Energy Storage and Distribyy; i a t™C™C~ONOT 16% ae ee only if available when and where it ig nergy Bes * istribution . Car! re it is wanted is called distribu: ; rying energy to where i i ; tion ; } available until when it is wanted is called storage. Wan, te, d SePing ig Means for storing energy in a readily recoverable form When the supply exceeds the demand for use at other er ecg of Primary fuels (e.g. coal, oil and gas) is a form of enerey si me ut the tern generally applies to actual energy and to secondary fuels (e.g. hydrogen) rather than to primary fuels. The effective utilization of intermittent and variable energy sources such as solar energy and wind energy, often requires energy storage. If the intermittent energy is converted into electricity, as it jg with solar photovoltaic cells and in most cases of wind energy utiliza. tion, electrical energy in excess of the demand might be fed directly ing, a utility grid. If this is not possible, some form of energy storage would be required. Furthermore, where solar energy is used to produce steam in generating electricity, thermal (heat) energy storage is necessary for continuous operation. Storage of thermal energy is also desirable when solar energy is used for space and water heating. In some circumstances, electricity may be generated, either on land or at sea, at a location that‘is too distant from a load (or consump- tion) centre for conventional transmission lines to be used, for example ocean thermal energy conversion, Means must then be found for both storing the energy and transporting it economically to a load centre. o' energy storage. Since the vehicle equivalent to the gasoline in a conven- storage system should be readiiy transportable.Ei nergy Storage And Distribution 779 fro additional demand for power during the daytum ee ity, of energy storage facilities, however, the less efficient units wail ‘eliminated. The most efficient plants are operated continuously forb2Cptimum (or rated) power level, excess electrical energy cr tie opie night and during weekends is stored for use when the seoeratee ceeds the base load. This procedure, called load levelling, can a the overall cost of generating electrical power. reais penewable energy supplies have different requirements for cage and distribution than do fossil or nuclear energy supplies. In os ticular the low intensity and wide distribution of renewable sources at decentralized end-use. Therefore energy from renewable sources et often not require much further distribution since the sources are siready distributed. However, some renewable sources can fruitfully be pamessed in & moderately centralized manner (e.g. large hydroelectric scheme): Since use of renewable energy supplies constitutes a diversion ofacontinuing natural flow of energy, there are problems in matching Supply and demand in the time domain, i.e. in matching the rate at which energy js used. This varies with time on scales of months (e.g. House heating in temperature climates), days (e.g. artificial lighting) and even seconds (e.g. starting motors). In contrast to fossil fuels and auclear power, the initial input power of renewable energy sources is outside our control. We have the choice of either matching the load to the availability of renewable energy supply, or storing the energy for future use. 16.2. Energy storage systems Methods for energy storage may be classified according to the form in which energy is stored ; the following categories appear to be the most important : 1. Mechanical energy storage (i) Pumped hydroelectric storage (ii) Compressed air (iii) Flywheel. 2. Electrical storage : the lead acid battery. 3. Chemical energy storage () Hydrogen (i) Ammonia (iii) Reversible chemical reactions. 4, Electromagnetic energy storage.780 — Non-Conventional Sour of Energy I —————E——EEeee 5. Thermal (heat) enorgy storage (i) Sensible heat (i) Latent heat (ii) Chemical reactions 6. Biological storage. The primary electric-generating plant is continuous), in a base load mode, which results in excess electricit, Prog Tatey during the off peak periods. Electrical or electrical-mechanj..1 a ical storage is then used to hold this excess electricity for use dug demand. bea, In thermal storage, all schemes deal with storing ener, . thermal form in a material during periods of low power ar aes releasing it back during periods of high demand. The prima Eis generating plant is operated to meet the real-time electrics] dent during off-peak hours. The available thermal energy input a thers may be essentially constant as is that from fossil or nuclea; varying as from solar incidence. The excess the ermal energy ig Stored such and withdrawn to be converted to meet peak electrical demande Energy storage systems like pumped hydro, compressed air any Super conductive magnets are, or will be, suitable for large Utility energy storage. Others, like flywheel and batteries, are in the develop. ment stages and will probably be suitable for medium utility energy storage. F fuel, op This chapter discusses these detail for users to choose the application. different storage forms, r in sufficient most suitable system for @ particular 16.3. Mechanical Energy Storage 16.3.1. Pumped Hydroelectric Storage Electric power in excess of th. pump water from a supply (e.g. lake, to a reservoir at a higher level. Wh. supply, the water is allowed to flo: turbine which drives e immediate demand is used to river or reservoir) at a lower level en the power demand exceeds the w back down through a hydraulic an electric generator. The overall efficiency of pumped storage, that is, the percentage of the electrical energy used to pump the water that is recovered as electrical energy, is about 70 per cent. Pumped hydroelectric s presently available to electrical electrical torage is the most economical means Utilities, It could also be used for storing energy produced from solar and wind energy: There are relatively few suitable sites where there is @ water supply at a lower level and reservoir can be constructed at highet level, but the use of natural or excavated underground caverns as lov" a?Energy Storage And Distribution n 1 Geer now being developed, should greatly increase the number #— =rible sites. pumped storage is an indirect method for temporarily storing qubstantial amounts of electrical energy by pumping water from a lower 9 a higher level. Pumped storage can be used in conjunction with slectrical generating plants of all types, regardless of the energy source. in® pumped-storage facility, the power generated in excess of the mand is used to pump water from a lower reservoir (e.g. a lake, river ar underground cavern) to an upper reservoir. During periods of peak demand, when the power demand exceeds the normal generating plant acity, water from the upper level is allowed to flow through a hydraulic turbine at the lower level. (Fig. 16.3.1.1) the turbine then drives @ generator to produce electricity in the usual way. Upper reservoir Moter/Generator A 0 ee yo to Send Cees IN ecom ore | Lower reservoir | (Lake river Pump/turbine etc.) Fig. 16.3.1.1 In most pumped-storage plants, the turbine generator system is reversible and can serve to pump water from the lower to the upper level, as well as to generate electricity. In the pumping mode, the generator becomes a motor, driven by electricity produced by a gener- ator in the main plant, and the turbine then operates as a pump. Start upof the turbine/generator or reversal from motor/pump to turbine/gen- erator requires only a few minutes, so that power could be stored after a short delay in the event ofa failure in the main plant. The altitude difference between upper and lower leve] Cm water head) in pumped storage facilities ranges from less tHan 30 m to some what more than 300 m. As a general rule, Francis type reversible turbines are used, but for low heads propeller type turbines, are preferred.In the pumpe ; topographies do not allow them, antl lots} fen classified asabove-xround, wie and | ergrou nd, and medium head, and wndergr Access Uppet | reservoir Water Conductor Power Lower reservoir Fig. 16.3.1.2. Schematic of an underground pumped hydro storage system, In underground pumped hydro system, the upper reservoir be at or near ground level. The lower reservoir is placed undergroun, in natural caverns, old mines, or other underground cavities. This type of system overcome the requirement of a suitable topography. Sucha system is shown in Fig. 16.3.1.2. In all systems, a reversible pump-tur. bine or motor-generator set is a principal piece of equipment. may Pumped hydro, like compressed air, isa potential-energy storage system suitable for large utility energy storage. It is the most developed and used of all storage systemg. The principle behind pumped hydrois simple and follows the law of potential energy (PE) that is, the raising of mass to an elevation, height or head H. It is given by PE = pg Qo H, where Qo is the natural flow rate of water at the site, PE = potential energy (Joule) & = gravitational acceleration 9.81 m/sec? H = the vertical distance through which water falls, m. Also PE=gmH (16.3.0) where m = mass (kg/sec) =p QoEnergy Stor 783 RY Store forage And Distribution S Gre operating heads ihe ne turbine-ge son the pump turbine, i y,0nd oe netating mode liv are dilfercat mnel ng mode fh of to a enn rare different and are made +l (16.3.2) E Hr=H-H, ere H is the static head or heigl +-(16.3.3) oe nditions (which are a RE the losses during ean eee oes ae ause of different flow rates). . ‘i 0 ji s sss Me uation (16.3.1) with the panes are given by replacing the proper head, or with low rate kg/s and using the Py = & P Qp' Hp p oo cae », and Pr = pumpin . ove P g and turbine powers respectively (Ww) aa p = density of water (kg/m) er = ‘ Q 7’ = volumetric flow rates in pumping an respectively, m*/s. Equation (16.3. i a oe oe 1) shows that 1000 kg raised 100 mwillstore 98 x10" J or 0.27 5 LAWh, Thus large masses must be elevated to sufficiently large heights to store large quantities of enerey- Fortunate- Jarge masses are available in pumped hydro systems by the elevation wy jarge quantities of water Grom, a lower to an upper reservoir. One or hoth of these reservoirs may be artificially ‘excavated or may be & natural river or lake. ‘the efficiency of @ pumped-storage pla to 75 per cent. In spite of the Joss of 25 to 35 per cent, can be economical. ‘The stored water generates power at times of peak demand when it would otherwise be supplied by a 6% turbine or diesel engine that is expensive to operate, Pp the otherhand, apart from capital and maintenanve charges, the costs of operating @ pumped- storage plants are small. Advantages of Pumped Storage Plants. P plants have the following advantages * @ As compared to other peaking units, pumped storage plants nomical source of have relatively low ital cost and peaking capacity- (ji) The pumped § conventional hydel powe’ matter of few minutes: (iii) Such plants are readily adoptable to automatio! remote control. (iv) It is free di generation, nt is commonly from 65 pumped storage umped storage capi thus an eco! nd dependable as storage plant is as rugged a) pick up load rapidly in a r station and can nas well as nvironmental pollution. from effects ofe!784. Non-Conventional Sources of Energy () Th operational s , (vi) The power required for pumping is available at che (vii) The pumped storage plants allow the entire qe Perna nuclear power generation to take up the base load. Thug the "al of these units improve giving rise to overalll greater systor* a x (iit) Standby capacity is available on short notiog. Pa itn gineers in utilities having pumped-storage installation, © : realised the benefit of quick switching on and off capability In installations. Pumped storage plants need a starting time Bo of 8 seconds and can be loaded fully in about 15 seconds. In i . an otitage on a unit, a pumped storage plant can be called upon ett the generation deficiency, (occurring due to outage) thy ent reliable supply and avoiding the necessity of load shedding |" "ey (ix) Since the base load plants need not be used to supp loads, the forced and maintenance outages of these plants ate ik Pe be reduced. ely ty ypes of plants allow a great deal of q, item hedules of th Ying ' only, ae ) Pumped storage plants can be used for load frequency cry 16.3.2. Compressed Air Storage This type of storage is analoguous to pumped hydro ao Whereas in pumped hydro system excess energy generated load plant during periods of low demand is used to increase the potenti energy of hydrostatic pressure of. water compressed-air energy storage compresses and stores air in reservoirs, aquifiers, or caverns, The stored energy is then released during periods of peak demand by expansion ¢ the air through an air turbine. In general, the efficiency of compressel air storage is comparable to that of pumped-hydro storage. rage by abase In a gas-turbine, roughly 60 per cent of the power output # consumed in compressing air for combustion of the gas. In the com pressed air storage system, electrical energy in excess of the demandis used to compress air which is stored in a reservoir for later use in agt turbine to generate electricity. Compressed- air storage could serve ft electric utility load levelling or for storing electrical energy generated from solar or wind energy. The overall recovery efficiency is estimsta to be about 65 to 75 per cent. A wind turbine, for example, could ® created which would directly pump air into a suitable presst! Storage tank. Then later when the wind is not blowing, the energy in the air could be utilized to drive an air turbine whose shaft oo then drive a generator, this supplying the needed electrical power cable the wind is not blowing a compressed air storage may also be app™ to other solar-electric conversion systems. oN i}Energy Storage And Distribution 785 conventional gas turbine, the compressor and turbine are ped OO compressed-air energy storage ayntem, however, the we and compressor are uncoupled so that they can operate Sy Furthermore, the electric generator, normally connected to ee pe, must, also be capable of functioning as a motor when ne supplied. (refer Fig. 16.3.2.1). jon ai Compressor Exhaust Clutch Clutch Hoe [ea Gas Cooler turbine Fuel Air heater Valve Valve &- YC Compressed air storage Fig. 16.3.2.1. Compressed-air-erergy storage. Electric power in excess of the immediate demand is supplied to the motor/generator which drives the compressor ; the compressed air, at about 70 atm (7 MP,), is stored in a suitable reservoir (see below). ‘The air is heated during compression and may have to be cooled prior to storage to prevent damage to the reservoir walls. When additional power is needed to meet the demand, the; compressed air is released and heated using gas or oil fuel. The hot compressed air is then expanded in agas turbine connected to the motor/generator unit which now acts asa generator. Compressed-air storage reservoir would probably be too large and too expensive for above ground construction ; hence, underground reservoirs, preferably existing ones, are being considered. Among the Possibilities are natural caverns, deep aquifiers, depleted gas or oil Teservoirs, mined-out rock or salt caverns, and abandoned mines. Salt Caverns have been used in the past to store petroleum Products. They are stable under compressed-air storage loading for theie ee 786 — Non-Connentional Sources of Energy t life. The major concerns are cavern geo; term creep and creep-rupture of rock salt, and 4y" ee ang Aquifiers are naturally occuring porous rock formation. They, have pe used for natural gas storage. Hard-rock caverns type of ;,. oe “n require water- compensating surface, due to their size. It ig to ing air pressure. Therefore these types are mostly compare the two mentioned above, but they are stable. Yim etry, 9 When the air is compressed for storage, its temperature win, The heat of compression may be retained in the compresseq air o another heat-storage medium and then restored to the air to expanding through the turbine. This is called adiabatic stop, : a results in high storage efficiency. Restoring the heat to the ad prevents the turbine parts from freezing if low tem, allowed to dissipate, additional heat could be added by fuel comby, to retain the high storage efficiency, but the results would be expense and maintenance problems. This is called a hybrid sys erature ai, tion extra tem, 16.3.3. Energy Storage via Flywheels The basic idea of flywheel energy-storage, sometimes referred tg asa “super flywheel’, is to accelerate a suitably designed physical to a very high speed in a vacuum, as via an electric motor, at Which state high energy storage densities are achieved. The energy is ston’ as kinetic energy most of which can be electrically retrived when the flywheel is run as a generator, (armature is rotated by the flywheel, Flywheel could conceivably be used for electric utility peaking ‘units, for storage of solar and wind energy, and for vehicle propulsion. The energy recovery efficiency is estimated to be upto 90 per cent. The propenay, of super flywheel energy storage claim this storage method hes higher energy storage per kg than conventional flywheel or lead acid storage batteries. More recently interest in flywheel energy storage has been generated by motor vehicle designers. In the so-called hybrid automobile for example, the flywheel stores some of the energy of gasoline engine during periods of low vehicle demands and releases it during periods of high demands, such as during acceleration, hill climbing, ete, and thus operates the engine at a more steady and hence more efficient output. Flywheels have been used extensively to smooth out power pulses from reciprocatin, it i reduced to a minimum by the use of flywheels, As kinetic ners proportional to the mass times velocity aquared, the changes in veloctY S from the addition or subtraction of kinetic energy are reduced by the — | a e—<;trsrs—is- Sj q Energy Storage And p, tatribut | fo Jarge mass. Conversely the ener ‘ion 787 | oA eg20d PY en atic ene the velocity. Energy cre it 8 flywheel can b | i~pro the kinetic enerey, given by "MY "ered in a flywheel (f) i, | ave eras eee \¢ B= 5 mv’ at | = 3 m(2nRn)2 j = 2x? mR? 72 j vere velocity of the flywheel = 2nRp --(16.3.3.1) | @ E = energy (Joule) m = mass of the flywheel (kg) R = radius of gyration (m) = 0.7071 Ro Ro = outer radius n = revolutions per second revolutions/ min. = 60 The energy E absorbed or release: ofrotation ny and ng is thus given by . = Qn? mR? (no? — 2 AE = 2x* mR? (ng? - n12) ++(16.3.3.2) | ‘The ratio of the variation in rotational speed to the mean speed | niscalled the coefficient of speed fluctuation ks, given by d by a flywheel between speed | ng-n | kg = cai | 2g - m1) oa +-(16.3.3.3) eee) Now AK = 2x7 mR? (nz + 11) (r2-m) = 2x? mR? 2n kgn (from Eqs. 16.3.3.2 and 16.3.3.3) = 4n? kg mR? n” «(16.3.3.4) ‘The value of the coefficient ks depends upon the desired close- ness of speed regulation. For example it varies from 0.005 for fine to 0.2 | for coarse regulation. Thus for a given energy absorption A, m and or. | R® must be high for close speed regulation. Maximum energy density o| | arotating steel disk is 1/210? ™m w.- 2 mrye, . —o “wimauve w sLorage pat- efor use iD electrically powered ve! 8 pies hicles especially si 3 ly since th Maywhee! can be replenished more quickly than in a hee } Jectrical Storage : The lead acid battery Storage batteries Electricity is a high grade form of energy, and therefore great fort is made to find cheap and efficient means for storing it. A device hat has electricity both as input and output is called an (electrical) storage battery er (electrical) accumulator. Usually the combination of clectrolyzer and fuel cell is not included as ‘electrical storage’, however. Batteries form an essential component of almost all photovoltaic and small wind electric system, and there is steady development of battery powered vehicles. Although many electrochemical reactions are reversible in theory, few are suitable for a practical storage battery, which will be required to cycle hundreds of times between charging and discharging currents of 1-100 A. The most widely used storage battery is the lead acid battery, invented by Plante in France in 1860. When a storage battery is charged, by connecting it to a source of direct electric current, chemical changes occur in the battery S790 Non-Conventional Sources of Enerry jnateriale. Ana reault, electrical energy is converted into store c cal energy. When the battery is dis are by connecting aload hem motor) between the terminals, the cna rene one Are reverse a the stored chemical energy is reconverted into electrical enery.’ ma energy recovery efficiency of a storage battery varies with the The battery and the rate of discharge, but 75 per cent should be attainay of However the efficiencies are often lower. le Batteries are modular in nature ; that is to say, they a,, a up of individual units of moderate size. This means that the ener! storage capacity can be vaiied over a wide range simply by varying © number of units that are connected together. Consequently, batteries .* adaptable to any type of storage in which the energy input is in elec, form, Potential applications are utility peak shaving (and possibly levelling), vehicle propulsion, and storage of electrical energy from wind energy or solar cells. The capability of rapid reversal, from charge to discharge, makes batteries espec venient for electric utility applications. Moreover, they permit, distribution by locating storage facilities near load centres, By far the most common type of storage battery is the lead acid battery (see Art. 10.3.6) used in the SLI (Starting, Lighting and ignition) systems of essentially all automobiles and other road vehicles. These batteries are usually maintained in a fully charged condition by generator which produces direct current when the engine is Tunning. For utility applications or vehicle propulsion, the operating condition are quite different. In such uses, the battery is subjected to a deep (ie almost complete) discharge and then recharged roughly once a day. When subjected to such repeated cycling, the lead acid batteries used for automobile SLI systems have a short life time. Studies in the progress will undoubtedly result in the production of lead-acid batteries/more-suited to utility and vehicle applications However, there are some basic limitations to lead-acid batteries (eg their heavy mass per unit of stored energy) that can not be overcome Consequently, several other kinds of storage batteries, usually, entirely different materials and some operating at high temperatures, are under development in the hope of finding a type (or types) that has a low (or moderate) cost, a long life time, and is lighter than the lead-acid battery. The battery requirements for stationary (utility) applications ar ‘low (or moderate) cost and a long life time ; the mass is less important than for vehicle propulsion. For stationary storage, a battery shouldbe capable of atleast 3000 deep discharges over a life time of 10 to 15 yea"* The discharge time for peak power supply would be 8 to 10 hours ant the charge time roughly 10 hours. No existing storage battery can mee! these requirements, but there is hope that one or more of the new YP" Benerateg ©perati ally con, dispersediP verre con wa ye pasic Battery Theory, AGS cna te n efficient man ‘ ent mi attery isa com anner, oust of as a black box into whi w! med emically, and later regained as electrical is put, stored des" p generalized sn consisting of two ae [gabesesmmersndin atlases het sno is connee between one el oa todes charge separation eat i tace ee es rode and the electrolyte, freeing both i" aro a 5 pea © e Petron flows through the external load and i a you! lectrolyte, recombining at the other electrode. qThe polarity and magnitude of the cell terminal voltage is, i generals a function of the electrode materials, electrolyte, ae ares and other factors. By combining appropriate numbers of cells in poth series and parallel, the battery can deliver the desired voltage and current. An appropriate combinations of cells can provide the desired t. Fig. (16.4.1). power output. Fig. ( ) charge woos — Fig. 16.4.1 Schematic di am of lead acid cell. diagr! pas juring the d ts are reversed during charging: i narge reaction. The charge carriers move in the dire The reaction and carrier mov! 3 ent an ie ells, one of which is showD i i ilt uy) or oth The lead acid oe a a electrochemica) cells Tn ue two ra Se eee in a conducting solution (elects ° jolid plates »yO conat Sources of ENCE 792 Non-Conw ast in the form of grids holding pas eee “nd ny case the plates ely is su! . ionize, x dioxide respectively: follows. H,S0« __+ Ht + HSOq = @ he negative electrog, -*U) re the reaction at tl cis During Fe soe __- PhSO, + Ht + 2¢~ “a wa: Pb** which is deposited as Phgo, Lead (Pb) is oxidized or paste in the plate. The elesct takes the place of the ee ane TS 9g sulfate takes 1 through the external circuit to the positive electrog. il travel Gane : Leer contribute to the reaction : PbO, + HSO," + 3H* + 2e-— PbSO, +2H,0 06.43 This PbSO, likewise replaces the PbO; in that plate. The ele... cal current through the solution is carried by H* and HSO,- ions the sulfuric acid, which themselves take part in the plate reactions, Knowing the reactions involved and the corresponding standarq electrode potentials (given in the chemical tables), the theoretiea eneray density of any proposed battery can be calculated. Theoretica, energy density of lead acid battery (W,,") is calculated and its valys comes out to be 0.60 MJ/kg of active material as shown below : The reactions (16.4.1) and (16.4.2) show that to transfer 2 molt electrons requires : 1 mol Pb = 207 gram 1mol PbO, = 239 gram 2 mol HySO, = 196 gram Total active material = 642 gram. But 2 mol of electrons represents a charge : (2 mob) (— 1.60 x 10°! C)(6.02 x 1078 mol-1) = — (2) (9.6) (104) C =~ 1.93 x 10°C The standard electrode potential for Pb/PbSOQ, is 0.30 V and for (PhSO/Pb"*) is — 1.62 V. Fens = ae yiecretical cell emf for (Pb/PbSO,/H2S0,/PbSO,/PbO,) is Wi ae . | convention, ‘2 PbO2 Plate positive, according to the IUPAC sign 84.2) The actual the voltage ofa cel wey Standard electrochemical methods. In general, than operating at low currents differs by only « few Pet cent from the theoretic; ~ 2 are usually set to give BOY oleae: In particular, lead acid batteries eeEnergy Storage And Distribution 793 fore the work done Wr? = (0.386 x 10° J)(0.642 kg) = 0.60 Mi/kg. Unfortunately: the energy density W,, of any practical battery is ae puch less than the theoretical value Wyn’, if the total mass of s pole ee bn een, Most commercial batteries have W,» ~ 1) Wa a eearas e careful (and more experience) designs can ). achi iti ou nsbly be exP eve energy densities up to 25% of the In the specific case of the lead acid battery, pistunder achievement’ are : , q@) Aworking battery necessarily contains non active meterials, ag the case, the separators (which prevent the electrodes short cireuit- oi and the water in which the acid isdissolved. (The acid concentration must not be too high or the battery will discharge itself). Since the mass of an actual battery exceeds the mass of the ‘active ingredients, the everey density is less than the theoretical value calculated from the active mass alone. (2) The reactions cannot be allowed to go to completion. Ifall the Jead was consumed by reaction (16.4.2), there ‘would be no electrode left for the reverse reaction to operate ati.e. the battery could not be cycled. Similarly, if the ‘concentration of H,SO, is allowed to fall too low, the “jectrolyte ceases to be an adequate onductor. In practice, the battery cannot be allowed to discharge more than about 50% of its stored enerey, or it will be ruined. Such discharge is called a ‘deep discharge’. 'A further limitation of real batteries is similar to all car owners > they do not last forever. Solid Pb is almost twice as dense a5 the PbSO, found in the discharge reaction (16.4.2). Therefore it is difficult to fit the PbSO, crystals into the space originally occupied by the Pb paste in the negative electrode. In practice, some PbSO, falls to the bottom of the cell in every discharge- ‘This constitutes an irreversible loss of active material. This loss is worse if the battery is allowed to fully discharge 5 indeed, it may rapidly become impossible to recharge the battery. ‘The other main factor limiting the life of even @ well-maintained battery is self-discharge of the positive electrode. This is particularly actute in vehicle (SLD batteries in which the grid is not pure Pb but a Jead-antimony alloy, which is stronger and better able to stand the mechanical stresses during motion. Unfortunately antimony promotes the reaction. 5PbOz + 2Sb + 6H,SO,— (SbO2)2 SO, + 5PbSO, + 6H,O --(16.4.4) the main reasons for794 ~~ Non-Conventional Sources of Energy which also slowly, but irreversibly, removes active Materia battery. al fy, Batteries for stationary applications (e.g, Photovolt F systems) can use Sb-free plates and have longer life (upto 7 excessively discharged. Ye The performance of a battery depends on the current is charged and discharged, and the depth to which it ce whieh discharged. Paula 4 16.5. Chemical Storage 16.5.1. Introduction Energy can be held in the bonds of many chemical ¢o and released by exothermic reactions, notably combustion, Sou PPund, it is necessary to apply heat or other catalysts (e.g. enzymes) put tit, the desired reaction: Biological compounds are a special ease Pree discuss the most important inorganic compounds whieh hac tt" suggested as practical energy storers by means of their combustion air. 5 16.5.2. Energy Storage via hydrogen Energy can be both stored and transported or hydrogen, serves as a secondary fuel. The input energy, usually elect, possibly thermal, serves to decompose water (HzO) by electro. (or chemical) reaction into its constituents elements hydro oxygen. These substances can then be recombined to release ti energy as required instead of using the oxygen produced fro, this energy recovery process, oxygen from the air is employed. The pure oxygen from water can then be sold for industrial applications (e.g. in iron and steel fabrication). Hydrogen ean h transported either as compressed hydrogen gas, as liquid hydrogen a low temperature), or in the form of a solid compound with certain metas or alloys. Consequently, hydrogen may be useful as a means of storing and transporting energy generated in remote locations far from load centres. The most convenient means for producing hydrogen and oxygen from water is by electrolysis, that is, by passing a direct electric current through water containing an acid or alkali to make it an electrical conductor. The input energy is then in the form of electrical energy. It may also be possible to decompose water by heat (i.e., with thermal energy input) as a result of a series of chemical reactions. The chemical energy in hydrogen (and oxygen) can be converted into thormtl mechanical, or electrical energy. One possibility is to burn hydrogen air, in a manner similar to natural gas, to produce heat (thermal ene"s)’ n, Which ical buy hemica) gen and he store mM Water in commonly- Ener, ‘ay Storage And Distribution — 795 rhe ome oF in industry. Hydro; e Jone in automobile truck, on paar eae the fuel, engines. oe 3 (pet a enrgen este les : 101 . (es on ee to drive a conventional sccm burkine wit hydrogen id generator. Alternatively, ihydrosen (ean I a with attached fie fpustion) turbine which in turn drives a ie the fuel for a efficiency (possibly 55 to 60 per cent) pecee The maxi- se sedi mee ote ctrical energy 15 generated directly from i i cell ; 2B MIs could also be used in homes and from bye bouees peak saving by utilities, and in electric anes e stored in everall . Fuel ce’ p ot iatry> FOF ri ye pnersy from various solar electric systems can re spare? in. A win elec, photovoltaic system, for example with @ put, the power can e fed directly into an electrolyzer tank which gen from ordinary water as already stated. Be Sicos bySFOEEN and oxy! Bs ose may be produced either under pressure or near atmospheric “eure and then via external pumps compresst i measure The latter approach, however requires auxiliary energy: The rogeD and oxygen gas produced can be stored either in gas OF liquid “Jed, be quickly and easily the well known fuel Beye 8 ee eo a a forms aie 3 © y converted again directly into electrical energy U0 fell see ATE 10.2). The system thus effectively stores the sun’s energy ee hydrose® and oxygen, and from this storage a smooth reliable power output may be taken for a limited time set by the hydrogen storage capacity: To store hydrogen in large quantiti funderground caverns, gas-even if comy promising i ane yw extracted. But storage of ed, but since its oiling point is 20 K these canbe liquefit awkward to maintain. Chemical storag' pom whieh the bytes? can able and allows large volumes ©: T~ 50°C FeTiHi.7 TM FeTiHos +08 He ‘This reaction is reversible, so that 4 portable hydride store can be replenished with hydrogen 2° a central ‘filling station’. The heat released in this process CaP pe used for distric heating, 9” hydride store can be “used as the ‘fuel tank’ of a vehicle. difficulty is the w sed. Hydrogen can also be distributed through the ex! tworks used for natural gas in many countries. It is also po! Hy very efficiently to electricity, by means of fuel cells a5 jes is not common. Most such as those from which cased by heating, is more manage- {fH to be stored. For example: Jine net ‘sible to convert Iready described.796 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy 16.5.3. Ammonia Unlike wate: ted at reali temperatures : “Able Ny + 3H, =* 2NH3 Inconjunction with a heat engine, these react; of what may be the most efficient way to generate con: power from solar heat. Collectors with concentrators ea, mena temperatures high enough to operate a heat engine at Teaser efficiency, which can be used to generate electricity, able 16.5.4. Reversible Chemical Reactions In general sense, a reversible chemical re: proceeds simultaneously in both directions. Of inter ible reactions that occur predominately in one (fo the absorption of heat at a higher temperature, the opposite (reverse) direction with the emissi temperature. The products of the forward reactio! (heat) as chemical energy which can be recove: when the conditions are changed to permit the r: This kind of energy storage may be useful for s heat obtained by concentrating solar energy. ons form the tintoUs elec is ect action is one 4, est here are reve. rward) direction wr and Predominate| ion of heat, at a |, n store thermal e, red as thermal ¢ ‘everse reaction to toring high- ly in lower ner, nergy occur, temperature To be suitable for heat storage, involve materials that are inexpensive and not too d In addition,the forward and reverse reactions, able to proceed at reasonable temperatures. A may be needed to speed up the desired reactions, temperature. the reaction system should ifficult to handle. as required, must be catalyst (or catalysts) especially at the lower A+B == AB The forward reaction takes place with absorption of heat from heat source (may be solar energy), and the heat is stored in the form of Products. When heat is desired, the products are to be remixed to allow + the reversible reaction to take place with liberete. of heat. The original reactant is regenerated completing the cycle. Both forward and revers®Energy Si nergy Storage And Distribution 797 e place at con: t nt temperatures, the forward gioP" curring & ns F t a higher temperature than the reverse react is high ctio! al jon © e The pasic measures of merit to be followed in the sel e selection of eo gchemical reactions are the following : ° : The reaction should be nearly complete within the tempe! ra- @ * sf available heat source or solar collectors. wt +) The reverse reaction lete at the A e i ly o i) jon should be nearly compl ature at which useful energy is to be extracted. (iit) The reaction should be able to release —— for the use at emperaeure to those supplied by the collector (in ease of solar ener ey) (iv) The energy absorbed per unit volume of products stored pe as large a5 possible to minimize the volume of storage, am should the products should be in liquid form. (v) The reaction 5! s close hhould be completely reversible without any side reactions: (vi) Reactions should be rapid. (vii) Large enthalpy changes of rei catalyst reaction, action are desired. (viii) For an unt the products must be readily jor to storage- For a catalysed reaction the products must during the storage period and the catalyst should be easily separable from the products. In addition, itis obviously preferable that the chemicals required should be readily available at low cost and should be easy to handle. Following few chemical rea illustrated here from the n the above criteria andare found stand-point of their Suitability based © vitable for use in solar applications. Table (16.5.4. Bives the details { three reactions. 541 o Table 16- Temperature Temperature — Bneréy stored per unit vol. Reaction of forward of reverse reaction reaction of storage material KJ) mi? 209.4 x 10° 460.6 x 10° °C °c CHa + HO== CO + 3H2 Bee or 1025 590 80s <= 802+ $02 98 435 2143.7 10° NEAHSO, o= NHs + H20 + 50% 4or temayy use jen place 44 Wea, au vapan, A wes pes take an. 10 MWh unit is planned to be puilt 9 abs Thermal Energy Storage The need for storing thermal (or heat) energy arises in several tuations, for example, in connection with the applications of solar and rand eneTeY ‘The storage methods in common use are described in the wetions dealing specifically with these applications. The discussion here will deal, therefore, with general principles of heat storage as ,ither sensible heat or latent heat. " 16.7 Energy can be stored by heating, melting or vaporization of materials, and the energy becomes avgilable as heat when the process isrevered. Storage by causing a material to rise in temperature is called sensible heat storage. Storage by phase change, the transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour is another mode of thermal storage, known as latent heat storage, in which no temperature change is involved. It is possible for both sensible and latent heat storage to occur inthe same material, as when solid is heated, then melted, then raised further in temperature. Thermal energy storage is essential for both domestic water and space heating applications and for the high temperature storage sys- tems needed for thermal power applications. Storage is also required for process industries and horticultural. The choice of the storage804 —Non-Conventional Sources of Energy application and for Many q, appl: andor rock storage systems have been deven® Water and rock are typical examples of material which Store ¢ ep ee, specific heat (sensible heat), but their use is pad by their com tively low specific heats. The heat of fusion (latent heat) ee. involved when a substance changes state from a soliq ton tei provides an attractive method of storing @ given amount fheat y tid a much smaller volume, Glauber’s salt (Na,SO,, 101,6 expensive and most readily available salt hydrate. For h; ture storage in the order of 200 to 300 cc, other salts ha and the heat of hydration of inorganic oxides Princip: ) is the wit igh tempest ve been usc; ally Mgo and Cage 16.7.1. Sensible Heat Storage Sensible energy storage is the first of the thermal-ener, stor, systems to be discussed. In general, thermal-energy storage syste can operate at many desired temperature levels depending upon the use and choice of the system and material, ranging from Tefrigeratin, temperatures to 1250°C. They have found wide use j indus trial applications, such as in the manufacture ofcement, i aluminium, paper, plastics and rubber, and in Sensible heat refers to thermalenergy that results of temperature when added to a material when taken from it). For example, freezing point and below its boiling point can store en heat. So also can other liquids, ai i change their form (e.g. by freezing, melting or boili bricks are used for heat storage o: i water or a combination of air an. torage for heat derived from solar energy. Thermal energy storage as sensible heat in high temperature steam can Provide utilities-with a means for generating electric power to satisfy peak demands, inan increase (or decrease of temperaty,, If the temperature is too high for the use of water without ial hydrocarb, k, roel mixtures can be used for h such mixture is Du Pont’ and potassium nitrate sensible heat upto ab nitrates have been pr Pressurization, speci: alone or mixed with eat storage at ve: 's HITEC, contain; Ss, it melts at 142 out 550°C. Mixtui posed for somew! ing sodium nitrite and sodium °C and can be used to store res of sodium and Potassium hat higher temperatures. For temperatures upto about 815°C, molten fluorides tea lithium fluorides and mixture of sodium and Magnesium fluorides and of sodium and zine fluorides) are possibilities,805 nergy Storage And Distribution ina The ability of store thermal energy (or the storage density er of volume V is, en cont “ Qs St =p, AT 16.7.1.) ee Qs? Energy stored or thermal energy waht p= Density of the storage medium Cy = Specific heat of the material AT = Difference in temperature or temperature rise. Thus the ability to store heat depends upon the product pCp» ater bas the highest value, but other materials have low values. terials which are generally used for this type ofstorage are: (i) water: ck, gravel or crushed stone, (iii) iron shot, (iv) concrete (wv) de (alumina) (i) 1 - ; es . ° - aterials like magnesium oxide, aluminium ox og silicon oxides. Thus any of the following devices could be employed as sensible enerey storage? 1. Pressurized-water storage 2. Packed solid beds 3. Refractory materials 4, Organic solid beds. Properties of some sensible heat storage materials are given in table 16.7-1.1- ‘Table 16.7.1.1. Properties of some sensible heat storage materials ‘Material Property Water Rocks Pebbles Mgo _ AlzOs SiOz Density, P 958.4 2245 1350 3575 4000 2600 (kg/m*) Specificheat,Cp 4.22 0.81 0.90 1.06 1.02 1.26 dike - KE) Cp (J/m® . KY 4044 1818 1215 3750 4080 3276 ‘Thermal conducti- vity (W/m°K) 0.683 0.13 0.85 10.5 63 2.3 on heat transfer fluid for a solar ‘Water storage. The most comm: system is water, and the easiest way to store thermal energy is by storing the water directly in a well insulated tank. The optimum tank size for flat-plate collector system is usually about 2 gal/ft? (70 kg/m”). for storage medium : Water has the following characteristics (O It is an inexpensive, readily available and useful material to store sensible heat.806 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy ) Energy addit D by medium itself, thus eliminating the t transport fluid and storage medium. (iv) Pumping cost is small. (0) In case of solar energy storage, collectors and st, may be operated by natural circulation in domestic solar application, or forced circulation may be used. A schemat a power plant with pressurized-water sensible energy Storage; of in Fig. 16.7.1.1. The system can have a nuclear reactor or fossil Biven furnace as a primary heat source. The base-load portion of the, fuel capable of supplying more steam than needed during perigg? tis demand. The excess steam is extracted at high pressure yi, re low extraction (as in feed water heating) during these perio ds Bo ing demand. The extracted steam is fed to steam accumulators and mix” with water, thus producing saturated pressurized water, "4 accumulators are later discharged through a small peaking tu, during periods © high demand. Discharge continues until 7 specified pressure is reached in the accumulators. It is observe a there is low and varying steam temperature entering the peal! turbine. iz ‘Age Water rita ic diag, Typical values of accumulator high and low pressures corresponding to a saturation temperature of about 212°C, and 2 bar, corresponding to a saturation temperature of about 120°C. It is to be noted that while this steam involves steam condensing in water during accumulator charge and re-evaporating during discharge, the storage medium is the pressurized water in the accumulator and operates on a relatively wide temperature range. Hence it is an example of sensible rather than latent heat storage. are 20 bar The storage density of the thermal energy utilized in the peaking turbine per unit volume of the higher pressure saturated water is given by hy, hp, “h specific volume of saturated water hy = enthalpy of saturated water Storage density = where vy Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the stored and emptied pressus respectively.—_—_ ——E——EEE ’ 808 = Non-Conventional Sources of Energy Pebble b. ola hot aircollector system. For sensible heat storage with, transport mechanism, rock, gravel, or crushed stone in, advantage of providing a large cheap heat transfer capacity, however is only about half that of water, will be about 3 times the volume of a water tank th same temperature interval. Water is superior material cost and lower volume required per unit Art. 4.2 for further details). bin Surface, Its and the jj atis heated img because of i,t of energy store, Me Seg Energy storage is required in solar-therm (and solar p: insolation, al electric rocess heat application) because of normally non-solar periods, and abrupt insolation changes in jn. ent weather. Conventional (fossil-fired) backup system may, ofeoue” be used during such periods, as in hybrid « ystems but thermal storag, is another option that must be used in pure solar systems. Ther ® Lwe types of thermal storage that are considered with solar systen These are : ° Power pi : nts variable sol. (2) Single-tank, or thermocline and (©) Dual tank, or hot cold systems. Heat extraction during times of need is accomplished by revers- ing the process. Cold primary coolant from the power plant is heated by the storage medium, drawn from the top ofthe tank to the power system, and then returned to the bottom of the tank. The thermal gradient of hot at top, cold atbottom maintains stratification, allowing the hot fluid to remain afloat on the top, and gives the tank thermal stability. In addition, a solid storage medium of low thermal conductivity and high volumetric heat capacity, such as rock, is used to help impede mixing of hot and cold fluids. A solid storage medium is a necessity in case the Primary coolant is a gas (such as aie or helium) because of the low heat capacity of gases. A porous solid makes a good storage medium for gase- Avariation of the single tank system is one in which a separate storas® fluid, other than the Primary coolant, may be used. This would be #woo Energy Storage And Distribution heat enpactty, or he annunted a ningle media pdium, such an rock in a dial medium aysten Be volume of contly ator J jnpede ite liquid a nthe primary coolant Slsam) Turbine Generator ae Condenser Pump Feed water to central receiver Fig. 16.7.1.2. Electric power generation using thermal storage The Solar one power plant uses 4 dual-medium thermocli storage system, shown in Fig. 16. The liquid is oil. The solid is composed of 2.5 cm diameter gravel plus sand. The oil is uniformly distributed over the rock bed and extracted uniformly from it by diffuser manifolds. The tank is large, being about 15m high and more than that in diameter. The dual tank, or hot-cold, system uses two tanks. The fluid, a liquid, is, unlike the stratified single tank or thermocline system, at one temperature, hot in one tank, cold in the other. The amount of sensible energy stored varies by varying the level of the fluids in a well insulated tanks Fig. 16.7.1.4. Thus during storage, cold is drawn from the cold tank, heated, and added to the hot tank. During extraction the operation isreversed. This dual-tank technology is borrowed from refinery work. Itis suitable only for liquid coolants such as sodium molten salt, or The hot tanks used with sodium and molten salt need be made of high alloy material such as austenitic stainless steel.Sources of Ener®y 810. Non-Conventional Sources of E Pilot plant the Storage unit "al Hot manifold Insulation 4.5m Gravel+ sand+ heat transfer oil Auxiliary manifold 4 Cool manifold Fig. 16.7.1.3. Thermocline storage system. ‘Thermal energy storage densities vary widely among the dig. ferent storage media. Some typical values for the temperature range 290 to 565°C are given below. Energy Storage density Medium (MWh /m3) Sodium 0.08 Rock (25% void fraction) 0.15 Molten salt 0.22 The solar one pilot plant has an oil-rock storage medium that operates at the much lower temperature range of 220 to 300°C and has an energy storage density of 0.05 MWh/m*. 16.7.2. Latent Heat Energy Storage (or phase change energy storage) Introduction. Latent heat is thermal energy that is stored in (and can be removed from) a substance or mixture when it goes achang® of phase (e.g. of physical form) while the temperature remains ur changed. The heat that can be stored per unit mass (or volume) in this manner is usually several times greater than for sensible heat storas®Bil -woyshs oduioys PeULIETY ploo-yoq x0 “ye TEND v Jo oMEUSTES ‘PT LOT BA dung dung soyeiauab; weais Energy Storage And Distribution yuey Pio? ! qed 29MOq OL yuey JOH Dt | wo OL, danraray,812 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy alid to liquid, taking place att There chang nied by the absorption ot tnertng , . nt the temperature. The heat is recovered whe, without a cine (i.e. the liquid is converted to solid) at the we once solid and liquid phases of the same mater present Deets can store thermal energy as latent heat. Saturaien Foam (ie. steam and moisture) and freezing water (i.e. water ang : ean be used for latent heat storage. . ther type of phase change, involving a change in chem composition, that hae been used for latent heat storage, is the transit between solid sodium sulphate decahydrate (NagSO,, 10H,0) op yy" one hand and solid anhydrous sodium sulfate (NazSO,) and an aquegr® solution, on the otherhand. At a temperature of 32°C, heat is stored when the NaySO4, 10H,0 phase changes to Na,SO, phase (plus saj,, tion) and can be recovered when the process is reversed. A somewha, similar phase transition between sodium thiosulfate pentahydrat, (NazS,03 . 5H,0) and the anhydrous salt (NazS2S20,) plus solutio, occurs at 48°C. It has been considered for latent heat storage of solar energy for space heating. point of the me T the Same ern he sam t Al Whe temperature. can Advantages of phase change energy storage (i) The storage density here is equal to the product of the latent heat of fusion (or vaporization) times the density of the storage material (Lp). It is greater than that in sensible heat storage because the latent heats are much larger than the specific heats of the single phases of the materials. (i) The system has the additional advantage of operating at essentially constant temperature with low volume changes during phase changes. (iii) Tt also has the advantage of a wide choice of materials with different fusion and evaporation temperatures, which allows a choice of operating temperatures and the ability to generate high temperature steam for the peaking unit. Some sensible heat storage may be added to latent heat storage by further raising the temperature of the result- ing molten solid or vapour. Latent heat energy storage is not till yet, considered a simple. plea ronal) reliable solution to the problem of energy storage clectric-generating power plants. It ia, however, included here as # potential solution along with th u naar © probl vercome such a solution is to become a viable eee eect rrrEne 7 ergy Storage And Distribution 813 — ns using fused salts that are oo Hn neranees available for lugh and low- or Materials for phase change e i nergy st. i sap a change of phase in a suitable amen ees Materials that a “for enerey storage if the following criteria can be satel cite re ve (i) The phase change must be acco: i eran mpanied by a high latent heat ects “~~ (i) The phase change must be rev. ersible over a many of cycles pout serious degradation. ae : ait (iii) The phase changes must occur with limited super-cooling. (iv) Means must be available to contain the material and eran yeat into it and cut of it. (v) The cost of materials and its containers must be reasonable. (vi) Its phase change must occur close to its actual melting temperature. (vii) The phase change must have a high latent heat effect, that is, it must store large quantities of heat. (viii) The material must be available in large quantities. (ix) The preparation of phase changing material for use must be relatively simple. (x) The material must be harmless (non toxic, non inflammable, non combustible, non corrosive.) (xi) It should have low cost. Ifthese criteria can be met, phase change energy storage systems can have high capacities (relative to energy storage in sensible heat type systems) when operated over small temperature ranges, with substantial reductions in volume and weight. No material meets all these requirements but some fluoride salts meet some of them. One of the salts considered most suitable for latent heat storage is the 70% NaF—30% FeF; eutectic salt, which has a fusion temperature of about 680°C and potentially possesses the high storage energy density of any thermal energy storage material about 1800 Md/m?, ZnCl; is another material with a fusion temperature of about 370°C and a potential storage energy density of about 400 Md/m'. ‘There are several materials that undergo a change of phase. Glauber’s salt (Na2SO,, 10H,0), water, Fe(NO3)26H,O and salt eutec- tics are mostly used. (p Glauber’s salt (Na,SQ,.10H,0) or sodium sulphate decahydrate- Phase changes from solid to liquid requires less energy than those from liquid to gas, but some solid to liquid changes still814 Non-Conv, entional Sources of Energy change mars oeescea Econ mera ' at an sotan Penal sed mainly for storing domecy hevt tt n plus NagSO,, with a heat of fus ) and has been prop on is NaySO,. 10H,0 + Energy __. Na2S0, + 10H,9 = 2 d by the reaction ity of the syste melting point, it separates ini 6 a ito, 04. Since the densi eS » @ phase separation occurs. Atte: = ther agents to avoid phase separatin’ gest quantity is for change of phase kealékgor less dependingon the tempers s occur. Steam, however is adifficult medium (i) Water. The lar, water to steam storing 548 at which the phase change: than from liquid to gas. The transition from ice to water i historical example that has been used for energy storage for centuries, (ii) Fe(NOs)2 . 6H,0. This compound has congruent melting point and melts in the same manner as pure compounds, iS an excellent (iv) Organic compounds. Organic substances serve as heat storage materials due to the desirable properties they possess in com. parison with inorganic compounds. Some of these advantages include their ability to melt congruently, their self-nucleating properties, their capability to freeze without super cooling and their compatibility with conventional materials of construction. Paraffin and fatty acids, are the two candidates organic substances qualified as heat of fusion materials. Paraffins as we normally understand them are substances, having a waxy consistency at room temperature. Paraffins are, in a chemical sense, a complicated mixture of several compounds. They possess generally high heats of fusion and are available in large temperature ranges. They are known to freeze without super-cooling. Fatty acids are characterized by CH3(CHz)2, COOH with heat of fusion values com parable to that of paraffins. Some fatty acids of interest to low er aes ture latent heat storage are listed in table (16.7.2.1). Fatty aci