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A Flywheel Energy Storage and

Conversion System for Solar
Photovoltaic Applications

A. R. MILLNER

MIT/Lincoln Laboratory,
Lexington, Mass.

A low-drag, low-power magnetic bearing and a permanent magnet brushless d-c motor-
generator have been developed for a satellite flywheel. These will be combined with a
terrestrial flywheel and control electronics to make up a flywheel energy storage and
conversion system for use in a stand-alone solar photovoltaic residence. Technical and
economic performance analyses indicate that, contrary to general thought, a flywheel
system will be competitive if not superior to more conventional systems utilizing either
present-day or advanced batteries. This derives from the ability of the flywheel to perform the
functions of d-c to a-c inversion and optimal impedance matching between the PV arrays
and the load in addition to providing energy storage. The motor-generator design will also be
discussed. This paper describes the structural topology, performance data, design
parameters, and test measurements of the magnetic bearing and motor-generator as well as
a description of the flywheel and control electronics to be used. A preliminary discussion of
the economic aspects is also included.

Contributed by the Solar Energy Division of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers for
presentation at the Gas Turbine Conference & Exhibit & Solar Energy Conference, San Diego, Calif.,
March 12-15, 1979. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters December 1, 1978.
Copies will be available until December 1, 1979.

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, UNITED ENGINEERING CENTER, 345 EAST 47th STREET, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10017
A Flywheel Energy Storage and
Conversion System for Solar
Photovoltaic Applications
A. R. MILLNER
I. ABSTRACT
A low-drag, low-power magnetic bearing and a
permanent magnet brushless DC motor-generator have
been developed for a satellite flywheel. These will
be combined with a terrestrial flywheel and control
electronics to make up a flywheel energy storage and
conversion system for use in a stand-alone solar
photovoltaic residence. Technical and economic per-
formance analyses indicate that, contrary to general
thought, a flywheel system will be competitive if not
superior to more conventional systems utilizing
either present-day or advanced batteries. This derives
from the ability of the flywheel to perform the
functions of DC-to-AC inversion and optimal impedance
matching between the PV arrays and the load in addition
to providing energy storage. The motor-generator de-
.
sign will also be discussed. This paper describes
the structural topology, performance data, design
parameters, and test measurements of the magnetic
bearing and motor-generator as well as a description
of the flywheel and control electronics to be used.
A preliminary discussion of the economic aspects is
also included.
II. OVERVIEW
Program
During the 1977 calendar year, MIT/Lincoln Lab-
oratory (MIT/LL) designed and built a magnetic bearing
for a spacecraft momentum or energy storage wheel
application. It appears to also have applications as
a terrestrial energy storage and conversion flywheel
device, for use with solar or wind energy systems.
°This work was sponsored by the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE).
1
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The program consisted of system studies, compon-
ent analysis, magnetic bearing design, and motor-
generator design. This paper describes the design,
fabrication, and testing of the satellite components
and the concept proposed for a terrestrial energy
system.
Bearing
The bearing is designed to operate at up to
50,000 RPM with very low drag and long life. The
prototype has been operated at only a few thousand RPM
to demonstrate supercritical operation without re-
quiring high-strength steel components. A design lay-
out of the prototype is shown in Figure 1.
e ^ sy
w
Ti
{
Figure 1
Measurements made on the bearing include drag
vs. speed, drag vs. ambient prF ssure, static force
,
and torque vs displacement, and exercise of a number
of operating modes. Measurement shows that it will
support over 150 lbs. axially and 10 lbs. radially.
Its cross axis torque capability is 375 ft-lbf-
degrees, giving a cross axis rate of 0.5 deg/sec at
750 ft-lb-sec or a rate of 5.0 deg/sec at 75 ft-lb-sec.
Higher torques can be sustained by its touchdown ball
bearings., Its drag has been measured in vacuum to be
)
8.7 x 10 ° in-oz-sec or 9.1 x 10 in-oz per thousand
RPM. This implies that the motor power required to
keep a wheel spinning is proportional to the square
of the speed, and would be 16.8 watts at 50,000 RPM
or 0.67 watt at 10,000 RPM.
Such low drags in an inherently reliable device
confirm that these bearings and associated high speed
devices are good candidates for future high efficiency,
high reliability systems.
Motor-Generator
The permanent magnet brushless DC motor-generator
has been designed for very high efficiency at high
speeds. To prove the electromagnetic design para-
meters, a 500 watt brassboard has been built.
Its ironless armature allows a permanent magnet
design without iron losses for very low drag. Its
light weight and lack of side loading makes it com-
patible with magnetic bearings. The unit is expected
to achieve high efficiency (over 95%) over the design
speed range, which for the brassboard unit is 20 to
50 thousand RPM.
The key elements in the design are the support
of the Samarium-Cobalt (SaCo) magnets and the axial
gap topology. By using an axial gap, the magnets can
be supported by a non-magnetic steel ring without
compromising the magnetic circuit performance. Rotat-
ing iron pieces close the entire magnetic path except
for a flat disc armature in the gap.
The armature is wound with litz wire (small
strands individually insulated) to improve flux pene-
tration and to minimize eddy currents in the copper.
The coils are supported by a fiber epoxy structure.
The brassboard is a 12-pole design to allow maximum
electrical frequency consistent with available switch-
ing components. The three phases are driven with
square waves at pole frequency and pulse width modul-
ated for control. Due to their high coercive force,
the SaCo magnets on the rotor allow the large stator
gap necessary for this construction.
The present brassboard, built for MIT/LL by
Sperry Electro Components Division, includes only the
rotating unit. Electronics have not yet been completed.
Measurements of back EMF wave shape support the design
parameter calculations, but operating efficiency has
not been demonstrated.
This permanent magnet motor appears to be a good
match to the problem of solar or wind energy storage
and conversion. By using the PM motor-generator,
a naturally commutated DC input bridge can track the
maximum power capability of the energy source, and a
cycloconverter can produce good quality 60 Hz AC
from the high-speed shaft.
Terrestrial Photovoltaic Anolication
Solar photovoltaic (PV) electric power systems
presently being developed invariably use electric
storage batteries when on-site energy storage is re-
quired. Moreover, studies of future PV power systems
assume continued use of batteries for on-site storage,
albeit with more advanced, efficient and less expensive
battery designs. This preeminence is due at least in
part to the generally held conviction that no other
on-site storage system can compete economically with
batteries for PV usage. However, studies performed
during the past year at MIT/LL show that flywheel
energy storage will be technically and economically
competitive with either present-day or advanced stor-
age batteries if the flywheel storage system is pro-
perly configured. This conclusion was reached after
comparing battery and flywheel storage in a systems
context, whereby their influence on other subsystems
FA
(such as inverters) was determined.
The essence of the proposed approach is the
utilization of the flywheel subsystem for more than
the energy storage function. A PV power system usually
requires an inverter to convert the low-voltage DC
output from the solar arrays to a (usually) higher
voltage AC waveform, and this operation can be per-
formed by the flywheel unit by use of a DC drive motor
and a permanent magnet alternator. Also, it is usually
necessary to provide a good impedance match between
the PV array and the load in order to maximize the
electric power extracted from the array and this func-
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tion (commonly referred to as maximum power tracking)
can also be provided by the flywheel. Figure 2 shows
the system block diagram comparison of a battery sys-
tem and inverter, a conventional flywheel with DC
input and output followed by a DC-to-AC inverter, and
a combined flywheel storage and power conditioning
system. The simplicity of the last block diagram re-
flects the real cost savings possible with this
implementation. These simplifications hinge on the
use of an efficient, low-drag motor-generator, such
as the one just described. The system also utilizes
low-drag high-speed bearings, such as the magnetic
bearing described previously.
SOLAR PV SYSTEM COMPARISON
1 BATTERY SYSTEM
A . L ew ^,.,=, N
2. FLYWHEEL STORAGE PLUS INVERTER
^^^ M . DER
3. FLYWHEEL STORAGE AND COND , T , ONING
OAOFR
Figure 2
III. BEARING DESIGN
Design Concep
The bearing is a radial passive, axial active
permanent magnet design. This allows full redundancy
in the bearing coils, sensors, and electronics. This
redundant operation was demonstrated using manual
switchover to alternate hardware. Such a design allows
greatest simplicity, minimum cost, and fully axisym-
metric control elements to help realize the efficiency
at high speed which the magnetic bearing concept allows.
The design is attractive rather than repulsive for the
same reason, since the larger fringing fields of a
repulsive bearing can cause drag through two mechanisms:
1. Interaction with moving conductive parts of
the system.
2. Nonuniformity in the magnet material, which
the repulsion geometry does not allow iron pole pieces
to average out.

The design chosen (as shown in Figure 3) has all
bearing magnets and coils stationary, and is relative-
ly simple while efficient in its use of input current
for axial steering of the permanent magnet flux. The
design allows tailoring of the radial stiffness by
use of fringing rings machined on the pole pieces.
The relatively large iron pole pieces average out
magnet nonuni formi ties to give low drag.
ROTOR
POLE PIE( STATOR
ASSEMBLY
CONTROL
PERMANEP COILS
MAGNET
FRINGING
RINGS
ROTOR
POLE PIEC
MAGNETIC BEARING
Figure 3
The magnetic bearing is presently mounted for
testing on an inexpensive aluminum block test bed,
with a steel turbine wheel rotor of appropriate weight.
The resulting test bed allows bearing testing at
speeds above the lowest critical speed (about 1K RPM)
but is not capable of full speed operation. The bear-
ing is shown in Figure 4, mounted and running in the
brassboard system.
The following sections are the supporting design
calculations for the magnetic bearing brassboard and
descriptions of other related work.
The prototype momentum or energy storage wheel
assembly consists of rotor, shaft, two magnetic bearing
assemblies, two touchdown ball bearing assemblies, a
motor-generator assembly and a base support structure.
A conventional rotating shaft spindle configuration
vs. fixed shaft was chosen for the prototype model.
The rotor was designed to simulate the mass of
a flight configured wheel, but not the inertia. The
rotor weighs 15 pounds and was made from nonmagnetic
stainless steel. The shaft is 16 inches long, 1-1/4
inches in diameter at the center section and 1/2 inch
in diameter at the ends. The shaft is also made
from nonmagnetic stainless steel. The ratio of inertia
of the rotating assembly, axial vs. transverse, is
less than one and could result in stability problems.
Preliminary tests at low speed have shown that this
is not a problem with the test setup. In a real sys-
tem, this ratio will be greater than one and thus
stable.
The stator of the magnetic bearing, which contains
the Samarium Cobalt (SmCO,) magnets and the coils, is
mounted to the fixed base a structure. The stator is
made from high silicon low chromium steel for its
high magnetic permeability. The magnetic bearing
section of the rotor is made from 4130 carbon steel.
The magnetic gap in the axial direction is 0.015
inch and travel is limited in both the axial and
transverse directions by the touchdown ball bearing
assemblies. The touchdown bearings engage with 0.010
inch travel and protect the magnetic bearings from
I
rubbing contact within themselves.
The ball bearing assemblies are a duplex pair
with a twelve pound preload separated by a distance
of 10 inches. The inertia of the rotating element of
the touchdown bearing assembly was minimized so that
its acceleration rate during touchdown at high speeds
will be very high and thus minimize scuffing on the
balls.
The male touchdown stud was made from nonmagnetic
steel and the rotating female pieces from leaded
bronze. The bearings were high speed, duplex turbine
bearings purchased from Barden Corporation.
The geometry of the touchdown elements are hi-
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conical at 45 ° to achieve touchdown in either the axial
or transverse directions with the same linear travel.
The hi-conical feature of the touchdown elements
limited the coning of the shaft and maintained normal
alignment at the extreme axial displacement. The
problem of fabrication tolerances of the touchdown
elements was controlled by manufacturing matched
sets and providing for shimming at assembly. Assembly
measurements were recorded and the shims ground to
size to maintain the specified clearance of 0.01 inch
within + .001 inch.
The base structure consists of an aluminum bottom
plate and two stanchions which are bolted and pinned
to the base. The stanchions are split at the spin
axis to facilitate assembly without removing the
stanchions from the base. The base assembly was pre-
machined and then assembled and final machined as an
integral unit to maintain alignment of the axis. The
base structure is made from 6061-T6 aluminum.
Based on dynamic considerations, the elements of
the assembly were designed for high stiffness within
the constraints of the basic configuration. The
desired natural frequency of the individual elements
was above 1 kHz, a rather ambitious goal. The low
natural frequency of the shaft (154 Hz) was a result
of placing the touchdown bearings inboard of the mag-
netic hearings. It was recognized that some frequency
tuning might be required during testing to avoid
particularly troublesome frequency bands.
The conventional rotating slender shaft config-
uration is not the optimum configuration with respect
to stiffness from practical considerations. The
fixed shaft configuration offers an advantage in this
respect and should be considered in advanced designs.
The rotor of the magnetic bearing assembly must
react a magnetic force of approximately 200 pounds.
The deflection of the rotor due to this force is
0.0006 inch. Under normal operation with the magnetic
bearing centered, the axial forces on the rotor are
small. The axial force is a function of the rotor-
stator clearance. At the mid-position the force is
small and increases to a maximum as the gap is
decreased.
The stator of the magnetic bearing assembly is
inherently stiff with respect to both the inner and
outer pole pieces prior to assembly. Fasteners were
not permitted in the assembly of this unit to minimize
energy losses. The outer pole pieces were assembled
by means of a shrink fit with the two structural
members.
The Samarium Cobalt (SmCO 5 ) magnets were purchased
from Spectraflux, Inc., located in Watsonville, Cal-
ifornia. The individual magnets were premachined
and magnetized prior to assembly into the outer pole
piece. The outer pole pieces were fabricated at
Lincoln Laboratory and sent to Spectraflux to have
the magnets installed. After bonding the magnets to
the pole piece, the inside diameter of the outer mag-
nets was ground for 0.001 inch diametrical clearance
3
with the inner pole piece.
Alignment was maintained by tolerance control of
machined parts and hand fitting at assembly. Spacers
were provided to maintain the 0.015 inch axial gap
between rotor and stator of the magnetic hearing and
for axial centering of the touchdown bearing assembly.
Measurements were made during assembly process and
the spacers were ground to achieve the specified
clearances.
A dynamic analysis of the system was performed
to determine resonant frequencies of the rotating
system. A distributed mass was modeled for the
shaft and discrete loads for the flywheel rotor and
magnetic bearing rotors.
The first mode frequency of the rotating element
was calculated to be 154 Hz. The first mode frequency
of the rotating element coupled with the magnetic
bearings was calculated to be 38 Hz. Both values were
confirmed by test.
Magnetic Bearing Integration and Test
The assembly of magnetic bearing parts went re-
latively smoothly. Press-fitting of stator parts
required good positive control of the planar position-
ing of parts; otherwise they tended to tip over and
bind. One stator was successfully disassembled and
rebuilt.
The floated bearing showed stiffnesses of about
10 lbf/mil along the spin axis, about 1.2 lbf/mil
transverse, and 3.26 foot-lbf per milliradian trans-
verse rotational stiffness. This was in good agree-
ment for stiffness ratio but low by about a factor of
two in both directions. The cause is presently un-
known. Increased stiffness can probably be obtained
by reducing the magnetic gap.
Possible explanations of the low transverse stiff-
ness value could be larger than expected leakage
fluxes or larger than predicted reluctance in the
bearing pole piece iron. This could result in the flux
clustering near the magnet and not giving much center-
ing at the inner and outer fringe rings. Such an
effect could be avoided by designing nor larger mag-
netic gaps and larger clearances, or by using better
iron or lower field strengths (more bearing area).
Due to the small dimensions of the gap, it is diff-
icult to measure the fields in the gap.
The motor characteristics of the hearing are
50 lbf/amp and 5 lbf/mil per motor giving a measured
total open loop DC gain of 2.5 for one active motor
and one passive one.
The act-,, al ha rjc. r o >Inder *es* is shown in
Figure 4. 7'
h ^_
,t a; .3tari:
r r . -: f rr-rt.^' Ii
-
4
Several very interesting observations were made
while measuring bearing drag. First, the drag is
dominated by aerodynamic forces down to quite low
pressures, on the order of 10 microns. This implies
that a spacecraft device must be well vented to take
full advantage of its environment, and ground testing
should be done with a cryopump. Second, the drag has
its lowest value below the lowest critical speed,
reaches a sharp maximum at that speed, and settles
down to a higher drag at supercritical speeds. For
our Lest system, rotating M - 25 lbs. and I = 0.586
in. lbf-sec -. Besides the resonance, the drag torque
appeared to be 11nearily proportional to speed over
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a range of 50 RPM to 1.5 KRP'1, with critical speed at
about 1.2 KRFM. Below critical, if T = B and spindown
timg constant T 1/B = 30 5 hours, and so B = 5.4 x
10 in-llf-sec = 8.7 x 10 in-oz-sec or a drag of
9.1 x 10 in-oz per I KRP?I.
Above critical speed, Twas approximately 22
hours, or B = 1.2 x 10 in-oz-sec for a drag of .012
in-oz per 1 KRPM. This was measured with a rotor
which had not been balanced at all. Therefore, it
should not be any surprise that the drag is higher,
due to the rotation of the shaft geometric center
about the principle axis of the rotor. in fact, this
indicates that poorly balanced nonmetallic rotors
will not have a problem due to drag. Drag versus
speed and pressure are plotted on Figures 5 and 6.
o.l z
3.0
AVERAGE
Oto
N Z = Iµ J ACROSS
RE SONANCE
1.0.586 in.-Ibf -,.c 2
NO VZP
ooe
0.06
Q
0
0
IV 0 0
L
0
o.oz 0 0
1 „
CRITICAL SPEED
100 I I
1000 I I
1500I
SPEED (,Cml
Fi pure 5
I = 0. 586 in.- Ibf -sect 750 Torr
TURBINE WHEEL
^ 0
Q
tt
• 0.004 Torr
_
M I I I I I LI
I0 21
0 I 1 10 100
PRESSURE (Tory)
Figure 6
To allow exploration of magnetic bearing tooth
geometries and to verify design calculations, a mag-
netic field finite element analysis program has been
developed. This was used to verify reluctance calcul-
ations for the LES magnetic bearing. Further work us-
ing this program is expected to give more insight in-
to construction of many types of electromagnetic devices.
 Iv. MOTOR-GENERATOR DESIGN
'r,-,,] F,- - F f,
The advantages of a permanent magnet motor-
generator design for high-speed applications include
high-efficiency and relatively simple power condition-
ing electronics. The next best candidate without
brushes or slip rings is a Lundell or Nadyne design
with the field supplied by a stationary coil. In
addition to field coil power dissipation, these designs
are bigger, heavier, and produce side loading forces
which are a problem for soft magnetic hearing systems.
The advantage of a controllable field is often offset
by the need for more complex or expensive power con-
ditioning electronics. The primary disadvantage of
PM units for energy storage devices is the electro-
magnetic drag due to stator eddy currents.
To avoid this problem, our design uses a truly
ironless armature. The only conducting material in
the stator is the copper, and this is made of small
conductors individually insulated for minimum eddy
current losses. The axial gap geometry allows a
rotating iron return path so that the magnets need
not be large to compensate for long air gaps or leak-
ages. Also, the axial gap geometry allows the per-
manent magnets to be held in compression by a non-
magnetic containment structure without compromising
the magnetic circuit. There is no need for the
containment ring to have varying magnetic properties
as in some laser-welded rings for radial gap machines
and no need for thin rings used in other radial gap
designs. Since the back iron for the stator coils is
rotating, it need not be laminated with associated
high cost and complexity. The resulting design is
shown in Figure 7.
MOTOR GENERATOR
zRo lRONLESS
STEEL PLATE STATOR
tid
—ROTOR
PERMANENT
MAGNET
ASSEMBLY
MAGNETS
Figure 7
The availability of Samarium-Cobalt for the
rotor magnets makes this design attractive because
the rotor can be smaller and lighter, and because the
resulting relatively large air gaps are no problem
for the high coercive force of the magnets. The in-
duced voltages on the coils can be used as a commut-
ation signal down to very low speeds, with a special
start-up sequence for initial system turn-on. There-
fore, the commutation sensors are eliminated.
The voltage levels for the system can be chosen
on the basis of the available semi conductor switching
elements. Since most semiconductor switches look like
constant voltage drops, the efficiency gets better as
the voltage increases. Therefore, the had ENT of the
generator over the useful operating range should be
higher than the required output voltage, and the back
EyF of the motor should he less than that of the input
voltage. If any step-up conversion is done, it is
better done at the power input side since input power
levels tend to be lower and do not have large transient
requirements. The prototype unit required interface
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to a 28 VDC satellite bus with a ten to one ratio of
typical generator to motor power levels. Therefore,
an up-converter for motoring with an unregulated bridge
interface to the motor-generator was selected, and a
very simple efficient down-converter was used for
generator regulation.
Operating frequencies can be chosen in two ways
but are ultimately limited by the speed of the switch-
ing devices. One approach is to synthesize a sinu-
soidal signal using a pulse width modulator (PWM),
implying that the electrical frequency on a winding
of the motor-generator should be as low as possible
and so the number of poles should he small. A second
approach is to switch at the electrical frequency of
the back FNF, putting essentially square waves on the
windings which are amplitude or pulse width modulated
for control. This allows a much higher electrical
winding frequency, implying more poles for the same
shaft speed. The first possibility, called "continuous
commutation," is complicated by the need for amplitude
control of drive to a unit which passes current in
opposite directions for generating or motoring. There-
fore, the second, or "discrete commutation," looks
most efficient and practical. The control would be
done in the PItM up- and clown-converter under normal
operating conditions and pulse width control used for
the bridge only during initial start-up. The resulting
conditioning circuitry is shown in Figure 8.
WN
CONDITIONING CIRCUITRY
Figure 8
The mechanical design of the unit presented a
challenge due to the high speeds and stresses. The
motor-generator consists of three separate pieces--
the armature or stator, the permanent magnet rotor
and the return path.
The permanent magnet rotor presented the primary
challenge to the mechanical design.. After several
iterations, the selected design consisted
of a high strength titanium ribbed structure to con-
tain the magnetics on five sides, a magnetic plate
I7
r
containing the magnets on the final side and providing
a return path, and a final titanium ring with a shrink
fit to share the stress load. Figure 7 shows the
general construction of this member. Some of the
key design points are:
o Outer surface of magnet flat to distribute
load, )TOR
o Magnets bonded at OD only (i.e., all stresses ATOR

are compressive),
o Return path supported at ID only (i.e., does C
not induce any stress load in Ti housing),
o Magnet is contained on all sides.

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ected Performance Calculations

The 28 volt DC driven circuitry has been anal-

yzed for efficiency in a full power generating mode
and a 1/10 power motoring mode. The resulting
efficiency is highest at maximum speed and has a
motoring efficiency range of 88% to 91% and a gen-
erating efficiency range of 91% to 94%. This must Figure 9
then be multiplied by the machine efficiency to deter-
mine total system performance. A,
Motor-generator performance of the rotating
machine has also been analyzed. At full power (250
watts on each of the redundant units) the motoring or
generating efficiency varies with speed from 92.9%
to 97.6%, a^eraging 96% over a constant-power run.

E
Note that I R losses in the stator coils dominate at 0
lower speeds. For a 1/10 average power constant tor-
que motoring mode, the efficiency range is 84% to 93%,
averaging 88.6%. TO
The resulting system efficiency for motoring is 0 V LOAD
then 81.7% to 88.8% at constant full rated power, C OR
UTILITY
averaging 86% motoring efficiency. Generating system
efficiency ranges from 84.5% to 91.7%, averaging 89.2% DUT
generating efficiency.
Weight of this unit with 500 watts of motoring
or generating capacity is 4.03 pounds or 124 watts/
pound, not including electronics weight. Also, it
may he possible to use the same coils for commutation
sensing as for motor-generator operating giving an-
other 100 watts of capacity with no more weight reach-
ing 149 watts/pound.
Figure 10

All solar/electric power would go through the DC

V. PROPOSED TERRESTRIAL SYSTEM DESIGN
A solar photovoltaic installation usually requires
a solar cell array, an energy storage device, a max-
imum power tracker, and a DC-AC conversion device.
The proposed terrestrial flywheel system would
perform all of these functions.
Such a device would have a DC motor, an energy
storage flywheel and a 60-Hz AC generator. It would
be supported on magnetic bearings in a vacuum housing,
which would do double duty as safety containment for
the flywheel rotor. The motor-generator would in fact
be the same device with separate input and output
electronics. The electronics are shown schematically
in Figures 9 and 10 and are very simple and inexpensive
due to the use of the permanent magnet motor-generator
concept.
motor to spin up the rotor. The motor would be a DC
brushless, ironless armature type design which would
be controlled as a maximum power tracker for the solar
array. This is important because the varying elect-
rical output of a solar array is generally mismatched
to the characteristics of the storage system and load,
causing inefficient operation. The flywheel rotor
could be an advanced design of one (or more) of the
types presently being tested for DOE by a number of
organizations. The electrical output would be
accomplished with a permanent-magnet brushless
generator and a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
cycloconverter. The generator would be sized to accept
the large surge demands of many candidate loads.
The entire rotating unit would be supported on a
DC magnetic bearing or hybrid magnetic/ball bearing.
This can be powered from windings on the motor, allow-
ing fail-safe, spin-down operation. The resulting
rotating unit would have no brushes or physical contact
with the rotor, allowing very long life and high re-
liability. Also, the higher speeds possible with such
an assembly (perhaps 20 thousand rpm) will allow smaller
rotor size and enhance the quality of available AC
power. Mechanical touchdown bearings would be included
for cold start/stop conditions. No rotating seals
would be required.

6
 The vacuum chamber ensures a long energy storage and conversion system for a residential sized unit is -

time (days or weeks) before aerodynamic losses become given in Figure 12 for predicted 1985 technology.
a problem. The unit can be placed underground to Figure 12
provide safety confinement. The system would be run
over a 2:1 speed range with the output held at 60 Hz,
generated independently or synchronized to an external
line. This corresponds to a 75% depth of discharge
for the energy storage function. It is intended that
the flywheel unit shall be able to "cold start" from
solar PV input power. This can be done by deriving ywhel_SySReem
DC control power from the DC input until the wheel Low Hi0h Lov Higt^

is up to speed, and using the maximum power tracking

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feature of the input power circuit to avoid pulling Storage 5/kWh 90 150 75 145

the input voltage down too low. DC input $/kW 50 150 85 125
The terminals of the motor-generator serve as a 150
AC output $/kW 50 300 70
summing junction for motoring and generating currents,
24 32
both kept synchronous by the electronics. This allows Enclosure S/kWh 32 50

arbitrary combinations of charging and discharging Residence Total $3,852 $8,400 S3,705 $6,875

power levels within the design range of the unit.
An attractive practical application for this
device is to utilize it with a PV-powered single-
family residence operating in either a stand-alone
mode or coupled to a utility, with utility power
drawn only during off-peak hours and only when the
energy reserve in the flywheel is low. It can be
scaled up to larger sizes associated with multiple
dwelling units or commercial PV applications. The
residential system concept is illustrated in
Figure 11.
„ ^-,:^"
SOLAR CELL
MODULES
V _ _ JUNCTION
(Based on 25 kWh +
6 kWDC + 10 kWAC)
The comparison was made on a 20-year life cycle
basis for a storage capacity of 25 kWh, 6.0 kW DC
peak input power and a 10 kW AC peak load. Cost de-
tails for the flywheel-based system are shown in Figure
13, with assumptions in Figure 14, indicating a cost
range of $3,705 to $6,875 for the referenced 25 kWh
system. The battery-based system cost details are
provided in Figure 15 and show a cost range of $3,852
to $8,400. In these calculations two battery replace-
ments were assumed which is consistent with their
assumed seven-year useful life and the 20-year system
^'^ FROM UTILITY \_
life requirement. An additional correction in these
,--F )^^ t \\
figures must be made because of the different effici-
encies of the systems.
BOX
,^ BOX
•

. ^^ 1 '^ ^I^1 -.. •.- --ELECTRONICS ESTIMATED PRIC E OF FLYWHEF.I, ENERG Y STO RA GE AND CO NVERS ION SY STEM 19 85

BEARING i{ ;
ESTIMATED UNIT PRICE RESIDENCE PRICE
ITEM ACH IFVABLE IN 1985 25 kWh + 6 k4'IDC + I 0 kWAC

DOOR' ^. _l_y "^ UONNN

f -11';
i ^,5 CONDV
Lo W_ 11(a HIR,n

APPROX.
11 1 , MOTOR/GENERATOR
5 FT ,DIAL Rot. 50/kEY 5100 51,250 $2,500
-^ PIT—Z ^.^. J : ROTOR
I Ali Mi cncrator 75/kWAC 100 750 1

'y
^ •-, BOTTOM BEARING E. I4eo Io4 10/kWh 20 250 500

Vecuum Housing 15/"", 25 175 625

CIectrou icn (gen) 30/kWAC 1110 300 1,000
Figure 11 Electronics (motor) 30/kEDC 75 180 450

The economics of such a unit will be examined Enclosure _ 24/kWh ____ 7 2 800_.

in detail during the coming year while a subscale Total Residence Ap7Aicatlon: 59,705 76,075
working model is built. Preliminary estimates of the
costs show a combined flywheel energy storage and
conversion system with advanced rotors now under
development can compete on a life-cycle cost basis Figure 13
with advanced battery systems now being developed.
Also, currently available flywheel technology with
projected production costs appears competitive with
presently available lead-acid battery life-cycle costs.
Therefore, this system will be of practical interest
if the detailed studies bear out preliminary
estimates. A summary of these preliminary results
is given below.
The photovoltaic array generates variable voltage
DC which is quite different from the 110/220 volt AC
required by the load. In this system a maximum power
tracker, a storage unit and a 60 Hz output inverter
are all required. A comparison of costs for a battery-
based system versus a combined flywheel energy storage

rJ
 SINGLE RESIDENCE PV FLYWHEEL I)HIT

AS SUIH'T IONS

1. ROTOR - Effects rf mrnrmum speed, inner radi„s, and output efficiency arc

included. Low cost is from Johns Hopkins API. - Rabenhorst iota cost

rotor from present DOE contract. $50/kEh. High cost is from GE

pseudo-isotropic glass fiber epoav rotor deabgn for au comotErr

flywheel: under $100/kWh. Higher performance materials (Kevlar,

etc.) are attractive if costs reach 21 4 $/lb. Present cost is

8 $/lb.

t. MOTOR-GENERATOR - Taken to be cast of a Kenerarol only from Dodd et. al.

(Sandia Labs Paper, 12th IECEC $779189, 1977).

3. EI.E C_T RONLCS - The motor electronics cost will he slightly less than a max

power tracker. The generator elec hr ir st will be less

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than that for a simple inverter due to the naturally commn[ated Figure 16
V oc onverter design.

4. VACUUM SYSTEM - Based on it 1/4" thick tank 4 feet in diameter, 4 feet long,
Another enlightening comparison is offered by
sealed and pooped outeve y 6 months, holding 10 microns

pressure maxtmum. A smal1 r on-site pump would be possible if needed.

the costs of flywheel and battery systems assuming
1978 technology but assuming production quantities
MAGNETIC BEARING - Lowest costs for high performance rotors. If heavier

alternatives are chosen far rotor, the bearirt must he

for all the components. Figure 17 gives this com-
bigger with increased [ntal cost. parison for the single residence application, showing
6. ENCLOSURE - Based on concr it, pit 5' o 5' x 5' under Rarage plus wiring
that if they were in production for PV applications,
and installation.
flywheels could be competitive with batteries today.
Details for the flywheel system costs are shown in
Figure 14 Figure 18 with assumptions in Figure 19, and for
battery systems in Figure 20.

ESTIMATED Pt 4. OF OATTER , IFVER TER AND M AX POWER TRAC KER

S YSTEM 1985 comparison: 1978 Technology, Production Prices of Battery

versus Flywheel Systems

RESIDENCE PRICL Rattery Sit_ Flywheel Sv s tem

F 111511I UNIT PELEE 20 YEARS IMPLIES 3 SA'ITtRIFS
Storage $/kWh 360 342
1't'EM AI.H tLSABLE i'.' 198 5 kWh + 6 kRbC + LO kk'AC
100 183
Input $/kWDC
Low $ h I.ow High
200 150
Potpuc $/kAAC

Stir,. ies l (deep discharge Enclosure $/kWh 60 32

$30/kWh S 50 /kWh 51802 53000
type, 7 r life)
Total Residence $ $13,100 $11,950
Inverse 2 550/kWAC ,SI kW.SC s 500
25 kWh + 6 kWDC + 10 kWAC
"1nw Pnwon Tracker $50/kWDC 5150/04705 $ 300 S 400

,Ire r 4 4 In tallation $50/kWh S 60 /kWh $1:}5 0 $1500

Figure 17
'_0 Year Residential Totals: 53852 $5400

1) ?r writ deep di SC Earhall rfes cost >90-S1i10/bob

rrsent rnvtrtcrs rn 10 kW - 190 kW range cost "00-12000/kW

SE discounted at LOY rate wit., ---j 6.5-. iijflation

!.) Sircproo f heated aroma an garage. with blow-out w311, livd ripen ieni tubin, ant Estimated Price of Flywheel System in Production, 1978 Technology

wiring

Unit Price Residence: 25 kWh 06 kWDG + 10 kWAC

Rotor $2555/kWh 5 5,000*

Figure 15 Vacuum Tank 43/kWh 1,080*

Shaft b Hub 24/kWh 600

Rearings 75/kWh 1,870*

These efficiencies, estimated in Figure 16, are 73 Mococ-Generator 100/kODC 1,000*
for the flywheel-based system and 65% for the Input Rlect. 100/kRDC 600*

battery-based system. Thus the costs for the Output Elect. 100/kWAC 1,000*

battery system should be increased by the cost of Shelter 32/km 800

additional solar array required to allow a comparison TOTAL

$11,950

between comparable systems. Thus it is seen that the

flywheel-based system has the potential of being com-
parable to the battery-system and may in fact be *Areas subject to cost reduction with technology development

cheaper when better costing data are available.

Figure 18

8
 1978 Technology Flywheel Unit Assumptions: Production Quantities

1. ROTOR : 8 W-hr/1b. performance of present CE fiberglass flywheels at 51.60/lb.

fabricated cost of large fiberglass structures from Rrobeck, or. al.,
IEEE PESO 1977 paper A77-652-1.

2. VACUUM SYSTEM : Assume 4 ft. steel tank 1/4" thick with flange, gasket,
vacuum port, and electrical feedthroughs, holding 100 micron
pressure for six months.

3. SHAFT and HUB : 150 lbs. at $4/1b.

4. BEARINGS : 24 ReCO sections at $20/section, four coils, four rotor and two
stator iron pole pieces totaling 200 lbs. at $4/lb., sensor $100,

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electronics with 1 kW lift power capability at $250/kW, touchdown
bearings $200. Very dependent on rotor 3,000 lb. weight which is
subject to reduction.

5. 0000E-GENERATOR : $100/kW is 133% of estimate of Dodd, et. al., IECEC

#779189, 1977 for generator alone.

6. ELECTRON IC S : Each stage equal to assumed max power tracker co , 1/2 inverter
cost due to lack of filtering and storage elements.

7. SHELTER: Concrete pit 5' x 5' x 5' in garage floor plus wiring and installation.

Figure 19

Estlmatcd Price of Battery Svsteni 1978

Unit Price Re s-i Bence: 25 kWh + 6 kWDC + 1l1 kWAC

Batteries ) $125/kWh $ 9,000

Inverters 2 200/kWAC 2,000

Max Power 'lracker 3 100/k4'DC 600

Shelter 4 60/kWh _500

'f OTAL $13,100

1) 80% DOD lead-acid, five-year batteries at 5100/rated kWh dlacounted at 103,

race with 6.3% roflation.

2) Assumes high production level; present inverters cost 0800-2000/6W.

3) Not presently available in production quantities.

4) Fireproof heated room in garage with blow-out wall, hydrogen vent tubing,
and wiring.

Figure 20

In conclusion, while a great deal of work re-

mains to be done to develop this technology, the
flywheel energy conversion and storage system appears
to be a good candidate for applications such as a
photovoltaic solar residence.