Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Language Acquisition and Education PDF

    Uploaded by

    Jun Prince
    72 views76 pages

    Original Title

    language acquisition and education.pdf

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    72 views76 pages

    Language Acquisition and Education PDF

    Uploaded by

    Jun Prince

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 76
    ESE deed me {na pot i age eg iar ee Thera oyna ait a reno sion i a Forres oes Language Acquisition and Language Education Extensions ard Applications Stephen D. Krashen INGUAGE TEACHING, Prentice Hall International ‘tpt Utd Set nin shy ecm a Sree tamer ‘sree sate sang aet Pence mma sou wo brett egemnt ee Contents Intioduction 1 PART ONE: SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING Language Acquistion Theory and Materials Development 7 2. Core and Supplementary Activites in Language Teaching 25 3. TheDinin the Had, Input. and the Language Acquistion Device 35 4 Second Language Acquisition Theory andthe Preparation of Teachers: Toward Rationale 43 PART TWO: IMMERSION AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION| 5 Imunerson: Why It Works and What It as Taught Us 7 6 Does dilingual Education Delay the Acquistion of English? 69 PARK THREE: LITERACY 7 ThePowerat Reading 8 Furthertnguiries 115, Bibigsaphy 135 Acknowledgments ermssonto eer eprint ee merits ance rina Ilebo pnlay Senondoe “Chr By persion of the Aftcan Stace Caen Michigan State Utes ee Laing Mich ™ evsion of “Language Acquision Theory and Materials fearon font ne Dg ael Swit Aran agate Mas ected yD Dyce Da Chaps Sy pemizion ACTL, Hosting on Hudson NY Revision of The Din tthe Heas, pet and he Lange ‘epusiondenc ton retour te apers By perms of Cecrgtown Une Shon f Langues Chgoons srg OC = vision of “Second Language Acgiton Theory ed th Expouion efter Hurd ata fone Congcte, {ery Ro eon Laggan pct nut te Peto f See nape ede lnc elt Ai 9-H Sem, ond? Senn Chis ype Te Comming One avon "averon: Wy Wont hal as ag ‘ecm langage Sey 12 8 Chetry poms of rank Smith Vico, AC. cp Rdg Wie! Nr Sy en Fenty i Ree ois ohare Woon pages ria (Carters By german of Ann Lander and News Amaia Syat abe [epi f “Eyes Opened a tro An Landers, The ton ay 21 By permis of Rank Seth ie BC capi fo aig itn Ny Sih Now Yr ‘useage ea 1M poe Unde Retin ‘ison le nanan a gga 3 es 15 peas Introduction This tok «coc ion of ety, some prev shed and ome cen pers pperng ne or he Est time, that have a ui of things In common, Fist they ential popes aT ope cn be fad) ones Second ty elesume sree omy theo workin lnguagacjllon, bursakencatien ‘deen wor even tie te many ies iis ne on. Tot done doevhere ee Kesher: Bb, 98,198), Recrnsin hs telmeeuporesoe atnw a app {aioe oe cry an atc how te coy Reet Sid ip adc problems inves a Thove sowed the Bays neopterin exch one, ul cnet uch ab eae toupee Saar severed. This done allow he popes ‘Meena ant sae) nda The tok ated totes Part One Second Language acing deasspestealy wiht norton te Fimthate ef ie theo Chapter “Language Acqiton ‘Theory ond otras Deveopreni” wus pee a the Grnienc on Aan Langue aching Meee lean sie Unvery bn Apel £198 err vera ‘eihed inthe prcenigs of hat snterne, eel Bu 'Seyer iE Design et Evin Spon Lagu Materials, published by the Africa: Studies Center at Michi- ‘gan State Linversty, The major point inthis chapter is that the need not entirely srap all exting materials in order to cach for “acquisitions” although some serious gaps need to be filled, better use of existing resources can go a long wey ‘ward meeting out needs. Of particu‘ popularity andinterest Is the “teacher resource book,” offering suggested activites for providing comprehensible inp at the beginning level ‘When I asas stating out 24 anguage teacher all $00 often my goal was simply to fill he lass hour with activites that "Tooke ke” language teching, without any deep thought 4 to what contribution fang, these activities made #0 my udents’ second language develoy ment. Chapter 2, "Core nd Supplementary Activites im Language Tesching” is am sitempt to avoid this kind of lesson. This previously unpub- lished paper tries to clarify the elfects of different kinds of setivities we use in the second language classroom. While cites that supply comprohensibie input are the “core” of 2 language program, thete is a place for “supplementary ‘tivities that make input more comprehensible, lower the Affective Fifer, and even teach language va a different route, butside the Lerguage Acquistion Deace, My main points in this chapter are that we nees to be aware of the purpose of diferent kinds of activites ams that we should never forget ‘he ore Chapter 3, “The Din in the Head, Input, and the Lar ‘3uage Acquisition Device,’ is neluded at the request of my mother, who has told me that its the most readable of all the essays Phave wnitten. [tis sased om the observations of Professor Bizabeth Barber, who noted that, afer intensive ‘exposure toa second language, a “din” occurred in her head words, sounds, intonations, phrases, all swimming about in the voices ofthe people taled with [speculate that this “din in the head may in fac reflect the ‘operation ofthe Language Acquistion Deviee itself its the resull of comprehensible input. This article was onginaly published in Foreign Language Aral in 1983 ‘An earlier version of the lourth and final chapter in this part, "Second Language Acquisition Theory and the Prepa- Intratation 3 tation of Teachers: Toward a Rationale” wes presented atthe Georgetown Roundtable in Linguistics and appeared in the proceeding ofthe conference Applil Linguistics and the Prp- ration of Second Language Tachrs Twa Rationale, edited by Jomes Alatis, H. H. Stern, and Peter Strevens), which appeared in 1983. It atempts to describe the relationship befween theory and practice, an ok but sill unresolved issue, as Well as rlated questions, such asthe role of formal lin: suistis (for example, grammatical theory) in teacher taining, art Tivo of this volume addresses immersion and bin: gual education, Chapter 5, "Immersion: Why It Works and ‘What t Has Taught Us” dexives from a paper orginal pub- lished in 1984 in Lenguage ant Society, a journal published by the Commissioner of Oficial Languages in Canada, Its devoted tothe vary successful mimersion programs, probably the most successful language programs that rely only on the dassroom ever described im. the_ professional literature Immersion programs are a rich source of information, and we can apply what we have learned from them to realy every second language teaching situation. Simply put, we have learned that subject matter teaching, when its made comprehensible s language teaching. (Chapter 6, “Does Bilingual Education Deley the Acqui sition of English?" is based on a major acdress at the 13 ‘meeting of the National Assocation for Bilingual Education in Washington, D.C. I have presented this material many ‘umes for public school teachers and administrators in several parts ofthe United States. largue tha the frst language = tise correct! bingual edacaton isan excellent program — in fact, # may be the best possible English program. Once aga, the key concepts cortpzehensibleinput—information provided through the Hest language can make English input snuch more comorchensible art Three of this book is devoted to the development ‘of literacy in the primary language. Chapter 7, “The Power ‘of Reading” appears here for the firs time. In this new paper, Texamine the results of studies of wading exposure, reading for pleasure and genuine intrest. This research reveals that ‘reading exposure has tremendoss beneite—chldren iho rad for pleasure do better in reading comprehension, a result 4 Inge athe predicted by current reading theory (see exe work of Frank. Smith and Kenneth Goodman), as well as in vocabulary development, grammatical development, and veriting style. Reading exposure has these postive effec, Ieonclude, because itis comprehensile input. If this argument i cece, tmplies that language arts programs need to be altered. When they focus on "sil building,” they may only be serving as tests, tests that readers pass and that nonreaders fl Chapter &, “Further Inquires” continues the discussion ‘of Chapter?, begining witha brief examination of the power ‘of writing, Although writing doesnot cause language acqui- sition (ts not comprehensible input serves in other ways— ‘many scholars have pointed out that when writers write and revise thee wriing, they discover new ideas. Writing is, in ater words, a powerful tol for problem solving and inte Tectual growth. in the second section, I suggest that reading, exposure may also be the primary source of spelling com petence. “Further Inquires” concludes with briet discussions Sf the role and limitations of phonics and grammer instruction [have presented much ofthe material in this volume to public schoolteachers and administrators and have profited vel from ther feedback. In particu, | wow ike thank {ia Stapleton of the ABC Ualied School District (Los Ange- les County), Shelly SpiegelColeman, Chuck Acosta, and Bi lie Teles of the 12: County Superintendents Office, Fred Tempes, David Dolson, and Dennis Parker of the State of Califoria Bilingual Biculeural Office, Margarita Calderon of the University of California at Santa Harbara, and my "specal MAY" students atthe ABC Unified Schoo! District for helpful discussion and stimulation, I would also like #0 express my sratinude to Joan Wolfgang of Janus Book Publishes, In. for hher many helpful suggestions, insightful comments, and. encouragement, and to A. R. Evans for his able handing of many detall that made the ob of writing much easier. Finally ‘my thanks to my colleagues inthe Linguistics Department at the University of Southern California, for providing an acmo- phere in which both theory and practice ave respecte. Part One SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING Language Acquisition Theory and Materials Development! * : 2 one and Supplementary Activites in Language ‘Teaching 25 e od 3 TheDin inthe Hen, put and he Language uation Bees 38 4 second Langunge Acquistion Theory andthe Preparation of Rachels Toward © Raerale 43 1 Language Acquisition Theory and Materials Development This chapter discusses how certain developments and progress in second language acquisition theory can influence Thaler, In recent years, there have been major changes in theory, changes that invalidate many common assumptions about how language should be taught. Although these changes hevessitate construction of new materials, this task will not require esoteric and special knowledge or machinery. More- (ver the gap between materials and current knowledge can Selon fy rp atestin pr by popes of what iscurrenty available. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORY I shall summarize only briefly some developments in second language acquisition theory and present several major fonclusions-—conclusions that ate best thought of as current hypotheses. In adaitin, {will not attempt to supply detailed fppott for these hypotheses here because the evidence is Second Langues aching extensive and has been presented previously in several paces (Krashen, 1981b, 1982, 1955) ‘Acquistion and Learning ‘The cornerstone in current theory is the distnetion between acisiton and leayning the idea that we have two independent means of gaining ability in second languages. ‘Aojustion is 2 subconstious process that Is identical to the process used in first language acquisition in all importart ‘ways. While acquisition is taking place, the acquirer is not always awace of it, and he oF she isnot usually aware of its fesulls. Acquistion produces what Chomsky (195) call "tai Competence” of a “fel” for language. Learung is conscious Knowledge, "knowing about” language. in everyday lan- ‘guage, when we talk about "grammar or “rules we are ‘eferring to learning, net acquisition. According to the the: fry the practice of errr correction affects learning, not ac) ‘Sidon, When our errors are corrected, we rethink and adjust ‘our conscious rules “Acquisition now appears to ply a fer move central role than learning in second language performance, Our ability to use second languages comes mostly from what we have ‘uid, ot from what we have earned. Our conscious rales perform only one function: They act as an editor, or Monit. [While we are speaking or writing, we can stop, scan the out- put of cur acquired system, ard make corrections, using the ules wehavelearned. Thisis, however, very difficult to do— {o effectively utilize the conscious grammar, we need to be focused on form, or be thinking about correctness, and we need to know the grammar rules involved. Moreover, Mon- itor use decreases the amount of information we can transmit, tnd it takes time, factors that can disrupt performance Research evidence strongly suggests that Moritor use is very limited, that all ucncy and nesly all accurecy in second, language performance, even among highly “analytic” adult performers, isa result of what we have acquired, not what tee have lesrned 1 Acuiston Thar and Materials Deslopment 9 ‘The Input Hypothesis i scquistion sind central. the crucial question then becomes: low do we acquire? The best hypothels now, the tne tha fits the data the most accurately that we sculre injustone way—by understanding messages orby obtaining cmon inp. Move apacealy, we scquite a neve rle tyr understanding messoses thet contain this new ule. TNs is done with the aid of estalingustic context, Knowledge of {heworld an our previous linguistic competence This pit Hiporesis explain hy pltues and the ean ae 0 Vali able tothe Beginning language teacher, they provide con- text, bicugound inormaton, that help) make input comprehensible, “The Input Hypothesis also daims that speaking por se docs not cause latgiage acguson. Rather the aby 10 Speak “emerges” on own, asa resul of language acgu ston, as a result of obtaining comprehensible mp. Ths, Speaking Spanish to yourself ax you drive t9 work inthe ‘orning wil not help you acute more Spanish But Hen ing to Spanish language odio might lp a gest deal itis Comprehenaible Speaking rn help indinecty If you speak, Someone might answer (conversation) The value of conver Sation is what the other ersen ays to you--thus, speech Helpe when tines compre enable nput- This hypothesis ‘spain wy cldren offen go tougiha silent period sting {slong as several monthe before they Begin to speak anew Inngage, Dasng the alent period, they ae busing cory feence inthe second languige, When they begin to speak, They are not beginning their sullton; they are begining fo chow oi their competence. This idea alo helps explain thefeeng of uneasiness many people ave in lrg cesses vihen they arc asked fo speak te scond language night ay they have not yet bull-up enough competence through comprehensible apt Fanother important part ofthe Input Hypothesis dhe iin thet comprehensible inp, hen delivered in sulcent Suny and quantity, automata conan all he appropt Sfestruturss forthe acquter We need not deliberately pro 10. Second Language Teaching ‘gram grammar, Rather, i we supply enough high-quality comprehensible input, ll the structures, those described by linguists an those not yet described, wil be provided in just the right quantity and will be automatically reviewed. Thave angus (sce references fist cited in this chapter) that this approach is far more effinent than deliberate grammatical ‘tjuencing forthe development of grammatical accuracy. “The Affective Filter ‘The Affective Filter hypothesis claims that compzehensi> ble input, although nece%siry is not sufficient for second language acquisition, Input may be understocd bythe sequiret but this does not mean that this input will reach the Language ‘Acjuston Device. Dulay snd Burt (1977) have posited the festence ofan Affective Filey a barrier that can prevent input fom reaching the Languaze Acquisition Device (LAD). hace hypothesized on the basis of research on affective variables, that a high filler, one that prevents input from reaching tne LAD, is caused by low motivation, high student anxiety, and low student seltesteem (see Krashun, 1981b, chap. 2. Views that appear to me tobe parallel and elucidating ae those of Frank Smith and Eze! Stevick. Srith (1983, 184c) suggests ‘hat successful langage acquisition requires that et least wo conditions be met: Acquires rust assume that they will be Successful and must consider themerives to be potential members ofthe “lub of users of that language. Stevck (1976) notes that many language students are “on the defensive” in language class; they consider she clas to be 2 place where thle weaknesses willbe reveal, nota place where they will ‘grow in competence In terms of the theory, this causes a high Atfecave Filter. ‘To sum up, we acquire when we obtain comprehensile ‘input ina low-ansiety situation, when we ae presented with inferesting messages. and whe! we understand these mes sages. Comprehensible input has been the lst resort of "hs Tansage teaching profession: We have tied neal every other possibiity--grammar teaching, dialogue menvorization, pat- 1 Acquistion Theory ond seals Development 11 texn dell, and expensive and awkward teaching machines. None of these approaches attempts to provide the essential ingredient-—comprehensible input LANGUAGE TEACHING ‘The Need for Comprehensive Input ‘The theory does not predic that language classes are a waste of time, On the contrary, they canbe very wseful, more Usefl infact, than simply going tothe countey where the language is spoken. I beginners "goto the country” they will encounter only incomprehensible input, or noise. Buta well ‘aught langage class can give beginners a concentrated dose tf comprehensible input right from the fist day, The goal of the language dass fo put students in a positon to under stand the language of the “outside” world, 40 make them intermediates” Thus, although the classroom is the best place for beginners, intermediates are better off in the country because they can be provided with comprehensible input all day long, Research on teaching methodology supports this view. Language clases have been shown to be effective for bei ners, but they are much less effective for intermestiate st ‘ents wag have acess to Input onthe outside VKzashen, 1982). | Inaddition, methods emphasizing comprehensibleinputand alwe Afctive Filter have consistently been shown t0 be far Superior fo oldfashioned grameardril type methods, (There is litle diference between grammar methods and dilipat tern practice methods becatise each fils to provide mich comprehensible input). These results are nothing evs. Asher. for eample, developed a method called Total Physical Response’ (TPR) in which the teacher gives students com mas in the second language. Its elfecive because the Commands are comprehensibie—the teacher models the Commanded action vile giving the command, Asher’ fist published report of TPR wasn 1963, and rescanchconvirming 14 Swond Lenguge Tenchi the eficacy of this method as appeared regulary in the mest prestigious journals since hat time, (Fo a review, see Asher 1982, In every case, TPR ssudents do rch beter than com ppanson students. (For ree-nt evidence ofthe superiority of ‘comprehensible input methods, sce my review in Krasien, 1982; Swaffer and Woodru', 1975, Wote and Jones, 1982.) The Natural Approach Other effective comprehensible input based methods that have empirical support include Terzells Natural Appr (see Krashen and Terrell 1983) and Laganov's Suggested (see Bancrot, 1978; Dhocity, 683). The Natural Approach vas designed to. provide ‘comprehensible input~class. time is devoted to discussing topics of interest, ames, tasks, and the lke. Students may respond in either the fst or secmid language, and their errors are not orreeted; the comprehen sible input from the teacher, not the students” production, ‘causes acquisition, Grammar study, forthe conscious Mon to fd for language appreciation” inguistie), is done at hose. ‘Natural Approach classes are organized; the teat her doesnt “just talk” But the organization is around topics of interest, not grammar. The sjlabus, the lst of topics, will, vary according to student interest and ean even be negoth ate according tothe theory, input need only be comprehen sible and interesting, It eed not focus on individual points of gtammar Terrell syll:bus for his fist yea college Spanish course is presented in lable 1.1 on pages 12-13 asan example (Gzom Krashen and Terrell, 1953, pp. 67—70), ‘Very lite student talkin the second language is expected uring early stages (termed the preperh stage) Activites are done in which students only need to answer “yes” or “ne! for use someone's name in order to participate. Gradutly moze response is called for, but in general, stdents are not forced to speak ‘Voge (1881) compared Natural Approach students to Diet ‘Method students atthe frst semester college level in German, fs foreign language. The Direc Method utiles the trget language inthe dassroom but fecuses on grammatical a {cy and uses heavy error correc ion. As an be seen in Table 2.1 (irom Voge), Natural Approach students easly oulper 1 Acquistion Tory ad Mtrals Drapmt 15 ‘TADLE21_ Comparison of Natural Approach and ite Method 1 Spanking Hat (Dsebe a pure, accor) ‘ier oy Darton oct met fe anal Append cow BE es ase hs ss Dano Sines 3 oa 5 Wing umberof aber of Ah Writing pat orror free Poa Ntunl Asprowh cig) —9.0 % Get 3e BS Die Meal Sand G an: G8 is Comma Ascuray (Dacre point raat est) ‘Nal Apprash dans te re a Dive Method Sass 180 fet te Ue formed Direct Method students on all measures involving communion ond equaled then ona standard grammar test eventhough the Natural Approach students had devote tuck less time to grammar. In addition, Natural Approach Students reported that they were less worried about being Called on and were more opsmisticabout thelr future chances fof success in acquiring German, ‘From the Classroom to the Real Wold ing language dstes have been eectvly sup- plemented in ect yrs in nadie sitatons by the Fed sj tater de (rhe BD), aly he ne elas ls not enough t assure saccess in the academic {rasienn the Natural Approeh, fr ample can putt denna poston ocomvere iva cooperate natvespetker 16, Seon Langage Tashi about everyday topics after year's study butthis experince feiloe Be enough to prepare en fod adem oe the second language. To hep the wanton from the lane tuage dass tothe ouside word, I ave Suggested that we eetdlop subject mater courses taught ln coraprehensble tray to second language students Studies of Canaeian nr ‘Sou programs incite thal when children stay subject mat fer th secon language, they gun in both subject matter nomledge and second language aquisition, (For @ recent ivten oftescorch, se Sieainand Lapkin, 1982) Our studies “reconfirm that this re ofthe older student a well {Eawards, Westhe,Krashen, Clement, and Keidenie, 1984). $Setered couces are not sujet matter modules introduced int regular language cases, bt subject mater course, with {he teston the subject mater, note language. Naive speak Sorte eond language ae excloded vo srsure that input iStsadecomprehenstle fo the ron-rative speaker, Sheltered oars, in iy Yew are an excellent way of helping the st= Sr gute Teegaage for spr purposes, such a academic language _MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT “The change infocus fom grammar instruction to com prehensibe Input means a chenge in materials as well [will EEconverned hese primaniy with materials forthe Beginning, Ievels material for sheltered subject matter transition courses lire stalghefrward and will not Be discussed inthis section ‘The Textbook “The fist major ise is whether a standard text, one to be given to each student, is necessary. Tiss atthe moment, eMfide-open question in my mind. Such a text would have fo serve ay an ai to the teacher in providing comprehensible input in the classroom, Te might include visuals, to aid in aiaprehension, and may include some “core vocabulary! {intended as guide to students and teachers. It would fllow the sequence of topics covered inthe beginning cass 1 Action tneo-v and Materials Development 17 ‘The emergence of acquis sion-based methodology has fBven nse to-a nev gene im materials the teacher resource ook of activities, Sich books give teachers Ideas for pre sng actives that provide ompehensinp on pas afte a eevance fo apni Student Here 2h ‘example, from Christison and Bassano’ Look Whos Tiki ane, oak Who's Talking PERSONAL 9 ‘NONPERSOMAL 3 THE REEDED: Tose Where’s My Answer? ProceDae: eo remttice Rahven Romar oem tp) SEE Hd aoe vt acon se 2 Recineni seca seus 2 2 kivminesreagman OURE 11,8 Comper apt Ant fom Chson ad 1 cond Language Thing Communist Sites by Jay Winn-Bell Olsen (1977 also has a number of very cet seve for beginnings dent, and other suggestions canbe found in ashes ad “rrell (983, chaps. Sand 6, For activites stl for sul children, see AlvaeeMartni, Moreno, Raley, and Teel 11986 ‘These volumes have emenous value and arecumenty popular among ESL teachers. They ae fel teachers seco no seal activities But a pick nd chose those approps a for thei dass and is splubus. Also, becuse the only requirement is thatthe activity be interesting and compe. hens, the order of presentations nt fixed cites need sot and should nat prvice peatce onthe “strutar of the «hay Te cites in these solumes are easy to ear do land teachers can really exp them, A spec vale i tha the veces aren Enghah Heese they wee intend for SU) They can usb sap for ase nny target angres Many actives dest ed in teacher resource books involves fair amount of in fongage lt (todents intern ing with eachother. One a ojet tots practice arguing that students heat only the speech of other acques they tee ston ann earings ater hen hey SEE gat etje ator nthe Secon langage tno com secnnbte wy (wud et 1504, Sein ae aphn, Pd) Ste! ase, n hich secon Tnguage Ses troup forsee mater mtu nse ah 1Feadbc oe wanton fom the general second language Saute sedeme mninreamy thene cases are ecve Sea ty pel compen np Groupe eles Sati he Lomprefeniiy of nsucion by eliminating ‘Sovaivanced poker ofthe engage making ease: ‘edhe Sous the input he aude’ evel oe ‘Sedna Suse, see Reon 98: Nexhe, 954) “Rare are sven ways sep comprehen put cut csroom One se langnge norton As ‘Setsoned in “Language Asuiton Tory and Metra Bercopsent (i. ths ene), 2 new efiton of he Engunge mb i pace where ster aan eel f profs cere Ee Stain ura spoons np in he form ford on py, me, lees, an ineraion ith ‘Seder, hcl, sere or tha less. Tans Ss pomeral sauree of comprehen Spat ‘eae Sur te Seal second language compete (ey ho stengbhat 1965s ls “The Powe of Reading 8 svat , Mareno, SUPPLEMENTATION Tethaps under ideal circumstances, cove activities would te suficent for successful second language acquisition. Uniortunately, they are usually not, Tne mere presentation fof comprehensible input is necessary, but is often not suff Sent, Several forms of supplementary instruction can be helpful and are, at times, necessary 25 Second Langage Tachi ‘Making Input More Comprchensible ‘The fist category of supplementation consists of peo cedures designed to aid comprehension, There are 10 pos sible ways of accomplishing this. The most obvious, and probably mest requendy used technique is simplieation of {he langbage, the use of more common vocabulary anal sharor, lese-complex sentences. Some research bears On the use OF simplification a¢ 4 means of making iexts comprehensible, And: taken as ¢ whole its not encouraging. Marks, Doct row and Wittrock (1974), ina first language study, found that vocabulary simplification made reading passages more com- prehensile for children, but other studies show very small ‘effets (Wiliams, 1968) or no effects (Johnson, 1981). Blau (2982), ina second language study, actualy found that sim= plication could impair comprehension by removing ele ‘ens crucial to comprehension, ‘On the other hand, substantial zesearch shows that pro- viding background information can help a great dealin mak ing input comprehensible. Helpful background information can take the form of pictures (Hudson, 1982), addtional ver bal information (Adams, 1982), and the use of familia topics (ohnson, 1981, 1982). One advantage of bilingual education Js that background information can easily be provided in the Students fist language, a pretice that makes English input more comprehensible and speeds second language acquis tion (Krashen, 1981 see alo "Does Bilingual Education Delay the Acquisition of English?” p.63, this volume) ‘One ean argue that using these ways of making input comprehensibe is simply a partof providing the coe activity Tt becomes a supplement only when the intial presentation of aural input of text isnot understood, Lowering the Affective Filter A second form of supplementation can be thought of as clearing a path for input, Language acquirers may have a ‘mental block that prevents input from zraching the Language ‘Acquistion Device An important part of language teaching 2 Com end Supplementary Actes 29 involves lmering or wrakening this oc, termed the A= {he vitr (Duly and ut 7A, (One can interpret t9¢ use of musk and relation exer cies in Suggetpi 9 having E's goa, andthe reported Ssces ofthis method bushman ond Madsen, 1976; Dao, 198i at least consistent wih this interpretation, Suggs. tepals, in son, ae nt be in esoon bu inordinary rooms with comfortable chal, practice thal ‘ay aso help sadents rela “aches can do-rumerous other things to lower the fective ites Actes that allow stadents fo gerber SStuanted wth each cher may help lower anwetie and mate Sfident les selfconsous, and the Suggestopedia practice of asking students to adopt new names fr the dartion of {he langage course ay have a sila effect. “Theres, tbe ste, a thin ln separating core activites from the hinds of supplementstion Ihave decseed so fat As mentioned ener tating input more comprekens Ue by altenng the language or by adding background infor ‘ation could be lnerpetad aa “core ab pat of the pisary tk of suppying comprehensible input. In addition, if aretrae tothe nyt Hype ve wil doa ges del tow icnening the Afective Filer "rovding actives that supp mpretenaible input on tops of rea interes, not fren ‘any speech producion apd at lnisting on high levels of sceuracy neal stags, wl help rede ante inthe ase Toom atdety bull ap by nupatve experience in incorrectly taught language clases, inthe case of ltr lowering, Should pethaps dine as supplementary only nonanguste cei that cerve only flower te Fler, sch asthe tl Son vecaes of Sugestopsia and other acts tat sy fap canpchnais inate nh pana goa hr ng Going Outside the Language Acquisition Device ‘While there is overlap between core compzchensible inpt setivities and the tw kinds of supplementation previow ly escribed, the dividing lin» between the coreand a thied Kind 3 Second Langage Thing of supplementation s clear: These activites ites temp otesch langge by onng mental processes no designe for in steed bag esr th Lar nk Acquistion Device Gor dsision, sec Cham 1° easier, 198). While the LAD Isstinulaed by comprehen. sible input and proces “tc” or subconscious knee OF language ths Kind of supplementation involves help Students rive a conscious inowiedge of language ers through informing them sbovt ules deductive tsesing) oF helping them acrive a knowledge of tales vin prolene cating prceaiesdv cng). Errcecon Students alter thet conscious rules sd hus lo pat of this Hin of supplements ton. have refered To gaining knowedge of langunye nts way as Tearning” & con imc nghalage ngage AD ned Although there is considerble individual vation {Ktashen, 181), how mes know.dge of language cn be fined tough ksenings severely lined Certain no oe Bs yet “earned” a languare ins entity. (Thevratal {uss have yet to deseie sry language completly) There fre ako limits on Ie apphsaton ots knowledge wee feemace hae aul (Shen 1) that cnc conscious knowledge of langeape only a an eitr a en ty force he outpaced sytem a . She had prablems only with those Tanguages in which she va less advanced, ‘Afinal conjecture concerns the craving for input and Tonguage use that both Prutessor Terrell and l experience We, of course, are profesional linguists who came int lin _pictice pally Because we enjoy language acquisition, Does the Din produce his caving among “evans If so, we are led to the hypothesis thi language acquisition is 2 natura and enjoyable process for anyone, as long as the right kind of input i provided” “The “Language in ths Crib” Problem The Din hypothess nay help to solve atleast one the- cortical issue, When Rut Weirs book, Language in the Cr (0922), appeared, her study was cited as supporting evidence for the audiolingual technique of pattern drill. Weir tape recorded her 2montivold son's evening monologues and found that some of thers di, in fact, resemble rehearsal of Second Language Tsching patterns (many did aot, being coherent stretches of dis ‘course. This phenomerin has been interpreted as picts and therefore as evidence that production, and acertan kind ‘of production (pattern practice is helpful or even necessary for language acquisition ‘My interpretation of the Lenguage inthe Crib phenota- non is diferent: Its simply the Din externalized. Fhe eh is much more likely to react this way to the Din, actally ‘uttering the sounds he or she Fears inside. James Cummins reports that his daughter, a stucent in a French immession program in Toronto, often utters what appears tobe random French when playing alone after school, Could this be the same thing? CONCLUSIONS ‘The Din may have real practical value. I the previous speculations are correct, and if we can get reliable reports from students on when the Dia ison” and when itis oft” itmay help tellus when ourinstrction is effective, how long, lessons shouldbe, thei optimal faguency, what topic should be discussed, and so forth In shert, it may tell us when we are providing truly interesting and comprehensible input sn thus, when we ae causing real second language acquisition, Notes a tb ce he poy of sl Di Se ae 2, Ina recent sod, Chaps (194) presente Barber deeipton ofthe Din, a ced inthis paper ove or and fagh shel oo ‘allege reg langage shades. low teeequates eens bos reported that they had exer-nced the Bun stcome sre 2, Leannot te any publish’ sours for thi eet thas ae ‘8 good dealin convertion ove. the oats howe, 4 Second Language Acquisition Theory and the Preparation of Teachers: Toward a Rationale “This chptesisdvided ino thre ma sections. Fs, Les why eo as es ieee ote fd language teaching. Second, I presen my understanding ol wat theory h 28d how we progiess i seence, focusing Futon theory an pacictn second lmguage {hon —isinguhngetwen purely hort esearch ed ‘pple research, examining the tlaionghip of esearch 0 ‘Sth "lnglte” theory and second language lion the Sysand exposing Ie feltonship between second language SShastion tony and langwogefesehing. Talo give wcon- {ile campo of how a conideration of theory ves eter iste tthe prcal questions language teacher may ask The conn sation presents the pens of ts di Chun for eacher ting a 4 Seond Language Teaching WHAT WENT WRONG? Atone time, not so long ago, theory had a stron inf ‘ence on language teaching. Language teachers looked tothe "university for guidance, texts proudly boasted of being based fon “movtern linguistics“ and language eachers valiantly tet to keep up with advances in inguisties and peychology. This is no longer the case. Many i not meat, language teachers Ihave rejected theory. The symptom ofthis change ate every. where. Researchers, linguists especally are no longer lon lized Sy language teachers. Indeed, quite the opposite has ‘securred—on several occasions, having been invited to speak to languoge teachers and educators, Las told that my aft iation with the Department of Linguistics would not be included on the publicity for fear of alienating the audience Another sign ofthis s the change in focus that has occured in presentations at ESL and foreign language conferences, We See mich less “applied linguistics,” fewer attempts to apply linguistics or learning theory to the classroom, and more sharing of “ideas that work” with no effort made to validate the techniques empirically or eats them to a theory What caused this change? major reason is that the ‘methods that came from university theories simply did not work very well The audi-lingual method, derived from beha- iorist psychology, and so-called “egritie” techn, supos- cly derived from generative-transformational grammer, érd ‘not produce students who could use the Second language comfortably with native speakers, even ater years of stg The blame for these failures was, of course, placed on the teachers and their lack of understanding of theory. The shit away from theory was thus caused bythe teachers realization that theory had lite to say to them. This has eesulted in + rejection of al theory and the evolution of language teaching ‘nto afield more dependent on intuition and ideas than of researc, afield prone to capricious change in method, a eld in which “ecleteim” is considered a virtue, ‘The change has also resulted in a backlash in the unk versity. Rejected researcher: and theoreticians often consider language teachers tobe antiintellectal or downright stupid Language teaching and second language acysition ate vary 4 Acquistion Tory and Tchr Prpaaion 45 Included im general linguistics courses out fet language ‘quisition inow acepted ao worlhy branch ofingusig) “ache ening courses include les ad les ings, The theoretiab-apped spit has appeared in nearly all American and Canadian universities, ‘The stv ofthis chapter to improve this unfortunate sation, to help bring theo"y and pace back together in ‘rst panei. The problem hep ot ben hy thas bee orate fap the wag hain. en we spy seand language soylstion theory instead of gan stl theory the resus ae quite diferent. Not only does Enguage ecting improve ad te Ie ofthe language teacher become easier, ht tons ips between hngusts and ln finge teaching ae ded WHAT IS THEORY? A theory i clleton of related, testable hypotheses ‘A nypothess i simply a generation based on empl dats Hypotheses cone supped by empires eicence bt not be provensunlesall competing hypotheses are doe proven. Albough hypetheses reife nd often impos {Eke To prove they se any to dnprves al it takes b one ‘esr countereample. For stance, any cam of ingustic riven sach a “all langunge have pronouns” can edi sven by one language cng the prepned est re tone language without pronoun), When a counterexample ‘ies are the scents hos for deeper better hypothesis Itthis proves tobe imponsiba, an entirely siren theory ty be necnsny Sts ths dona “beeve” hypothe Tut conser them tobe sinply the best curent generals fons bse on te vate tata enous theory nol armchair speculation but is ase onrealeyents inthe work enous theory evolves and deve! fpsasmew data emerges, Changein theory ists not cep los, not according aslon tf progress peer Sstons deepen and myrove ab we len snore Ths the iy wey we can prone in setence 46 Swomd Language Tachi Because theory is always tentative, i should not be our ‘only source of information abou language teaching. Second language acquisition theory can, howevee help used! with practical problems in language teaching Theory and Practice in Second Language Acquisition econ dings 0 kn of esc ston an auage quisition trtnlandayped ce purely Pah theoretical esearch does not have a ciee impacto hee oni! langage casroom but sf fo our brewing oe seco langues are acquire. i males no ape te oe letly practical but ain to build theory Exampeg nage dies that probe the rlctonship benrcen itehigeree acd language apitade, investigations ef is and seo ie SRE fms oer casutonstae ante: Pury wore esearch in seo ngage sett eye caer seas of linguist theo suchas grammateal tery teem SLA Theory are 14 Theory and Prac in Second Canguuge Acquisition 4 Aegon Theory and Teacher partion (for eample, studies in itetanguage syntax may be ev fence confirming the realty of the markedness concept it sBamina, Rutherford, 1962 if uch notions Help explain sce Su language acqlsion phenomena, this confims their ‘abdige (Se Kipasky, 166, fora similar view of histori Tagua "Applied research atempt io answer practical problems diel out recourte 10 theory. Exams incade pt gyom evasion studies that compat the eicacy of differen Spprsches, sch ao "Do student taught using method A petlorm biter than stdens aught using method BP "Do Sudentsughtin nga educton progeame ace English 4s well as stdenas in allay English progiams” Test devel pment alo falls into this category. "A valid theny must also Be consistent with the resus ef apple research, even if this research isnot done with theory buding im mind” (Research can be both theoretical and applied atthe same time, for eample, « method come pron set up to expuily test the thuory underying the Fhethod. in ge, 1981) Methodology in secon language teaching is related to second language theory, no eel fo research The theory, 2 set of generalizations bosed on research resists 38 8 mediator We ennet go ety rom rescarchresute to prac tke. To be sure, alempss to apply resuch dey tothe dassoom have been made. I made this error several years ago when T suggested that the natura order of acquisition Become the new gramvtial syllabus (or discussion, se ashen, 1982). But research resus fist need! toe inte- fyated ot fies into a theory-ony inthis way can the cela Eoship and potent confit betwen experiential els ad lypotheses be deteraned. To go direct fom theore! ial ezeareh to application misses at importa step. Wie fave also made th error of tempting 0 apply srmatical theoty directly to teaching, withouseiccly {Seudering the process of acquisition” Phase ror are ak testers to directly relate anatomy to behavior, wineut the intervening and cual levels of phystlogy ane psy chology These major ertors have contnbuted rea dell f esis dese con lenguage scston thor should not be dhe cnlvineat into retiedagr eceuset alas declan Me have mode tis ez before aka. Pracetiner should Sing col er now and ep nce hetheaogts are mien ch source of sor Shower fey pel teary fast ow aot eos canbe fe exmined Belo How Theory Helps lar ws ub sconce ame one hypothe fon current second language aogulsion tory and see how fui the schema presented in Figure 1 The hypothe tebe tisassed, the input Hype, in my pion he trent important une in second langage aqston they today beeaus attempts fo answer the central question: How islanguage acquired? "fe input Tiypethess cis that we aque anguage in ony one way, Uy understanding messages, oF obtain omrfeie ul Specialy, we qa ne grammar b tindestanding messages tat contain the new fle. We at Mie reat dnl in comprehension by exalingusicinlo tration, fur knowledge ofthe word. Speaking, according the Input Hypothesis ia result nota cause, of aqui Speaking shows off the competence guned via compreler hie input, Tre Input Hypothesis also dims that compre henale input automaticaly contains al the gramiaabal Slructres te acquirer et ce nth ight ore Sight quan eslonga enough mputof consistent ht Shalit is provided. rng the schema in Figure 1. he Input Hyp sis eres det from several aeos of pel theoreti feces deed sure (ren 192), he pl ypotisis is supported by studies of caretaker speech ® sektanguage aston and simpli codes in second a ‘ Acguistor Theory an Teacher Prpiaion sears performanes:The Input Hypothesis exis why these {bles are effeciveforlangay> ecning They provide cont prehensile Input wth earl yulste means of aiding com prehension for samp, the fsa the “hese and now Getaer speech). The input Hypothesis also provides an ‘Splanation forthe “silent pri” =-thelng prespesch stage {ld second language aeqters go through-vand helps expan, ela-aaul differences (ee Kraze, 198, for arguments: Sn). The Iapat Hypotheses consistent with other there. ‘el hypothotes atl [he Neural Order hypothesis, the Active Ber hypotese sce uly Burt oind Rasher 1982 Krashen, 198) The Input Hypothesis also helps expan the sess of applied research, Methods compaiaon research has iad Sted hat tations methods donot fer much ners of ffecoveness (fr omit, dil oriented versts conscious {gammar methods) anit eran newer methods, sch Aakers ft! Past eye method snd erly Nata Apreach are more efecto Te reason for these findings acrording tothe Inpot 'ypothesi fe that nether dl or conscious grammar meth fs provides mach comprehensible input, whe the newer methods provi a great deal off sh conlderabeexaingisic support fo id compre Son elective means of ompreseraion checking es trips on spoken accor (See Krashen, 98 chap. 3 fordetais) The Input Hepothenis inal acount forthe ‘sen of programs in w lh students seq second lan guage through the comprehensible presentation of subject fate in the second lang ig, ain Canadian immersion pro frame. (Se Swain and Lspkin, 182, and "Immersion, Why I ors and Wht It Hs Taught Us" p.57 this vohome Such programs work beca ise they supply large amounis of comprehensible input vis comprehensible subject mate ceting The Input Hypothesis also Relpe explain why certain bung ection del work won eacing Engh whe others do not Tove tha sceed provide comprehensible ing ety through good ESL teaching and compen stlesubjet matter teach ng. They abo use heist language 50 Second Langage Thing ‘na way thot enhances comprehension and hence ads th: ‘eit of English soa stjet mates teaching te lat language without transition, Coot subject malier insta sion in he rst angusge provides he stodent withthe sbi to understand and we ingage I the academe stants termed “cognitive academic gu pe protien” CALF, Carmins, 1990, 1981) and sbjee mater knowicdge. CALE and knowledge of suject mater give the student Dak ‘round informaton that eps ake Enghsh pat more om Fehensible, (See “Does Bling Edsesion Dey the Ae $iion of English?” pe, this vlame) Sack programe tea Englshasetiecvey and ote sre effect ly than aly Englsh programs, even when 1S is included. Te Inpe Hypothesis tells us why more Engsh exposure isnot mee essary beter: proper bling vdcaton programe pie the Shik more omprelesBle Engh and ony comprehen English counts, (Concument teesaion is an comple of progam that isto teach Engi efectivl, and npn the Input Hypothens tls us wy raelation sulle he sy denis not attending to the English mesnge ae teh ot svtemptng to make the Engich pst comprenonsie) ‘the Input Hypethess ise nat the resench supporting 4 apnea to methodology Mang det fom ere studies to eachingsnotcorec Werun the dmger of choot ing the wrong craters to vii in cas. Without he cy, cannot stingsh the usa or Gntnciefestre irom the nonercal or nondstns ve features Tor emp she Input Hypothesis tells us tha the comprcherily 6 the toa phys response, nt the physal movement sta counts the physical movement simply a eect ‘ayo heping compethersion. Slay was cal sou immersion i not just te fat tht students are expose soc of the second langue ut that comprehensible pu ‘provided ‘The Input Hypothesis lows us to provide principle seasons for recommending certain techniques ap pose hres and givesus needed cb in sppeaton, Cones, foceample, the question of heer of haw to us the ae dents ist language in second language teaching Acerca 4 Aeguicton Theory and Daher paration 51 “TABLE LA, The Input Hypotenle Tw aque by undernding input gage hat conti Srocurer sot bond our caer ve competence 2 Spemies mrt an : 5. Uinpat is understood, an there enough frail Sours te sures eady esque se utara? prove to the Input Hypothesis, certain uses make sense: Alosting the stadent to respond inthe ist anguage i ery stage, iB done in Teels Natural Approwh snd in Canadian immersion, isons example. This can falta communication tnd actu incense comprenentble inp Also, 35 en ‘a snes, wit nee mater teaching i the fs an rng cn prone th evrlingusti contest hat helps ae Etglsh inpu comprehensbie: The generalzaton i imp? ths: Usethe st language in ways that wil elp the acquirer {Bhan compicheneble saput and thot make input more eee ae onesinpianansto una FT input Fypthesis als has implications fr language vesting fe wish take advantage of theft that tens wr stady forte estan teacher ol each othe et We “Toul use primer tone estat rege students o obtain Comprchenabie input in order to prepare, such a5 reading {Omprchensionandconversston tes. (To prepare for 8 feuding comprehension test, stents wil ral and 0 pre fre eva conversation tes student il se the language Eerreal communication. Sot ates mean more compre Tenile Input forthe stents. See Krashen 1932, for ‘ete many Implications of the Input Hypothesis are themselves farther hypothecs tobe std. The ental ait Tam mang eet it the ypotsei te ho apps hte underbing cere, boeuse ts the hypothes that emis tobe the best summary or enerliaton, based on than dierent esereh rss SE Second Language Teaching CONCLUSIONS 1f we provide teachers with only one method, we are Going them a disservice. They willbe unprepared for change and will not have the flexibility needed to adapt to new sit Uatlons Ifwe provide teachers with several methods, we do a hitle beter, but still not good enough. When we provide ‘theory, we provide them with the underlying rationale for ‘methodology in genera. This permits adaptation for different situations, evaluation of new techniques, and evaluation of rmaterials. Without theory, shere is no way to distinguish bilective teaching procedures from rit, no way to deter rine which aspects of a method are and ate not helpful (Rather than risk leaving out an essential part of a method, teachers occasionally adopt the entire package, including the ‘haste teacher's or methodologies personality quirks Another ‘consequence of theorplessness is the tendency for teachers tabecome eclectic” collecting lechnigues om many sources without any coherent sense as to what effect each technique bas on language acquisition ) But the theory must be a theory of second language acquisition, nota theory of grammatical structure, anit ust be consistent with all known research, not metely armchair speculation, ‘Given a brief workshop or in-service, the most practical, most valuable information we can provide ia coherent view ffhowlanguageis acquired, a theory oflanguage acquisition, 'A serious teacher training program needs do mote, how- fever. Because theory develops (and improves), we need to ‘ensure that our student teachers have the tools to keep up, to remain informed about progress and maintain 9 partner ship with researchers. Alltoo often, teachers remain withthe methods they learned in school and/or teach only the Way they were taught, a situation that would be considered unac- ceptable in other professions. ‘When we include both theoretical and appliod research in teacher taining, we are not aiming to. produce fature researchers. Weare providing gresterinsight into curren the- ‘ory by showing what the support for the generalizations is, © Acgstion Tey an Tener reparation 5) we are shuwing our tears thea sconce: mt important we ce gin,“ the ean for saying “pugs iny the background tha enable them fo continge reading, and leering about languag acyusiton, Weare then nt jut teaching thy bt ae teaching theory Medica sidents stady biochenistry fr siniar rea sons. They are not preparing fo do biochemical research themselves, but study Tochemisay forthe greater under standing it gives them 9 citrent views of medical science ‘het Knowledge of pure sence sso allows them to ay current toread medal journals andatendseminars wth dkstaring im short tbe growing professionals ou out theircareer* Instesing theory donot meant sy the theory is everything Teaching retsainaanartaswellasascence, and ‘re certainly have good teachers gnorant of theory aswell os terble teachers oho understand theory very wel My geal i ony to say that theory Is worthwhile, 2 seal source of information forthe langage tacher> NOTES, 1 Spacey, grammatical theor war appl tching ith te imp stumpon that ond languages neared by enon ‘hus Knowle nto subconacoes towed (ata conta a Setgat procice and era oer. Sten ft "lear he re 2 then pace #imspocchor eran unt ung tbo tomate. Tht ‘ew inconstet thot teartal and appuedwscreh fre Bester 182 cesecaly apt soshequeonat ow neh rama thear ungunge wae socks now Il hey she's know enough to understand sea tl (gestion Today thie Sede oun ot sy 5. Cummins ew ofthe nso thoy sd practic i i: acne eto exes nt pe nen Sn oe The importance of tomy the poymaking pres oe Pporecd Paynes nein “pling eat 34 Stond Language Teaching il condos re serene dined perc ‘fester Otay esse nay be gedaan oases St Sorte aeengite pene ey ony ate oa he ans Camis a pe See» te om of si ro Part Two IMMERSION AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION 5 Immersion: Why It Works and What It Has Taught 6 oe nga Education ely the Acquistion of Plt Immersion: Why It Works and What It Has Taught Us Canadian immersion is not simply another successful language teaching program—It may be the most succesful language teaching program ever recorded in the professional language teaching literature. No program has been as thor- ‘oughly studied and documeneed, and no program, to mY knowledge, has doneas wel I'sthe purpose of this chapter to consider why immersior has succeeded and to discuss what the language teaching profession has learned from the immersion experience. In my view, immersion has increased our understanding of the process of language acquisition and has contributed tthe soliton of some ery serious problems in language teaching, IMMERSION: DEFINITION AND FINDINGS Immersion programs ae public school programs in which majority language students study ina minonty language, for ‘example, English speake:s sudy’in French in Canada and in 58 Inmeson 6 Bligual act Seems eens lane hve Bon id et de Rech os 1972, and Swain and LapKhn 1982, for sre) 1. Immersion students aswell in English longus skis as students educated ests in Engishe 2. Immersion students d> a8 well in subject matter as ‘students educated entirely in English.? 2 3. Immersion students acuie arent deal ofthe second language. Canadian immersicn students easly outperform students enrolled in taditonal French clases (“are Penh and afer several eas of immersion, approuch native spank son some measures. (By pad eight for eample cars total mimerson students egal native speakers of reno sever dandized ies Sa an apn, 182) mer sion stents do not ypeally achieve fal patvecompotence in Bren white they are the programy they have an acer and make soe rama tors when they pea. Tay c, nevertheless, competent in tha second language, co, petent enough so that oe “here & no sion that lve opportunities to we French der sol satin, he frrcrson chien Gl 5 Wy tomeson Works and Wha Ils Teght Us 58 become indistngulshable from native speakers of Frech in theiroral expression, and atthe sme ine they would profit fay fom lstrucio pressted nether of thei languages (Cambert an Tucker, 1972p. 152) WHY IMMERSION WORKS Second language acquisition theory explins why terion wots orig fo an techy we He iSngunge nny one mays when we understand messages in Fm ge hen wer ccive compensa shen {Si Nenoringvoabunry words staying gains, ad aig drs contrbute ite to language competence in the ‘fant even een the chi—the on ru aus of 6 She language aeqlston i comprehensible pat ‘The contrchensteinpet es cries why eran lan- age tocing metodo it use foday succeed beter than Ene methods The beter mend, those that emerge ab ‘theron compasons nf sent achewement, are those {he provide the sadent with more comprehensible int, {Ton mesages the shades can understand The succes efor om eather om he ug bun eaty They ony in hew they proce comprehensibe input. One Trea: for xample consists entry of teacher commands {Gedown, got tie oindow), which re Made comprehen: Site bythe teachers modeling of the action Asher eat ‘pa Response mead, 3982) Tres Neural Approach {ashen ana Teves 183), inpt othe Beginning stent {Stade comprehensible ina vey of way, scan pictures, {Ercsnion ef fiir topes and Tol Phil Response scien Tal sucessful language aching methods, the fous ison the message and tot the form, on wat being aid far than fw fis ai Alo, student speech i allowed to Tercopon to owns thereigite emphasis onerorcorection Sd primal ccuacy® (Immersion & Bingo neti Immersion programs succeed in teaching the second language because, ike ther good methods, they provide st dents with a great deal of comprehensibie input. Input in immersion programs Is made comprehensible in several ways “The exclusion of naive speakers ofthe second language places ail students in the samme lingulstic boat and helps teachers Speak at a linguistic level that is comprehensible fo them. In fudition, texte and materials are supplemented and modi fied, adapted to the non-native speaker's level. Also, sti denis are often allowed #0 respond in thei fist language erly total immersion students do not have to respond in French unt the middie of grade one; a year and a half silent period is provided in which children may use their first lane [Bunge for comrnication until they acquire enough French to fespond in French. As several scholars have pointed out, this Incteases communication and thereby increases the childcens chances of getting comprehensible input (sre Lambert and ‘Tucker 1972, pp. 287-238 Swain and Eapkin, 1982, chap. 2). WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED FROM IMMERSION Immersion has taught us that comprehensible subject matter teaching i language teaching. Stadents don't simply Fearn the rule in the language dass and have it "reinforced" in the subject matt clas. The subject matter class isa lan age classi its made comprehensible tothe language stu- ‘ent, Infact the subject matter clas may even be better than the language clas for language acquisition and may be easier to tech In language teaching classes operating according to the princpte of comprehensible input, teachers always face the problem of what to talk about. In immersion, the topics futomatically provided—it isthe subject mater. Moreover, because students are tested on the subject mater, not the Tnguage, a constant focus on the message and no: form 1 guarantees “The Input Hypothesis thus implies that immersion works forthe same reason other saceessfl methods work, and that 5 Why Immersion Work and What It as Tag Us 6 its the comprehensible input factor that crc not simply the grester amount of time: levated othe second langage [A projet we recently comp cled atthe Unversity of Ottawa ees th ey che, Reser, Cen a denier, ple ¢ intermediate second lange course, university stidents tk thelr second semester of fone year psychology cours in spl she! sections aught {nthcirsncond language (These sactons were olfered in ath English and French the Univesity of Ottawa is bling! “universne) Native speakers of the second language ere excluded, anal ele presentations were nthe son lar spunge, a were the reading. ‘rcs and postets in language were given, but for ost purposes only: grades were based on subject matter pertor mance only. The entre porence consisted Of fewer than forty hour of exposure tothe target language in lass. Out sheltered students did gute Wellin learning psychology natching the immersion students sucess in leering subject Inter Students in the sheltered pychology cous 0 gained in second language profceney, doing as Wella students in trelltaught regular Cases ln English and French tht pro ‘ied aige quantities of comprehensible input. The payehol bay students also reported an increase in their secon dence in using the satond anguage; comparison students in regula second language dees aid not "This result, slong wits other evidence supporting the Input Fypothess, suggests nate approach, and nota ester mount of exposure, resonable for immersion staden's fhinsin language becase car aeltered paychology stents rere not exposed to more fhe second language than con tol subjectsin eps second language dass also shows that older students can prot from comprehensible subject ‘matter instruction. IMPLICATIONS: THE TRANSITION PROBLEM ‘The insights gained from immersion are being appliod to many other language teaching situations. In general, the 2 tomersion & Bina Baveation doa that comprehensible sujet ter aching is lnguoge ‘caching may provide at est part ofthe slulbn fot we Can be calle the ranston prin, te ft cat students ty owl in begining language css but may not be abe tae the second langage there word In my sie the goal ofthe large cls is to beng students tthe point wherePey can ue te languoge utile ‘he secon language daseroam In uncertaning and com, inating with native speaks. stunts rath ts oe competence they ean continue to inprove “on the out side” The language dass this need el produce students who speak the second languap perfectly but need ony o> dace “intermediates” stents tho can ise the language or real comnaricaton with tsp ahers ond read at let ome authentic tens, Stents need mtacure the ene lng in the language dass when the fnsh te ove thy el stil make mistaken. Ther a6 ston wll connie se ey interact with and receive copy sensible put Eon ate. speakers. st - Tt ve te modes oa sly chee. Students complete even exellent bein language asc, aes fie with comprehensible pt tt are not ready to use the language on the out Ih any tly demanding ae lon. A aul foreign language student, for enampe, wins completes year af Natural Approach Spanohat Ie unines sity wil abe to comfortably converse witha ative sper (who sling to stow dens ik) on avarety eevee Lepies. This great succem when compared with thea ofthe usual second language cas. ar our stadent wil here lsattons he or she wil not be able fo use the Teepe cosy read the clasis with comfort an wil cea sot be na poston to study tthe University of Moses! ad isnot ear that more language eating. teen it oenlgh ned, wl help the situation. Saints the United Eglo Prolcens chil even after exiemsve and excelent Eek oa fot necessnly‘be ready fo function welt Seal ates lass alongwith native speskers Engl Canadiansyle Immersion Programs, however, hive produced genuine intermedi Despite thesis? bt 5 Why imwacon Works and Wat I Has Tang 43 cccsional errors in ther second language, immersion stu denis are clearly capable of using the second language onthe fulside. They can use French comforiably in socal stations (Gee Bruck, Lambert, and Tucker, 1974, for a description of zw immersion children fared ina party with native speakers of French) and can follow complex subject matter instruction tn French rfmmersiontyle comprehensible subject mater teach- ngmay beable to reduce or even solve the transition problem Inthe academic situation the language class cannot do it lone. The language cass cannot provide enough truly com- ‘municative compichensible input to prepare stem’ forthe real-werld situations they wil face. The sheltered, compre= benaile subject mattr class can do this and is intended to function as a bridge between the language class and the ‘The Sheltered Class A hypothetical oxample nay help ake the concept of she sheteed css car Pretend you are stout spend year study lene in Pari Yo study atthe Soon Yo French, however, isnot up tothe standard requred—you fa wo yeas of French in high acho snd one semester colege, wth sn average grade of +, and yu Tok thee eas qutesonc ume ago Yount Pain tes hoping to squire enough French over the sunme o beh Yours Ethel, Here aretvo posable progam Which ould be mare effective? 1. More “standare”lnguage teaching explanation and dail onthe conditional, subjunctive, and the ips So incuding eerlses focusing on the special Voobulary nd grammar of scdemic French) 2. psc nme ours gen the Sabon french, providing tacks information n your ate. "for intrraltonal stedents only” (or example, survey of the French educational system for those intrested the eof 4 Immersion & Blinn estion education), The dass consists ofall international students ‘with one thing in common—insufficient French. ‘The it Structor does several things to ensure cormprehensibiity. He speaks somevhat slower, uses the blackboard and diagrams 2 great deal, and explains background information about France {Hat nonnatives may note aware of The text isin French but the type isa bt larger than usual, and there ae plenty of dlagrams and pictures. The exams are in French, but for smal errors that do not affect comprehensibilty are not an issue. (Also, You may study you high school French gran mar text all 3s like inthe evening) My prediction sthat after summer sheltered instruc. tion, you would be far better prepared to study atthe Sor bonne, in the mainstream, than hed you taken only the re lular course. You would have begun to acquire the specs! language of academic French and would have learned impo tant subject matter material at the same time ‘The sheltered class is thos a subject matter class made comprehensible for the second language student; native Speakers of the language of instruction are exclided, A ce ‘Gal characteristic ofthe sheltered class Is tht its 2 real sub ject matter dass, not “ESL math’ of scections from subjet matter classes inttoduced as part of the language dass. The focus nd the fet aze on the subject matter: This i= dene t ‘ensure thatthe students’ attention i on the message, not the medium, a practice that wil ensure, acording tothe theory ‘optimal langusge acquisition ‘Sheltered classes emphasize comprehension, both aur and reading. Our goa to produce students who can reat and write well. The Input Hypothesis maintains, howevey that the vay to achieve this snot to force speaking and wt Jing, but to provide massive amounts of comprehensible ip ‘The ability to prociice willbe a tesult of this input ® “Although input provided inthe sheltered cles s “sor plified” beginning langwoge students will ot be ale to pe Ecipate, since thir language levels will not be high enough to enable them to follow instruction—2 period of genenl Tanguage teaching (comprehensible input based) needs te precede the sheltered class In addition, she level of language 5 Why Emmerson Works nd What It Hae Tg Ue 65 requied will vary with the subject. Social shies requires a higher love of language than math, for example. Examples of Shelterad Subject Matter Teaching ‘The Univesity of Otaw projec, described ear sample of the sheltered sect mater lass serving Triage to the mainstream, he hope is that students who socessfully complete the sy Itered course willbe beter able to cope with the same or reed subject matter in the regular mainstream class, Shellered: lasses might be made available in several areas inthe North American university for inter rational students who need to iaprove their academic Engl Several school districts ir the United States have been utilizing the sheltered class iea as a component of programs for limited English proficient children. In ane program, the beginning non-English-speakin~ child is deliberately mixed ‘ith English-spesking children for art, music, and pysical ‘lueation. A good amount of comprehensible input is avail- thle here, thanks 0 the pictures in art and movement (Total ‘Physical Response) of physical education. The beginning pro- gam also indudes ESL, based on comprehensible input methodology, As soon a he child as attained intermedtte English competence, he or she can begin immersion-style sheltered subject matter classes, Such eases begin with math because, as mentioned eorber mathn general doesnot require as high evel of langus ge as subjects such as socal studies ‘nd language atts. The advanced child is ready to begin par {al mainstteaming. His or her language level may be high nough By now tao math with native speakers of English butill probably not befigh enough forsacal studies, now can be dane asa shritered class Finally, the child isflly ‘mainstreamed for acadersic subjects "The time spent at each level will vary according to the amount of English avaiable futside the schoo). Ths sind of progeam can be made much ‘more effective when a ist language component is added (Gor anguments anc an ample, see “Does Bilingual Educa Son Delay the Acquisition of English? p. 69, this volume.) 55 Immersion 6 Blingua auction A similar proposal or sheltered teaching of subject mat ter comes from dAngljan (1978), who proposes thet iim {ants be placed in “carefully chesen occupational slot” (p. 230) where they can receive comrshensible input related fo {her profession. This experience «ould eerve ds a stepping. Stone Yo survival in ordinary war< situations, ‘THREE STEPS TO TRANSITION Three transition steps are involve in all the examples and models in this discussion. The fist consists of genenl limgaage faching, designed to increase competence 10 the Point where the student can parbipate in sled subje! inate teaching, step two. Step thvce is the mainstream. The steps may overlap; as we sa ear, the limited English ro fioent child receives sheltered soval studies while doing mainstream math. In addition, the mainstreaming. process does not eccur all at onee; the acquirer gradually increases his or her ability to participate in different mainstream con texts and situations, ‘CONCLUSIONS ‘The major points ofthis chapter are these: 1. What we have learned j-om insmerson is that subject matter teaching, when it is comprehensible, is languege teaching, 2 Comprehensiblesubjec matte teaching, inthe foes ‘of sheltered classes, may be a ast part ofthe answer tothe transition problem. it ay help s‘udents eros the bre fom the language class tothe real w ld Immersion programs have hus made two major conte butions. They have been, of couse, of direct bene to many {5 Wy Irmerson Wr ad Wt Ie Tanght Us 67 students in Canada and the United States. Pechaps even more Important, they have shed light on the nature ofthe language smquisition process and have pointed the way t0 important Jmprovernents in all phases of language education NoTES 1, Students nny total mersion programs (in Src with und gost te) may show se xh ig tal sand ge) my si yg eo sing pent ad ety gh Jey aly cach 9 by ped our and often urs those ee yin Engh tn ue des fre Sain and apn 196 chp. 2 Stadene i ely mein progams mach comparson ‘cin th, rence an sales (See Sala ad Lap, ‘Gap. furl merc stcots Game bec tng rnc so Sg ay sa nr ter, ou any ow» sone sunt ater ari. Ts bed ha ae tai thoinFesh Lac immense arg pe gray ‘Sulla Conparane stents ering sje ate Ne meion ‘apaence paces by sufientFrnch ea seed language cre ‘nh Sai and apn, Kp.) 2 The i ot any ta he stay of gamma ues, WR

    You might also like