Taste, social benefits, product
quality and convenience emerged as the
factors by which Nestle used . . .
Perceptual Mapping to Reposition Brands
Henry Assael
One commonly accepted axiom of the
marketing concept is that marketing
managers must target their brands to
the perceived needs of defined con-
sumer groups. Assuming that the sa-
lient consumer perceptions are meas-
ured, this infers the ability to define
homogeneous consumer groups by
perceived needs and to position brands
by the perceptions of specified con-
sumer groups.
The family of programs referred to
as clustering and classification tech-
niques (Young, 1968; Kruskal, 1968;
Carroll and Chang, 1967; Lingoes and
Guttman, 1966) have been applied in
marketing to position consumers and
products based on perceptions of simi-
larities and preferences.
Increasing preoccupation with the
techniques and their application (Bar-
nett, 1969; Green, Canmone, and
Robinson, 1968; Greenberg, 1969;
Johnson, 1969) refiects the value of
locating brands in a consumer's "per-
ceptual map" of the market.
Marketing managers have used
such analyses to develop new and re-
position existing products. To date,
most of the emphasis has been on
new product development {Business
Week, 1970). Here, perceptual map-
ping is valuable in defining "gaps" in
the market representing unfilled needs
for a significant group of consumers.
The problem, then, is to "build" a
brand that is perceived as fulfilling
unmet needs by a sufficient number of
consumers to insure profitability.
Perceptual mapping can also be
used to determine how brands should
be repositioned once they are located
on a set of perceived product charac-
teristics. For example, a brand may be
close to another in the company's line
on certain product dimensions, caus-
ing an unacceptable level of cannibal-
ization. Perceptual mapping could sug-
gest changes in perceptions required
to reposition the brand to appeal to
other segments.
The author is indebted to the Nestle
Company and to Henry Jendras. Nestle's
Director of Marketing Research, for per-
mission to use the data in this article.
The Nestle Study
This paper describes a metbod of
positioning existing products based on
ratings of perceived product charac-
teristics. The study was conducted for
the Nestle Company in 1968 to de-
termine if regional dififerences in prod-
uet perceptions could be exploited by
repositioning certain brands through
selective advertising changes.
Five types of generically related
beverages plus the broader generic
category were to be positioned by con-
sumer perceptions of product charac-
teristics. Product criteria were previ-
ously established by focused group in-
terviews and by inclusion based on
the company's advertising themes.
Since sharp regional differences in the
consumption of product types were
known (Table 1), product configura-
tions were to be obtained regionally
and nationally.
A national sample of 2,100 bouse-
wives was asked questions concerning
the nature and frequency of consump-
39
Journal of Advertising Research
tion, brand and advertising recall, rea-
sons for use, etc. The configuration of
product types was based on a question
asking housewives to rate the degree
to which 15 criteria described the
product types.
Ratings were on an 11-point scale,
ten being labelled "describes very
well" and zero "does not describe at
all." Product criteria, such as "con-
venient," "provides lift and pickup,"
"nutritious," etc., were representative.
Positioning by Perceptions
Principal components (factor) anal-
ysis was used to position the product
types on the preselected product cri-
teria. Factor analysis is ordinarily ap-
plied in marketing as a reductive tech-
nique to derive a more parsimonious
set of factors (f) from a group of
original variables (r). A factor matrix
(f X r) is derived from an intercor-
relation matrix of the orignal varables
(rxr).
The factor matrix is composed of
factor loadings on each factor for
every variable. The loading is com-
parable to a correlation coefficient:
The square of the factor loading rep-
resents the proportion of variance in
the original variable explained by that
factor.
TABLE I
CONSUMPTION INDICES FOR
THREE BEVERAGES
(Total Sample = 100)
Cen-
East tral South West
Product B*
(Lbs/
Household 58 120 132 66
Product C
(Dollars/
Household) 156 56 97 61
Product D
(Lbs/
Household) 141 63 111 64
* Data for Products A and E not avail-
able
40
The problem in factor analysis is to
create a set of independent factors
which account for the maximum
amount of common variance across all
variables. In the Nestle study, a typi-
cal application of factor analysis
would derive a uniquely independent
set of perceptual dimensions (factors)
from the original set of perceived
product characteristics.
Factor analysis can also be used to
position objects or consumers in n-
dimensional factor space. Given n
factors for a product, each respond-
ent would be assigned a factor score
on each factor reflecting the degree to
which the factor was representative
of his perceptions of the product. Av-
erage scores could be computed by
predefined consumer groups. Individ-
ual consumers or consumer groups
could then be positioned in an n-di-
mensional perceptual map based on
their scores.
In a similar application of princi-
pal components analysis, Green,
Frank, and Robinson (1967) clus-
tered 88 test market cities by factor
analyzing 14 city characteristics. In
this case, the basic input was not re-
spondents but cities. The first 2 fac-
tors to emerge accounted for 74 per
cent of the variance. Each city (i.e.,
observation) was assigned two factor
scores based on its characteristics, and
FIGURE 1
PERCEPTUAL MAP OF TASTE AND
SOCIAL BENEFIT DIMENSIONS:
TOTAL SAMPLE
Social Benefit Factor
(Positive)
A A
Ideal
B D
Taste F^actor
(Negative)— -(Positive)
D (Negative)—
(Negative)
the 88 cities were positioned accord-
ingly on the first 2 factors.
The problem in the Nestle study was
that there were five product types be-
ing rated by consumers on 15 product
attributes. Thus, three elements were
operating simultaneously; respond-
ents, attributes, and objects. In the
Green, Frank, and Robinson study,
only the last two elements applied.
Factor analysis will operate on any
two elements—an intercorrelation ma-
trix of product attributes and assign-
ment of factor scores to respondents;
or an intercorreiation matrix of city
characteristics and assignment of fac-
tor scores to test cities—but not on
all three.
One alternative to examining all
three components simultaneously
would be to factor analyze each prod-
uct type separately, based on an inter-
correlation matrix of consumer rat-
ings for each product attribute.
If the factor structures are signifi-
cantly different across product types,
then the products could not be posi-
tioned on the same perceptual map.
This would suggest that the original
attributes had different meanings for
the product types within the category.
On the other hand, if as one would
suspect, similar factors emerged across
product types due to their generic re-
lationships, there would be no prob-
FIGURE 2
PERCEPTUAL MAP OF TASTE AND
SOCIAL BENEFITS DIMENSIONS:
SOUTH
Social Benefits Factor
(Positive)
Ideal
Taste Factor B
-(Positive)
(Negative)

FIGURE 4
I'F.RCEPTUAL MAP OF TASTE AND
SOCIAL BENEFITS DIMENSIONS:
WEST
Social Benefits Factor
(Positive)
A Ideal
B Four factors emerged in all but one
Tiiste Faclor
(Negative) — -(Positive)
D
(Negative)
lem in dealing with objects, attributes,
and respondents simultaneously. One
set of factors could represent all six
objects, permitting the positioning of
the product on the same perceptual
maps. There would be little variation
between product types by the latent
structure of the perceptual criteria,
but significant variation in rating prod-
ucts on these critera.
To test the assumption of homo-
geneity of dimensions across product
types, separate principal components
analyses were performed for each of
the five product types and the generic
category.
The factors were derived from inter-
correlations of the 15 attitudinal cri-
teria for each product type based on
Ihe original attitudinal ratings by the
2,100 respondents. The correlation
FIGURE 3
PERCEPTUAL MAP OF TASTE AND
SOCIAL BENEFITS DIMENSIONS:
CENTRAL REGION
Social Benefits Factor
(Positive)
A Ideal
Tiiste Factor B marketing problems, Dr. Assael bas
(Negative) — -(Positive)
D tation, sampling tecbniques and rela-
C tionsbips of consumer attitudes to be-
E bavior. He consults for a number of
(Negative)
matrix of 15 product attributes was
broken down into 15 new compon-
ents based on the correlations be-
tween attributes. The adjusted matrix
was then rotated by the Varitnax cri-
terion, assuring a unique solution. Fac-
tor derivatioti was stopped at an eigen-
value equal to 1.0.
case. A fifth factor emerged for the
product type that was the least gen-
erically related.
It was apparent that the first four
factors were close to identical across
all products. The factors were la-
belled "taste," "social benefits," "prod-
uct benefits," and "convenience." The
factor loadings for the four comtnon
factors were intercorrelated for all
pairs of products. Correlations ranged
between .79 and .96. Thus, the latent
structure of the evaluative product cri-
Henry Assael is an associate professor
of marketing at the Graduate School
of Business Administration, New York
University. A graduate of Harvard
University, he received his M.B.A.
from the Wharton School and Ph.D.
from Columbia. An expert in the ap-
plication of multivariate analyses to
published ailicles on market segmen-
leading marketing firms in tbe New
York area.
Volume / /, Number I. February 1971
FIGURE 5
PERCEPTUAL MAP OF TASTE AND
SOCIAL BENEFITS DIMENSIONS:
EAST
Social Benefits Factor
(Positive)
Ideal
D
Taste Factor
(Negative)— -(Positive)
(Negative)
teria could be regarded as constant
across the product types to be posi-
tioned. This meant that objects and
respondents could be positioned on
the same attitudinai dimensions iti a
spatial configuration.
The next step was to position the
objects in such a spatial configuration
with the axes representing specific per-
ceptual dimensions (factors). Factor
scores on each of the four dimensions
were required for each product type
to develop the spatial configurations.
Since there were minimum variations
between factor loadings for each of
the five product types and the generic
category, it was necessary to select a
constant factor structure across prod-
uct types. The factor loadings for the
generic category were used for this
purpose.
The factor scores for each product
were computed as follows: A re-
; I
FIGURE 6
PERCEPTUAL MAP OF TASTE AND
CONVENIENCE DIMENSIONS FOR
PRODUCT C BY REGION
Convenience
Factor
(Positive)
West East
Taste Factor
(Negative) -(Positive)
South
Central
(Negative)
41
Journal oj Advertising Research
spondent's original rating of a prod-
uct on a specific attribute was multi-
plied by the attribute's factor loading
for the generic category. The result
was divided by the standard deviation
of the product attribute, creating a
standardized score with standard de-
viation of one. Summing this result
across the 15 criteria produced the
respondent's factor score on the di-
miension for the given product. The
factor scores were then averaged for
the total sample and by region. This
meant that every product type was as-
signed a "taste," "social benefits,"
"product benefits," and "convenience"
score by region.
Results
Given the four factors, 6 two-di-
mensional maps were produced for
each region and nationally. Maps rep-
resenting perceptions of the taste and
social benefits dimensions for the total
sample and respondents in each of the
four regions are in Figures 1-5. Table
1 presents consumption indices for
three of the products based on na-
tional averages.
The generic category was in the
most ideal position on all maps. This
was true for the other dimensions as
well. Apparently, consumers con-
sidered the generic category as a posi-
tive yardstick and rated the other five
product types accordingly. Product A
is consistently closest to the ideal on
both the taste and social benefits di-
mensions. Product E appears in the
negative quadrant across all regions,
although it is in a slightly more favor-
able position on both dimensions in
the South.
Product B always appears in the
positive quadrant, yet it forms a clus-
ter with D among Southern respond-
ents and with C among Eastern re-
spondents. The lack of variation
across regions despite substantial dif-
ferences in consumption indices (rang-
42
ing from 58 in the East to 132 in the
South) suggests that taste and social
benefits do not discriminate by re-
gional behavior.
More pronounced differences
emerge by region for Products C and
D. Product C is perceived much more
favorably by Easterners on taste and
social benefits. Dollar expenditures
per bousehold for Product C in the
East are 56 per cent above the na-
tional average, a logical association to
positive taste perceptions. The prod-
uct was positioned similarly by re-
spondents in the South and Central
regions, yet was rated more favorably
by Westerners on social benefits, de-
spite a consumption index of only 61.
Taste is the prime discriminator of
regional behavior for Produet C. So-
cial benefits rather than taste is the
primary behavioral discriminator for
Product D. Eastern and Southern re-
spondents position the brand most fa-
vorably on social benefits, paralleling
higher consumptioti indices. Except
for the South, moderately negative
taste perceptions remained constant.
Sharp differences in perceptions of so-
cial benefits were not anticipated, sug-
gesting that the product could be re-
positioned regionally by exploiting this
attribute.
Maps were also developed by re-
gion for a given product type. Figure
6 presents regional differences in per-
cepts of Product C by the taste and
convenience dimensions. Sucb a map
serves to summarize differences by
consumer group, holding brand or
product type constant.
Conclusion
Perceptual mapping is a valuable
method of data reduction. At a time
when marketing management's data
inputs are increasingly complex', it
provides a relatively simple snapshot
of the market by product types or con-
sumer groups.
Perceptions must, of course, be re-
lated to behavior if strategic implica-
tions are to be drawn from consumer
or product positions in perceptual
space. Given such associations, man-
agement can then test hypotheses re-
garding product or advertising strate-
gies to introduce new products or re-
position existing ones.
Tbe key element is the need for
continual measurements of perceptions
and behavior to trace shifts in prod-
uct perceptions and evaluate the suc-
cess of repositioning strategies. The
Nestle data were obtained from such a
tracking study. Similar data systems
would be required to apply perceptual
mapping effectively.
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