pose very different detection end interception problems during ‘the re-entry phase. It shovld be borne in mind thet the infrared emesion “calculations of skin temperatures were made by C. Gazley and 4. C. Horn, RAND Missiles Division, for Gases 1, 2 and 35 by Convair for Case i, (Ref. 5).TABLE I CHARACTERISTICS CP POUR POSSTELE RE-ENTRY SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION OF RE-ENTRY | cy # FRONTAL AREA CASE ‘CONFIGURATION dane (ee?) (1) High 20° half-angle cone 2073 Wa Speed re~ +02-in hastalloy, skin entry body | W/A ¥ 250 1ba/tt2 (Teops. calcolated 1 tt fron apex of nose.) {2) migh- | 30° hatt-engle cone 1-1 graphitel1-2 x 10° 7a speed re- ‘akin W/A © 150 1es/te2 entry dedy | (Temps. calculated 2.5 ft from epex of nose.) (3) Low-speed | Befare’ separation: O.2 as Perentry body:| 60° half-angle cone 106-in drag ‘Thick graphite or thin metal skirt. Sepa-| akin =- & compranise between vation of capes (1) and (2). saree, | WA ¥ 37.5 tb0/e? 4000 ft/seo | After separation: la-z x 10°? * Th st an alt.of 30° halfvangle cone 98,000 ft. Same skin 2 W/s #150 1bs/tt' (u) Bigh- | Rounded cone with 10° 10? 20.5 ‘speed re- effective half-angle amtry body). i/i-in copper akin W/k % 350 Lbe/te? *roranctor used vy Oasley in ctmputing the rate of hast input (3); W Ae the weight of the re-entry body (1bs), A 4s the frontal area (ft*), Cy ds the drag coefficient, and @ 4s the re-entry angle, measured from the horigon.i sweyene WUT BHYyaVN Avz BpNATD JO UOTIUNY D SD euNyDIBGWIay UIYS [OjUOLy —| "B14 : (4g) ssmvosedwes unis 9002 00st ooo! 00s o {e-800) {p%s 40 voljor0dag ppo'et24 (i col) aussi 40 epniniy: | 3 00 0 hy 4 RM~1572 10-21-55, 001 ooz os 00% 00s ‘009 00L (44 01) e11881u 40 OPN HIYRH-IS72 lo-A-55, 5 characteristics given above are somewhat uncertain since they depend on a mumber of arbitrary assumptions about such factors as the Kind end thicknes: of the misotle skin, the kind of flow in the boundary layer ~~ laninar or turbulent ~~ and the emissivity of the skin material, There 1s the possi bility that they are genersily too low (and therefcre conservative for this application) in the lover part of the trajectory (below 100,000 ft), since ‘they are based on celculations sssuming laxinar Floy arcund the missile. 6 ta be reasonable, Above 100,000 f the The contritution of high-temperature gas radiation (due to shock wave sumption of laminar flow app: excitation on re-entry) to the emission characteristics of the re-entry body 4s currently being evaluated, Jt appears that the rediation from this excited air may be an important factor in the heating of the re-entry body Ateelf at low altitudes if turbdlent air flow and ite mch larger hesting rate could be avoided. Estimates of the monochromatic emissivity of air ‘st high temperature indicate that this value may approach unity in the Ultraviolet region of the spectrum and may be fairly large in the blue part of the visible spectrum, Photoemissive detectors and mitiplier tubes could detect this radiation with excellent sensitivity and epectral effi- ciency. Wowever, as pointed out by C. Oasley, this gas radiation is expected to jmeresse strongly with adr density, velocity of the re-entry body, and radius of curvature of the re-entry body, so that it is most severe for a ‘wunt body travelling at very high velocity at low altitude — whieh 4s indeed an unlikely combination, Por the purpose of this discussion of infrared detection at high altitude gas radiation is not considered to be significant, It 48 possitle to launch the 5,500-mi ICEM on shorter ranges with a vonstderatle variation in re-entry angles. For very high altitudes (greaterRM-1S72 W853 ~10- ‘than 200,000 ft) 4t-can-be shown for a given re-entry velocity that the temperature sise of » thin-skinned re-entry body penetrating to a given altitude is inversely proportional to the sine of the re-entry angle. (3) On page 24 the data of Figs. 1 and 2 will be modified by this relationship in computing infrared detection renges as @ function of re-entry angle and altitude. MINIVDM DETECTABLE FLOX AND SPECTRAL RESPONSE OF TMB DETECTION S¥STEN Ls Theory of the Detection System ‘The maximum target range at which an infrared seeker is expected to gleld reliable guidance information is obtained fron the basic range equation, Bq. (1), The dependence of Pp, the seeker threshold sensitivity, an the various detection systen paramoters will now be discussed, In the near-infrared spectral region, of interest in ICBH-detection applications, the infrared photoconduetor detectors offer the mest pronise because of their high inherent sensitivity and short time constants. The photeconductor current noise is usally observed to be the limiting noise of the detection system. At frequencies below 10,000 eps the detector current noise exhibits a power spectral density inversely proportional to ‘the frequency, £." Hence, the rns noise voltage in a bandwidth f) - 4 se flee, TR to discriminate against d-e or slovly varying backgrounds, the infrared To take advantage of this noise behavior, as well as signal from the target incident on the detector is nade to vary in time by Antroducing a chopping reticle in the optical system before tha detector, *sne R. Clark Sones, Ref. (7), for a detatled discussion of tne detection paransters of photoconductors,RM-1572 10-21-55, “lie Blectronie filtering of the datector cutput 4s used to Limit the effective guidence signal to the optimm frequency region, Since the detector respasivity behaves like a single-time-constent filter, 7p, the signal 1 + 2nf 7%) output will be proportional te y Nhere $, 49 the fundamental, frequency introduced by the chopping reticle. Taking these properties into account, together with the optical gain and size effects of the detecter systen, results in the following phenomsno- Logical expression for the infrared acaker threshcld, 2), exprossed in ettective watts per cn® at the secker aperture. i yeas Prent y™ . Ndoe, e watts/en* (2) wheret @ de the winimm signal-tomnoise ratio required fer effective systen operation with a high lock-on protebility, This factor nay vary fron a value of j for a pre-slaved qyro-stabilized seeker head ss in airmto-air mlsstles, to about 5 for the case of a displayed scan presentation vhere the decision of an observer is required. An additional factor of approximately 2 shauld be included in 6 to account for field and operational degradation of the systen sensi- tavity. Values of this and other paransters involved in F, are given in Table 3 for the partivalar system chosen for this application. S ig the infrared detector's noise equivalent power as measured in the laboratory under the standard reference condition (Jones's quantity "8""), In connection vith the definition of detector spectral efficiency given below, the value of § for monochromatic radiation at the wavelength of peak cel] response should be used. Values of S for the different detectors are given in Table 2. These values vere taken from unputiLished data~summary curves of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Corona. However, since the NOL values are Ref, (7) for a rigorous definition of "8."ae ie oa : ‘yeeros £tyeuoTeuauyp ef (z) “nbs . 483 os ‘yo ~73eK suoTsueUTP oy Sey ATIENbesUOD | ‘vere oATITSUBs JOJOSIeP ZTUN sePRTDUF UOTFTPUDD vousdes0x ot 4H} pounser STyTow ST aT ‘eqdeR UT UoATS ATTeREN eae ¢ JO sUOTSUEUTD Oya YENOUITY, 02 - OT GOT ELL ok Sue GL°g (096%) esma = ae 02 - ot Ga0T FHT os s> an (9,961) 949g 009 *t ote nt J ae 60 se (9,82-) sa —t ose pot * $8 se 60 ve (0,08) sad i (89928) yaBuopaien estodsas (sa0a> pu) (suozo 7) (suoso Te) (:a9a ty | reed ye uoTyespes sausdeo2 ssuodser esuodses eed ] — aoqaeeq : SyyewOIIIOUON 0g yeod 2/1 205 seed 2/1 tos 03 1 $ uaBueTeaea seddq’ —yyfueTaeA tonoq = Yue TREK ‘SHIEO BATIONGROOOION JO SHALL THATS AD SOTISTHRLOVEVHO SATIVINASTEARE 3 2am aRH-1S72 10-21-55 132 based upof, "the rms value of the fundarentad component of the hest signal" it was necessary to increase Scyqy) by the normalization constant 2__ = 2,22 go that the equivalent noise input power could be @,e 275 put in terms of the uausl full source intensity. Ay 4s the detector's useful seneitive area, in on®. Agee 18 the effective optical aperture aren with tranantasion Losses and occlusion of the optical system taken into account, in en®, fy, fp) £, are the upper and lover limits of the amplifier bandwidth abd the center chopping frequency of the scanning systen, recpectively. Scanning system considerations end background discrimination tech~ nigues usually dictate the frequencies and bandyddth employed. Design considerations for a seeker for the ant1~ICBM interceptor application are discussed below, ‘tp 48 the detection system spectral efficlency, defined as faious: et $,(X) represent the apactral response of the detector as a function of wavelength, normalised so that the peak response is taken as unity, and let J,(T) represent the spectral radiant intensity of a Black body at temperature T; then po nyit) » i A(TISH(A)AA x, I(T) where 4, and A, represent the limits of the filtered wavelength region used ith the detector. Characteristic values of n)(T) are given in Fig. 3 for several infrared detectors. For PbS and PbTa a filter with O transnission up to 1.) 4 and unity above this wave- Length As assumed present in the system for background discrimination purposes, as discussed on page 26.Spectral efficiency , 9) (7) j | E 0.005 0.001 100 RU-1572 10-21-55, PbTe (-196°C) Post-7a*C) PbS (20°C) eve Afitter with G transmission ug to 1.4 y ond unity above this wavelength is ‘assumed ia the system 500 1,000 5,000 10,000 Source temperature.(deqrees kelvin) Fig. 3—Oetector spectral efficiency as a function of source temperature (for PbS and PbTe’. RN1572 10-21-55, 15 2, Requirenents on the Detection System For a detailed evaluation of the threshold sensitivity, P,, ead the naximn infrared range, Bq) the seeker characteristics mst be considered 4m terms of the particular applicetion, which in this case is the terminal guidance phase of an interceptor missile, To make the discussion specific, te infrared guidance 4s aesumed to be operated isi conjunction with 4 systen of the Mone-eyed goalie? type(®)(9), used for Interception at altitudes greater than 100,000 ft, The intercepting missile is guided along the Anitisl phese of its trajectory by radar", and the infrared seeker is pre- positioned to the apprasimate direction of the line of sight to the re-entry vehicle. Since the infrared seeker 18 envisaged av operating above the dense, nolet part of the stmoephere, the tranoxlssion factor, v,» 1s assumed unity in the spectral regien of interest here. The usual air-to-air miseile infra- rod secker design characteristics aimed at minimizing the tackground signal due to clouds, horiaon, and sky gradients need not apply in this application, although it 4s show below thet the utiligction of a spectral filter with a Lover wavelength ovtoff at about 1. 4 will be very helpful in essentially eliminating the ster background. a, Resolution (Angular Accuracy) and Time of Acquisition. It is con= ceivatle that with very accurate mid-course guidance, the only guidence 4nformation needed fron the infrared seeker wold be notice that an angle threshchd wan exceeded by the Line of sight to the re-entry body. This information could serve to fuse the defensive weapon, However, the more *see Ref. (i) for a discussion of the radar tracking probles.BM-2572 WO-2h-55, ~16= complex guidance requirenent of Line-of-sight rate information will be treated, Such inférmation could serve to place the intercepting missile along a transverse ccllision course with the ICBM, under the control of soma audiliary rocket propulsion systen (#5 in the one-eyed goalie type of inter coptor). In this application, because of the Limited thrust capsbilities during ‘the terminal phase of the intercepting missile and the very high closing velocities (oa high as 23,000 ft/sec at altitudes greater than 150,000 ft), the required detection ranges are fornidstile, 1.c., 20 to 0 niles. With this large a detection range and vith an assumed initial deviation of the order of 1 nile from the trajectory of the ineoming nissile, it is found that the excursion of the line of sight from its initial position during the interception is less than 1.5 degrees. For this reasm, if the seeker he positioned acaretely enough under graund contral and if it is stabilized it may not be required to track the target but only to nse the mull in the during widcours: observe the rate of change of the Line of sight and to line-of-sight rate indicative of a collision course, The required angular resulution of the infrared seeker is determined by the minimum line-of-sight rate confusatle with @ mill condition, which in turn depends on considerstions of miss distances cometible with the Lethal radius of the defensive weapon!) together with the system response time. The principal component of the system response time is the reaction time of the propulsion control system. For the “one-eyed goalie” high-altitude interceptor the resolution requirement is about 1 minute of are. (819) b. System Bandwidth, Information regarding the line of sight to the target can ve obtained in anelog form ty coding the seeker focel plane vithM1572 Lo~21-55 “1 a veticle snd observing the sodulated signal output of the detector. An amplitude-nodulated signal can be produced simly by rotating a spoked chopper which also has a uniform transnission gradient across the reticle. ‘A frequency-modulated signal can be obtained by rotating the optics off axis in conjunction with a spckea chopper, Modulation techniques of this kind are familiar from methods explored in conjunction with infrared seeking air-to- adr migsites.(20)(11) The aon system has an important advantage for this applicstion ty offering a linear dependence of modulation cosffictent upen angular devi- ation of the target's Line of sight from the center of the pattern over the entire field of view. The phase of the denodulated wave can be made to correspond to the sense of the target's position relative to sone body axes, so that the error signal can be resclved into a reference co-ordinate system. Flectronic differentiation of the above resolved error signals yields direct Anformation on the line-of-sight rates, and the mill is detected accordingly. A disadvantage of the a-n systen 4s the requirement of an autonatic gain-contrel cirvult to avoid saturation of the signal amplification stages, in view of the great increase in infrared flux in the course of the inter ception, The very large range Glosure rate (as grost as 23,000 ft/sec at high altitude) requires that this AGC system have a short time constant, approxinstely 0.01 sec. The action of this AGC vill be to keep the mean rectified carrier level constant, In crder to prevent degradation of the Anfomation at the modulation frequency, tats latter frequency, essentially the scanning rate of the infrared seeker, must ba kept thigh, of the order of 200 ops. This determines the minim amplifier bandwidth required as approxivately 500 eps, centered around the carrier frequency, The carrier frequency may bemH-1572 W-2-55 -18- chosen as the optimum detector chopping frequency, given by fs ay a ay ‘Therefore, 1 £5 Bor ae ops ~ 250 cps c. Size of Gell snd Optics, The remaining terms in (2) needed to evaluate the secker threshsld sensitivity, Py, are the effective aperture area and detector sensitive area, In the desig of the secker for the ICEM Anterceptor it appears possitie to allow a diaueter of approximately 25 cx. Assuming a factor af LO per cent for a reasonable optical efficiency, due to ceclusicn of a Cassograin reflective optical sysven, which might bo employed, and duo to tranemisaion losses dn the scanning reticle and other optical elenente, an effective aperture area of 200 cn” van be considered. Because ‘this application requires terminal infrared guldsnce to be effective only above 100,000 feet and because the velocity of the defensive missile wld be rather low at tis stage, the srdoue problem does not appear to be serious. Jn fact, the severe requirenets on angular accuracy may make it vorth while to consider dispensing vith a secker windew. Any pretective cover used during the boost stage might be shed at the time of booster separation. The minimm detector size for the aperture given above end the required half~angle field of view of approximately 2°, is determined ty the optical sine condition. This resilts in the chalce of a detester area of mm tyRHASTZ 10-21-55 “19 1m, assuming immersion of the detector in a medium with refractive index interuediate to that of air and that of the detector itself. The choice of field of view above was based on preliminary estimates of ‘the accuracy with which the seeker could be pre~positioned to the target rection, If it is necessary to have @ search phase prior to the guidance Phage, this can be accomplished by mutating the seeker mad within a radius of 1.5°, allowing complete coverage of a sector of space of 7° total angular extent. Although the search would have to be done as rapidly as possitie, ‘the mutation rate vould have to be slow enough go that the motion of the field during the time needed for signal detection and the tine needed to de-activate the utation waild not be a significant part of the instantaneous field, A scan rate of the onder of 1 cps might be reascnatle, Tn order to have a Low felse-alaru rate during the search process a higher signal-to-noise ratio threshold would be required so that G (see Eq. (2) would be increased from a value of ky as assuned for the guidance phase, to avout 8 for the search phase, decreasing the maximum detection ranges given in Section D, below, by 30 per cent. The above secker design characteristics are sumarized in Table 3. These, together with values of $ and T, given in Table 2, when introduced inte Ba, (2), result in the following volues for By, the threshold sensitivity of ‘the infrared seeker: Seeker employing uncodled lead sulfide detector = 3. x 107? ectective vatts/en® Secker employing lead telluride detector ol? Fp = 3-3 x10 effective watts/on?BMA1572 Lo-21-55, -20- TABLE 3. ‘ICBM INVBROEPTOR INFRARED SEEKER DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS Diameter of secker = - ~~ - = oe Effective aperture (A, ‘eft! Instantaneous semi-field of view ---------~------- 2 degrees Detector size- - - -------+---+----4------ bmx kom Sean systen- - - - ~~~ ---------------- rotating reticle - amplitude modulation type ss 22-500 cpa” - +A, Taeodled lead sulfide system 500 cps R, Lead telluride system 7,500 cps Blectronic bandwidth (y- ty) Chopping frequency (t,)-.- = - - Minimm S/W (G)- - ---~-- Spectral tiltering - ~~~ - - + > = lower wavelength cutoff at Lalu, upper limit determined by detector response ‘The ons-eyed goalie's response time of about 0.1 sec. would imply that the minimm theoretical signal bandwidth in this epplication would be of the order of 10 cps. With the amplitude-modulation scanning system chosen for its important Linear properties over the entire field, AGC considerations, as wall as reticle positioning problems require a bandwidth as given above. ‘This sane engineering compromise is made on infrared seekers for present air-to-air missiles. As een Sron Zqs, (1) and (2), any reduction in required bandwidth would reflect itself in an increase in detection range approximately proportional to the fourth root af the bandwidth ratio.RH-1572 5 Ds _HARIMUM PBTROPION RANGES DURING RE-ENTRY Using the values of re-entry body enission, Ey, and surface temperature, 1, given in Figs, 1 and 2 38 a function of altitude, and the detector spectral. efficiency given for these temperatures in Fig. 3, together with the threshdld sensitivity given on page 15, determines the maximum infrared detection range of the seeker for the one-eyed goalie typé of anti-ICEM interceptor. The data are plotted as a function of the altitude of the re-entry body in Fig. b. Infrared detection ranges are given for seekers employing uncooled lead sulfide,and lead telluride detectors. Since the ranges for a lead sulfide system are approximately only a fourth as large as those for lead telluride At appears neceosary to use a Lead telluride or other long-wavelength sensitive detector for this high-altitude interception application. © This will involve the complication of maintaining the Pole detector at a very low teaperature (-195° C), to obtain the necessary sensitivity. However, recent advances in miniaturized cooling equipment appear to make it possitle to satisty this requirenent for the short guidance tines involved in this application. Por the type of interception deseribed above, a more meaningful cal- colation is that which determines the time available from first infrared detection of the re-mtry bedy to ite falling to the interceptor's alti- ““tade, as a function of the interception altitude. This time has also been calculated as a function af ICBM rerentry angle and velocity, and the results are given in Figs, 5, 6, 7. It appears from studies new in progress at RAND that these infrared guidance times may offer adequate action tine for the interceptor missile to reduce the original miss distance to within the lethal radius of its warhead.‘Maximum IR detection ranges (n mi) 90 80 70 s o a 3 3 8 TT opt ~~ ~~ ~~. 8 LLnL SLL N\ \ 20 0, 350 ‘300 250 200 150 RM~1572 10-21-55 =28- ° Detectors ——— Pb $ (20°c) ——— Pb Te (-196°C) For description of re-entry bodies see Table |, referring to number on curve, For all tyes, 8+ 22° Vo = 23,700 tps Tat Detector at 30,000 tt 100 1 570 29% Re-entry body attitude (105 ¢t) Fig. 4—Maximum IR detection ranges on various re-entry bodiesBM-1572 ‘W-2i-55, “23- 300 250 8 3 8 Interception attitude (10% f) Toble) tor description af re-entry types. For all types this Fig. assumes, @, =22°; Vo 23,700 fps ° 2 4 6 8 10 2 14 16 Available IR guidance time (sac) Fig. 5—Maximum cvailable |R guidance time os a function of interception altitude 5712 . ¥interception oltitude (103 #4) g g 8 § g TTT TTT ot 8 a 50 Tt Type | re-entry bodys designed for a max range of 5,500 n mi 8,2 10°s Vp #23,700 tes Ronges 4,000 mi 9, #22°; Vs 23,700 tos Ronge=5,500.nmi Niet 28% Noe 21,850 fps - \ Range + 4,000 mi ~ ‘“\ Oy 48°; Vat 23,700 tps Range = 4,000 n mi e o i 14 6 IR guidance time (see) US Fak Fig. 6— IR guidance time dependence on re-entry angle and velocityInterception altitude (10° #1) RM~1572 W2A-55, ~25- 300 For this case, the re-entry ongie 48°, the steepest angle of re-entry possible tor a 5900 n mi 250 IGBM (Vp#23,000 FPS) fired on 2 4000 nmi ronge 200| 150] too. 50, 2 4 6 8 10 12 IR Guidance time (sec) Fig. 7—IR guidance time vs interception altitude See Table | for description of re-entry bodiesRM-1572 10-21-55 ~26= By _DISCRDANATION AGAINST THE STAR BACKGROUND AMthough the usual disturting infrared vackgrounds of horizon, clowds, and aky gradients wil not be observed in the very-high-altitude interception application, it 1s necessary to consider the background due to radiation fron celestial objects and mateors. Available information on the visual, aagnitudes of stare, together with estinates of their radiation temperatures, can be used to determine the infrared flux reaching the secker in Ste spectral region cf sensitivity, after the method outlined by L. Larmere. (12) Fron the definitions of visull magnitude and spectral efficiency of tho oye amd the infrared detector, it follove that the effective infrared radiation incident on the seeker fron a star of visual magnitude Hy, and teperature 7, ist sr #e3a7 2103 22 D2 10°l oteective vatto/en? (5) “eye Values of (1) for the eye, and for PbS and PlTe are given in Pig. 3. Here, the lover lindt of accepted wavelength for the infrared seeker has been chosen as 1.lyt 50 as to filter out the greatest part of the radiation from the very hot celestial objects, vhile very little of the radiation from the relatavely low-temperature re-entry body 1s lost by this technique, A List of those celestial objects that emit sufficient infrared radi- ation to be possitly detectatile by the infrared secker described above is given in Table lk, (Note that the limit set here is actually about two- thirds that of the threshold for the infrared system, P,, so that sane of the celestial objects in Table |; would probaly not be detected.) While oRN1S72 10-21-55, 27 vatenced chopper!) might ve employed to discriminate further against these sources of high effective temperature, the small number of interfering objects and the very small field of view of the proposed seeker make the probability of lock-on for a star or planet so small that it dees not appear worth while to go to this degree of sophistication. TABLE by Celestial Objects Whose Effective Radiation Exceeds 2 x 107? watts/on* Effective Radiation at the Seeker Aperture (with a L.ln lover wavelength cut-off etter) Intensity (effective watts/on*) Celestial Object PbS System © Pute System {Su 1.2 x10? 1s x10? Moon (eu) 2x10 2.8 x 10°? Jupiter lat brightest) 2a xg? 27 x10? Mare (at brightest) 2a x 1072 27 x10 ———_—___——_——_—_ Vems (at brightest) 2b x 10° 1.7 x10 Botelgeuse 2.2 x10 3.0 x 10°02 tira 2.81072. 3.9 x 1070?RNA1572 LoW21-55 “3B E._NOTBORS, A NATURAL DECOR A calculation was made to determine the probability that a meteor of intensity great enough to be detected by the infrared seeker would cross tho fold of view of the seeker during the tie of guided interception of the re-entry body. Meteors, dua to their extrencly high entry velocity, become heated at considerably higher altitudes than the re-entry body.” Their average height of visual appearance is approximately 60 miles. Because of their high volo- city and snall size they disappear as the result cf vaporization at an average height of 50 miles. Assuming an average tenporature of the lumingus meteors of approximately 3,300° K, and taldng into account the different spectral. efficiencies of the Antrared detecter and the eye as in the previous section, 2t is found that only meteors of visual magnitude of unity or leas (4.e., tighter vhan mgnStude one) will yield an intensity exceeding 1.8 x 10 eftective watts/en® to the lead telluride detector seeker system. There are, on the average, about 3x 10° meteare of vowel magnitude Jess thon unity entering the earth's atmosphere each day, (There are con~ siderably more than this during the very Limited periods af meteor showei Assuming © eeeker field of view of L°, an interceptor altitude of 150,000 and a secker sensitive tine of 15 secs, only 164 x 10° of the total, number of meteors entering the atmosphere are likely to be found in a region of space and time observed ty the infrared seeker, This results in a probability of responding to a meteor track during interception of 1 in 2,900, which 4s probably considerably ess than the abort rate expected for the interceptor vehicle. "rhe authors have profited from discussion with Dr. H. Kallmsn, RAND eensultant, cchcerning meteor properties.RM1S72 ‘10-21-55, -28- TIT. CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGES DURING TAKE-OFF OF AN ICBM There are three chief differences between the detection operations during re-entry and those during take-off of the ICEM: + During the ICBM boost period, the time for viewing the missile 4s mich Longer, so that clower (more sensitive) cells can be used. + During the actual boost, while the rockets are firing, there may be strong emission af infrared by the rocket flane as well as by ‘the heated skin. Preliminary caleulations and observations at sea level indicate that, same of the exhaust gases will emit strongly at certain infrered wavelengths, within the sensitivity range of PbS and Pbfe cells, but that the intensity of the rocket emiseien will decrease with altitude. + The higher temperature of the rocket exhaust gases permits the use of shorter wavelength IR detectors such as lead sulfide in this application. Advantage can be taken of their better inherent sen- sitivity while still maintaining high spectral efficiencies at these high color texperatures. In the following paragraphs the protiens of infrared detection of an TOM during take-off will be investigated, and estimates of maximum detection ranges will be presented. & speckfic context will be taken as the basis for the analysis: the detection equipnent W111 be assumed to be carried ty an aircraft patralling outeide the borders of the Soviet Union. A look at the map shows that no place in the Soviet Union 4s more than about 1200 n md fron @ Soviet border, With this figure in mind, the question to be con- sidered is: Can airborne infrared equigment detect an ICBM taking off frommS72 10-21-55 30° a Laanehing site at ranges up to 1200 n mi? Figure 12 siiovs what the relative position of missile and search aircrart might be. ICBM EMISSION DURING TAKE-OFF nde the actual characteristies of the ICBK to be detected during take~ off are to be determined by the eny, St appears that there are certain baste constraints on he chotce, For a $000- to 6000-nautical-nile range the take-off of a two-stage missile 19 probably fairly well described by : Table 5, Thia is based on céleulations assuming an initial thrust-to-grosa~ weight ratio, m, of 1.5, whieh 4s considered rather low. If a Larger value were used, larger rockets would be required, the powered phage woud ve shorter, tumext would ocour at a lover altitude, and the skin temperature would be higher because of the greatar velocity attained while the missile ie still in the lower atmosphere. In other words, the emission during take-off would be even greater than for the m= 1.5 case, wt it vould not last long. Tt seems likely that multiple rockets may be used, provatly three or four, to give the large thrust required for the first stage, and that a single rocket ney be used 4n the second stage, with a samevhat sniller " thrast wut a larger expansion ratio (the ratio of the nozsle exit area to ‘the throat area) in the nogale, to compensate for the near-vacuus in which it 1s intended to operate. At any rate, it will be assumed thet this is the case, and that the rocket nozsles will all have an exit @ianeter of the order of one meter. The missile itaclf will be considered to have dimensions (in round munbers) as follows: Initial length of body, 30 mj diameter, 3; length of body of second stage after separation, 6 mj conical warhead extendingRM-1572 10-21-95 ~31- Tatle’.5 ICBM TAKE-OFF CHARACTERISTIOS* *propared by Carl Gazley and Hans Lteske, RAND Missiles Division. forvara frags boy, base Glaneter 1.5 m, length 2m, For a further desorip- tion, see Ref. ]. Se far, the rocket and miesile Ateclf have bee described closely snogh for the purpose of this investigation; it is also necessary to describe the infrared omission fron the flare behind the rocket. At sea Level, 44 As-posaiie to get a rough estimate of the enissicn fron such & socket Slane ty cbeervation of test stand firings. Observations of smaller rocket motore,. beloy 1S00-Lb thrust, indicate the following: 14s25,26) Acid-eutMine flanes enit 2 ccntinmum in the visite on which are super- Imposed weak: band systent die to WH and CH. The spectrum in the veible can be desoribed roughly as that of a grey tedy, with an enissivity ofAMA1572 10-21-55 ~32- 0055 to .006 and a temperature of about 2700°K. In the infrared, consid ing the total enission as detected by a pyraueter, the anissivity appears to te sone three tines greater, assuming the sane effective temperature of about 2700°K. Thus, 1f the temperature of the flame were 2700°K, the infra- rod of total embesivity 1s about .025 if the effective temperature were about 2000°K, as it is in certain parts of the flame, the equivalent total exisesvity is abot .06. Mecchel-Diquid-oxygen Manes emit discrete lines and bands in the visitie, superimposed on a relatively weak continuum, The lines and bands observed bave been identified as those of Ma and Ca0 (presumably from dmpuritiee in the fuel), OH and CH. Although no spectral observations in ‘he infrared for aleobdl-exygen or Jet~fuel-axygen flames appear to have been made, it is imow thet the combustion promets of these fuels are molecules witch have thermmlly excitatle bends in the near and riddle infrared, Therefore, one would certainly predict some entssion in the 1 to 5 micron region, probably as mich as fer the acid-sniline flan. Finally, high-speed cdlor movies of test stand firings of large rocket motors (over 100,000 lbs thrust) using Jet fuel and Liquid oxygen show that the flame av it first leaves the oxit 4s a blue-green color, with relatively ‘Little contimun--as mentioned above for the alcohel-Liquid-oxygen flame. However, starting a meter or two from the nozzle there is a brilliantly glowing tantle, which appears to begin as a surface emission and becaue diffused throughout the flane st greater distances from the nozzle. The spectrum of the mantle 4s s costimmum vith weak band systens superimposed. ‘The explanation of this mantle is probatily to be found in the fact that such motors run on a rich mixture, and the hot exhaust gases react with the air,PM-1S72. 10-21-55, “33 causing a further combustion. The bright contimmum is then due to this interaction of the air with unoxidized carbon, and the result 19 analogous to the glow of a candle, ‘Tests with smaller rockets have clearly denon- strated the very marked difference between the emission fron a lean mixture and @ rich mixture, so there can be Little doubt about the general case of the nantle or candle effect. The significant factor to bear in mind $s the need for a reaction with the anblent air to produce this very intense con- tdnvum, At altitudes enewuntered during the last part of the powered flight 4t 1s likely that the effect of the mantle will markedly decrease Another change will occur as the rocket moves to greater altitudes. A rocket flame, firing at sea level, always displays a succession of bright spots along the axis of the flame, These are sonctimes clearly seen as dianond-sbaped areas fumed by an intersection of shack waves(!4)(16)— rence the term "Mach note" or "Mach diamond." These are produced by a complicated interaction between the various parts of the exhsust flame, the rockst notale, and the ambient air, and may be thought of as standing shock waves formed by @ series of reflections from the boundary between the air and the exhaust. Behind these shockwave intersections the tesperatures and pressures are even higher than at the noaale exit (pressures of 2.5 to 3.0 atmospheres, temperatures over 2600°K), avd the resultant thermal emission 4s therefore quite strong from these regions. Here again, in the absence of air at high altitude the rocket flame would change its shepe. General considerations indicate that the Nach diamonds will disappear and that only the first Mach cone will renain. The implications of these changes to the emission are not entirely soar, but it seama certain that in a vacuum the exhaust gasea will not gout as mich ag they do at goa level, since (a) the mantle will diminish= RHIS72 10-21-55 aah First stage Second stage Probably three ‘or four such rockets chematic drawing of the ‘ocket flames from an ICBM during early ascent (first stage) and neor the top of its powered flight (second stage) | | = OS Fa- 8RN-AST2 w-a-$$ =35- or disappear entirely, and (b) the Mach dianonds with their high tempera- tures end strong emissions will also disappear. One might consider that a part of the energy which goes into radiation at sea level will go into adiabatic expansion 100 miles up. With these goneral considerations in mind, Fig. 8 serves to describe the kind of rocket flane which one would expect fron an ICBM at take-off and during the latter part of its powered flight. The second-stage rocket bas a thrust which ie about tworthinds that of the first stage rockets, but 2 larger expansion ratio. At sea level the rocket enits over its whole ares as grey body at 200K, having an enigsivity of 0.1. (It ie assumed that it is running on rich fuel mixture end that the mantle haa a temperature roughly equal to that which would be attained by complete combustion of the fuel at a pressure of one atmosphere, This temperature 4s a little lesa than that observed in the Mach diamonds, where the pressure 1s severdl atwospheres, At high altitude tha rocket entts radiation fron the Hach cone otly, since the rest of the flane cools so rapidly by expansion. Here in the Mach cone the temperature 4s about 2100%K, and there 48 only line and band emission due to thermal excitation of the incompletely oxidized combustion products, This should really be trested, therefore, as a dlecontimous spectrum, tut until better information can be obtained either theoretically or experinentally it will te assuned that in the infrared the entssion fron the Yach cone ig that af a grey body with O.1 emissivity. Te will bé noted that the amestvities chosen are saxething Like txo to five tines greater than those quoted for the observations of small rocket flanes. This 4s to take into account the increased size and depthRM-1572 10-255 ~36- of the large rocket flame, which is about ten times larger in every dimen- sion, It mst be remenbered alao that these emissivities aprly to the infrared beyond about 1H, emissivities in the visible being less. ‘The total enission from an ICBM during take-off and boost is sumarized in Tate 6. The dimensions of the missile are approxinately those given by orenan() . ‘Ths view of the missile from the forward quarter (at an angle of 45° from the axis) may be considered as corresponding to the situation during the Latter stages of the boost, when the missile is starting on its elliptical trajectory and 1s viewed from a station near the horizon in the Ghrection of ats travel, i.e., @ detection station or aircraft at the border ef cmemy territory. The skin temperatures are taken from Tatle 5 above, and the enissivity of the skin is taken to be 0.8, witich is roughly represen- ovo tatine of exidized-steol and a variety of other possttle surfaces, Tanle 6 ‘TOTAL EMISSION OF AN ICBM DURING TTS POWERED FLIGHT ward tude (2000 ft)RM-1572 10-21-55 =37- “~ « "The'transition of the flame from the sea-level (or 50,000 ft) charac~ teristics to the high-altitude characteristics is taken rather arbitrarily, since 4t is not known how fast this occurs. Therefore, the flame emission at each altitude mst be considered as an estimate in which an attespt has een made to be on the conservative side, i.e., to underestimate the emissicn. ° There are many uncertainties involved, most of which have been enumerated already, In addition, if the missile configuration were such that a part of the rocket noxele were exposed, the emission from this hot body would be a large addition to that show, Be _GBCMSTRICAL LTHTTATTONS ON DBTECTYON RANGES DUS TO CURVATURE OF THE EARTH AND THE TRAJZOTORY OF THE MISSTLE Yar &.very strong radiation source at high altitudes such as a rocket flame or.a hot missile akin and a sensitive radiation detector in an. adreraft, the Limiting range for detection may be determined by gooretrical considerations alone. The geometry of the situation involves a muber of factorat : + Ths carveture of the earth. + The height of the effective horizen, which may be determined by the altitude of the top of a deck of clouds or a mountain range. + The missile (scurce) altitude. + The aireraft (detector) altitude, +The: refraction of the rays by the earth's atmosphere, + The horizontal notion of’ the missile Although all of these factors must be taken into account to compute ‘tho maximim range for a given set of conditions, it 4s possible to generalize(16 u) juod voztey_ant49ayj9 wery abuor woIs ove “"00p + coe 008 00% coe! leeatgccet Tee eae qworUa sALI39142 Jo OpnjRM-1572 10-21-55, -39- ‘the protien in such a way that the computations can be done once for a representative range of conditions, The results of such a general solution are shom in Fig. 9. In arriving at the values shom, refraction of the rays by the atmosphere is the most difficult factor to take into account. Hovever, when refraction ip taken into account 4t does not affect the results vy more than about ten per cent (at the most) and in many cases 1s quite trivial. However, it is duportant to include 4t, 4f for no other reason than to answer questions about ‘the magnitude of the effect of refraction, It, for the monent, the affect of refraction is neglected, 4t can be seen by inspection of Fig, 10a that the geometrical range from the point M to the horizen paint, Hy, te given by (our . th, + ae (6) If refraction is actually occurring, however, a rey from M will be bent 4m paseing down thrcugh the atmosphere, and for the ease when h is very Large the added distance to the true horizon point, f, is very nearly pa, so the optical range is (ses Fig. 1b) RR, + 90 : . Parr M where the angle a 4s the angular correction to a ray from an infinite point source (like a star) when it is seen just on the hordzon.No refraction With refraction (b) 1S Jad -0 0 Fig.10—Diagrams of the ray geometry for the case of no refraction (a) and with atmospheric refraction (b)RM-1572 10-21-55 ~ul~ There is an added complicaticn when one considers that the effective height of the horizon point 19 probably not actually at saa level. Clouds ugually determine where the horizon 1s, and the tops of theee layers of clouds may range fron ten to thirty thousand fect or so, Ae one raises the horizon point to a level where the density of the atmosphere is less the refraction correction, a, decroases-~in fact it decreases roughly as the density decreases, a relation which will be used later. The complete expression, then, for the optical range, where the horizon point is at an elevation of h, above sea level, sot RF | 20 + bh, = by) + (hy =m)? + (P+ BAe * fo hy) +O, = a)? + 60 (8) where p + hy, is the nev effective radius of the earth. Neglecting hy, relative top results in an error 4n range of less than half of one per cont. The b, ie still defined as the altitude of the missile, H, above sea level. The angle, a, 18 now a function of h,, and is given in Tate 7 below. It is determined by extrapolating to sero angular altitude the refraction corrections found on the back of any recent issue of "The American air Almonac! (Teble 4), Recall that this equation 1a derived on the assumption ‘that the dltitude by is Largs, so Equation (8) will be called the high- Atitade approximation. “The above treatment mst be modified when applied to a ray to or fron an elevation vnich $5 a Lov as the altitudes attainable by aircraft. Nov the refraction of tue ray is stall cecurring at ite upper end point, since‘HA-15T2 10-21-55, wha Table 7 mei taa Refraction Angle Density Ratio (ee ISL) (nin. of are) ye) ° 36 1.000 10,000 22 39 20,000 7 53h, 30,000 ae 376 0,000 1S 22h? the aircraft ie still within the relatively dense part of the atmosphere. Tt hae been shown by actual experiments as well as by a theoretical treat- nent that the range from an aircraft to the sea-level horizon can be approximated very closely by the formla: (47) R¥ 115 pat 1.09 2h, nat (9) where h!, and h, are the altitude of the aircraft in feet and in nautical miles respectively. (The mean radius of the earth, p, is cboat 3130 n mi.) ‘As shown in Eq. (6), the geometric range (neglecting refraction) is 2, = | 2h, 6) whare now the second term under the radical can be neglected because h, is so mich smaller than the earth's radius. It is obvicug that the factor in front of the radical in Bq. (9) will decrease as the refraction effect decreases, and will approach unity in the second form of Bq. (9). In fact, this decrease will again be roughly proportional to the density at theRAS 72 10-21-55, ise evel of the effective horizon. Thus, Eq. (9) may be written in a nore geteral form, involving the altitude of the horizon point, b,» ast R “6 + 409 ovr) p(n, = ,) (a9) where the density ratio, 9,/e,, 4s the ratio of air density st the elevation of the horizon point, ts to the air density at ea Jevel (sce Tatle 7). Equation (10) refers to the case whare the aircraft is actually in the atmosphere at an altitude of 80,000 ft or less; st will be called the low altitude approximation, In draving Fig. 9, using both the lowaltitude and high-altitude aprroxi- nations, the resilts shew that both agree very closely at about 100,000 ft. It also turns out, a8 mentioned earlier, thet the error which waild be introduced 1f refraction were neglected entirely would be leas than 10 per cent in range. The discussion so far has been entirely general, in that only ranges between target and detector were discussed. Actually, in the case of the ICEM detection 6 more significant range nay be that between missile Launching site and detecter, the missile moving toward the detector (assuned to be at ‘the border of exony territory) 35 it starts on its elliptical trajectory. The goovetry of the missile path 19 shown in Fig. 11 (prepared by Hans Iieske, RAND Missiles Division), Tt 4s indicated in this figure that at burnout a $500 n mi missile my be seen some 1,00 n mi from the launching site by a detector at goa level, (X49), or 1600 n mi by a detector at ‘obs)? 0,000 ft (see Pig. 9). This is hoo miles further than the range to the missile, the difference being due to the missile's horizontal motion up to burnout.08a) 2000 1500 loco 500 90. oo, 100 200 300 400 ‘500 Horizontal range from launching site (n mi) Fig.11—The, motion of a 5500 n mi ballistic missile Altitude of missi “during its toke-off and early flight Solid line represents maximum range trajectory, dashed lines indicate where final burnout would occur for same missile fired on shorter range trajectory , :ows en eae x BS 4440410 Joj2a;@p PUD yjOd 540-240) WHO) . JO Suoljisod eAyojad Bulmous (a(D9s O4) Guymosg —Zj "65 . wo21104 ous 44 000‘Ob 12 “ juryoune ate uasns eu:0g te ooT 6uyyoune™ 14616 9 0 Te) ye snowing -Uopoe}eP 8414 {now ONSSINRM1572 10-21-35 “he To present nore clearly the comlete pictare of both missile ani detecting aircraft, Fig. 12 shows, to scale, the relative positions of the wiselle trajectory and the Line -of sight, assucing s 1200 n mi separation between launching site and aircraft, In the case shown, the missile is traveling on great-circle course which would take it directly over the aircraft, though this is not a requirenent for detection. C. LIMITING SENSITIVITY OF AN INFRARED SEARCH SYSTEM Consider an infrared search set in an aircraft flying at altitudes of the order of 0,000 ft (see Fig. 12). The extent of azimuthal search could be such that coverage of all anticipated launching sites could be accom Plished with @ small mumber of such "picket airplanes;" 60° is chosen as a reasonakle design value. A search field slightly lege than 10° in elevation ds required to include the range of elevation angles covered by the ICBM between the time when it just clears the horizon and the point at which final rocket motor turnout occurs (about 10° ft), assuming an aircraft-to- launching site range of about 1,200 miles, As seen from Fig. 12, an ICBM from a launching site 1200 n mi distant can bo first observed from 2 40,000 ft observation platform when 1t 4s at an gltitude slightly over 550,000 ft (assuming an effective horizon at 20,000 ft). The missile st this point has been traveling for about 195 ec, and turnout will occur at 280 sec. The rave of change of the average Lne-of-steht of the Ion is tims 1055, = 0,22°/sec. IF the infrared scanning system is designed so that two locks are desired at the target at any position of the instantanecis field of view, (thie will permit the use of some alarm system with a low felee-alaru rate) then the anguler motion of the line of sight during the time required to sean the whole field ofRN-LS72 ‘Lo-21-55 oa vow, ttyy should be J, whore 0, is the angular dlaneter of the instan- ‘vonevus field of view. Thus, 2s; o sec X ty qa) The dwell tine of the target image on the detector, ty, is given by the relationship: any ete a2) where Ay is the solid angle of the instantaneous field of view and 2, eat is the entire fidla of view to be scanned (10° x 60%). Taking the dwell time as the same order of magnitude as the detector time constant (2,000 p secs for the cocked lead eulfide call, which would be used to give maximum sensitivity to the high-temperature rocket flame source) and substituting in Eq. (12): 600% x 2x 207 gece = ty x oa aa te ane Solving simAtansovs Eqs. (11) and (13) for 6,, the instantensous field of view, and tp, the scanning time, results int a, = 0.7 t, = 3 secs The aperture of this search system might be as large as 20 inches in Ganoter. For this aperture size and the instantaneous field of view of 0.7° the optical sine condition would determine the minimum detector elementmay Lb size, (Detection using a aingle cell, rather than an arroy with duplication of electronic circuitry, ete., 4s assumed.) Assuming the PbS cell to ve damersed in a medium of refractive index 1,5 results in a minimm cell size of 2mm by 2 mn. The amplifier bandwldth is chosen to contain the greater part of the pulsed waveform signal, which for a point target image wold be £4. > lean * a For the systen parameters given above reasonable values are Lqax * 99 P8> Cyan 7 1 eps. The over-all search oysten threshold sensitivity can be expressed by 3 relationship similar to Eq. (2), slightly altered to take into account the different scanning method. Thus a Soa (2") A xBlx x | Log, SE G -6 a0) Sete, fain with Py in effective watts/em” at the aperture. (For explanation of symbole, =x gee the discussion of Bq. (2).) Euploying a cooled (-78%) lead sulfide cel] in a detection system with the following characteristics S at 2.54 bel x 107% vatts Tp * 2000 u secs effective aperture = 800 cn? (20 inch dianster collector, taking into aecount losses and occlusion)mu572 Lo-21-$8 ahs the resulting system threshold sensitivity, from Eq. (2") 19 2x10 ercective vatts/on YAXTMINE DETECTION RANGES DURING TAKE-OFF Te As nox possibile to determine the saximm detection ranges of the system for detection of the take-off phase of the ICBM, using the range equation, Bq. (1), the source radisnt intensity given in Tatle 6, and values of the call spectral efficiency sho in Fig. 3. 4 factor must now be considered which was not included in the calewa~ tions of the previous chapter, the attenuation of the infrared radistion dae te atmospheric absorption and scattering. A ray which leaves the missile (outside the atmosphere), passes tangent to the top of a cloud or haze layer at 20,000 feet, and then continues on to a detection station at 140,000 fest, penetrates through almost half of the total atmosphere twice. ‘The air above 20,000 feet has less vate vapor per gram of air then at se Level (it has a lover mixing ratio and dew point), but the ray deserdbed above mst still pass through about 20 cm of precipitable water vapor on the average. Because of the decreased. pressure, this anount of vater ‘vapor absorbs somewhat less effectively than it would at soa level, and we can consider the equivalent of about 15 em of effective precipitate water ‘vapor under standard pressure conditions as being in the path. This anoint, of water vapor results in about 50 per cent trensmission in the infrared vetween Le and 2.7 y (the P&S vegion),(18) The effect of atmospheric scattering at about 2u is not nearly so great as in the visible, but the transmission factor of the sane path due to scattering 4s around 70 per cent, bringing the total transnittance oftthe air path tangent at 20,000 feet dom to about 35 per cent. Tt shold be renenbered that when the missile is seen a degree or two above the apparent horizon the transnittance of the path will be nearly unity, due to the decreased optical depth of the path, ‘The resulta of contining these factors are show in Table 8. The enission vss calculated on the assumption that the missile was being viewed from the “forward quarter" (vee Table 6). It is clear that when the missile As at alow altitude, some of the ranges given are fer greater than can actually be achieved in view of the geometry of the situaticn. She signifi cance, of these large ranges is merely thst the signal at operstienslly useable ranges is far above the threshold for detection. In Fig. 13 the situaticn is summarized grophically. During the early stages of the takeoff there 1s more than enough infrared emission, bit the earth gets in the way, Near turnout, when the missile is at about one million feet, the naximm infrared detection range and the geonetry af the situation give comaratle ansvers. After bumout there is not nearly enough Anfrared signal to give detection at any useful range, Recall that, dapend~ Ang on the trajectory of the misaile and the Location of the detection site, ‘the Launching site can be from 200 to OO miles further away, due to the horizontal travel of the missile op to turnout (see Fig. 11). The figures af Table 8 lead one to speculate on the increased warning ‘timo and perhaps more accurate trajectory prediction that might be possible by getting around this geonetrical Limitation with @ very-nigh-altitude search staticn=-perhaps with a satellite-borne infrared search set- This 4s the subject of a separate study at RAND. eee ee peTathe 8 REST Lo-21-55, CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM INFRARED DETECTION RANGE OF 4M TOM DURING ‘TARS-OFF WHEN SEEN WEAR THE HORTZON FROM THE FORWARD QUARTER ASPECT Flane Emission Skin Emission latitude | Tine Tatrared of fron [Effective] Total |xrfective| Total | Detects, Missile | Take-off | Temp. | Eniseion| Temp. [Emission | Range’ (1000 £t) (sec) (K) (lea) (%) (lew) (n mi) 50 6 2400 | aa,000 | 375 «© 200 120 2300 8,700 | $75 wo hoo 165 2200 920 | 520 48 goo | hs z00 too | 135 22 11,000 280 00 100 | hoo 16 1,500 365 fa oO} 370 20 lL. Yuin, detectable flux at detection system: 7, = 2x30 ettective watts/en™, Detector uses cocled Fes eoll. Altitude of detector abcut 40,000 ft, effective horizon at about 20,000 ft. Transmittance of path is .38, except as noted. “assumed to be above the horizen, so atmosphere transmittance here is unity. The emission is characteristic of the lower surface 4n the daytine ' (Table 9).j f 3308103 Sj! Buyanp { 40}9249p payDajut aus0qs10 uo Aq uses aq UD WADI UO YoIyM JO sebuD! ey) C1" i Swe (1 uy ayssiw 04 96u02 yuois i aus 00s | 25 | Bs TERE] | : t A | . s é = 005 » 7 3 3 & ooo ‘3604s puodes jo inousnq 40 prRMW1572 10-21-35, 3 ‘Ti: _DETEOTTON OF AN ICBM DURING ITS MIDCOURSE FLIGHT A, “ICBM BMOSSTOM DURING MIDOOURSE FLIGHT Consider the temperature history of a long-range missile during its flight through and outside of the sensitle atnosphere. The skin tempere- ture during take-off climbs to nearly 600% (see Table 5), reaching its maximum when the missile ts at an altitude of about 200,000 ft. There- after it cools by radiative Loss, and at tumnout (near 1,000,000 ft) the temperature is between 1.50°K and 400% and still falling toward a condition of radiative equilibriun, The missile may be expected te have an emissivity of approximately 0.8 in the infrered (representative af oxidized steel or iron, aluminum oxide or & ceramic surface) and approximately 0.5 in the visible part of the spectrum. If the missile skin were made of polished steal, the diffuse onissivity and absorptivity would be Less by a factor of two or three at all wavelengths. Since all wavelengths would be affected, the difference in radiative equilitrium temperatures would not be greatly affected by polishing the surface, The skin tenperature, then, assuming radiative equilibrium cuteide the atmosphere, will be approximately ea shown in Table 9. }, the maximin detection range with equipment employing 2 photocenductor cell can only be # few tens of niles, At these relatively low temperatur For example, the oxtrenely sensitive cooled lead sulfide detection system described in the previous section for detecting an TORK during take-off can see the missile Locking upward in the daytime at a maximm range of less than 50 miles, A lead telluride system similar to that described in Chapter II, even allowing for a daitiing of the aperture size, wottld not doSED TEMPERATURE AND THPRARED EMTISSTON Tatle 9 OF AN ICBM IN MIDCOURSE FELHT RH1972 soz Surface of Missile Tenperature ‘Total. Emission Relative for Radiative Normal to dads to the Equilibrium (area 20 mé) ‘Tine Earth (°K) (ca) Day Upper 390 a Day Lover 30 2 Wight Upper <30 ~0 Wight Lower 250 3.6 Le —t significantly better (maximm range < 100 ai). Recall that the alssile is at an altitude of about 200 miles at burnout, going up to apogees as great as 800 to 1000 miles, Reflected sunlight will somewhat increase the infrared detection range Af the detecting system uses no filters to discriminate aguinst stars. However, for this daytine or near sunset observation, it would be better to employ detection equipnent using photo-emiseive devices vith their superior tine-constant and inherent short-wavelength sensitivity properties. A discussion will now be given of the maximm range performance of such equipment analogous to the discussions of detection ranges in Chapters TI ana UI, ‘Be: DENSITY OF REFLECTED SUNLIGHT SIGNAL The intensity of reflected sunlight as seen by airborne or ground detection equipment is a function cf the relative angles between the axis‘RM-1572 10-21-55 ne of the aissile and the mun, @),‘and the axis of the missile and the observer, ys as well as being a function of the surface geometry of the missile. It will suffice for cur order-of-mgnitade caleulation to assune that the missile body appears as a flat diffuse reflecting surface with 2 projected area of approximately 1) square meters. This area is characteristic of missile type 3 in Table 1, as seen from the forward quarter after burnout. ‘The total radiant intensity of diffusely reflected sunlight off the missile surface is given by Lambert's law ast i, * A x cos(n/2 - @,) cos(n/2 - @) xP ei watts/steradian of reflected Ee . sank ght where ov atte on i," solar constant, A projected area of the missile, assumed = 1 n@ p ~ diffuse reflectivity of missile surface, assumed ~0.5 For an order-of-magnitude calculation, an aspect: has been assumed such that the mean value of cos (n/2 = €) cov (n/2~ 05) = Ose ‘This gives B= 1240 watts/storsdian It is interesting to calculate the visual magnitude of such a body when observed at distances of the arder of 1000 n ml. For light of the spectral characteristics of sunlight, 1 watt Ol tumens. This, at this range, the Antensity 19 equal to 3,05 x 10712 SUMENE, oy the visual magnitude, 4, is : x related to the incident flux, I, ty the following relationship (4) rl)RM-1572. 10-21-55 =56= -11 lumens = 8,32 x 107+ 22S, Tus the om ICRM will appear by reflected sunlight at missile-observer ranges of about 7 with the scale set at M, = * 1 when I, 1000 n AA as an object of visual magnitude + 4.6. Since the threshold of vision corresponds tos visual magnitude M = 6.8, it is clear thet near twilight and for sae time after sunset, depending on Latitude and season, 4t will be possitle for 2 not-too-distant visual. observer to see the ICBM during a portion of its trajectory. SENSITIVITY OF A PHOTOELROTHIC DETEOTTON SYSTEM For the daytime application af an airborne photoelectric search systen, even operating at high altitude and at small genith angles, the Limtting noise of the system will be photon shot iiaise die to the background sky brightness, In a detailed derivation of the censitivity of their photon- noise Limited "Hook* equipment for air-to-air search application, the Seripps Weitility Laboratery()) nas derived photoclectric detection ranges for the detection of the so-called "contrast signal" due to sky obscuration by the target aircraft. For the preeent application, the Hock" work has been modified to caleulate detection ranges af the IBM using reflected sunlight. The threshold sensitivity, Pp, in effective watto/en” at the operture of the photecLectric detection systen, for the background~-photon-noise- ‘Linited condition, can be shown to bet aLSx103 2g FAMf — stfective watts ef: en’ where,RM-1S72 ‘lo-21-55 -57— G = minimm signal-to-noise level needed for reliable detection Aggy 7 effective aperture ares, with correction for optical losses, in cnt = sky brightness, in foot~lasberts Ae = amplifier bandwidth, in eps 2Q-= instantaneous field of view of the scanning system, in steradians S = photo-cathode sensitivity in amp/watt for sunlight The "Hook" air-to-air search system described in Ref. (19) scans a 20° x 40° sector uf the sky in a total frame time of 2 secs, It utilizes 21 phototubes in scanning the image space of a l~inch lens by neans of punched diaphragus'in 2 moving belt. Paranoters for this systen are: : 2 Nace sex Af + 3000 cps Qa2x10 storadion 8, for the KLZ11 phototube employed 4s 0.01 amp/watt For a high-altitude (0,000 ft) airborne search at moderate to ssall zenith angles, the sky brightness, N, is Likely to be af the ordef of 100 foct~ tamberts.(2°) ence, for this equipment, the threshold sensitivity, assuming a minim signal to noise ratio, 0, of 2 is: ry 73x10 etrecti ve watte/en® at the detection systen aperture. DETECTION RANGES The range of detection for the photoelectric system can‘ now be esti- mated using the range equation,BMA1572 ‘1o-2-55, =86- aomuning negligible attenuation of this visible radiation at the very high altitude considered here. ‘The spectral efficiency of this photoelectric detector for radiation of the spectral quality of sunlight, np, 1s approximately 0.15. Substituting B = 1240 watts/steradian and By + 3 x 10) errective watts/en® results in maximun daylight detection ranges of the IOBM by this equipment of only about 135 n mi. Tt might be worth while to consider a combination infrared-photoelectric detection systen, with the infrared soarch set used to detect the ICBM fron takecff to soon after turscut and serving to position the photoelectric detector to this region of the sky so that it need only track the renainter of the mid-course trajectory. For this tradcing application, with the rather small rotation rates of the line of sight involved, the requirements on bandwidth could be reduced so that bandwidths, Af, of 50 to 100 ops might be considered, In this case one would get an improvement in daylight detection ranges of 0 that detection ranges of about LOO n mi night be achieved. These ranges appear rather inadequate for the generation of any further trajectory infor- mation beyond that which would be achieved by the initial infrared detection phase. After sunset, the background photon noise drops to nearly the thermionicRHIST2 10-21-55 55 shot noise level, so that improvements in the photoelectric detectivity of the order of 1000 are possitile. Hence, if the ICBM is not eclipsed by the earth's shadow, detection ranges of many thousands of miles are possitie, With the exception of arctic regions at particular seasons, this period of visibility mst be rather short, being just before sunrise or after sunset. It should also be pointed out that for any af the photoslectric detec- tion systens discussed here some sort of discrimination against the many celestial objects of greater radiatice in this visttle region must be invented. This section has only touched on some of the problems invelved in the mdd-course optical detection of IBM's. While these problems do not appear to be insuperatile, they are grave encugh and their solution 42 of such Limited applicabiMty as to make this expect mich lesa pronising than the use of infrared techniques during the take-off and’re-entry phases. Speci- fieally, 1t should be noted that the mighttdme detection is apparently less than marginal, and a systen which could operate only in the daytine or at ‘twilight can hardly be relied upon.RMASTZ 10-21-55, ~60- Y._PIELDS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH It is evident that there is uncertainty in some of the estinates which have been made in the preceding chapters. This uncertainty my, of cairse, be due to the fact that we camot guess exactly what the characteristics of ‘the Russian TOM will be, and in auch a cage ve mst base cur judguent on ‘the vhole range of possibilities. In other cases, however, our Linitaticns are simply due to a lack of basic Imowledge of factors over which the Soviet designer has Little or no contre. ‘hese areas, vhich require further research, vill be sumarized briefly. A. _BR-ENTRY L._ Skin Temperatures The problem of the heating of the skin of a hypersonic re-entry body 4 a baste consideration in the design of an ICBM system. For this reasen, a consideratle amount of effort is alresdy being devoted to it. It is, perhaps, worth mentioning that, wheress the nissile designers are nost concerned with the maximum temperature to which the re-entry body will be exposed, which usually occurs at altitudes below 100,000 ft, infrared detection systens are most concerned with the heating which eccurs higher up, as the re-entry body first encounters the denser atmosphere, together with knowledge of its emissivity. 2. Radiation from Air Excited by the Shock In some sense the problem of emission by air in hypersonic flow is closely felated to that of skin heating, since under certain conditicns at relatively low altitudes the skin may receive considerable heat from this radiation. However, the detection problem may be greatly influencedby the shock wave enission wile the re-entry body is still high in the atmosphere, at altitudes of several hundreds of thousands of feet. If ‘there were strong emission fron the excited air in the shock wave ( or in the trail) of an ICBM, this would certainly increase the ease of early ‘optical detection. 3s Optimization of the Infrared Search~Track Detection Process As Giscussed in Chapter II, tho use of en infrared or optical detection systen for terminal giidance in an ICBM defense aissile requires considera- tdon of a large mumber of systen design factors, There is mich to be done 4n the optimization of such @ secker system, and the theory for the most efficient method for combining the infornstion is inadequate, Scanning aystem techniques, bandwidth considerations, infrared detector properties, seeker angular accuracy, etc-, are all areas requiring further attention, B. TAKR-OFF 1s Rocket, Eni gation The chief source of radiation during the powered phi of an TOBM is certainly the rockets. However, the most crucial part of the take-off from ‘the point of view of detection de the latter part of the povered flight, while the missile 4s above the horizon for a distant observing station, It 4 here that a great deal of uncertainty existe about the characteristics of a rocket flame, (See the discussion in Section ITE.A.) The description of the entesion of a rocket in an almost perfect vacuum can be achieved byt {a) Theoretical calculations of the thermal exission from the exhaust gases, a mixture of CO, CO,, OH, H,0, CH, and scne metallic impurities, rlus witrogen compounds for certain fuels such as acid-aniline, This is a difficult calculation, and is complicated by uncertainties as to the 4RH~1572 10-21-55, 62 relative ancants of the. various constituents, which depend on the fuel~ oxygen mixture. (b) Observations of rocket flames in a vacuum or in an inert atmosphere. ‘This kind of observation could prevunathy be done in a laboratory, and would yield valusble information. No opportunity should be missed, of course, to make observations on an actual rocket at comparable altitudes. de with x Atmosphers Interaction of This 49 an area which 1 difficult to define, since 20 little 48 knam about 4t, There are a few phenosena which wight conceivably be capitalized ‘pon in order to achieve a tetter ICBM detection capability, but they ean only be euggested in the most general terms. (a) Bxcitation and ionisation of the gasecus envelope, As the rocket passes through the donosphere it will have enough speed to excite and fenize the air, Though the density is exceedingly low, it 4s possitle that such a large bedy will creat Glowing trail of luminous gas, iike an ' i 1 suroral streamer (such atreanere being observed at altitudes of up to ‘about, $00 mi). (b) Creation of magneto-hydrcdynamic waves in the ionosphere. A perturbation in a plasma imbedded in a magnetic field is propagated as quasi-electronagnetic wave at velocities which are considerably greater i than the “speed of sound” (though sound has no physical nearing in the Aonosphere in the conventionel sense). The magneto-hydrodynamic waves ‘traveling ast from an ascending IGEM might be detected at considerstle vanges. ‘his question is currently being explored by Zwicky at C.I.7., under the sponsorship of the Air Force Office of Scientific Research.Le 2 3 Be 6 A 10. ne a 23. RH-1572 10-21-55 63 ‘RBEERENCES Ketiogg, W. W., and $. M, Greenfield, Infrared Radiation for the Detec- tion of Airborne Targets, The RAND Corporation, fasouseh Hesorandua BM-78h, April 1, 1952 (Confidential). ‘Henan, C. R-, Infrared Reception and Its Application to Missile Guidance, serouatigel Roseieeh Cante?, Ualverslay af Miokdgan, Project Wsard Report UMM-27, 1948 (secret). : Gatley, C., Heat Transfer Aspects of the Atmospheric Re-Entry of Long- Range Ballistic Misebles, The RAND Corporation, Research Report HOB, August, 1954. Geeret). Graham, W. B., A Preliminary Discussion of Intercontinental Ballistic Mosit Defense, Tus RIND Corporation, Research Renorandan RUCIUS, May 16, 1955 (Secret). Kis, Re, Cgolidated Tultes Atreraft Corp., personal commnieation, 1955. Meyerott, R., The Absorption Coefficients of Air at Temperatures Below 18,000°K, The HAD Conporatica,-Reseases Ranorandaw WEASSES epaee > AER Jones, R. Clark, “Performance of Detectors for Visible and Infrared Radiation," in Advances in Electronics, edited by L. Marton, Vol. 5, Academic Preas, New York, 1953. Hlunenthal, I.8., A Potential Interceptor for Daten: inst_the Intercoutanent: ce Hig: ne-Hyad Goalie (title Conti- Corporation, eran “1369, December aed 7 18) 295k, (Seoret). Blumenthal, 1.8., Threshold Guidance tial_Interceptor for Schiff, L. I., Scanning Systems and Color Filters, Froject Metcalf, Brow University, Final Raport, Vals 2, Ostaber, 1980 (Secret) Bughes Aircraft Company, Progress reports in connection with USAF Missile Project M{-S0h (GAR-1B, Falcon), Contract A#33(600)2h231, 195). Laruere, L., Infrared Radiation from Celestial Bodies, The RAND Corpo- ration, Research Memorandum R-T9}-1, June 26, 1952 (Confidential). Jones, 8., The Two-Celor Optical Chi Telecommnications Research Betabdishaent (eke)> Neacranian Gree Tse=e RHAS72 10-21-55 : ! * a ‘Uk. Bundy, F.’P.,)R/ HetYohason, and Hs, H. Strong,- Final Report on Optical Studlées of Rocket Flame ta Tees Station, Gen ‘ectric Company, ‘oject Hermes Report 7» 1950. ‘1S, Curcio, J. A., and J. As Sanderson, Further Investigations of the Radiation from Rockot Notor Flames, Naval Research fatoratery, Dept. of ‘the Navy, Report N-3327, 1508 (Confidentdel) « 16. Wyman, F. B., Relative Radiation Density and Temperature Distribution ef Rocket, Fianss, Naval feseareh Leboretorg, Depts oF the Navy, Teper 3B, 1st. 17, Russell,.H, ¥,, Re S. Dugan, and J. Q, Steward, Astronoay, rey. ed., Vol. I, The Sclar System, Ginn and Co., 1945, p: 1 ae oe 18. Hider, T., and J. Strong, "The Infrared Transmission of Atmospheric Windows," Jour, Franklin Inst., Vol. 255, No. 3, pp. 189-208, 1953. ! 19. Unttersity-of ealiformia Scripps Institutien of Ocomnography, sibility Laboratory, Status Report on Air-to-Air Target Acquiestion Equipment for Day Fighter jepart_ 8S 7-100, February, e ‘7 20. Facker, D. M., and Cs Lock, Brightness and Polarization of the Daylight ‘at “Aitituder of 18,000 rect. ca Le search Laboratary, Dept. levy, Rep 5 on, 1950,