Chapter 12 VECTOR ALGEBRA 12.1 Historical introduction 12.2 The vector space of n-tuples of real numbers 12.3 Geometric interpretation for n <3 12.4 Exercises 12.4.1 n. 1 (p. 450) (a) at b= (b) a—b = (-3,6,3) (c) at b—c=(3,-1,4). (a) 7a — 2b — 3e = (—7, 24, 21). (c) 2a+b~ 3c = (0,0,0). 12.4.2 n. 2 (p. 450) ‘The seven points to be drawn are the following: ) (0,5) 2) (4,7), 0,- ‘The purpose of the exercise is achieved by drawing, as required, a single picture, containing all the points (included the starting points A and B, I would say)26 Vector algebra Tt can be intuitively seen that, by letting ¢ vary in all R, the straight line through point A with direction given by the vector b = OB is obtained. 12.4.3 n. 8 (p. 450) ‘The seven points this time are the following: 62)-(9. G2. a00 It can be intuitively seen that, by letting ¢ vary in all R, the straight line through B with direction given by the vector a = OA is obtained.Exercises 7 1244 nf (p. 450) (a) The seven points to be drawn are the following: 6). (68). ‘The whole purpose of this part of the exercise is achieved by drawing a single picture, containing all the points (included the starting points A and B, I would say). This is made clear, it seems to mo, by the question immediately following, (3,-1) , (4,-3) (i ‘) » (0,5) (b) It is hard not to notice that all points belong to the same straight line; indeed, as it is going to be clear alter the second lecture, all the combinations are affine. (c) If the value of is fixed at 0 and y varies in [0,1], the segment OB is obtained; the same construction with the value of x fixed at 1 yields the segment AD, where OD = OA+ OB, and hence D is the vertex of the parallelogram with three vertices at O, A, and B. Similarly, when x = } the segment obtained joins the midpoints of the two sides OA and BD; and it is enough to repeat the construetion a few more times to convince oneself that the set {va + yb: (x,y) € (0, 1)?} is matched by the set of all points of the parallelogram OADB. The picture below is made with the value of x fixed at 0, 4, 4, 3,1, 828 Vector algebra os aa (A) All the segments in the above construction are substituted by straight lines, and the resulting set is the (infinite) stripe bounded by the lines containing the sides OB and AD, of equation 31 — y = 0 and 3x — y = 5 respectively. (e) The whole plane 12.4.5 n. 5 (p. 450) Il e+3y=c 211-1 Sy = 2e2-e a \_8a-e@/ 2), 2-aft (2)- 5 ({)+ 3 3 12.4.6 n. 6 (p. 451) (a) 1 0 1 a+tz d=rf1)4y{1}oz}1 )=[ cty4e 1 1 0 ty (b) To za-z I p+z=0 I rhyee Mon y=0 ln ety ()ol 2=0 (or 250 (©) I gtz=1 I xtytz=2 Hl r+y=3Exercises 29 124.7. Vp. 451) (a) 1 9 d=r{1]}+y[i 1 1 (b) I r+22=0 ID r+yt+z2=0 IIT x+y+z=0 (e) T a+2z=1 HI-Tl 0=1 I rtytz2=2 IIE s+y+2=3 12.4.8 n. 8 (p. 451) (a) 1 0 1 B+z _ 1 1 1 ety dar} stu) preto fa] ay 0 1 0 y (b) I 2t2=0 Iv y=0 ID rty+z=0 IVGHI «=0 HI c+y=0 Wor 2-0 IV y=0 IT (check) 0=0 (©) Ir IV y= I ctytz=5 VOI « Il e+y=3 (Nor: IV y=4 II (check) -1+4+2=5 (d) I etz=1 I rtyt+z=2 IIT c+y=3 IV y=4 II-1-1V 0=-330 Vector algebra 124.9 n. 9 (p. £51) Let the two vectors u and v be both parallel to the vector w. According to the definition at page 450 (just before the beginning of § 12.4), this means that there are ‘two real nonzero numbers a and f such that u=aw and v = Sw. Then that is, w is parallel to w. 12.4.10 1. 10 (p. 451) Assumptions: I c=atb Il 3keR~ {0}, a=kd Claim: (She R~ {0}, e= hd) + (Ale R~ {0}, b= Id) I present two possible lines of reasoning (among others, probably). If you look carefully, they differ only in the phrasing, 1. She R~ {0}, e=hd ? SheR~ {0}, atb=hd sp hER~ {0}, 2kER~ {0}, kKd+b=hd © Fhe R~ {0}, 3kER~ {0}, b= (hk) (b 40) n¢k oe Sle R~ {0}, bald ee 2. (=) Since (by 1) we have b =~ a, if c is parallel to d, then (by 11) b is the difference of two vectors which are both parallel to d; it follows that b, which is nonnull, is parallel to d too. (<) Since (by 1) we have ¢ = a+b, if b is parallel to d, then (by I) ¢ is the sum of two vectors which are both parallel to d; it follows that ¢, which is nonnull, is parallel to d too. 124.11 n. 11 (p. 451) (b) Here is an illustration of the first distributive law (a+ 8)v =av + SvExercises 31 with v = (2.1), a = 2, 6 = 3. The vectors v, av, Sv, av + Bv are displayed by means of representative oriented segments from left to right, in black, red, blue, and red-blue colour, respectively. The oriented segment representing vector (a + 8) v is above, in violet. The dotted lines are there just to make it clearer that the two oriented segments representing av + Av and (a + 8)v are congruent, that is, the vectors av + Gv and (a + 8) v are the same. tails are marked with a cross, heads with a diamond An illustration of the second distributive law a(u+yv) =au+av is provided by means of the vectors u = (1,3), v = (2,1), and the scalar a = 2. The vectors u and au are represented by means of blue oriented segments; the vectors v and av by means of red ones; u + v and «(w+ v) by green ones; au + av is in violet. The original vectors u, v, u + v are on the left; the “rescaled” vectors au, av, a(u+v) on the right. Again, the black dotted lines are there just to emph: congruence,32 Vector algebra tails are marked with a cross, heads with a diamond 12.412 n. 12 (p. 451) ‘The statement. to be proved is better understood if written in homogeneous form, with all vectors represented by oriented OAs 330 (12.1) Since A and C are opposed vertices, the same holds for O and B; this means that the oriented segment OB covers precisely one diagonal of the parallelogram OABC, and AC precisely covers the other (in the rightward-downwards orientation), hence what needs to be proved is the following: OA +4 (00 - OA) - 5 (TA +00) which is now scen to be an immediate consequence of the distributive properties. In the picture below, OA is in red, OC in blue, OB = OA + OC in green, and AG = 06 — OA in violet.The dot product 33 ‘The geometrical theorem expressed by equation (12.1) is the following: Theorem 1 The two diagonals of every parallelogram intersect at a point which di vides them in two segments of equal length. In other words, the intersection point of the two diagonals is the midpoint of both. Indeed, the lefthand side of (12.1) is the vector represented by the oriented segment OM, where M is the midpoint of diagonal AC (violet), whereas the righthand side is the vector represented by the oriented segment ON, where N is the midpoint of diagonal AB (green). More explicitly, the movement from O to M is described as achieved by the composition of a first movement from O to A with a second movement from A towards C, which stops halfway (red plus half the violet); whereas the movement from A to is described as a single movement from A toward B, stopping halfway (half the green). Since (12.1) asserts that OM = ON, equality between M and N follows, and hence a proof of (12.1) is a proof of the theorem 12.5 The dot product 12.6 Length or norm of a vector 12.7 Orthogonality of vectors 12.8 Exercises 1281 n. 1 (p. 456) (a) (a,b) =—6 (b) (bye) =2 (©) (ae) =6 (@) (ab+e)=0 (0) (a—b,e) =4 12.8.2 n. 2 (p. 456) (a) (a,b) e =(2-2+4-64 (-7)-3) (8,4,-5) = 7(3,4, 5) = (21,28, (b) (ab +c) =2-(24+3) 44-6 +4) + (-7) (3-5) = 6434 Vector algebra (c) (a+b,c) =(2+2)-3+ (44+6)-44(-7+3)-( (a) afb,c) = (2,4,-7) (2-3 +6-443- (—5)) = (2.4,-7) 15 = (30, 60, -105) sien (24 2 (©) wis = Sr t-%) 128.3 n. 8 (p. 456) ‘The statement is false. Indeed, {a,b) = (a,c) @ (a,b—c) =0¢7a lL b—e and the difference b — ¢ may well be orthogonal to a without being the null vector. ‘The simplest example that I can conceive is in R?: a=(10) b=(1) ¢=(1,2) See also exercise 1, question (4). 12.8.4. 5 (p. 456) ‘The required vector, of coordinates (x,y,z) must satisfy the two conditions (2,1,-1),(%,%2)) = 0 (Q,-1,2),(2%2)) = 0 that is, T+ 3rt+z2=0 20411 srt+y=0 I Ww+y- I -yt2 Thus the set of all such vectors can be represented in parametric form as follows: {(0, 0,80) ocx 12.8.5 n. 6 (p. 456) (eb) =0 eet > (zat yb,b) =0 = (ab) + y(b.b) =0 & Te+1dy=0 Let (,y) = (-2,1). Then = (1,5,—4) 40 and ((1,5, -4),(3,1,2)) =0.Exercises 35 12.8.6 n. 7 (p. £56) 1 (solution with explicit mention of coordinates) From the last condition, for some a to be determined, = (a,2a, 2a) Substituting in the first condition, a -e=(2— —2a,2+2a) ‘Thus the second condition becomes 1-(2-a)+2-(-1—2a) —2(2+ 2a) =0 that is, and hence 1 \ c = 2 (-4,-8,8) c 3¢ 1 7 d= 5(22,-1,10) 2 (same solution, with no mention of coordinates) From the last condition, for some « to be determined, e=ab Substituting in the first condition, d=a-c ‘Thus the second condition becomes (b,a—ab) =0 that is, (b,a) —a(b,b) =0 (bya) _ 2-14 (1) 242-(-2) 4 , “ee 1422 4 (-2)7 9 and hence 1 c = (—4, -8, 8) c 34 ) 1 d = —(22,—1,10) 5 )36 Vector algebra 128.7 n. 10 (p. 456) (a) b= (1,-1) or b= (-1,1) (b) b= (-1,-1) or b= (1,1) (c) b= (-3,-2) or b = (3,2) (d) b = (0,2) or b = (-b,a). 128.8 n. 13 (p. 456) If b is the required vector, the following conditions must be satisfied {a,b)=0 — |[bl| = lal Ifa =0, then ||al| = 0 and hence b = 0 as well. Ifa #0, let the coordinates of a be given by the couple (a, 9), and the coordinates of b by the couple (x, y). The above conditions take the form ort py-0 PtP a+ eh? Either @ or 9 must be different from 0. Suppose a is nonzero (the situation is completely analogous if 3 # 0 is assumed). ‘Then the first equations gives 8 =, 12.2) a! (12.2) and substitution in the second equation yields Be 2. atl yoes+f © that is, 4 P SS and hence y=ta Substituting back in (12.2) gives r= FO Thus there are only two solutions to the problem, namely, b = (—f,a) and b = (8, —a) In particular, (a) b = (-2,1) or b= (2,-1). (b) b= (2,-1) or b = (-2,1) (0) b= (-2,-1) or b = (2,1) (a) b =(-1,2) or b= (1, -2)Exercises 37 12.8.9 n. 14 (p. 456) 1 (right angle in C; solution with explicit mention of coordinates) Let (7, y, 2) be the coordinates of C. If the right angle is in C, the two vectors CA and GB must be orthogonal. Thus ((@,-1,1) = uy, 2)] [(3, -4, -4) — (#, y, z)]) = 0 that is, ((2,-1,1) , (8, -4, -4)) + (C2, ys 2) (2,9, 2)) = ((2, “1, 1) + (3, -4,-4) a, or e+yt+2?—5rt by +3z+6=0 ‘The above equation, when rewritten in a more perspicuous way by “completion of the squares” 2 5 2) and radius &. ‘olution, with no mention of coordinates) Let is seen to define the sphere of e 2 (right angle in C; same a=0A b=OB x=0C (stressing that the point C, hence the vector OC, is unknown). Then, orthogonality of the two vectors CA=a-x CB=b-x is required; that is, or (ab) — (a+ b,x) + (x.x) =0 x)+ Equivalently, 2 2 atb — (a,b) a4 238 Vector algebra ‘The last characterization of the solution to our problem shows that the solution set is the locus of all points having fixed distance (|| #5#||) from the midpoint of the segment AB. Indeed, if 7 is any plane containing AB, and C is any point of the circle of x having AB as diameter, it is known by elementary geometry that the triangle ACB is rectangle in C. 3 (right angle in B; solution with explicit mention of coordinates) With this approach, the vectors required to be orthogonal are BA and BC. Since B (-1,3,5) and BC = (a —1,y+4,2 +44), the following must hold 0 (BA, BC) 1-2 +3y4+12+52+20 that is, 2 —3y—52=33 ‘The solution set is the plane w through B and orthogonal to (1, —3, — 4 (right angle in B; same solution, with no mention of coordinates) Pro- ceeding as in the previous point, with the notation of point 2, the condition to be required is 0=(a—b,x—b) that is, (a~b,x) = (a—b,b) ‘Thus the solution plane m is seen to be through B and orthogonal to the segment connecting point B to point AExercises 39 5 (right angle in B) It should be clear at this stage that the solution set in this case is the plane x’ through A and orthogonal to AB, of equation (b—a,x) = (b—a,a) It is also clear that 7 and 7! are parallel, 128.10 n. 15 (p. 456) I cr—e2 +2ey=0 I+II 3a +¢e3=0 IT 2c; +e, —¢3 =0 T4211 Se, +e. =0 = (-1,5,3) 12.811 n. 16 (p. 456) Pp = (3a, 4a) IT 3a4+4f—1 = (43, ~33) HT 4a 411430 %a=11 AI -3I1 256 = -2 1 5 P= = (33,44 128.12 n. 17 (p. 456) ‘The question is identical to the one already answered in exercise 7 of this section. Recalling solution 2 to that exercise, we have that p = OP must be equal to ab = OB, with ‘Thus40 Vector algebra 128.13 n. 19 (p. 456) Tt has been quickly seen in class that a+ bl? = Jal? + lb? +2 (a,b) substituting —b to b, I obtain ila— bl? = |lal? + bl? — 2 (a,b) By subtraction, \la+ bl)? — ja— bl? =4 (a,b) as required. You should notice that the above identity has been already used at the end of point 2 in the solution to exercise 14 of the present section. Concerning the geometrical interpretation of the special case of the above identity la+bl?=|ja—bl? — ifand only if (a,b) =0 it is enough to notice that orthogonality of a and b is equivalent to the property for the parallelogram OACB (in the given order around the perimeter, that is, with vertex C opposed to the vertex in the origin O) to be a rectangle; and that in such a rectangle ||a + bl| and ||a — bl] measure the lengths of the two diagonals. 128.14 n. 20 (p. 456) a+b)? + lla bl? (a+b,a+b)+(a—b,a—b) {a,a) + 2(a,b) + (b,b) + (aa) — 2 (a,b) + (b,b) 2al? + 2\b\? ‘The geometric theorem expressed by the above identity can be stated as follows: Theorem 2 In every parallelogram, the sum of the squares of the four sides equals the sum of the squares of the diagonals. 128.15 n. 21 (p. 457) Lo oyExercises a Lot A, B, C, and D be the four vertices of the quadrilateral, starting from left in clockwise order, and let M and N be the midpoint of the diagonals AC and DB. In order to simplify the notation, let u=4B, v=5G, w=CD, 2=DA-—(utv+w) ‘Then ce = AC=utv d= AN ~ AM 2u+(v+w)—(utv)=wtu 1 aly “3 Ilw\)? + |jul)? + 2 (w, a) Uhl? + |v? + jw)? + 2(a,v) +2 (aw) +2 (v, w) ljul? + iv? +2(u, vy IlvI? + [lwl? +2 (vw) ‘We are now in the position to prove the theorem. (jul? + liv? + Iw? + ial?) — (ile? + thal?) (ial? — |Ivll? — 2(u, v) — 2 (vw) (? + lw? + 2a, w) 12.816 n. 22 (p. 457) Orthogonality of a + yb and dya — 9b amounts to 0 = (xa+yb,dya—9rb) —9{a,b) 2? +4 (a,b) y® + (4 lal? — 9||b|?) cy Since the above must hold for every couple (, y), choosing x = 0 and y = 1 gives {a,b) = 0; thus the condition becomes (4 lla? —9[)b|?) 2 =0 and choosing now x = y = 1 gives 4llall? = 9b? Since |Jal| is known to be equal to 6, it follows that [jbl] is equal to 4.42 Vector algebra Finally, since a and b have been shown to be orthogonal, |[2a+ 3b]? = ||2al)? + |[3bl)? + 2 (2a, 3b) = P4347 42-2-3-0 = OP and hence \|2a + 3b|| = 12V2 12.817 n. 24 (p. 457) ‘This is once again the question raised in exercises 7 and 17, in the general context of the linear space IR" (where n € N is arbitrary). Since the coordinate-free version of the solution procedure is completely independent from the number of coordinates of the vectors involved, the full answer to the problem has already been seen to be {b,a) (aay (b,a) d Yaay* 12.818 n. 25 (p. 457) (a) For every x € R, ja+ab|? = jal? +2? ||? + 22 (a,b) = lal? +2? \[bl|? ifalb > jal? ifaLb (b) Since the norm of any vector is nonnegative, the following biconditional is true: (ve ER, |jatablj > all) + (veeR, |a+azbl? > lal") Moreover, by pure computation, the following biconditional is true: WreER, |latcbll’— al? >0¢VeeR, 2? |[bl? +2x(a,b) >0 If (a,b) is positive, the trinomial 2? ||b||’ + 2x (a, b) is negative for all x in the open interval (338.0); if it is negative, the trinomial is negative in the open interval (0.-282) It follows that the trinomial can be nonnegative for every x € R only if (a,b) is zero, that is, only if it reduces to the second degree term «*|[b||?. In conclusion, I have proved that the conditional (Vr ER, |lat+ebl > \al)) > (a,b) =0 is true.Projections. Angle between vectors in n-space 43 12.9 Projections. Angle between vectors in n-space 12.10 The unit coordinate vectors 12.11 Exercises 12.111 n. 1 (p. 460) (a,b) = 11 b\I? =9 (955) (a,b) = 10 bl)” ‘The projection of a along b is 12.112 n. 2 (p. 460) ‘The projection of a along b is 1211.3 n. 3 (p. 460) (a) cosai cosaj = Wee llall il) cosai = kK) _ 2 . lla Ik 7 (b) There are just two vectors as required, the unit direction vector u of a, and its opposite:44 Vector algebra 12114 n. 5 (p. 460) Let A= P ‘Then 35 Vv v35Vv4a1 41 6 vovtL Vey a 0 v6v35 ‘There is some funny occurrence in this exercise, which makes a wrong solution apparently correct (or almost correct), if one looks only at numerical results. ‘The angles in A, B, C, as implicitly argued above, are more precisely described as BAC, CBA, ACB; that is, as the three angles of triangle ABC. If some confusion is made between points and vectors, and/or angles, one may be led into operate directly with the coordinates of points A, B, C in place of the coordinates of vectors BC, AC, AB, yectively. This amounts to work, as a matter of fact, with the vectors OA, OB, therefore computing (0B, oc) . [eae = cosBOC an angle of triangle OBC (00,0) . lla cosCOA an angle of triangle OCA (GA,0B) . joal ou} cosAOB an angle of triangle OAB instead of cos BAC, cosCBA, cos ACB, respectively. Up to this point, there is nothing funny in doing that; it’s only a mistake, and a fairly bad one, being of conceptual type. The funny thing is in the numerical data of the exercise: it so happens that 1. points A, B, C are coplanar with the origin O; more than that, 2. OA = BC and OB = AC; more than that,Exercises 45 3. AOB isa right angle. Point 1 already singles out a somewhat special situation, but point 2 makes OACB a parallelogram, and point 3 makes it even a rectangle. OA red, OB blue, OC green, AB violet It turns out, therefore, that. || = Be] =tet joa =|Ac| -t-a1=tat foc aa ~ tet COA=CBA BOC=BAC AOB=ACB and such a special cireumstance leads a wrong solution to yield the right munbers. 12.11.65 n. 6 (p. 460) Since late+ bl]? = |la tel? + bl? +2(a+e,b) from ate+bl=ate—bll it is possible to deduce {a+e,b) =0 ife= This is certainly true, as a particular e: , which immediately implies ae be =46 Vector algebra Moreover, even if a + ¢ = 0 is not assumed, the same conclusion holds. Indeed, from (cb) = - (a,b) and lle|| = llall it is easy to check that ~ (bel — cosbe = P- (ave) cosab Wei lel Tei Tall and hence that be = 7 + a€ = Er, £r (the second value being superfluous) 12.1.6 n. 8 (p. 460) We have ila (n+1) 2 cos ab, = lim_cos ab, = 12.11.7 n. 10 (p. 461) (a) (a,b) = cosdsinwd — cosdsind = 0 lial? ||? = cos? d + sin? Y = 1 (b) The system (2) 2)G)-() (mee ol) G)-(@) has the trivial solution as its unique solution if cosd-1 sind sind cos? that is, [FoExercises a7 ‘The computation gives 1+cos*#+sin?9-2cosd 4 0 2(1-cosd) 4 0 cos #1 v¢ ‘Thus if #9 {(—2kr, (2k +1) T)hrex the only vector satisfying the required condition is (0,0). On the other hand, if VE (2kr hey the coefficient matrix of the above system is the identity matrix, and every vector in R? satisfies the required condition. 12.118 n. 11 (p. 461) Let OABC be a rhombus, which I have taken (without loss of generality) with one vertex in the origin O and with vertex B opposed to O. Let OA (red) b=OB (green) c=OC (blue) a Since OABC is a parallelogram, the oriented segments AB (blue, dashed) and OB are congruent, and the same is true for CB (red, dashed) and OA. Thus AB=b CB=a From elementary geometry (sce exercise 12 of section 4) the intersection point M of the two diagonals OB (green) and AC (violet) is the midpoint of both. ‘The assumption that OABC is a rhombus is expressed by the equality lall= lel ((chombus))48 Vector algebra, ‘The statement to be proved is orthogonality between the diagonals (OB, AC) ~0 that is, (atee—a)=0 or lle? lal? + (a,c) — (,a) =0 and hence (by commutativity) lle? = lal? ‘The last equality is an obvious consequence of ((rhombus)). As a matter of fact, since norms are nonnegative real numbers, the converse is true, too. Thus a parallelogram has orthogonal diagonals if and only if it is a rhombus. 12.119 n. 13 (p. 461) ‘The equality to be proved is straightforward. The “law of cosines” is often called Theorem 3 (Carnot) In every triangle, the square of each side is the sum of the squares of the other two sides, minus their double product multiplied by the cosine of the angle they form. The equality in exam can be readily interpreted according to the theorem’s statement, since in every parallelogram ABCD with a = AB and b = AC the diagonal vector CB is equal to a — b, so that the triangle ABC has side vectors a, b, and a—b. The theorem specializes to Pythagoras’ theorem when a 1 b. 12.11.10 n. 17 (p. 461) (a) That the function R' SR, av ) lai) is positive can be scen by the same arguments used for the ordinary norm; nonnega- tivity is obvious, and strict positivity still relies on the fact that a sum of concordant, numbers can only be zero if all the addends are zero. Homogeneity is clear, too: Va € R" YaeR, lleall = S7 Joa) = Slo} jax] = fa] asl = Ja [lal ica ica teaExercises 49 Finally, the triangle inequality is much simpler to prove for the present norm (some- times referred to as “the taxi-eab norm”) than for the euclidean norm: Va € R",vYbeR", a+b] = ST las + bl < Sohail + [bil = DO lad + > ail = llall+ |b), (b) The subset of IR? to be described is wy mW {(z.y) RP: [ol + [y| = S).US_, US US, where = {(x,y)€R2:2+y=1} (red) {(r.y) @R_xRy:—e+y=1} (green) {(2,y) €R? :-2-y=1} (violet) {(r.y) €R, xR y=1} (blue) Once the lines whose equations appear in the definitions of the four sets above are Grawn, it is apparent that S is a square, with sides parallel to the quadrant bisectrices (c) The function f:R" SR, as ail is nonnegative, but not positive (e.g., for n = 2, f (x, homogeneous: = 0¥r € R). Ibis Va € RY, VoeR, Soa te lleall50 Vector algebra Finally, f is subadditi holds). Indeed, c, too (this is another way of saying that the triangle inequality va € R", vbeR" ja+bll = |So(a+b)) =/Soa+ Soa < fea ton fe = all + III 12.12 The linear span of a finite set of vectors 12.13 Linear independence 12.14 Bases 12.15 Exercises 1215.1 n. 1 (p. 467) e(i-j)+ylGitj)=@+yy-2) (a) © +y=1and y—2=0 yield (2,y) = (§.4) (b) ©+y=0 and y—2=1 yield (¢,y) = (-$.4) (c) #+y=3 and y— 2 =—5 yield (x,y) = (4,-1) (d) e+y=7 and y— 5 yield (x,y) = (1,6) 1215.2 n. 3 (p. 467) I Wwty=2 I+il 30 Ho -e+2y=-11 9 «U4 y Ul 2-y III (check) 34+4=7 ‘The solution is (1, y)Exercises 5 1215.3 n. 5 (p. 467) (a) If there exists some a € R ~ {0} such that* a = ab, then the linear combination la—ab is nontrivial and it generates the null vector; a and b are linearly dependent (b) The argument is best formulated by counterposition, by proving that if a and b are linearly dependent, then they are parallel. Let a and b nontrivially generate the null vector: @a + Gb = 0 (according to the definition, at least one between a and 3 is nonzero; but in the present case they are both nonzero, since a and b have been assumed both different from the null vector; indecd, aa + Sb = 0 with a = 0 and £0 implies b = 0, and aa + 3b = 0 with J = 0 and a #0 implies a = 0). Thus aa = —Gb, and hence a= —£b (or b = ~$a, if you prefer). 12.154 n. 6 (p. 467) Linear independency of the vectors (a,b) and (c,d) has been seen in the lectures (proof of Steinitz’ theorem, part 1) to be equivalent to non existence of nontrivial solutions to the system ccor ar+ey = 0 brt+dy = 0 The system is linear and homogencous, and has unknowns and equations in equal number (hence part 2 of the proof of Steinitz’ theorem does not apply). I argue by the principle of counterposition, If a nontrivial solution (7,7) exists, both (a,c) and (b,d) must be proportional to (G,—Z) (see exercise 10, section 8), and hence to each other. Then, from (a,c) = h(b, d) it is immediate to derive ad—be = 0. The converse is immediate, too 1215.5 n. 7 (p. 467) By the previous exercise, it is enough to require a+t?-(a-t? #0 4 £0 t #0 1215.6 n. 8 (p. 467) (a) The linear combination lit 4 1k+(-) 45+) nontrivial and spans the null vector (b) Since, for every (a, 8,7) € RS ai + Bj + yk = (a, 8,7) ‘ven if parallelism is defined more broadly — see the footnote in exercise 9 of section 4 — a cannot be zero in the present case, because both a and b have been assumed different from the null vector52 Vector algebra it is clear that V(a,3,7) €R®, (ai + )+7k= 0) a=8=7=0 so that the triple (i,j,k) is linearly independent. (c) Similarly, for every (a, 3, y) € R*, ait Bj+7(i+5+k) = (a+7,84+7.9) and hence from ait 4704548) it follows aty=0 B+y that is, a=8=y7=0 showing that the triple (i,j,i-+J +k) is linearly independent. (a) The last argument can be repeated almost verbatim for triples (i,1-+ j-+k,k) and (i+j+k,j,k), taking into account that ait B(i+jtk)t7k = (046,847) alitit+k)+Ai+%k = (aat+f,a+y) 1215.7 n. 10 (p. 467) (a) Again from the proof of Steinitz’ theorem, part 1, consider the system, I rty+z=0 Uy HIT 32 0 It is immediate to derive that its unique solution is the trivial one, and hence that, the given triple is linearly independent, (b) We need to consider the following two systems: Tostyt IT yt ur 0 Tf wtyt ID y+ IIL 3z It is again immediate that the unique solutions to the systems are (—1,1,0) and respectively.Exercises 53 HI 3255 (A) For an arbitrary triple (a, 6, ), the system, I atytz=a Woytz=b Il 32=¢ has the (unique) solution (a — 6,6 — linearly independent (as seen at a). 1215.8. 12 (p. 467) (a) Let a + yb + 2¢ = 0, that is, . Thus the given triple spans IR*, and it is 8 tz =0 rtytz 0 rty = 0 y= 0 then y, x, and 2 are in tum seen to be equal to 0, from the fourth, third, and first equation in that order. Thus (a,b,¢) is a linearly independent triple. (b) Any nontrivial linear combination d of the given vectors makes (a,b,¢,d) a linearly dependent quadruple. For example, d = a+b +e = (2,3,2,1) (c) Let e = (1, -1, 1,3), and suppose ra + yb + ze + te = 0, that is, atz-t = 0 atyt+z-t = 0 rtytt = 0 y+3t = 0 ‘Then, subtracting the first equation from the second, gives y = 0, and hence t, «, and z are in tum seen to be equal to 0, from the fourth, third, and first equation in that order. Thus (a, b,¢,e) is linearly independent. (d) The coordinates of x with respect to {a,b,,e}, which has just been seen to be a basis of R4, are given as the solution (s,¢, u,v) to the following system: stun stttucy = sttte thou = meeBA It is more direct and orderly to work just with the table formed by Vector algebra the system (extended) matrix (A x ), and to perform elementary row operations and column exchanges. ay ag, 2a — ga! — ja! ag > ag, 2a! > gal ‘Thus the system has been given the following form: 0 1 1 0 0 Heeo oroe one sttty t 3u v 3 0 3 ly solved from the bottom to the top: (s,t, u,v) = (1,1, 1,1)Exercises 55 1215.9 n. 13 (p. 467) (a) a (V3,1,0) + 6 (1, V3.1) +7 (0.1, V3) = (0,0,0) I VBa+g=0 e WH at Vv3b4+7=0 Il 6+V8y~=0 I V3Ba+6=0 @ V3II-III-I 29=0 ur B+ VB7=0 © (a,8,7) = (0,0,0) and the three given vectors are linearly independent. (b) (V2, 1,0) + 8 (1, V2, 1) +7 (0,1, v2) = (0,0,0) To Vla+8=0 @ Il at+v2+y=0 IIT 8+ V2y=0 This time the sum of equations J and IT (multiplied by V2) is the same as twice equation IT, and a linear dependence in the equation system suggests that it may well have nontrivial solutions. Indeed, (v2,—2, V2) is such a solution. Thus the three given triple of vectors is linearly dependent. (ce) a(t,1,0) +8 (1,4,1) +7 (0,1,¢) = (0,0,0) I ta+ e Mo ati+ HIT B+ty It is clear that { = 0 makes the triple linearly dependent (the first and third vector coincide in this case). Let us suppose, then, ¢ # 0. From I and III, as already noticed, I deduce that a = +. Equations JJ and IJ then become tB+2y = 0 B+ty = 0 2.2 by 2 homogencous system with determinant of coefficient matrix equal to f? — 2. Such a system has nontrivial solutions for t ¢ { V2, V2}. In conclusion, the given triple is linearly dependent for t € {0, ¥2,—y2}.56 Vector algebra 12.15.10 n. 14 (p. 468) Call as usual u, v, w, and the four vectors given in each caso, in the order, (a) It is clear that v = u+w, so that v can be dropped. Moreover, every linear combination of u and w has the form (z,y,x,y), and cannot be equal to z, Thus (u,w,z) is a maximal linearly independent triple. (b) Notice that (u+z) = e® re —w) = e® Since (u,v, w, 2) spans the four canonical vectors, it is a basis of 4. Thus (u, v, w, 2) is maximal linearly independent. (c) Similarly, u-v = e v-w=e” woz ee) 2-0 and (u,v, w,2) is maximal linearly independent. 12.15.11 n. 15 (p. 468) (a) Since the triple (a,b,c) is linearly independent, alatb)+s(b+e)+y(a+e)=0 @ (at7)at(ats)b+(B+7)e=0 To at+y=0 I+H-III 2a=0 @ -I+M+II 28 I-H4+HI 2y and the triple (a +b, b +.¢,a +6) is linearly independent, too (b) On the contrary, choosing as nontrivial coefficient triple (a, 8,7) (1,-1.0), (a—b)—(b+e) + (ate) =0 it is seen that the triple (a — b,b +¢,a + ¢) is linearly dependent. 12.15.12 n. 17 (p. 468) Let a = (0,1,1) and b = (1,1,1); I look for two possible alternative choices of a vector © = (r,y,2) such that the triple (a,b,c) is linearly independent. Since aa} bb +7e= (8+ 72,048 +7y,0+8+42)Exercises 37 my choice of x, y, and 2 must be such to make the following conditional statement true for each (a, 9,7) € R°: I p+yx=0 Il atB+yy=0 b> Il at+f+72=0 Subtracting equation [77 from equation 11, I obtain y(y-z)=0 ‘Thus any choice of ¢ with y / 2 makes y — 0 a consequence of IT-I1T; in such a case, I yields 6 = 0 (independently of the value assigned to x), and then either [I or IIT yields a = 0. Conversely, if y = z, equations IT and ITI are the same, and system I-IIT has infinitely many nontrivial solutions a —w- 8 8 —W 7 free provided either x or y (hence 2) is different from zero. ‘As an example, possible choices for ¢ are (0,0,1), (0,1,0), (1,0,1), (1, 1,0). 1215.13 n. 18 (p. 468) ‘The first example of basis containing the two given vectors is in point (c) of exercise 14 in this section, since the vectors u and v there coincide with the present ones. Keeping the same notation, a second example is (u,v, w +2,w ~ 2). 12.15.14 n. 19 (p. 468) (a) It is enough to prove that each element of T belongs to lin S, since each element: of lin’ is a linear combination in 7’, and S, as any subspace of a vector space, is closed with respect to formation of linear combinations. Let u, v, and w be the three elements of $' (in the given order), and let a and b be the two elements of 7 (still in the given order); it is then readily checked that -w b=2w (b) The converse inclusion holds as well. Indeed, ‘Thus linS =linT58 Vector algebra Similarly, if ¢ and d are the two elements of U, Su¢v d=ut2v which proves that lin U C lin S. Inverting the above formulas, =2%-d v= se It remains to be established whether or not w is an element of lin U. Notice that ac + Bd = (a + 8,20 + 38,30 +53) It follows that w is an element of lin U if and only if there exists (a, 8) € R? such that I atp IT 2a+38 HT 3a+58= ‘The above system has the unique solution (3,2), which proves that lin S In conclusion, C lin, linS =linT = linU 12.15.15 n. 20 (p. 468) (a) The claim has already been proved in the last exercise, since from A C BI can infer AC lin B, and hence lin A C lin B. (b) By the last result, from AM BC A and AN BC B 1 infer lmANBClinA lmANBClinB which yields lin AN BC lin AN in B (c) It is enough to define ab} B={at+b} where the couple (a, b) is linearly independent. Indeed, BClinA and hence, by part (a) of last exercise, linB © YnlinA=linA InAnlnB = linB On the other hand, ANB=0 linAnB= {0}